{"_id":"4549465242785278785","title":"The Walking Dead (season 8)","text":"The Walking Dead (season 8)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThe Walking Dead (season\u00a08)\nWalking Dead S8 Poster.jpg\nPromotional poster\nStarring\n  \u2022 Andrew Lincoln\n  \u2022 Norman Reedus\n  \u2022 Lauren Cohan\n  \u2022 Chandler Riggs\n  \u2022 Danai Gurira\n  \u2022 Melissa McBride\n  \u2022 Lennie James\n  \u2022 Alanna Masterson\n  \u2022 Josh McDermitt\n  \u2022 Christian Serratos\n  \u2022 Seth Gilliam\n  \u2022 Ross Marquand\n  \u2022 Jeffrey Dean Morgan\n  \u2022 Austin Amelio\n  \u2022 Tom Payne\n  \u2022 Xander Berkeley\n  \u2022 Khary Payton\n  \u2022 Steven Ogg\n  \u2022 Katelyn Nacon\n  \u2022 Pollyanna McIntosh\nCountry of origin United States\nNo. of episodes 9\nRelease\nOriginal network AMC\nOriginal release October 22, 2017\u00a0(2017-10-22)\u00a0\u2013 present\u00a0(present)\nSeason chronology\n\u2190\u00a0Previous\nSeason 7\nList of The Walking Dead episodes\n\nThe eighth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 22, 2017,[1] and will consist of 16 episodes[2] split into two eight-episode parts, with the second part debuting on February 25, 2018.[3]\n\nDeveloped for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for the fifth consecutive season. The eighth season has received mostly positive reviews.\n\nThis season adapts the \"All Out War\" story arc from the comics, with the survivors of the Alexandria Safe-Zone, the Hilltop, the Kingdom, and later the Scavengers taking on Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) and the Saviors.[4]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Cast\n    \u2022 1.1 Main cast\n      \u2022 1.1.1 Starring\n      \u2022 1.1.2 Also starring\n    \u2022 1.2 Supporting cast\n      \u2022 1.2.1 Alexandria Safe-Zone\n      \u2022 1.2.2 The Hilltop\n      \u2022 1.2.3 The Saviors\n      \u2022 1.2.4 The Kingdom\n      \u2022 1.2.5 Oceanside\n      \u2022 1.2.6 The Scavengers\n      \u2022 1.2.7 Miscellaneous\n  \u2022 2 Production\n  \u2022 3 Episodes\n  \u2022 4 Release\n  \u2022 5 Reception\n    \u2022 5.1 Critical response\n    \u2022 5.2 Ratings\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nCast[edit]\n\nMain article: List of The Walking Dead (TV series) characters\n\nMain cast[edit]\n\nThe primary characters of the eighth season include (from left to right): Rick, Carol, Morgan, Daryl, Carl, Enid, Rosita, Tara, Michonne, Gabriel, Aaron, Maggie, Jesus, Gregory, Shiva, Ezekiel, Jadis, Eugene, Simon, Dwight, and Negan\n\nThe eighth season features twenty series regulars overall. For this season, Katelyn Nacon, Khary Payton, Steven Ogg, and Pollyanna McIntosh were promoted to series regular status, after previously having recurring roles, while Seth Gilliam and Ross Marquand were added to the opening credits.\n\nStarring[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Andrew Lincoln as Rick Grimes, the series' protagonist, a former sheriff and the leader of Alexandria, who is leading a new alliance to fight Negan and the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Norman Reedus as Daryl Dixon, Rick's right-hand man, the group's primary hunter and a recruiter for Alexandria.\n  \u2022 Lauren Cohan as Maggie Rhee, the pregnant widow of Glenn and a leading figure of the Hilltop.\n  \u2022 Chandler Riggs as Carl Grimes, Rick's bold and courageous teenage son.\n  \u2022 Danai Gurira as Michonne, Rick's katana-wielding girlfriend, who acts as a mother figure to Carl and Judith.\n  \u2022 Melissa McBride as Carol Peletier, a fierce survivor who is spurred into fighting the Saviors as revenge for the deaths of her friends.\n  \u2022 Lennie James as Morgan Jones, the first survivor Rick had ever encountered, who now resides in the Kingdom and fights for his sanity.\n  \u2022 Alanna Masterson as Tara Chambler, a caring, witty member of the group and supply runner for Alexandria who serves as a liaison with Oceanside.\n  \u2022 Josh McDermitt as Eugene Porter, a timorous former member of the group whose resourcefulness leads Negan to take him under his wing.\n  \u2022 Christian Serratos as Rosita Espinosa, an impulsive member of the group, who is motivated to avenge her ex-boyfriend Spencer and Abraham's death.\n  \u2022 Seth Gilliam as Gabriel Stokes, a priest who has become hardened from his experiences with Rick's group.\n  \u2022 Ross Marquand as Aaron, an Alexandrian recruiter who brought Rick's group to Alexandria and is currently in the fight against the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Negan, the sociopathic and charismatic leader of the Saviors who serves as the season's primary antagonist.\n\nAlso starring[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Austin Amelio as Dwight, a former subordinate of Negan who now works for Rick as a double agent against the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Tom Payne as Paul \"Jesus\" Rovia, a scout for the Hilltop.\n  \u2022 Xander Berkeley as Gregory, the selfish and hypocritical leader of the Hilltop whose influence diminished with Maggie's prominence.\n  \u2022 Khary Payton as King Ezekiel, the charismatic leader of the Kingdom who allies with Rick against the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Steven Ogg as Simon, a former mortgage broker and Negan's ruthless second-in-command.[5]\n  \u2022 Katelyn Nacon as Enid, a former member of Alexandria who moved to Hilltop to be with Maggie, and has formed a relationship with Carl.[5]\n  \u2022 Pollyanna McIntosh as Jadis, the deceptive leader of the Scavengers who betrayed Rick's group, and maintains a neutral stance in the war.[5]\n\nSupporting cast[edit]\n\nAlexandria Safe-Zone[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Jason Douglas as Tobin, the foreman of Alexandria's construction crew and member of Rick's militia.\n  \u2022 Jordan Woods-Robinson as Eric Raleigh, Aaron's boyfriend and his former recruiting partner, who is now a member of Rick's militia.\n  \u2022 Kenric Green as Scott, a supply runner in Alexandria and member of Rick's militia.\n  \u2022 Dahlia Legault as Francine, a member of Alexandria's construction crew and member of Rick's militia.\n  \u2022 Mandi Christine Kerr as Barbara, resident of Alexandria.\n  \u2022 Ted Huckabee as Bruce, resident and member of Alexandria's construction.\n\nThe Hilltop[edit]\n\n  \u2022 James Chen as Kal, a guard of the Hilltop.\n  \u2022 Peter Zimmerman as Eduardo, a guard of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.\n  \u2022 Karen Ceesay as Bertie, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.\n  \u2022 Jeremy Palko as Andy, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.\n  \u2022 Brett Gentile as Freddie, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.\n  \u2022 R. Keith Harris as Harlan Carson, is the doctor of the Hilltop, who was captured by Simon in the previous season.\n\nThe Saviors[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Jayson Warner Smith as Gavin, one of Negan's top lieutenants, who leads the weapons base.\n  \u2022 Traci Dinwiddie as Regina, one of Negan's top lieutenants.\n  \u2022 Elizabeth Ludlow as Arat, one of Negan's top lieutenants.\n  \u2022 Mike Seal as Gary, a member of the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Lindsley Register as Laura, a member of the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Juan Pareja as Morales, a survivor from Rick's original Atlanta camp who joined the Saviors.\n  \u2022 Joshua Mikel as Jared, Benjamin's killer, and a hostile member of the Saviors who antagonizes Morgan.\n  \u2022 Callan McAuliffe as Alden, a member of the Saviors who surrenders to Jesus at the satellite station outpost.\n  \u2022 Lindsey Garrett as Mara, a Savior who guards one of many outposts.\n  \u2022 Lee Norris as Todd, a timid member of the Saviors who works at the same outpost as Mara.\n  \u2022 Whitmer Thomas as Gunther, a member of the Saviors who tortures Ezekiel.\n  \u2022 Charles Halford as Yago, a Savior who manages Gavin's weapons base.\n  \u2022 Ciera L. Payton as Zia, a Savior whom Rosita and Michonne encounter at a supply warehouse.\n  \u2022 Adam Cronan as Leo, a Savior whom Rosita and Michonne encounter at a supply warehouse.\n  \u2022 Chloe Aktas as Tanya, one of Negan's wives.\n  \u2022 Adam Fristoe as Dean, a savior who tried to kill Jesus.\n\nThe Kingdom[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cooper Andrews as Jerry, Ezekiel's loyal and good-natured bodyguard.\n  \u2022 Kerry Cahill as Dianne, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers and a skilled archer.\n  \u2022 Daniel Newman as Daniel, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers.\n  \u2022 Carlos Navarro as Alvaro, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers.\n  \u2022 Macsen Lintz as Henry, a resident of the Kingdom and younger brother of the deceased Benjamin.\n  \u2022 Jason Burkey as Kevin, a resident of the Kingdom.\n  \u2022 Nadine Marissa as Nabila, a resident and gardener of the Kingdom.\n\nOceanside[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Deborah May as Natania, the vigilant leader of Oceanside.\n  \u2022 Sydney Park as Cyndie, Natania's granddaughter.\n  \u2022 Briana Venskus as Beatrice, one of Oceanside's top soldiers.\n  \u2022 Nicole Barr\u00e9 as Kathy, one of Oceanside's top soldiers.\n\nThe Scavengers[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Sabrina Gennarino as Tamiel, a leading member of the Scavengers.\n  \u2022 Thomas Francis Murphy as Brion, a leading member of the Scavengers.\n\nMiscellaneous[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Avi Nash as Siddiq, a mysterious vagabond survivor who befriends Carl.\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nThe Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16-episode eighth season on October 16, 2016,[2] and that same month it was reported that Maria Bello would have a role on the show.[6] Production began on April 25, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia.[7] On July 12, 2017, production was shut down after stuntman John Bernecker was killed, after falling more than 20 feet onto a concrete floor.[8] Production resumed on July 17.[9]\n\nThe season premiere, which also serves as the series' milestone 100th episode, was directed by executive producer Greg Nicotero.[10]\n\nIn November 2017, it was announced that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones, would be leaving The Walking Dead after the conclusion of this season, and he will join the cast of the spin-off series Fear the Walking Dead.[11]\n\nEpisodes[edit]\n\nSee also: List of The Walking Dead episodes\nNo.\noverall\nNo. in\nseason\nTitle Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers\n(millions)\n100 1 \"Mercy\" Greg Nicotero Scott M. Gimple October\u00a022,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-22) 11.44[12]\nRick, Maggie, and Ezekiel rally their communities together to take down Negan. Gregory attempts to have the Hilltop residents side with Negan, but they all firmly stand behind Maggie. The group attacks the Sanctuary, taking down its fences and flooding the compound with walkers. With the Sanctuary defaced, everyone leaves except Gabriel, who reluctantly stays to save Gregory, but is left behind when Gregory abandons him. Surrounded by walkers, Gabriel hides in a trailer, where he is trapped inside with Negan.\n101 2 \"The Damned\" Rosemary Rodriguez Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell October\u00a029,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-29) 8.92[13]\nRick's forces split into separate parties to attack several of the Saviors' outposts, during which many members of the group are killed; Eric is critically injured and rushed away by Aaron. Jesus stops Tara and Morgan from executing a group of surrendered Saviors. While clearing an outpost with Daryl, Rick is confronted and held at gunpoint by Morales, a survivor he met in the initial Atlanta camp, who is now with the Saviors.\n102 3 \"Monsters\" Greg Nicotero Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell November\u00a05,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-05) 8.52[14]\nDaryl finds Morales threatening Rick and kills him; the duo then pursue a group of Saviors who are transporting weapons to another outpost. Gregory returns to Hilltop, and after a heated argument, Maggie ultimately allows him back in the community. Eric dies from his injuries, leaving Aaron distraught. Despite Tara and Morgan's objections, Jesus leads the group of surrendered Saviors to Hilltop. Ezekiel's group attacks another Savior compound, during which several Kingdommers are shot while protecting Ezekiel.\n103 4 \"Some Guy\" Dan Liu David Leslie Johnson November\u00a012,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-12) 8.69[15]\nEzekiel's group is overwhelmed by the Saviors, who kill all of them except for Ezekiel himself and Jerry. Carol clears the inside of the compound, killing all but two Saviors, who almost escape but are eventually caught by Rick and Daryl. En route to the Kingdom, Ezekiel, Jerry, and Carol are surrounded by walkers, but Shiva sacrifices herself to save them. The trio returns to the Kingdom, where Ezekiel's confidence in himself as a leader has diminished.\n104 5 \"The Big Scary U\" Michael E. Satrazemis Story by\u200a: Scott M. Gimple & David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang\nTeleplay by\u200a: David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang\nNovember\u00a019,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-19) 7.85[16]\nAfter confessing their sins to each other, Gabriel and Negan manage to escape from the trailer. Simon and the other lieutenants grow suspicious of each other, knowing that Rick\u2019s forces must have inside information. The workers in the Sanctuary become increasingly frustrated with their living conditions, and a riot nearly ensues, until Negan returns and restores order. Gabriel is locked in a cell, where Eugene discovers him sick and suffering. Meanwhile, Rick and Daryl argue over how to take out the Saviors, leading Daryl to abandon Rick.\n105 6 \"The King, the Widow, and Rick\" John Polson Angela Kang & Corey Reed November\u00a026,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-26) 8.28[17]\nRick visits Jadis in hopes of convincing her to turn against Negan; Jadis refuses, and locks Rick in a shipping container. Carl encounters Siddiq in the woods and recruits him to Alexandria. Daryl and Tara plot to deviate from Rick\u2019s plans by destroying the Sanctuary. Ezekiel isolates himself at the Kingdom, where Carol tries to encourage him to be the leader his people need. Maggie has the group of captured Saviors placed in a holding area and forces Gregory to join them as punishment for betraying Hilltop.\n106 7 \"Time for After\" Larry Teng Matthew Negrete & Corey Reed December\u00a03,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-12-03) 7.47[18]\nAfter learning of Dwight's association with Rick's group, Eugene affirms his loyalty to Negan and outlines a plan to get rid of the walkers surrounding the Sanctuary. With help from Morgan and Tara, Daryl drives a truck through the Sanctuary\u2019s walls, flooding its interior with walkers, killing many Saviors. Rick finally convinces Jadis and the Scavengers to align with him, and they plan to force the Saviors to surrender. However, when they arrive at the Sanctuary, Rick is horrified to see the breached walls and no sign of the walker herd.\n107 8 \"How It's Gotta Be\" Michael E. Satrazemis David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang December\u00a010,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-12-10) 7.89[19]\nEugene's plan allows the Saviors to escape, and separately, the Saviors waylay the Alexandria, Hilltop, and Kingdom forces. The Scavengers abandon Rick, after which he returns to Alexandria. Ezekiel ensures that the Kingdom residents are able to escape before locking himself in the community with the Saviors. Eugene aids Gabriel and Doctor Carson in escaping the Sanctuary in order to ease his conscience. Negan attacks Alexandria, but Carl devises a plan to allow the Alexandria residents to escape into the sewers. Carl reveals he was bitten by a walker while escorting Siddiq to Alexandria.\n108 9 \"Honor\" Greg Nicotero Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell February\u00a025,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-25) 8.28[20]\nAfter the Saviors leave Alexandria, the survivors make for the Hilltop while Rick and Michonne stay behind to say their final goodbyes to a dying Carl, who pleads with Rick to build a better future alongside the Saviors before killing himself. In the Kingdom, Morgan and Carol launch a rescue mission for Ezekiel. Although they are successful and retake the Kingdom, the Saviors' lieutenant Gavin is killed by Benjamin's vengeful brother Henry.\n109 10 \"The Lost and the Plunderers\"[21] TBA TBA March\u00a04,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-04) TBD\n110 11 \"Dead or Alive Or\"[21] TBA TBA March\u00a011,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-11) TBD\n111 12 \"The Key\"[21] TBA TBA March\u00a018,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-18) TBD\n\nRelease[edit]\n\nThe first trailer for the season was released on July 21, 2017, at San Diego Comic-Con. The second trailer was released on February 1, 2018, for the second part of the season.[22]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nCritical response[edit]\n\nThe eighth season of The Walking Dead has received mostly positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a score of 73% with an average rating of 6.9 out of 10, based on 13 reviews, and an average episode score of 69%. The site's critical consensus reads: \"The Walking Dead's eighth season energizes its characters with some much-needed angst and action, though it's still occasionally choppy and lacking forward-moving plot progression.\"[23]\n\nThe Walking Dead (season 8): Critical reception by episode\n  \u2022 Season 8 (2017\u201318): Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes[23]\n\nRatings[edit]\n\nNo. Title Air date Rating\/share\n(18\u201349)\nViewers\n(millions)\nDVR\n(18\u201349)\nDVR viewers\n(millions)\nTotal\n(18\u201349)\nTotal viewers\n(millions)\n1 \"Mercy\" October 22, 2017 5.0 11.44[12] 2.2 4.28 7.2 15.74[24]\n2 \"The Damned\" October 29, 2017 4.0 8.92[13] 2.0 4.16 6.0 13.10[25]\n3 \"Monsters\" November 5, 2017 3.8 8.52[14] 2.2 4.47 6.0 13.01[26]\n4 \"Some Guy\" November 12, 2017 3.9 8.69[15] 1.8 3.66 5.7 12.36[27]1\n5 \"The Big Scary U\" November 19, 2017 3.4 7.85[16] 1.7 3.58 5.3 11.87[28]\n6 \"The King, the Widow, and Rick\" November 26, 2017 3.6 8.28[17] 2.1 4.44 5.7 12.73[29]\n7 \"Time for After\" December 3, 2017 3.3 7.47[18] 1.9 4.15 5.2 11.63[30]\n8 \"How It's Gotta Be\" December 10, 2017 3.4 7.89[19] 2.0 4.23 5.4 12.13[31]\n9 \"Honor\" February 25, 2018 3.6 8.28[20] TBD TBD TBD TBD\n10 \"The Lost and the Plunderers\" March 4, 2018 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD\n11 \"Dead or Alive Or\" March 11, 2018 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD\n12 \"The Key\" March 18, 2018 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD\n\n^1 Live +7 ratings were not available, so Live +3 ratings have been used instead.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Schwartz, Ryan (July 18, 2017). \"Walking Dead Gets Season 8 Premiere Date, Plus Fear TWD Return Date\". TVLine. Retrieved July 18, 2017.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Hibberd, James (October 16, 2016). \"Walking Dead gets early season 8 renewal\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved October 16, 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Zalben, Alexander (December 10, 2017). \"Here's When The Walking Dead Will Return in 2018\". TV Guide. Retrieved January 15, 2018.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (April 17, 2017). \"'Walking Dead' Promotes Trio to Series Regular for Season 8\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 4, 2017.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ausiello, Michael (April 17, 2017). \"The Walking Dead Promotes 3 Actors to Series Regular Ahead of Season 8\". TV Line. Retrieved October 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Peters, Megan (October 30, 2016). \"Maria Bello Getting Role In The Walking Dead Season 8\". Comicbook.com. Retrieved July 18, 2017.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (April 24, 2017). \"The Walking Dead Cast And Crew Assemble For Season 8\". Comicbook.com. Retrieved July 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Otterson, Joe (July 13, 2017). \"'Walking Dead' Stuntman Dies After On-Set Accident\". Variety. Retrieved July 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik (July 17, 2017). \"'Walking Dead' Production Resumes After Stuntman's Death\". Deadline. Retrieved July 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (April 25, 2017). \"Exclusive: Greg Nicotero To Direct The Walking Dead Episode 100, Season 8 Premiere\". Comicbook.com. Retrieved July 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (November 26, 2017). \"The Walking Dead: Lennie James will cross over to Fear The Walking Dead\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 24, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' has lowest-rated premiere since Season 2\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 24, 2017.\u00a0\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 31, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' stumbles to 5-year low\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 7, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'Shameless' has its best premiere in 4-plus years\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 7, 2017.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 14, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' improves, 'Shameless' dips in week 2\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 21, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 6-year low for 'The Walking Dead'\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 21, 2017.\u00a0\n  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 29, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: Hallmark's 'Switched for Christmas' hits a high, 'Walking Dead' rebounds some\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 5, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' goes low again\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 12, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'Walking Dead' fall finale ticks up, Season 8 still way down\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 12, 2017.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 27, 2017). \"Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' returns a little higher\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"The Walking Dead: Episode Guide\". Zap2it. Retrieved February 6, 2018.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (July 21, 2017). \"The Walking Dead season 8 trailer teases surprise flash-forward\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Walking Dead: Season 8\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved November 23, 2016.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 3, 2017). \"'Walking Dead' premiere grows a lot, still trails Season 7 debut by a lot: Cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 16-22\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 9, 2017). \"'Walking Dead,' 'AHS: Cult' way above everything else in cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 23-29\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 17, 2017). \"'American Horror Story: Cult' triples in cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 30-Nov. 5\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 17, 2017.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 19, 2017). \"'The Walking Dead' keeps pace in cable Live +3 ratings for Nov. 6-12\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 19, 2017.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 20, 2017). \"'The Walking Dead' laps the field in cable Live +7 ratings for Nov. 20-26\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 7, 2017). \"'The Walking Dead' laps the field in cable Live +7 ratings for Nov. 20-26\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 7, 2017.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 15, 2017). \"'The Walking Dead' outpaces everything else in cable Live +7 ratings for Nov. 27-Dec. 3\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 15, 2017.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 21, 2017). \"'Top Chef' premiere more than doubles in cable Live +7 ratings for Dec. 4-10\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 21, 2017.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconHorror fiction portal\n  \u2022 iconTelevision portal\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 List of The Walking Dead episodes on IMDb\n  \u2022 List of The Walking Dead episodes at TV.com\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Robert Kirkman\n  \u2022 Tony Moore\n  \u2022 Charlie Adlard\nComic books\n  \u2022 The Walking Dead\nTelevision series\nThe Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Episodes\n    \u2022 season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\n    \u2022 4\n    \u2022 5\n    \u2022 6\n    \u2022 7\n    \u2022 8\n  \u2022 Accolades\n  \u2022 Soundtrack\n    \u2022 Vol. 1\n    \u2022 2\n  \u2022 Talking Dead\nFear the Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Episodes\n    \u2022 season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\nWeb series\nThe Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Torn Apart\n  \u2022 Cold Storage\n  \u2022 The Oath\nFear the Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Flight 462\n  \u2022 Passage\nVideo games\nThe Walking Dead\n  \u2022 Season One\n    \u2022 \"400 Days\"\n  \u2022 Two\n  \u2022 Michonne\n  \u2022 Three: A New Frontier\nOther games\n  \u2022 Survival Instinct\n  \u2022 Road to Survival\nNovels\n  \u2022 Rise of the Governor\n  \u2022 The Road to Woodbury\n  \u2022 The Fall of the Governor\n  \u2022 Descent\n  \u2022 Invasion\n  \u2022 Search and Destroy\n  \u2022 Return to Woodbury\nCharacters\nLists\n  \u2022 Comic book series\n  \u2022 Television series\n  \u2022 Aaron\n  \u2022 Alden\n  \u2022 Amy\n  \u2022 Jessie Anderson\n  \u2022 Andrea\n  \u2022 Axel\n  \u2022 Tara Chambler\n  \u2022 Clementine\n  \u2022 Daryl Dixon\n  \u2022 Merle Dixon\n  \u2022 Dwight\n  \u2022 Rosita Espinosa\n  \u2022 Lee Everett\n  \u2022 King Ezekiel\n  \u2022 Abraham Ford\n  \u2022 Gareth\n  \u2022 The Governor\n  \u2022 Gregory\n  \u2022 Beth Greene\n  \u2022 Hershel Greene\n  \u2022 Maggie Greene\n  \u2022 Carl Grimes\n  \u2022 Lori Grimes\n  \u2022 Rick Grimes\n  \u2022 Dale Horvath\n  \u2022 Morgan Jones\n  \u2022 Lilly\n  \u2022 Milton Mamet\n  \u2022 Caesar Martinez\n  \u2022 Deanna Monroe\n  \u2022 Paul \"Jesus\" Monroe\n  \u2022 Morales\n  \u2022 Michonne\n  \u2022 Negan\n  \u2022 Olivia\n  \u2022 The Prisoners\n  \u2022 Carol Peletier\n  \u2022 Sophia Peletier\n  \u2022 Eugene Porter\n  \u2022 Glenn Rhee\n  \u2022 Lizzie and Mika Samuels\n  \u2022 Gabriel Stokes\n  \u2022 Bob Stookey\n  \u2022 T-Dog\n  \u2022 Shane Walsh\n  \u2022 Sasha Williams\n  \u2022 Tyreese Williams\n  \u2022 \u00a0Category Category\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Walking Dead episodes\nSeason 1\n  \u2022 \"Days Gone Bye\"\n  \u2022 \"Guts\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell It to the Frogs\"\n  \u2022 \"Vatos\"\n  \u2022 \"Wildfire\"\n  \u2022 \"TS-19\"\nSeason 2\n  \u2022 \"What Lies Ahead\"\n  \u2022 \"Bloodletting\"\n  \u2022 \"Save the Last One\"\n  \u2022 \"Cherokee Rose\"\n  \u2022 \"Chupacabra\"\n  \u2022 \"Secrets\"\n  \u2022 \"Pretty Much Dead Already\"\n  \u2022 \"Nebraska\"\n  \u2022 \"Triggerfinger\"\n  \u2022 \"18 Miles Out\"\n  \u2022 \"Judge, Jury, Executioner\"\n  \u2022 \"Better Angels\"\n  \u2022 \"Beside the Dying Fire\"\nSeason 3\n  \u2022 \"Seed\"\n  \u2022 \"Sick\"\n  \u2022 \"Walk with Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Killer Within\"\n  \u2022 \"Say the Word\"\n  \u2022 \"Hounded\"\n  \u2022 \"When the Dead Come Knocking\"\n  \u2022 \"Made to Suffer\"\n  \u2022 \"The Suicide King\"\n  \u2022 \"Home\"\n  \u2022 \"I Ain't a Judas\"\n  \u2022 \"Clear\"\n  \u2022 \"Arrow on the Doorpost\"\n  \u2022 \"Prey\"\n  \u2022 \"This Sorrowful Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Welcome to the Tombs\"\nSeason 4\n  \u2022 \"30 Days Without an Accident\"\n  \u2022 \"Infected\"\n  \u2022 \"Isolation\"\n  \u2022 \"Indifference\"\n  \u2022 \"Internment\"\n  \u2022 \"Live Bait\"\n  \u2022 \"Dead Weight\"\n  \u2022 \"Too Far Gone\"\n  \u2022 \"After\"\n  \u2022 \"Inmates\"\n  \u2022 \"Claimed\"\n  \u2022 \"Still\"\n  \u2022 \"Alone\"\n  \u2022 \"The Grove\"\n  \u2022 \"Us\"\n  \u2022 \"A\"\nSeason 5\n  \u2022 \"No Sanctuary\"\n  \u2022 \"Strangers\"\n  \u2022 \"Four Walls and a Roof\"\n  \u2022 \"Slabtown\"\n  \u2022 \"Self Help\"\n  \u2022 \"Consumed\"\n  \u2022 \"Crossed\"\n  \u2022 \"Coda\"\n  \u2022 \"What Happened and What's Going On\"\n  \u2022 \"Them\"\n  \u2022 \"The Distance\"\n  \u2022 \"Remember\"\n  \u2022 \"Forget\"\n  \u2022 \"Spend\"\n  \u2022 \"Try\"\n  \u2022 \"Conquer\"\nSeason 6\n  \u2022 \"First Time Again\"\n  \u2022 \"JSS\"\n  \u2022 \"Thank You\"\n  \u2022 \"Here's Not Here\"\n  \u2022 \"Now\"\n  \u2022 \"Always Accountable\"\n  \u2022 \"Heads Up\"\n  \u2022 \"Start to Finish\"\n  \u2022 \"No Way Out\"\n  \u2022 \"The Next World\"\n  \u2022 \"Knots Untie\"\n  \u2022 \"Not Tomorrow Yet\"\n  \u2022 \"The Same Boat\"\n  \u2022 \"Twice as Far\"\n  \u2022 \"East\"\n  \u2022 \"Last Day on Earth\"\nSeason 7\n  \u2022 \"The Day Will Come When You Won't Be\"\n  \u2022 \"The Well\"\n  \u2022 \"The Cell\"\n  \u2022 \"Service\"\n  \u2022 \"Go Getters\"\n  \u2022 \"Swear\"\n  \u2022 \"Sing Me a Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Hearts Still Beating\"\n  \u2022 \"Rock in the Road\"\n  \u2022 \"New Best Friends\"\n  \u2022 \"Hostiles and Calamities\"\n  \u2022 \"Say Yes\"\n  \u2022 \"Bury Me Here\"\n  \u2022 \"The Other Side\"\n  \u2022 \"Something They Need\"\n  \u2022 \"The First Day of the Rest of Your Life\"\nSeason 8\n  \u2022 \"Mercy\"\n  \u2022 \"The Damned\"\n  \u2022 \"Monsters\"\n  \u2022 \"Some Guy\"\n  \u2022 \"The Big Scary U\"\n  \u2022 \"The King, the Widow, and Rick\"\n  \u2022 \"Time for After\"\n  \u2022 \"How It's Gotta Be\"\n  \u2022 \"Honor\"\nWebisodes\n  \u2022 Torn Apart\n  \u2022 Cold Storage\n  \u2022 The Oath\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Walking_Dead_(season_8)&oldid=828222625\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2017 American television seasons\n  \u2022 The Walking Dead (TV series) episodes\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 1 March 2018, at 07:54.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2543388002166163252","title":"Persephone","text":"Persephone\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Persephone (disambiguation).\nPersephone\nGoddess of the underworld, springtime, flowers and vegetation\nAMI - Isis-Persephone.jpg\nStatue of Persephone with a sistrum. Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete\nAbode The Underworld, Sicily, Mount Olympus\nSymbol Pomegranate, Seeds of Grain, Torch, Flowers and Deer\nPersonal information\nSpouse Hades\nChildren Melinoe, Zagreus\nParents Zeus and Demeter\nSiblings Aeacus, Amphitheus I, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Arion, Artemis, Athena, Chrysothemis, Despoina, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Eubuleus, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Philomelus, Plutus, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai\nRoman equivalent Proserpina (Proserpine)\nThis article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.\nPart of a series on\nAncient Greek religion\nLaurel wreath\nFeatures[show]\n  \u2022 Greek mythology\n  \u2022 Ancient Greek philosophy\n  \u2022 Hellenistic philosophy\n  \u2022 Ancient Greek religion\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Henosis\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Pantheism\n  \u2022 Orthopraxy\nGodheads[show]\nOlympians\n  \u2022 Aphrodite\n  \u2022 Apollo\n  \u2022 Ares\n  \u2022 Artemis\n  \u2022 Athena\n  \u2022 Demeter\n  \u2022 Dionysus\n  \u2022 Hades\n  \u2022 Hephaestus\n  \u2022 Hera\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Hestia\n  \u2022 Poseidon\n  \u2022 Zeus\nPrimordial deities\n  \u2022 Aether\n  \u2022 Aion\n  \u2022 Ananke\n  \u2022 Chaos\n  \u2022 Chronos\n  \u2022 Erebus\n  \u2022 Eros\n  \u2022 Gaia\n  \u2022 Hemera\n  \u2022 Nyx\n  \u2022 Phanes\n  \u2022 Pontus\n  \u2022 Thalassa\n  \u2022 Tartarus\n  \u2022 Uranus\nLesser deities\n  \u2022 Alpheus\n  \u2022 Amphitrite\n  \u2022 Asclepius\n  \u2022 Bia\n  \u2022 Circe\n  \u2022 Deimos\n  \u2022 Eileithyia\n  \u2022 Enyo\n  \u2022 Eos\n  \u2022 Eris\n  \u2022 Harmonia\n  \u2022 Hebe\n  \u2022 Hecate\n  \u2022 Helios\n  \u2022 Heracles\n  \u2022 Iris\n  \u2022 Kratos\n  \u2022 Leto\n  \u2022 Metis\n  \u2022 Momus\n  \u2022 Morpheus\n  \u2022 Nemesis\n  \u2022 Nike\n  \u2022 Pan\n  \u2022 Persephone\n  \u2022 Phantasos\n  \u2022 Phobos\n  \u2022 Proteus\n  \u2022 Scamander\n  \u2022 Selene\n  \u2022 Thanatos\n  \u2022 Thetis\n  \u2022 Triton\n  \u2022 Zelus\nEthics[show]\n  \u2022 Arete\n  \u2022 Hubris\n  \u2022 Xenia\n  \u2022 Ethic of reciprocity\nPractices[show]\n  \u2022 Amphidromia\n  \u2022 Animal sacrifice\n  \u2022 Funeral practices\n  \u2022 Greek hero cult\n  \u2022 Hieros gamos\n  \u2022 Iatromantis\n  \u2022 Libations\n  \u2022 Oracles\n  \u2022 Pharmakos\n  \u2022 Temples\n  \u2022 Votive offerings\nFestivals\n  \u2022 Daphnephoria\n  \u2022 Dionysia\n  \u2022 Dionysian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Eleusinian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Panathenaic Games\n  \u2022 Panhellenic Games\n    \u2022 (Isthmian\n    \u2022 Nemean\n    \u2022 Olympic\n    \u2022 Pythian)\n  \u2022 Thesmophoria\nSacred places[show]\n  \u2022 Eleusis\n  \u2022 Delphi\n  \u2022 Delos\n  \u2022 Dodona\n  \u2022 Mount Olympus\n  \u2022 Olympia\nTexts[show]\n  \u2022 Argonautica\n  \u2022 Bibliotheca\n  \u2022 Corpus Hermeticum\n  \u2022 Delphic maxims\n  \u2022 Dionysiaca\n  \u2022 Epic Cycle\n  \u2022 Homeric Hymns\n  \u2022 Iliad\n  \u2022 Odyssey\n  \u2022 Orphic Hymns\n  \u2022 Theogony\n  \u2022 Works and Days\nHistory[show]\n  \u2022 Mycenaean gods\n  \u2022 Decline of Hellenistic polytheism\n  \u2022 Julian restoration\nLaurel wreath fa13.gif Hellenismos portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nIn Greek mythology, Persephone (\/p\u0259r\u02c8s\u025bf\u0259ni\/; Greek: \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7), also called Kore (\/\u02c8k\u0254\u02d0ri\u02d0\/; \"the maiden\"), is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter and is the queen of the underworld. Homer describes her as the formidable, venerable majestic princess of the underworld, who carries into effect the curses of men upon the souls of the dead. Persephone was married to Hades, the god of the underworld.[1] The myth of her abduction represents her function as the personification of vegetation, which shoots forth in spring and withdraws into the earth after harvest; hence, she is also associated with spring as well as the fertility of vegetation. Similar myths appear in the Orient, in the cults of male gods like Attis, Adonis, and Osiris,[2] and in Minoan Crete.\n\nPersephone as a vegetation goddess and her mother Demeter were the central figures of the Eleusinian mysteries, which promised the initiated a more enjoyable prospect after death. In some versions, Persephone is the mother of Zeus's sons Dionysus, Iacchus, or Zagreus. The origins of her cult are uncertain, but it was based on very old agrarian cults of agricultural communities.\n\nPersephone was commonly worshipped along with Demeter and with the same mysteries. To her alone were dedicated the mysteries celebrated at Athens in the month of Anthesterion. In Classical Greek art, Persephone is invariably portrayed robed, often carrying a sheaf of grain. She may appear as a mystical divinity with a sceptre and a little box, but she was mostly represented in the process of being carried off by Hades.\n\nIn Roman mythology, she is called Proserpina, and her mother, Ceres and her father Jupiter.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Name\n    \u2022 1.1 Etymology\n    \u2022 1.2 Roman Proserpina\n    \u2022 1.3 Nestis\n  \u2022 2 Titles and functions\n    \u2022 2.1 Epithets\n  \u2022 3 Origins of the cult\n    \u2022 3.1 Near East and Minoan Crete\n    \u2022 3.2 Mycenean Greece\n  \u2022 4 Mythology\n    \u2022 4.1 Abduction myth\n    \u2022 4.2 Interpretation of the myth\n    \u2022 4.3 Arcadian myths\n    \u2022 4.4 Queen of the Underworld\n  \u2022 5 Cult of Persephone\n    \u2022 5.1 Thesmophoria\n    \u2022 5.2 Eleusinian mysteries\n    \u2022 5.3 Local cults\n  \u2022 6 Ancient literary references\n  \u2022 7 Modern reception\n  \u2022 8 See also\n  \u2022 9 Notes and references\n  \u2022 10 Sources\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nName[edit]\n\nEtymology[edit]\n\nPersephone or \"the deceased woman\" holding a pomegranate. Etruscan terracotta cinerary statue. National archaeological museum in Palermo, Italy\n\nIn a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription on a tablet found at Pylos dated 1400\u20131200 BC, John Chadwick reconstructed[n 1] the name of a goddess *Preswa who could be identified with Persa, daughter of Oceanus and found speculative the further identification with the first element of Persephone.[4] [5] Persephon\u0113 (Greek: \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7) is her name in the Ionic Greek of epic literature. The Homeric form of her name is Persephoneia (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1,[6] Persephoneia). In other dialects, she was known under variant names: Persephassa (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1), Persephatta (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1), or simply Kor\u0113 (\u039a\u03cc\u03c1\u03b7, \"girl, maiden\").[7] Plato calls her Pherepapha (\u03a6\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1) in his Cratylus, \"because she is wise and touches that which is in motion\". There are also the forms Periphona (\u03a0\u03b7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1) and Phersephassa (\u03a6\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1). The existence of so many different forms shows how difficult it was for the Greeks to pronounce the word in their own language and suggests that the name may have a Pre-Greek origin.[8]\n\nPersephatta (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03c6\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1) is considered to mean \"female thresher of grain\"; the first constituent of the name originates in Proto-Greek \"perso-\" (related to Sanskrit \"par\u1e63a-\"), \"sheaf of grain\" and the second constituent of the name originates in Proto-Indo European *-g\u02b7n-t-ih, from the root *g\u02b7\u02b0en- \"to strike\".[9]\n\nAn alternative etymology is from \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, pherein phonon, \"to bring (or cause) death\".[10]\n\nRoman Proserpina[edit]\n\nCinerary altar with tabula representing the rape of Proserpina. White marble, Antonine Era, 2nd century Rome, Baths of Diocletian\nPersephone opening a cista containing the infant Adonis, on a pinax from Locri\n\nThe Romans first heard of her from the Aeolian and Dorian cities of Magna Graecia, who used the dialectal variant Proserpin\u0113 (\u03a0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c1\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b7). Hence, in Roman mythology she was called Proserpina, a name erroneously derived by the Romans from proserpere, \"to shoot forth\"[11] and as such became an emblematic figure of the Renaissance.[12]\n\nAt Locri, perhaps uniquely, Persephone was the protector of marriage, a role usually assumed by Hera; in the iconography of votive plaques at Locri, her abduction and marriage to Hades served as an emblem of the marital state, children at Locri were dedicated to Proserpina, and maidens about to be wed brought their peplos to be blessed.[13]\n\nNestis[edit]\n\nIn a Classical period text ascribed to Empedocles, c. 490 \u2013 430 BC,[n 2] describing a correspondence among four deities and the classical elements, the name Nestis for water apparently refers to Persephone: \"Now hear the fourfold roots of everything: enlivening Hera, Hades, shining Zeus. And Nestis, moistening mortal springs with tears.\"[14]\n\nOf the four deities of Empedocles' elements, it is the name of Persephone alone that is taboo\u2014Nestis is a euphemistic cult title[n 3]\u2014for she was also the terrible Queen of the Dead, whose name was not safe to speak aloud, who was euphemistically named simply as Kore or \"the Maiden\", a vestige of her archaic role as the deity ruling the underworld.\n\nTitles and functions[edit]\n\nThe epithets of Persephone reveal her double function as chthonic and vegetation goddess. The surnames given to her by the poets refer to her character as Queen of the lower world and the dead, or her symbolic meaning of the power that shoots forth and withdraws into the earth. Her common name as a vegetation goddess is Kore, and in Arcadia she was worshipped under the title Despoina, \"the mistress\", a very old chthonic divinity. Plutarch identifies her with spring and Cicero calls her the seed of the fruits of the fields. In the Eleusinian mysteries, her return is the symbol of immortality and hence she was frequently represented on sarcophagi.[10]\n\nIn the mystical theories of the Orphics and the Platonists, Kore is described as the all-pervading goddess of nature[15] who both produces and destroys everything, and she is therefore mentioned along or identified with other mystic divinities such as Isis, Rhea, Ge, Hestia, Pandora, Artemis, and Hecate.[16] The Orphic Persephone is further said to have become by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus, Zagreus,[10] and the little-attested Melinoe.[17]\n\nEpithets[edit]\n\nAs a goddess of the underworld, Persephone was given euphemistically friendly names.[18] However it is possible that some of them were the names of original goddesses:\n\n  \u2022 Despoina (dems-potnia) \"the mistress\" (literally \"the mistress of the house\") in Arcadia.\n  \u2022 Hagne, \"pure\", originally a goddess of the springs in Messenia.[19]\n  \u2022 Melindia or Melinoia (meli, \"honey\"), as the consort of Hades, in Hermione. (Compare Hecate, Melinoe)[18]\n  \u2022 Melivia[18]\n  \u2022 Melitodes[18]\n  \u2022 Aristi cthonia, \"the best chthonic\".[18]\n  \u2022 Praxidike, the Orphic Hymn to Persephone identifies Praxidike as an epithet of Persephone: \"Praxidike, subterranean queen. The Eumenides' source [mother], fair-haired, whose frame proceeds from Zeus' ineffable and secret seeds.\"[20][21]\n\nAs a vegetation goddess, she was called:[19][22]\n\n  \u2022 Kore, \"the maiden\".\n  \u2022 Kore Soteira, \"the savior maiden\", in Megalopolis.\n  \u2022 Neotera, \"the younger\", in Eleusis.\n  \u2022 Kore of Demeter Hagne in the Homeric hymn.\n  \u2022 Kore memagmeni, \"the mixed daughter\" (bread).\n\nDemeter and her daughter Persephone were usually called:[22][23]\n\n  \u2022 The goddesses, often distinguished as \"the older\" and \"the younger\" in Eleusis.\n  \u2022 Demeters, in Rhodes and Sparta\n  \u2022 The thesmophoroi, \"the legislators\" in the Thesmophoria.\n  \u2022 The Great Goddesses, in Arcadia.\n  \u2022 The mistresses in Arcadia.[24]\n  \u2022 Karpophoroi, \"the bringers of fruit\", in Tegea of Arcadia.\n\nOrigins of the cult[edit]\n\nGold ring from Isopata tomb, near Knossos, Crete, 1400\u20131500 BC. Depicted are female figures dancing among blossoming vegetation; Heraklion Archaeological Museum\n\nThe myth of a goddess being abducted and taken to the Underworld is probably Pre-Greek in origin. Samuel Noah Kramer, the renowned scholar of ancient Sumer, has posited that the Greek story of the abduction of Persephone may be derived from an ancient Sumerian story in which Ereshkigal, the ancient Sumerian goddess of the Underworld, is abducted by Kur, the primeval dragon of Sumerian mythology, and forced to become ruler of the Underworld against her own will.[25]\n\nThe location of Persephone's abduction is different in each local cult. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter mentions the \"plain of Nysa\".[26] The locations of this probably mythical place may simply be conventions to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[27][28] Demeter found and met her daughter in Eleusis, and this is the mythical disguise of what happened in the mysteries.[29]\n\nPersephone is an old chthonic deity of the agricultural communities, who received the souls of the dead into the earth, and acquired powers over the fertility of the soil, over which she reigned. The earliest depiction of a goddess who may be identified with Persephone growing out of the ground, is on a plate from the Old-Palace period in Phaistos. The goddess has a vegetable-like appearance, and she is surrounded by dancing girls between blossoming flowers.[30] A similar representation, where the goddess appears to come down from the sky, is depicted on the Minoan ring of Isopata.\n\nRape of Persephone. Hades with his horses and Persephone (down). An Apulian red-figure volute krater, c. 340 BC. Antikensammlung Berlin\n\nIn some forms Hades appears with his chthonic horses. The myth of the rape of Kore was derived from the idea that Hades catches the souls of the dead and then carries them with his horses into his kingdom. This idea is vague in Homer, but appears in later Greek depictions, and in Greek folklore. \"Charos\" appears with his horse and carries the dead into the underworld.[31][32]\n\nThe cults of Persephone and Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries and in the Thesmophoria were based on old agrarian cults.[33] A lot of ancient beliefs were based on initiation into jealously-guarded mysteries (secret rites) because they offered prospects after death more enjoyable than the final end at the gloomy space of the Greek Hades. There is evidence that some practices were derived from the religious practices of the Mycenaean age.[34][30] Kerenyi asserts that these religious practices were introduced from Minoan Crete.,[35][36] The idea of immortality which appears in the syncretistic religions of the Near East did not exist in the Eleusinian mysteries at the very beginning.[37][38]\n\nNear East and Minoan Crete[edit]\n\nLady of Auxerre Louvre-An Archaic (640 BC) image from Crete. A version of a Minoan goddess who may be identified with Kore\n\nIn the Near eastern myth of the early agricultural societies, every year the fertility goddess bore the \"god of the new year\", who then became her lover, and died immediately in order to be reborn and face the same destiny. Some findings from Catal Huyuk since the Neolithic age, indicate the worship of the Great Goddess accompanied by a boyish consort, who symbolizes the annual decay and return of vegetation.[39] Similar cults of resurrected gods appear in the Near East and Egypt in the cults of Attis, Adonis and Osiris.[40]\n\nIn Minoan Crete, the \"divine child\" was related to the female vegetation divinity Ariadne who died every year.[41] The Minoan religion had its own characteristics. The most peculiar feature of the Minoan belief in the divine, is the appearance of the goddess from above in the dance. Dance floors have been discovered in addition to \"vaulted tombs\", and it seems that the dance was ecstatic. Homer memorializes the dance floor which Daedalus built for Ariadne in the remote past.[42] On the gold ring from Isopata, four women in festal attire are performing a dance between blossoming flowers. Above a figure apparently floating in the air seems to be the goddess herself, appearing amid the whirling dance.[43] An image plate from the first palace of Phaistos, seems to be very close to the mythical image of the Anodos (ascent) of Persephone. Two girls dance between blossoming flowers, on each side of a similar but armless and legless figure which seems to grow out of the ground. The goddess is bordered by snake lines which give her a vegetable like appearance She has a large stylized flower turned over her head. The resemblance with the flower-picking Persephone and her companions is compelling.[30] The depiction of the goddess is similar to later images of \"Anodos of Pherephata\". On the Dresden vase, Persephone is growing out of the ground, and she is surrounded by the animal-tailed agricultural gods Silenoi.[44]\n\nKerenyi suggests that the name Ariadne (derived from \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03ae, hagne, \"pure\"), was an euphemistical name given by the Greeks to the nameless \"Mistress of the labyrinth\" who appears in a Mycenean Greek inscription from Knossos in Crete. The Greeks used to give friendly names to the deities of the underworld. Cthonic Zeus was called Eubuleus, \"the good counselor\", and the ferryman of the river of the underworld Charon, \"glad\".[32] Despoina and \"Hagne\" were probably euphemistic surnames of Persephone, therefore he theorizes that the cult of Persephone was the continuation of the worship of a Minoan Great goddess. The labyrinth was both a winding dance-ground and, in the Greek view, a prison with the dreaded Minotaur at its centre.[45][46] It is possible that some religious practices, especially the mysteries, were transferred from a Cretan priesthood to Eleusis, where Demeter brought the poppy from Crete.[47] Besides these similarities, Burkert explains that up to now it is not known to what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenean religion.[48] In the Anthesteria Dionysos is the \"divine child\".\n\nMycenean Greece[edit]\n\nTwo women or goddesses on a chariot. Fresco from Tiryns, 1200 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens.\n\nThere is evidence of a cult in Eleusis from the Mycenean period;[49] however, there are not sacral finds from this period. The cult was private and there is no information about it. As well as the names of some Greek gods in the Mycenean Greek inscriptions, also appear names of goddesses, like \"the divine Mother\" (the mother of the gods) or \"the Goddess (or priestess) of the winds\", who don't have Mycenean origin .[29] In historical times, Demeter and Kore were usually referred to as \"the goddesses\" or \"the mistresses\" (Arcadia) in the mysteries .[50] In the Mycenean Greek tablets dated 1400\u20131200 BC, the \"two queens and the king\" are mentioned. John Chadwick believes that these were the precursor divinities of Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.[51][52]\n\nSome information can be obtained from the study of the cult of Eileithyia at Crete, and the cult of Despoina. In the cave of Amnisos at Crete, Eileithyia is related with the annual birth of the divine child and she is connected with Enesidaon (The earth shaker), who is the chthonic aspect of the god Poseidon.[53] Persephone was conflated with Despoina, \"the mistress\", a chthonic divinity in West-Arcadia.[36] The megaron of Eleusis is quite similar with the \"megaron\" of Despoina at Lycosura.[29] Demeter is united with the god Poseidon, and she bears a daughter, the unnameable Despoina.[54] Poseidon appears as a horse, as it usually happens in Northern European folklore. The goddess of nature and her companion survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered \"Mighty Potnia bore a great sun\".[53] In Eleusis, in a ritual, one child (\"pais\") was initiated from the hearth. The name pais (the divine child) appears in the Mycenean inscriptions,[29] and the ritual indicates the transition from the old funerary practices to the Greek cremation.[55]\n\nIn Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with an unknown location.[28] Nysion (or Mysion), the place of the abduction of Persephone was also probably a mythical place which did not exist on the map, a magically distant chthonic land of myth which was intended in the remote past.[56]\n\nMythology[edit]\n\nAbduction myth[edit]\n\nSarcophagus with the abduction of Persephone. Walters Art Museum. Baltimore, Maryland\n\nThe story of her abduction by Hades against her will is traditionally referred to as the Rape of Persephone. It is mentioned briefly in Hesiod's Theogony,[57] and told in considerable detail in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Persephone used to live far away from the other gods, a goddess within Nature herself before the days of planting seeds and nurturing plants. In the Olympian telling, the gods Hermes and Apollo had wooed Persephone; but Demeter rejected all their gifts and hid her daughter away from the company of the Olympian gods.[58] Zeus, it is said, permitted Hades, who was in love with the beautiful Persephone, to abduct her as her mother Demeter was not likely to allow her daughter to go down to Hades. Persephone was gathering flowers with the Oceanids along with Artemis and Athena\u2014the Homeric Hymn says\u2014in a field when Hades came to abduct her, bursting through a cleft in the earth.[59] Demeter, when she found her daughter had disappeared, searched for her all over the earth with Hecate's torches. In most versions she forbids the earth to produce, or she neglects the earth and in the depth of her despair she causes nothing to grow. Helios, the sun, who sees everything, eventually told Demeter what had happened and at length she discovered the place of her abode. Finally, Zeus, pressed by the cries of the hungry people and by the other deities who also heard their anguish, forced Hades to return Persephone.[60]\n\nThe Rape of Proserpina by Gian Lorenzo Bernini at the Galleria Borghese in Rome.\n\nHades indeed complied with the request, but first he tricked her, giving her some pomegranate seeds to eat. Persephone was released by Hermes, who had been sent to retrieve her, but because she had tasted food in the underworld, she was obliged to spend a third of each year (the winter months) there, and the remaining part of the year with the gods above.[61] With the later writers Ovid and Hyginus, Persephone's time in the underworld becomes half the year.[62]\n\nVarious local traditions place Persephone's abduction in a different location. The Sicilians, among whom her worship was probably introduced by the Corinthian and Megarian colonists, believed that Hades found her in the meadows near Enna, and that a well arose on the spot where he descended with her into the lower world. The Cretans thought that their own island had been the scene of the rape, and the Eleusinians mentioned the Nysian plain in Boeotia, and said that Persephone had descended with Hades into the lower world at the entrance of the western Oceanus. Later accounts place the rape in Attica, near Athens, or near Eleusis.[60]\n\nThe return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton (1891)\n\nThe Homeric hymn mentions the Nysion (or Mysion) which was probably a mythical place. The location of this mythical place may simply be a convention to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[22] Before Persephone was abducted by Hades, the shepherd Eumolpus and the swineherd Eubuleus saw a girl in a black chariot driven by an invisible driver being carried off into the earth which had violently opened up. Eubuleus was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her, and the myth is an etiology for the relation of pigs with the ancient rites in Thesmophoria,[63] and in Eleusis.\n\nIn the hymn, Persephone returns and she is reunited with her mother near Eleusis. Demeter as she has been promised established her mysteries (orgies) when the Eleusinians built for her a temple near the spring of Callichorus. These were awful mysteries which were not allowed to be uttered. The uninitiated would spend a miserable existence in the gloomy space of Hades after death.[n 4]\n\nIn some versions, Ascalaphus informed the other deities that Persephone had eaten the pomegranate seeds. When Demeter and her daughter were reunited, the Earth flourished with vegetation and color, but for some months each year, when Persephone returned to the underworld, the earth once again became a barren realm. This is an origin story to explain the seasons.\n\nIn an earlier version, Hecate rescued Persephone. On an Attic red-figured bell krater of c. 440 BC in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Persephone is rising as if up stairs from a cleft in the earth, while Hermes stands aside; Hecate, holding two torches, looks back as she leads her to the enthroned Demeter.[64]\n\nThe 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia Suda introduces a goddess of a blessed afterlife assured to Orphic mystery initiates. This Macaria is asserted to be the daughter of Hades, but no mother is mentioned.[65]\n\nInterpretation of the myth[edit]\n\nPinax of Persephone and Hades from Locri. Reggio Calabria, National Museum of Magna Graecia.\n\nIn the myth Pluto abducts Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.[66] Pluto (\u03a0\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, Plout\u014dn) was a name for the ruler of the underworld; the god was also known as Hades, a name for the underworld itself. The name Pluton was conflated with that of Ploutos (\u03a0\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 Ploutos, \"wealth\"), a god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because Pluto as a chthonic god ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.[67] Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone's husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility.[68]\n\nIn the Theogony of Hesiod, Demeter was united with the hero Iasion in Crete and she bore Ploutos.[57] This union seems to be a reference to a hieros gamos (ritual copulation) to ensure the earth's fertility.[68] This ritual copulation appears in Minoan Crete, in many Near Eastern agricultural societies, and also in the Anthesteria.[n 5]\n\nNilsson believes that the original cult of Ploutos (or Pluto) in Eleusis was similar with the Minoan cult of the \"divine child\", who died in order to be reborn. The child was abandoned by his mother and then it was brought up by the powers of nature. Similar myths appear in the cults of Hyakinthos (Amyklai), Erichthonios (Athens), and later in the cult of Dionysos.[70]\n\nThe Greek version of the abduction myth is related to grain\u00a0\u2013\u00a0important and rare in the Greek environment\u00a0\u2013\u00a0and the return (ascent) of Persephone was celebrated at the autumn sowing. Pluto (Ploutos) represents the wealth of the grain that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi), during summer months. Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for burials and Pluto is fused with Hades, the King of the realm of the dead. During summer months, the Greek grain-Maiden (Kore) is lying in the grain of the underground silos in the realm of Hades, and she is fused with Persephone, the Queen of the Underworld. At the beginning of the autumn, when the seeds of the old crop are laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at that time the old crop and the new meet each other. For the initiated, this union was the symbol of the eternity of human life that flows from the generations which spring from each other.[71][72]\n\nArcadian myths[edit]\n\nFrom L-R, Artemis, Demeter, Veil of Despoina, Anytus, Tritoness from the throne of Despoina at Lycosura. National Archaeological Museum of Athens\n\nThe primitive myths of isolated Arcadia seem to be related to the first Greek-speaking people who came from the north-east during the bronze age. Despoina (the mistress), the goddess of the Arcadian mysteries, is the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios (horse), who represents the river spirit of the underworld that appears as a horse as often happens in northern-European folklore. He pursues the mare-Demeter and from the union she bears the horse Arion and a daughter who originally had the form or the shape of a mare. The two goddesses were not clearly separated and they were closely connected with the springs and the animals. They were related with the god of rivers and springs; Poseidon and especially with Artemis, the Mistress of the Animals who was the first nymph.[1] According to the Greek tradition a hunt-goddess preceded the harvest goddess.[73] In Arcadia, Demeter and Persephone were often called Despoinai (\u0394\u03ad\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \"the mistresses\") in historical times. They are the two Great Goddesses of the Arcadian cults, and evidently they come from a more primitive religion.[22] The Greek god Poseidon probably substituted the companion (Paredros, \u03a0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2) of the Minoan Great goddess[74] in the Arcadian mysteries.\n\nSeated goddess, probably Persephone on her throne in the underworld, Severe style ca 480\u201360, found at Tarentum, Magna Graecia (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)\n\nQueen of the Underworld[edit]\n\nPersephone held an ancient role as the dread queen of the Underworld, within which tradition it was forbidden to speak her name. This tradition comes from her conflation with the very old chthonic divinity Despoina (the mistress), whose real name could not be revealed to anyone except those initiated to her mysteries.[54] As goddess of death she was also called a daughter of Zeus and Styx,[75] the river that formed the boundary between Earth and the underworld. Homer describes her as the formidable, venerable majestic queen of the shades, who carries into effect the curses of men upon the souls of the dead, along with her husband Hades.[76] In the reformulation of Greek mythology expressed in the Orphic Hymns, Dionysus and Melinoe are separately called children of Zeus and Persephone.[77] Groves sacred to her stood at the western extremity of the earth on the frontiers of the lower world, which itself was called \"house of Persephone\".[78]\n\nHer central myth served as the context for the secret rites of regeneration at Eleusis,[79] which promised immortality to initiates.\n\nCult of Persephone[edit]\n\nPersephone was worshipped along with her mother Demeter and in the same mysteries. Her cults included agrarian magic, dancing, and rituals. The priests used special vessels and holy symbols, and the people participated with rhymes. In Eleusis there is evidence of sacred laws and other inscriptions.[80]\n\nThe Cult of Demeter and the Maiden is found at Attica, in the main festivals Thesmophoria and Eleusinian mysteries and in a lot of local cults. These festivals were almost always celebrated at the autumn sowing, and at full-moon according to the Greek tradition. In some local cults the feasts were dedicated to Demeter.\n\nThesmophoria[edit]\n\nMain article: Thesmophoria\nKore, daughter of Demeter, celebrated with her mother by the Thesmophoriazusae (women of the festival). Acropolis Museum, Athens\n\nThesmophoria, were celebrated in Athens, and the festival was widely spread in Greece. This was a festival of secret women-only rituals connected with marriage customs and commemorated the third of the year, in the month Pyanepsion, when Kore was abducted and Demeter abstained from her role as goddess of harvest and growth. The ceremony involved sinking sacrifices into the earth by night and retrieving the decaying remains of pigs that had been placed in the megara of Demeter (trenches and pits or natural clefts in rock), the previous year. These were placed on altars, mixed with seeds, then planted.[81] Pits rich in organic matter at Eleusis have been taken as evidence that the Thesmophoria was held there as well as in other demes of Attica.[82] This agrarian magic was also used in the cult of the earth-goddesses potniai (mistresses) in the Cabeirian, and in Knidos.[83]\n\nThe festival was celebrated over three days. The first was the \"way up\" to the sacred space, the second, the day of feasting when they ate pomegranate seeds and the third was a meat feast in celebration of Kalligeneia a goddess of beautiful birth. Zeus penetrated the mysteries as Zeus- Eubuleus[81] which is an euphemistical name of Hades (Chthonios Zeus).[18] In the original myth which is an etiology for the ancient rites, Eubuleus was a swineherd who was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her.[63]\n\nEleusinian mysteries[edit]\n\nMain article: Eleusinian mysteries\nThe Eleusinian trio: Persephone, Triptolemus and Demeter on a marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440\u2013430 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens\n\nThe Eleusinian mysteries was a festival celebrated at the autumn sowing in the city of Eleusis. Inscriptions refer to \"the Goddesses\" accompanied by the agricultural god Triptolemos (probably son of Ge and Oceanus),[84] and \"the God and the Goddess\" (Persephone and Plouton) accompanied by Eubuleus who probably led the way back from the underworld.[85] The myth was represented in a cycle with three phases: the \"descent\", the \"search\", and the \"ascent\", with contrasted emotions from sorrow to joy which roused the mystae to exultation. The main theme was the ascent of Persephone and the reunion with her mother Demeter.[71] The festival activities included dancing, probably across the Rharian field, where according to the myth the first grain grew.\n\nAt the beginning of the feast, the priests filled two special vessels and poured them out, the one towards the west, and the other towards the east. The people looking both to the sky and the earth shouted in a magical rhyme \"rain and conceive\". In a ritual, a child was initiated from the hearth (the divine fire). It was the ritual of the \"divine child\" who originally was Ploutos. In the Homeric hymn the ritual is connected with the myth of the agricultural god Triptolemos[55] The high point of the celebration was \"an ear of grain cut in silence\", which represented the force of the new life. The idea of immortality didn't exist in the mysteries at the beginning, but the initiated believed that they would have a better fate in the underworld. Death remained a reality, but at the same time a new beginning like the plant which grows from the buried seed.[29] In the earliest depictions Persephone is an armless and legless deity, who grows out of the ground.[30]\n\nLocal cults[edit]\n\nA mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC\nHades abducting Persephone, wall painting in the small royal tomb at Vergina. Macedonia, Greece\nItaly. Renaissance relief, Rape of Persephone. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nFragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea), Bosporan Kingdom\n\nLocal cults of Demeter and Kore existed in Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, Magna Graecia, and Libya.\n\n  \u2022 Attica:[86]\n    \u2022 Athens, in the mysteries of Agrae. This was a local cult near the river Ilissos. They were celebrated during spring in the month Anthesterion. Later they became an obligation for the participants of the \"greater\" Eleusinian mysteries. There was a temple of Demeter and Kore and an image of Triptolemos.[87]\nDemeter drives her horse-drawn chariot containing her daughter Persephone at Selinunte, Sicily 6th century BC\n    \u2022 Piraeus: The Skirophoria, a festival related to the Thesmophoria.\n    \u2022 Megara: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore. The city was named after its megara .[88]\n    \u2022 Aegina: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore.\n    \u2022 Phlya, near Koropi, in the mysteries of Phlya: These have very old roots and were probably originally dedicated to Demeter Anesidora, Kore, and Zeus Ktesios, who was the god of the underground stored grain. Pausanias mentions a temple of Demeter-Anesidora, Kore Protogone, and Zeus Ktesios. The surname Protogonos, indicates a later Orphic influence. It seems that the mysteries were related to the mysteries of Andania in Messene.[89]\n  \u2022 Boeotia:\n    \u2022 Thebes, which Zeus is said to have given to her as an acknowledgement for a favour she had bestowed upon him.[90] Pausanias records a grove of Cabeirian Demeter and the Maid, three miles outside the gates of Thebes, where a ritual was performed, so-called on the grounds that Demeter gave it to the Cabeiri, who established it at Thebes. The Thebans told Pausanias that some inhabitants of Naupactus had performed the same rituals there, and had met with divine vengeance.[91] The Cabeirian mysteries were introduced from Asia Minor at the end of the archaic period. Nothing is known of the older cult, and it seems that the Cabeiri were originally wine-daemons. Inscriptions from the temple in Thebes mention the old one as Cabir, and the new one as son (pais), who are different.[89] According to Pausanias, Pelarge, the daughter of Potnieus, was connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian (potniai).[83]\n    \u2022 A feast in Boeotia, in the month Demetrios (Pyanepsion), probably similar with the Thesmophoria.\n    \u2022 Thebes: Cult of Demeter and Kore in a feast named Thesmophoria but probably different. It was celebrated in the summer month Bukatios.[22][92]\n  \u2022 Peloponnese (except Arcadia)[22]\n    \u2022 Hermione: An old cult of Demeter Chthonia, Kore, and Klymenos (Hades). Cows were pushed into the temple, and then they were killed by four women. It is possible that Hermione was a mythical name, the place of the souls.[18]\n    \u2022 Asine: Cult of Demeter Chthonia. The cult seems to be related to the original cult of Demeter in Hermione.[18]\n    \u2022 Lakonia: Temple of Demeter Eleusinia near Taygetos. The feast was named Eleuhinia, and the name was given before the relation of Demeter with the cult of Eleusis.\n    \u2022 Lakonia at Aigila: Dedicated to Demeter. Men were excluded.\n    \u2022 near Sparta: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Demeters (\u0394\u03b1\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2, \"Damaters\"). According to Hesychius, the feast lasted three days (Thesmophoria).\n    \u2022 Corinth: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Pluton.[18]\n    \u2022 Triphylia in Elis: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Hades.[18]\n    \u2022 Pellene: Dedicated to the Mysian Demeter. Men were excluded. The next day, men and women became naked.\n    \u2022 Andania in Messenia (near the borders of Arcadia): Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Hagne. Hagne, a goddess of the spring, was the original deity before Demeter. The temple was built near a spring.\n  \u2022 Arcadia[23]\n    \u2022 Pheneos\u00a0: Mysteries of Demeter Thesmia and Demeter Eleusinia. The Eleusinian cult was introduced later. The priest took the holy book from a natural cleft. He used the mask of Demeter Kidaria, and he hit his stick on the earth, in a kind of agrarian magic. An Arcadian dance was named kidaris.\n    \u2022 Pallantion near Tripoli: Cult of Demeter and Kore.\n    \u2022 Karyai: Cult of Kore and Pluton.[18]\n    \u2022 Tegea: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Karpophoroi, \"Fruit givers\".\n    \u2022 Megalopolis: Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore Sotira, \"the savior\".\n    \u2022 Mantineia: Cult of Demeter and Kore in the fest Koragia.[93]\n    \u2022 Trapezus: Mysteries of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore. The temple was built near a spring, and a fire was burning out of the earth.\n    \u2022 near Thelpusa in Onkeion: Temple of Demeter Erinys (vengeful) and Demeter Lusia (bathing). In the myth Demeter was united with Poseidon Hippios (horse) and bore the horse Arion and the unnamed. The name Despoina was given in West Arcadia.\n    \u2022 Phigalia: Cult of the mare-headed Demeter (black), and Despoina. Demeter was depicted in her archaic form, a Medusa type with a horse's head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin.[94] The temple was built near a spring.\n    \u2022 Lycosura,\n      Main article: Despoina\n      Cult of Demeter and Despoina. In the portico of the temple of Despoina there was a tablet with the inscriptions of the mysteries. In front of the temple there was an altar to Demeter and another to Despoine, after which was one of the Great Mother. By the sides stood Artemis and Anytos, the Titan who brought up Despoine. Besides the temple, there was also a hall where the Arcadians celebrated the mysteries[95][96] A fire was always burning in front of the temple of Pan (the goat-god), the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks. In a relief appear dancing animal-headed women (or with animal-masks) in a procession. Near the temple have been found terracotta figures with human bodies, and heads of animals.[23]\n  \u2022 Islands\n    \u2022 Paros: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus.[18]\n    \u2022 Amorgos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus.[18]\n    \u2022 Delos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus. Probably a different feast with the name Thesmophoria, celebrated in a summer month (the same month in Thebes). Two big loaves of bread were oferred to the two goddesses. Another feast was named Megalartia.[22][92]\n    \u2022 Mykonos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Buleus.\n    \u2022 Crete\u00a0: Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios.\n    \u2022 Rhodes: Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios. The two goddesses are the Damaters in an inscription from Lindos\n  \u2022 Asia Minor\n    \u2022 Knidos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Pluton.[18] Agrarian magic similar to the one used in Thesmophoria and in the cult of the potniai (Cabeirian).[22]\n    \u2022 Ephesos\u00a0: Cult of Demeter and Kore, celebrated at night-time.[97]\n    \u2022 Priene: Cult of Demeter and Kore, similar to the Thesmophoria.[22]\n  \u2022 Sicily\nHead of Persephone. Earthenware. From Sicily, Centuripae, c. 420 BC. The Burrell Collection, Glasgow, UK\n    \u2022 Syracuse: There was a harvest festival of Demeter and Persephone at Syracuse when the grain was ripe (about May).[98]\n    \u2022 A fest Koris katagogi, the descent of Persephone into the underworld.[22]\n  \u2022 Magna Graecia\n    \u2022 Epizephyrian Locri: A temple associated with childbirth; its treasure was looted by Pyrrhus.[99]\n    \u2022 Archaeological finds suggest that worship of Demeter and Persephone was widespread in Sicily and Greek Italy.\n  \u2022 Libya\n    \u2022 Cyrene: Temple of Demeter and Kore[22]\n\nAncient literary references[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Homer:\n    \u2022 Iliad:\n      \u2022 \"the gods fulfilled his curse, even Zeus of the nether world and dread Persephone.\" (9, line 457; A. T. Murray, trans)\n      \u2022 \"Althea prayed instantly to the gods, being grieved for her brother's slaying; and furthermore instantly beat with her hands upon the all-nurturing earth, calling upon Hades and dread Persephone\" (9, 569)\n    \u2022 Odyssey:\n      \u2022 \"And come to the house of Hades and dread Persephone to seek sooth saying of the spirit of Theban Teiresias. To him even in death Persephone has granted reason that\u00a0...\" (book 10, card 473)\n  \u2022 Hymns to Demeter[100]\n    \u2022 Hymn 2:\n      \u2022 \"Mistress Demeter goddess of heaven, which God or mortal man has rapt away Persephone and pierced with sorrow your dear heart?(hymn 2, card 40)\n    \u2022 Hymn 13:\n      \u2022 \"I start to sing for Demeter the lovely-faced goddess, for her and her daughter the most beautiful Persephone. Hail goddess keep this city safe!\" (hymn 13, card 1)\n  \u2022 Pindar[100]\n    \u2022 Olympian:\n      \u2022 \"Now go Echo, to the dark-walled home of Persephone.\"(book O, poem 14)\n    \u2022 Isthmean:\n      \u2022 \"Aecus showed them the way to the house of Persephone and nymphs, one of them carrying a ball.\"(book 1, poem 8)\n    \u2022 Nemean:\n      \u2022 \"Island which Zeus, the lord of Olympus gave to Persephone;he nodded descent with his flowers hair.\"(book N, poem 1)\n    \u2022 Pythian:\n      \u2022 \"You splendor-loving city, most beautiful on earth, home of Persephone. You who inhabit the hill of well-built dwellings.\"(book P, poem 12)\n  \u2022 Aeschylus[100]\n    \u2022 Libation bearers:\n      \u2022 Electra:\"O Persephone, grant us indeed a glorious victory!\" (card 479)\n  \u2022 Aristophanes[100]\n    \u2022 Thesmophoriazusae:\n      \u2022 Mnesilochos:\"Thou Mistress Demeter, the most valuable friend and thou Persephone, grant that I may be able to offer you!\" (card 266)\n  \u2022 Euripides[100]\n    \u2022 Alcestis:\n      \u2022 \"O you brave and best hail, sitting as attendand Beside's Hades bride Persephone!\" (card 741)\n    \u2022 Hecuba:\n      \u2022 \"It is said that any of the dead that stand beside Persephone, that the Danaids have left the plains to Troy.\" (card 130)\n  \u2022 Bacchylides[100]\n    \u2022 Epinicians:\n      \u2022 \"Flashing thunderbolt went down to the halls of slender-ankled Persephone to bring up into the light of Hades.\" (book Ep. poem 5)\n  \u2022 Vergil[101]\n    \u2022 The Aeneid:\n      \u2022 \"For since she had not died through fate, or by a well-earned death, but wretchedly, before her time, inflamed with sudden madness, Proserpine had not yet taken a lock of golden hair from her head, or condemned her soul to Stygian Orcus.\" (IV.696\u201399)\n\nModern reception[edit]\n\nMain article: Persephone in popular culture\n\nIn 1934, Igor Stravinsky based his melodrama Pers\u00e9phone on Persephone's story. In 1961, Frederick Ashton of the Royal Ballet appropriated Stravinsky's score, to choreograph a ballet starring Svetlana Beriosova as Persephone.\n\nPersephone also appears many times in popular culture. Featured in a variety of young adult novels such as \"Persephone\"[102] by Kaitlin Bevis, \"Persephone's Orchard\"[103] by Molly Ringle, \"The Goddess Test\" by Aimee Carter, \"The Goddess Letters\" by Carol Orlock, and \"Abandon\" by Meg Cabot, her story has also been treated by Suzanne Banay Santo in \"Persephone Under the Earth\" in the light of women's spirituality. Here Santo treats the mythic elements in terms of maternal sacrifice to the burgeoning sexuality of an adolescent daughter. Accompanied by the classic, sensual paintings of Frederic Lord Leighton and William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Santo portrays Persephone not as a victim but as a woman in quest of sexual depth and power, transcending the role of daughter, though ultimately returning to it as an awakened Queen.[104]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Greek mythology portal\n  \u2022 Hellenismos portal\n  \u2022 Eleusinian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Rape of Persephone\n  \u2022 Anthesphoria, festival honoring Proserpina, and Persephone\n\nNotes and references[edit]\n\nNotes\n  1. Jump up ^ The actual word in Linear B is \ud800\udc1f\ud800\udc29\ud800\udc5a, pe-re-*82 or pe-re-swa; it is found on the PY Tn 316 tablet.[3]\n  2. Jump up ^ Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher who was a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily.\n  3. Jump up ^ Kingsley 1995 identifies Nestis as a cult title of Persephone.\n  4. Jump up ^ Hom. Hymn. to Demeter 470:\n    \"Awful mysteries which no one may in any way transgress or pry into or utter, for deep awe of the gods checks the voice. Happy is he among men upon earth who has seen these mysteries; but he who is uninitiate and who has no part in them, never has lot of like good things once he is dead, down in the darkness and gloom\".\n  5. Jump up ^ \"This is the time when Zeus mated with Semele, who is also Persephone, and Dionysos was conceived. It is also the time when Dionysos took Ariadne to be His wife, and so we celebrate the marriage of the Basilinna (religious Queen) and the God\". [69]\nReferences\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Martin Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I pp 462\u2013463, 479\u2013480\n  2. Jump up ^ Fraser. The golden bough. Adonis, Attis and Osiris. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215\n  3. Jump up ^ Raymoure, K.A. \"pe-re-*82\". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean.\u00a0 \"PY 316 Tn (44)\". D\u0100MOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a095. ISBN\u00a00-521-29037-6.\u00a0 At Google Books.\n  5. Jump up ^ Comments about the goddess pe-re-*82 of Pylos tablet Tn 316, tentatively reconstructed as *Preswa\n    \"It is tempting to see\u00a0... the classical Perse\u00a0... daughter of Oceanus\u00a0...\u00a0; whether it may be further identified with the first element of Persephone is only speculative.\" John Chadwick. Documents in Mycenean Greek. Second Edition\n  6. Jump up ^ Homer (1899). Odyssey. Clarendon Press. p.\u00a0230. Retrieved 31 March 2014.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ H.G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon\n  8. Jump up ^ Martin P. Nilsson (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, Volume I, C.F. Beck Verlag, p. 474.\n  9. Jump up ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, pp. 1179\u201380.\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b c Smith, \"Perse'phone\"\n  11. Jump up ^ Cicero. De Natura Deorum 2.26\n  12. Jump up ^ Welch (2013), p. 164\n  13. Jump up ^ Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, \"Persephone\" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 98 (1978:101\u2013121).\n  14. Jump up ^ Peter Kingsley, in Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1995).\n  15. Jump up ^ Orphic Hymn 29.16\n  16. Jump up ^ Schol. ad. Theocritus 2.12\n  17. Jump up ^ In the Hymn to Melinoe, where the father is Zeus Chthonios, either Zeus in his chthonic aspect, or Pluto; Radcliffe G. Edmonds III, \"Orphic Mythology,\" in A Companion to Greek Mythology (Blackwell, 2011), p. 100.\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Rhode (1961), Psyche I, pp. 206\u2013210\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 478\u2013480\n  20. Jump up ^ Orphic Hymn 29 to Persephone\n  21. Jump up ^ \"PERSEPHONE - Greek Goddess of Spring, Queen of the Underworld (Roman Proserpina)\".\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463\u2013466\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b c Nilsson, pp. 477\u2013480\u00a0:\"The Arcadian Great goddesses\"\n  24. Jump up ^ Pausanias.Description of Greece 5.15.4, 5, 6\n  25. Jump up ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961, Philadelphia. ISBN\u00a00-8122-1047-6 (Pages 76-79) available at sacred-texts.com. \"Moreover, the crime involved is probably that of abducting a goddess; it therefore brings to mind the Greek story of the rape of Persephone.\"\n  26. Jump up ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 17.\n  27. Jump up ^ Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b \"In Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with unknown location, the birthplace of the god Dionysos.\": Fox, William Sherwood (1916), The Mythology of All Races, v.1, Greek and Roman, General editor, Louis Herbert Gray, p.217\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Burkert (1985), pp. 285\u2013290.\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Burkert (1985) p. 42\n  31. Jump up ^ Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 453\u2013455\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b Charon, \"glad\", probably euphemistically \"death\". Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03cc\u03c2 and \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, pp. 1980\u20131981; Brill's New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on \"Charon\", pp. 202\u2013203.\n  33. Jump up ^ Nilsson, Vol I, p.470\n  34. Jump up ^ Dietrich \"The origins of the Greek Religion\" p.220,221\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos, archetypal image of indestructible life.Princeton University Press. p. 24\n  36. ^ Jump up to: a b Karl Kerenyi (1967). Eleusis. Archetypal image of mother and daughter. Princeton University Press. p. 31f\n  37. Jump up ^ Burkert (1985) p. 289\n  38. Jump up ^ \"According to the Greek popular belief,\u1f15\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f15\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\".(One is the nature of men, another one the nature of gods): Erwin Rhode (1961), Psyche Band I, p. 293\n  39. Jump up ^ Burkert p.12\n  40. Jump up ^ J.Frazer The Golden Bough, Part IV, Adonis, Attis and Osiris\n  41. Jump up ^ F.Schachermeyer (1972), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, W.Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 141, 308\n  42. Jump up ^ Burkert (1985) pp. 34\u201340\n  43. Jump up ^ Burkert (1985) p. 40\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Hermes and the Anodos of Pherephata\": Nilsson (1967) p. 509 taf. 39,1\n  45. Jump up ^ Karl Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos: archetypal image of indestructible life, pp. 89, 90 ISBN\u00a00-691-02915-6\n  46. Jump up ^ Hesychius, listing of \u1f00\u03b4\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd, a Cretan-Greek form for \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd, \"pure\"\n  47. Jump up ^ Kerenyi(1976), p.24\n  48. Jump up ^ \"To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a conclusive answer\"\u00a0:.Burkert (1985). p. 21.\n  49. Jump up ^ G. Mylonas (1932). Eleusiniaka. I,1 ff\n  50. Jump up ^ Nilsson (1967), pp. 463\u2013465\n  51. Jump up ^ John Chadwick (1976).The Mycenean World. Cambridge University Press\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain \": George Mylonas (1966) Mycenae and the Mycenean age\" p. 159\u00a0: Princeton University Press\n  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Dietrich p. 220,221\n  54. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Pausanias 8.37.9\". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2012.\u00a0\n  55. ^ Jump up to: a b \"In Greek mythology Achileus becomes immortal by the divine fire. His heel was his only mortal element, because it was not touched by the fire\u00a0: Wunderlich (1972), The secret of Crete p. 134\n  56. Jump up ^ Nilsson, Vol I p. 463\n  57. ^ Jump up to: a b Hesiod, Theogony 914.\n  58. Jump up ^ \"Loves of Hermes\u00a0: Greek mythology\". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 4\u201320, 414\u2013434.\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Theoi Project - Persephone\". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ Gantz, p. 65.\n  62. Jump up ^ Gantz, p. 67.\n  63. ^ Jump up to: a b Reference to the Thesmophoria in Lucian's Dialogues of the Courtesans 2.1.\n  64. Jump up ^ The figures are unmistakable, as they are inscribed \"Persophata, Hermes, Hekate, Demeter\"; Gisela M. A. Richter, \"An Athenian Vase with the Return of Persephone\" The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 26.10 (October 1931:245\u2013248)\n  65. Jump up ^ Suidas s.v. Makariai, with English translation at Suda On Line, Adler number mu 51\n  66. Jump up ^ William Hansen (2005) Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 180\u2013182.\n  67. Jump up ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182.\n  68. ^ Jump up to: a b Ap. Athanassakis (2004), Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield ,Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 56.\n  69. Jump up ^ The Anthesteria Archived 20 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Bibliotheca Arcana (1997)\n  70. Jump up ^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215\u2013219\n  71. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Martin Nilsson, The Greek popular religion, The religion of Eleusis, pp 51-54\". Sacred-texts.com. 2005-11-08. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 473\u2013474.\n  73. Jump up ^ Pausanias 2.30.2\n  74. Jump up ^ Nilsson, VoI, p. 444\n  75. Jump up ^ Apollodorus, Library 1.3.\n  76. Jump up ^ Homer. Odyssey, 10.494\n  77. Jump up ^ Orphica, 26, 71\n  78. Jump up ^ Odyssey 10.491, 10.509\n  79. Jump up ^ K\u00e1roly Ker\u00e9nyi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, 1967, passim\n  80. Jump up ^ Burkert (1985), pp. 285\u2013289\n  81. ^ Jump up to: a b Burkert (1985), pp. 240\u2013243\n  82. Jump up ^ Clinton, Greek Sanctuaries, p. 113.\n  83. ^ Jump up to: a b Potniai: Pelarge daughter of Potnieus is connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian\u00a0: Pausanias 9.25,8, Nilsson (1967) Vol I pp. 151, 463\n  84. Jump up ^ Pseudo Apollodorus Biblioteca IV.2\n  85. Jump up ^ Kevin Klinton (1993), Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, Routledge, p. 11\n  86. Jump up ^ Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463\u2013465\n  87. Jump up ^ Pausanias 1.14,1: Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668\u2013670\n  88. Jump up ^ Pausanias I 42,6 , Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463\n  89. ^ Jump up to: a b Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668\u2013670\n  90. Jump up ^ Scholia ad. Euripides Phoen. 487\n  91. Jump up ^ Pausanias 9.25.5\n  92. ^ Jump up to: a b Diodorus Siculus (v.4.7)\u00a0:\"At Thebes or Delos the festival occurred two months earlier, so any seed-sowing connection was not intrinsic.\"\n  93. Jump up ^ For Mantinea, see Brill's New Pauly \"Persephone\", II D.\n  94. Jump up ^ L. H. Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c. 800\u2013500 B.C (Ernest Benn Limited) p. 23 ISBN\u00a00-510-03271-0\n  95. Jump up ^ \"Pausanias 8.37.1,8.38.2\". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ \"Reconstruction of interior of Sanctuary of Despoina\". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ Herodotus VI, 16: Nilsson (1967) ,Vol I, p. 464\n  98. Jump up ^ Brill's New Pauly, \"Persephone\", citing Diodorus 5.4\n  99. Jump up ^ Livy: 29.8, 29.18\n  100. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"perseus tufts-persephone\". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  101. Jump up ^ \"Virgil: Aeneid IV\". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06.\u00a0\n  102. Jump up ^ \"Persephone (Daughters of Zeus, #1)\".\u00a0\n  103. Jump up ^ \"Persephone's Orchard\".\u00a0\n  104. Jump up ^ Santo, Suzanne Banay (2012). Persephone Under the Earth. Red Butterfly Publications. ISBN\u00a00-9880914-0-2.\u00a0\n\nSources[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.\n  \u2022 Bowra Maurice (1957), The Greek experience. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York.\n  \u2022 Burkert Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press . ISBN\u00a00-674-36281-0\n  \u2022 Farnell, Lewis Richard (1906), The Cults of the Greek States, Volume 3 (Chapters on: Demeter and Kore-Persephone; Cult-Monuments of Demeter-Kore; Ideal Types of Demeter-Kore).\n  \u2022 Gantz, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN\u00a0978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN\u00a0978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2).\n  \u2022 Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.\n  \u2022 Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.\n  \u2022 Janda, Michael (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos. Innsbruck\n  \u2022 Kerenyi Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal image of mother and daughter . Princeton University Press.\n  \u2022 Kerenyi, Karl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton: Bollingen, Google Books preview\n  \u2022 Nilsson Martin (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, Vol I, C.F Beck Verlag, Muenchen. Revised ed.\n  \u2022 Nilsson Martin (1950), Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, and its Survival in Greek Religion, Lund:Gleerup. Revised 2nd ed.\n  \u2022 Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.\n  \u2022 Rohde Erwin (1961), Psyche. Seelenkult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellshaft. Darmstad. (First edition 1893): full text in German downloadable as pdf.\n  \u2022 Rohde Erwin (2000), Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks , trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000), online\n  \u2022 Schachermeyr Fritz (1964), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, W.Kohlhammer Verlag Stuttgart.\n  \u2022 Stephen King (2008), Duma Key\n  \u2022 Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). \"Perse'phone\"\n  \u2022 Anthony Welch (2013), The Renaissance Epic and the Oral Past. Yale University Press. ISBN\u00a00300178867\n  \u2022 Zuntz G\u00fcnther (1973), Persephone: Three Essays on Religion and Thought in Magna Graecia\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Persephone.\nLook up persephone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n  \u2022 Martin Nilsson. The Greek popular religion\n  \u2022 Adams John Paul. Mycenean divinities\n  \u2022 Theoi project:Persephone Goddess\n  \u2022 Theoi project:The Rape of Persephone\n  \u2022 The Princeton Encyclopedia of classical sites:Despoina\n  \u2022 Theoi project:Despoine\n  \u2022 Kore Photographs\n  \u2022 Flickr users' photos tagged with Persephone\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAncient Greek deities by affiliation\nPrimordial\ndeities\n  \u2022 Achlys\n  \u2022 Aether\n  \u2022 Aion\/Chronos\n  \u2022 Ananke\n  \u2022 Chaos\n  \u2022 Erebus\n  \u2022 Eros\/Phanes\n  \u2022 Gaia\n  \u2022 Hemera\n  \u2022 Nyx\n  \u2022 The Ourea\n  \u2022 Pontus\/Thalassa\n  \u2022 Tartarus\n  \u2022 Uranus\n  \u2022 Fates\n    \u2022 Atropos\n    \u2022 Clotho\n    \u2022 Lachesis\nTitan\ndeities\nTitanes (male)\n  \u2022 Coeus\n  \u2022 Crius\n  \u2022 Cronus\n  \u2022 Hyperion\n  \u2022 Iapetus\n  \u2022 Oceanus\n  \u2022 Ophion\nTitanides (female)\n  \u2022 Dione\n  \u2022 Eurybia\n  \u2022 Mnemosyne\n  \u2022 Phoebe\n  \u2022 Rhea\n  \u2022 Tethys\n  \u2022 Theia\n  \u2022 Themis\nHyperionides\n  \u2022 Eos\n  \u2022 Helios\n  \u2022 Selene\nKoionides\n  \u2022 Asteria\n  \u2022 Leto\n  \u2022 Lelantos\nKrionides\n  \u2022 Astraeus\n  \u2022 Pallas\n  \u2022 Perses\nIapetionides\n  \u2022 Atlas\n  \u2022 Epimetheus\n  \u2022 Menoetius\n  \u2022 Prometheus\nMousai (Muses)\n  \u2022 Aoide\n  \u2022 Arche\n  \u2022 Melete\n  \u2022 Mneme\nOlympian\ndeities\nDodekatheon\n  \u2022 Aphrodite\n  \u2022 Apollo\n  \u2022 Ares\n  \u2022 Artemis\n  \u2022 Athena\n  \u2022 Demeter\n  \u2022 Dionysus\n  \u2022 Hephaestus\n  \u2022 Hera\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Hestia\n  \u2022 Poseidon\n  \u2022 Zeus\nTheoi Olympioi\n  \u2022 Asclepius\n  \u2022 Deimos\n  \u2022 Ganymede\n  \u2022 Eileithyia\n  \u2022 Enyo\n  \u2022 Eris\n  \u2022 Iris\n  \u2022 Harmonia\n  \u2022 Hebe\n  \u2022 Heracles\n  \u2022 Paean\n  \u2022 Pan\n  \u2022 Phobos\nMousai (Muses)\n  \u2022 Daughters of Zeus\n    \u2022 Calliope\n    \u2022 Clio\n    \u2022 Euterpe\n    \u2022 Erato\n    \u2022 Melpomene\n    \u2022 Polyhymnia\n    \u2022 Terpsichore\n    \u2022 Thalia\n    \u2022 Urania\n  \u2022 Daughters of Apollo\n    \u2022 Apollonis\n    \u2022 Borysthenis\n    \u2022 Cephisso\n  \u2022 Muses of the Lyre\n    \u2022 Hypate\n    \u2022 Mese\n    \u2022 Nete\n  \u2022 Muses at Sicyon\n    \u2022 Polymatheia\nCharites (Graces)\n  \u2022 Aglaea\n  \u2022 Antheia\n  \u2022 Euphrosyne\n  \u2022 Hegemone\n  \u2022 Pasithea\n  \u2022 Thalia\nHorae (Hours)\n  \u2022 Dike\n  \u2022 Eirene\n  \u2022 Eunomia\nStyktides\n  \u2022 Bia\n  \u2022 Kratos\n  \u2022 Nike\n  \u2022 Zelos\nAquatic\ndeities\nTheoi Halioi\n  \u2022 Amphitrite\n  \u2022 Benthesikyme\n  \u2022 Brizo\n  \u2022 Calypso\n  \u2022 Ceto\n  \u2022 Glaucus\n  \u2022 The Ichthyocentaurs\n  \u2022 Kymopoleia\n  \u2022 Leucothea\n  \u2022 Melicertes\n  \u2022 Nereus\n  \u2022 Nerites\n  \u2022 The Nesoi\n  \u2022 Oceanus\n  \u2022 Phorcys\n  \u2022 Pontus\/Thalassa\n  \u2022 Poseidon\n  \u2022 Proteus\n  \u2022 Rhodos\n  \u2022 Tethys\n  \u2022 Thaumas\n  \u2022 Thetis\n  \u2022 Triton\nOceanids\n  \u2022 Acaste\n  \u2022 Admete\n  \u2022 Adrasteia\n  \u2022 Amalthea\n  \u2022 Asia\n  \u2022 Callirrhoe\n  \u2022 Ceto\n  \u2022 Clytie\n  \u2022 Dione\n  \u2022 Dodone\n  \u2022 Doris\n  \u2022 Electra\n  \u2022 Eurynome\n  \u2022 Idyia\n  \u2022 Melia\n  \u2022 Metis\n  \u2022 Nemesis\n  \u2022 Perse\n  \u2022 Pleione\n  \u2022 Plouto\n  \u2022 Styx\n  \u2022 Telesto\n  \u2022 Zeuxo\nNereides\n  \u2022 Amphitrite\n  \u2022 Arethusa\n  \u2022 Dynamene\n  \u2022 Galatea\n  \u2022 Galene\n  \u2022 Psamathe\n  \u2022 Thetis\nPotamoi\n  \u2022 Achelous\n  \u2022 Almo\n  \u2022 Alpheus\n  \u2022 Anapos\n  \u2022 Asopus\n  \u2022 Asterion\n  \u2022 Axius\n  \u2022 Caanthus\n  \u2022 Cebren\n  \u2022 Cephissus\n  \u2022 Clitumnus\n  \u2022 Enipeus\n  \u2022 Kladeos\n  \u2022 Meander\n  \u2022 Nilus\n  \u2022 Numicus\n  \u2022 Phyllis\n  \u2022 Peneus\n  \u2022 Rivers of the Underworld\n    \u2022 Cocytus\n    \u2022 Eridanos\n    \u2022 Lethe\n    \u2022 Phlegethon\n    \u2022 Styx\n  \u2022 Sangarius\n  \u2022 Scamander\n  \u2022 Simoeis\n  \u2022 Strymon\nNaiads\n  \u2022 Aegina\n  \u2022 Achiroe\n  \u2022 Aganippe\n  \u2022 The Anigrides\n  \u2022 Argyra\n  \u2022 Bistonis\n  \u2022 Bolbe\n  \u2022 Caliadne\n  \u2022 Cassotis\n  \u2022 Castalia\n  \u2022 Cleocharia\n  \u2022 Creusa\n  \u2022 Daphne\n  \u2022 Drosera\n  \u2022 Harpina\n  \u2022 The Ionides\n  \u2022 Ismenis\n  \u2022 Larunda\n  \u2022 Lilaea\n  \u2022 Liriope\n  \u2022 Melite\n  \u2022 Metope\n  \u2022 Minthe\n  \u2022 Moria\n  \u2022 Nana\n  \u2022 Nicaea\n  \u2022 Orseis\n  \u2022 Pallas\n  \u2022 Pirene\n  \u2022 Salmacis\n  \u2022 Stilbe\n  \u2022 The Thriae\n    \u2022 Corycia\n    \u2022 Kleodora\n    \u2022 Melaina\n  \u2022 Tiasa\nChthonic\ndeities\nTheoi Chthonioi\n  \u2022 Angelos\n  \u2022 Demeter\n  \u2022 Gaia\n  \u2022 Hades\n  \u2022 Hecate\n  \u2022 The Lampads\n  \u2022 Macaria\n  \u2022 Melino\u00eb\n  \u2022 Persephone\n  \u2022 Zagreus\nErinyes (Furies)\n  \u2022 Alecto\n  \u2022 Megaera\n  \u2022 Tisiphone\nEarthborn\n  \u2022 Cyclopes\n  \u2022 Gigantes\n  \u2022 Hecatonchires\n  \u2022 Kouretes\n  \u2022 Meliae\n  \u2022 Telchines\n  \u2022 Typhon\nApotheothenai\n  \u2022 Trophonius\n  \u2022 Triptolemus\n  \u2022 Orpheus\n  \u2022 Aeacus\n  \u2022 Minos\n  \u2022 Rhadamanthus\nPersonifications\nChildren of Nyx\n  \u2022 Achlys\n  \u2022 Apate\n  \u2022 Dolos\n  \u2022 Eleos\n  \u2022 Elpis\n  \u2022 Epiphron\n  \u2022 Eris\n  \u2022 Geras\n  \u2022 Hesperides\n  \u2022 Hybris\n  \u2022 Hypnos\n  \u2022 Ker\n  \u2022 The Keres\n  \u2022 The Moirai\n    \u2022 Aisa\n    \u2022 Clotho\n    \u2022 Lachesis\n  \u2022 Momus\n  \u2022 Moros\n  \u2022 Oizys\n  \u2022 The Oneiroi\n    \u2022 Epiales\n    \u2022 Morpheus\n    \u2022 Phantasos\n    \u2022 Phobetor\n  \u2022 Nemesis\n  \u2022 Philotes\n  \u2022 Sophrosyne\n  \u2022 Thanatos\nChildren of Eris\n  \u2022 Algos\n  \u2022 Amphillogiai\n  \u2022 Ate\n  \u2022 The Androktasiai\n  \u2022 Dysnomia\n  \u2022 Horkos\n  \u2022 Hysminai\n  \u2022 Lethe\n  \u2022 Limos\n  \u2022 Machai\n  \u2022 Phonoi\n  \u2022 Ponos\n  \u2022 Neikea\n  \u2022 Pseudea\n  \u2022 Logoi\nChildren of other gods\n  \u2022 Aergia\n  \u2022 Aidos\n  \u2022 Alala\n  \u2022 Aletheia\n  \u2022 Angelia\n  \u2022 Arete\n  \u2022 Bia\n  \u2022 Caerus\n  \u2022 The Younger Charites\n    \u2022 Eucleia\n    \u2022 Eupheme\n    \u2022 Euthenia\n    \u2022 Philophrosyne\n  \u2022 Corus\n  \u2022 Deimos\n  \u2022 The Erotes\n    \u2022 Anteros\n    \u2022 Eros\n    \u2022 Hedylogos\n    \u2022 Hermaphroditus\n    \u2022 Hymen\n  \u2022 Eupraxia\n  \u2022 Hedone\n  \u2022 Homonoia\n  \u2022 Iacchus\n  \u2022 Kratos\n  \u2022 The Litae\n  \u2022 Homonoia\n  \u2022 Nike\n  \u2022 Peitho\n  \u2022 Phobos\n  \u2022 Tyche\n  \u2022 Zelos\nOthers\n  \u2022 Adephagia\n  \u2022 Alala\n  \u2022 Alke\n  \u2022 Amechania\n  \u2022 Anaideia\n  \u2022 Alastor\n  \u2022 Apheleia\n  \u2022 Aporia\n  \u2022 The Arae\n  \u2022 Dikaiosyne\n  \u2022 Dyssebeia\n  \u2022 Ekecheiria\n  \u2022 Eulabeia\n  \u2022 Eusebeia\n  \u2022 Gelos\n  \u2022 Heimarmene\n  \u2022 Homados\n  \u2022 Horme\n  \u2022 Ioke\n  \u2022 Kakia\n  \u2022 Kalokagathia\n  \u2022 Koalemos\n  \u2022 Kydoimos\n  \u2022 Lyssa\n  \u2022 The Maniae\n  \u2022 Methe\n  \u2022 Nomos\n  \u2022 Palioxis\n  \u2022 Peitharchia\n  \u2022 Penia\n  \u2022 Penthus\n  \u2022 Pepromene\n  \u2022 Pheme\n  \u2022 Philotes\n  \u2022 Phrike\n  \u2022 Phthonus\n  \u2022 Pistis\n  \u2022 Poine\n  \u2022 Polemos\n  \u2022 Poros\n  \u2022 Praxidike\n  \u2022 Proioxis\n  \u2022 Prophasis\n  \u2022 Roma\n  \u2022 Soter\n  \u2022 Soteria\n  \u2022 Techne\n  \u2022 Thrasos\nOther deities\nSky deities\n  \u2022 The Anemoi\n  \u2022 The Astra Planeti\n    \u2022 Stilbon\n    \u2022 Eosphorus\n    \u2022 Hesperus\n    \u2022 Pyroeis\n    \u2022 Phaethon\n    \u2022 Phaenon\n  \u2022 Aura\n  \u2022 Chione\n  \u2022 The Hesperides\n  \u2022 The Hyades\n  \u2022 Nephele\n  \u2022 The Pleiades\n    \u2022 Alcyone\n    \u2022 Sterope\n    \u2022 Celaeno\n    \u2022 Electra\n    \u2022 Maia\n    \u2022 Merope\n    \u2022 Taygete\nAgricultural deities\n  \u2022 Aphaea\n  \u2022 Ariadne\n  \u2022 Carmanor\n  \u2022 Demeter\n  \u2022 Despoina\n  \u2022 Eunostus\n  \u2022 Philomelus\n  \u2022 Plutus\nHealth deities\n  \u2022 Asclepius\n  \u2022 Aceso\n  \u2022 Epione\n  \u2022 Iaso\n  \u2022 Hygieia\n  \u2022 Panacea\n  \u2022 Telesphorus\nRustic deities\n  \u2022 Aetna\n  \u2022 The Alseids\n  \u2022 The Auloniads\n  \u2022 Amphictyonis\n  \u2022 The Anthousai\n  \u2022 Aristaeus\n  \u2022 Attis\n  \u2022 Britomartis\n  \u2022 The Cabeiri\n  \u2022 Comus\n  \u2022 The Dryades\n    \u2022 Erato\n    \u2022 Eurydice\n    \u2022 The Hamadryades\n      \u2022 Chrysopeleia\n  \u2022 The Epimeliades\n  \u2022 Hecaterus\n  \u2022 Leuce\n  \u2022 Ma\n  \u2022 The Maenades\n  \u2022 The Meliae\n  \u2022 The Napaeae\n  \u2022 The Nymphai Hyperboreioi\n  \u2022 The Oreads\n    \u2022 Adrasteia\n    \u2022 Echo\n    \u2022 Helike\n    \u2022 Iynx\n    \u2022 Nomia\n    \u2022 Oenone\n    \u2022 Pitys\n  \u2022 The Pegasides\n  \u2022 Priapus\n  \u2022 Rhapso\n  \u2022 Silenus\n  \u2022 Telete\nOthers\n  \u2022 Acratopotes\n  \u2022 Adrasteia\n  \u2022 Agdistis\n  \u2022 Alexiares and Anicetus\n  \u2022 Aphroditus\n  \u2022 Astraea\n  \u2022 Circe\n  \u2022 Eiresione\n  \u2022 Enyalius\n  \u2022 Harpocrates\n  \u2022 Ichnaea\n  \u2022 Palaestra\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAncient Greek religion and mythology\nClassical religious forms\n  \u2022 Ancient Greek religion\n  \u2022 Gnosticism\n  \u2022 Paleo-Balkan mythology\n  \u2022 Proto-Indo-European religion\n  \u2022 Hellenistic religion\n  \u2022 Alchemy\n  \u2022 Orphism\n  \u2022 Pythagoreanism\n  \u2022 Mycenaean deities\nMystery religions\nand sacred mysteries\n  \u2022 Dionysian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Eleusinian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Imbrian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Mithraism\n  \u2022 Samotracian Mysteries\nMain beliefs\n  \u2022 Apotheosis\n  \u2022 Euhemerism\n  \u2022 Greek Heroic Age\n  \u2022 Interpretatio graeca\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Mythology\n  \u2022 Nympholepsy\n  \u2022 Paganism\n  \u2022 Paradoxography\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Theism\nTexts\/epic poems\/odes\n  \u2022 Aretalogy\n  \u2022 Argonautica\n  \u2022 Bibliotheca\n  \u2022 Cyranides\n  \u2022 Derveni papyrus\n  \u2022 Ehoiai\n  \u2022 Greek Magical Papyri\n  \u2022 Homeric Hymns\n  \u2022 Iliad\n  \u2022 Odyssey\n  \u2022 Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis\n  \u2022 Sibylline Books\n  \u2022 Telegony\n  \u2022 The golden verses of Pythagoras\n  \u2022 Theogony\n  \u2022 Works and Days\n  \u2022 Epic Cycle\n  \u2022 Theban Cycle\nRites and practices\n  \u2022 Amphictyonic League\n  \u2022 Amphidromia\n  \u2022 Animal sacrifice\n  \u2022 Apotheosis\n  \u2022 Baptes\n  \u2022 Curse tablet\n  \u2022 Daduchos\n  \u2022 Delphinion\n  \u2022 Funeral and burial practices\n  \u2022 Hymns\n  \u2022 Hero cult\n  \u2022 Heroon\n  \u2022 Hierophany\n  \u2022 Hierophant\n  \u2022 Hierophylakes\n  \u2022 Hieros gamos\n  \u2022 Hypsistarians\n  \u2022 Iatromantis\n  \u2022 Interpretatio graeca\n  \u2022 Libations\n  \u2022 Mystagogue\n  \u2022 Nekyia\n  \u2022 Necromancy\n  \u2022 Necromanteion\n  \u2022 Nymphaeum\n  \u2022 Panegyris\n  \u2022 Pharmakos\n  \u2022 Prayers\n  \u2022 Orgia\n  \u2022 Sacrifices\n  \u2022 Temenos\n  \u2022 Temples\n  \u2022 Votive offerings\nSacred places\nOracle Sanctuaries - Necromanteion\n  \u2022 Aornum\n  \u2022 Delphi\n  \u2022 Didymaion\n  \u2022 Dodona\n  \u2022 Oracle of Menestheus\n  \u2022 Athenian sacred ships\n  \u2022 Cave of Zeus - Ayd\u0131n\n  \u2022 Cave of Zeus - Crete\n  \u2022 Cretea\n  \u2022 Delos\n  \u2022 Eleusis\n  \u2022 Hiera Orgas\n  \u2022 Olympia\n  \u2022 Olympus\n  \u2022 Psychro Cave\n  \u2022 Sacred Way\nMythical beings\n  \u2022 Dragons in Greek mythology\n  \u2022 Greek mythological creatures\n  \u2022 Greek mythological figures\n  \u2022 List of minor Greek mythological figures\nDeities\nPrimordial deities\n  \u2022 Aether\n  \u2022 Aion\n  \u2022 Ananke\n  \u2022 Chaos\n  \u2022 Chronos\n  \u2022 Erebus\n  \u2022 Eros\n  \u2022 Gaia\n  \u2022 Hemera\n  \u2022 Nyx\n  \u2022 Phanes\n  \u2022 Pontus\n  \u2022 Thalassa\n  \u2022 Tartarus\n  \u2022 Uranus\nTitans\nFirst generation\n  \u2022 Coeus\n  \u2022 Crius\n  \u2022 Cronus\n  \u2022 Hyperion\n  \u2022 Iapetus\n  \u2022 Mnemosyne\n  \u2022 Oceanus\n  \u2022 Phoebe\n  \u2022 Rhea\n  \u2022 Tethys\n  \u2022 Theia\n  \u2022 Themis\nSecond generation\n  \u2022 Asteria\n  \u2022 Astraeus\n  \u2022 Atlas\n  \u2022 Eos\n  \u2022 Epimetheus\n  \u2022 Helios\n  \u2022 Leto\n  \u2022 Menoetius\n  \u2022 Metis\n  \u2022 Pallas\n  \u2022 Perses\n  \u2022 Prometheus\n  \u2022 Selene\nThird generation\n  \u2022 Hecate\n  \u2022 Hesperus\n  \u2022 Phosphorus\nTwelve Olympians\n  \u2022 Aphrodite\n  \u2022 Apollo\n  \u2022 Ares\n  \u2022 Artemis\n  \u2022 Athena\n  \u2022 Demeter\n  \u2022 Dionysus\n  \u2022 Hephaestus\n  \u2022 Hera\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Hestia\n  \u2022 Poseidon\n  \u2022 Zeus\nAquatic deities\n  \u2022 Amphitrite\n  \u2022 Alpheus\n  \u2022 Ceto\n  \u2022 Glaucus\n  \u2022 The Naiads\n  \u2022 The Nereids\n  \u2022 Nereus\n  \u2022 The Oceanids\n  \u2022 Phorcys\n  \u2022 Poseidon\n  \u2022 The Potamoi\n  \u2022 Potamides\n  \u2022 Proteus\n  \u2022 Scamander\n  \u2022 Thaumas\n  \u2022 Thetis\n  \u2022 Triton\nLove deities\nErotes\n  \u2022 Anteros\n  \u2022 Eros\n  \u2022 Hedylogos\n  \u2022 Hermaphroditus\n  \u2022 Himeros\n  \u2022 Hymen\/Hymenaeus\n  \u2022 Pothos\n  \u2022 Aphrodite\n  \u2022 Aphroditus\n  \u2022 Philotes\n  \u2022 Peitho\nWar deities\n  \u2022 Adrestia\n  \u2022 Alala\n  \u2022 Alke\n  \u2022 Amphillogiai\n  \u2022 Androktasiai\n  \u2022 Ares\n  \u2022 Athena\n  \u2022 Bia\n  \u2022 Deimos\n  \u2022 Enyalius\n  \u2022 Enyo\n  \u2022 Eris\n  \u2022 Gynaecothoenas\n  \u2022 Homados\n  \u2022 Hysminai\n  \u2022 Ioke\n  \u2022 Keres\n  \u2022 Kratos\n  \u2022 Kydoimos\n  \u2022 Ma\n  \u2022 Machai\n  \u2022 Nike\n  \u2022 Palioxis\n  \u2022 Pallas\n  \u2022 Perses\n  \u2022 Phobos\n  \u2022 Phonoi\n  \u2022 Polemos\n  \u2022 Proioxis\nChthonic deities\nPsychopomps\n  \u2022 Hermanubis\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Thanatos\n  \u2022 Achlys\n  \u2022 Angelos\n  \u2022 Hades \/ Pluto\n  \u2022 Hecate\n  \u2022 Hypnos\n  \u2022 Keres\n  \u2022 Lampad\n  \u2022 Macaria\n  \u2022 Melinoe\n  \u2022 Persephone\nHealth deities\n  \u2022 Aceso\n  \u2022 Aegle\n  \u2022 Artemis\n  \u2022 Apollo\n  \u2022 Asclepius\n  \u2022 Chiron\n  \u2022 Eileithyia\n  \u2022 Epione\n  \u2022 Hebe\n  \u2022 Hygieia\n  \u2022 Iaso\n  \u2022 Paean\n  \u2022 Panacea\n  \u2022 Telesphorus\nSleep deities\n  \u2022 Empusa\n  \u2022 Epiales\n  \u2022 Hypnos\n  \u2022 Morpheus\n  \u2022 Pasithea\n  \u2022 Phantasos\n  \u2022 Phobetor\n  \u2022 Oneiroi\nMessenger deities\n  \u2022 Angelia\n  \u2022 Arke\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Iris\nTrickster deities\n  \u2022 Apate\n  \u2022 Dolos\n  \u2022 Hermes\n  \u2022 Momus\nMagic deities\n  \u2022 Circe\n  \u2022 Hecate\n  \u2022 Hermes Trismegistus\n  \u2022 Triple deity\nOther major deities\n  \u2022 Azone\n  \u2022 The Erinyes\n  \u2022 Harmonia\n  \u2022 The Muses\n  \u2022 Nemesis\n  \u2022 Pan\n  \u2022 Unknown God\n  \u2022 Zelus\nHeroes\/heroines\n  \u2022 Abderus\n  \u2022 Achilles\n  \u2022 Actaeon\n  \u2022 Aeneas\n  \u2022 Argonauts\n  \u2022 Ajax the Great\n  \u2022 Ajax the Lesser\n  \u2022 Akademos\n  \u2022 Amphiaraus\n  \u2022 Amphitryon\n  \u2022 Antilochus\n  \u2022 Atalanta\n  \u2022 Autolycus\n  \u2022 Bellerophon\n  \u2022 Bouzyges\n  \u2022 Cadmus\n  \u2022 Chrysippus\n  \u2022 Cyamites\n  \u2022 Daedalus\n  \u2022 Diomedes\n  \u2022 Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux)\n  \u2022 Echetlus\n  \u2022 Eleusis\n  \u2022 Erechtheus\n  \u2022 Eunostus\n  \u2022 Ganymede\n  \u2022 Hector\n  \u2022 Heracles\n  \u2022 Icarus\n  \u2022 Iolaus\n  \u2022 Jason\n  \u2022 Meleager\n  \u2022 Odysseus\n  \u2022 Oedipus\n  \u2022 Orpheus\n  \u2022 Pandion\n  \u2022 Peleus\n  \u2022 Pelops\n  \u2022 Penthesilea\n  \u2022 Perseus\n  \u2022 Theseus\n  \u2022 Triptolemus\nMythical tribes\n  \u2022 Amazons\n  \u2022 Anthropophage\n  \u2022 Atlantians\n  \u2022 Bebryces\n  \u2022 Curetes\n  \u2022 Dactyls\n  \u2022 Gargareans\n  \u2022 Halizones\n  \u2022 Korybantes\n  \u2022 Lapiths\n  \u2022 Lotus-eaters\n  \u2022 Myrmidons\n  \u2022 Pygmies\n  \u2022 Telchines\nOracles\/seers\n  \u2022 Aesacus\n  \u2022 Aleuas\n  \u2022 Amphiaraus\n  \u2022 Amphilochus\n  \u2022 Ampyx\n  \u2022 Anius\n  \u2022 Asbolus\n  \u2022 Bakis\n  \u2022 Branchus\n  \u2022 Calchas\n  \u2022 Carnus\n  \u2022 Carya\n  \u2022 Cassandra\n  \u2022 Delphic Sibyl\n  \u2022 Elatus\n  \u2022 Ennomus\n  \u2022 Epimenides\n  \u2022 Halitherses\n  \u2022 Helenus\n  \u2022 Iamus\n  \u2022 Idmon\n  \u2022 Manto\n  \u2022 Melampus\n  \u2022 Mopsus\n  \u2022 Munichus\n  \u2022 Phineus\n  \u2022 Polyeidos\n  \u2022 Polypheides\n  \u2022 Pythia\n  \u2022 Sibyl\n  \u2022 Telemus\n  \u2022 Theiodamas\n  \u2022 Theoclymenus\n  \u2022 Tiresias\nMagic\n  \u2022 Apotropaic magic\n  \u2022 Greek Magical Papyri\n  \u2022 Pella curse tablet\n  \u2022 Philia\nMythical realms\n  \u2022 Aethiopia\n  \u2022 Atlantis\n  \u2022 Hyperborea\n  \u2022 Libya\n  \u2022 Nysa\n  \u2022 Ogygia\n  \u2022 Panchaia\n  \u2022 Scythia\n  \u2022 Themiscyra\nUnderworld\nEntrances to the underworld\nRivers\n  \u2022 Acheron\n  \u2022 Cocytus\n  \u2022 Eridanos\n  \u2022 Lethe\n  \u2022 Phlegethon\n  \u2022 Styx\nLakes\/swamps\n  \u2022 Acherusia\n  \u2022 Avernus Lake\n  \u2022 Lerna Lake\nCaves\n  \u2022 Cave at Cape Matapan\n  \u2022 Cave Charonium\n  \u2022 Cave at Lake Avernus\n  \u2022 Cave at Heraclea Pontica\nPloutonion\n  \u2022 Pluto's Gate\nPlaces\n  \u2022 Elysium\n  \u2022 Erebus\n  \u2022 Fields of Asphodel\n  \u2022 Fields of Punishment\n  \u2022 Isles of the Blessed\n  \u2022 Tartarus\nJudges of the underworld\n  \u2022 Aeacus\n  \u2022 Minos\n  \u2022 Rhadamanthus\nGuards\n  \u2022 Cerberus\nFerryman\n  \u2022 Charon\n  \u2022 Charon's obol\nSymbols\/objects\n  \u2022 Bident\n  \u2022 Cap of invisibility\nAnimals\/daemons\/spirits\n  \u2022 Ascalaphus\n  \u2022 Ceuthonymus\n  \u2022 Eurynomos\n  \u2022 Hade's cattle\nMythological wars\n  \u2022 Amazonomachy\n  \u2022 Attic War\n  \u2022 Centauromachy\n  \u2022 Gigantomachy\n  \u2022 Cranes-Pygmies war\n  \u2022 Theomachy\n  \u2022 Titanomachy\n  \u2022 Trojan War\nMythological and\nreligious objects\n  \u2022 Adamant\n  \u2022 Aegis\n  \u2022 Ambrosia\n  \u2022 Apple of Discord\n  \u2022 Ara\n  \u2022 Baetylus\n  \u2022 Caduceus\n  \u2022 Cornucopia\n  \u2022 Dragon's teeth\n  \u2022 Diipetes\n  \u2022 Galatea\n  \u2022 Golden apple\n  \u2022 Golden Fleece\n  \u2022 Gorgoneion\n  \u2022 Greek terracotta figurines\n  \u2022 Harpe\n  \u2022 Ichor\n  \u2022 Lotus tree\n  \u2022 Minoan sealstone\n  \u2022 Moly\n  \u2022 Necklace of Harmonia\n  \u2022 Omphalos\n  \u2022 Orichalcum\n  \u2022 Palladium\n  \u2022 Panacea\n  \u2022 Pandora's box\n  \u2022 Petasos (Winged helmet)\n  \u2022 Philosopher's stone\n  \u2022 Ring of Gyges\n  \u2022 Rod of Asclepius\n  \u2022 Sacrificial tripod\n  \u2022 Sceptre\n  \u2022 Shield of Achilles\n  \u2022 Shirt of Nessus\n  \u2022 Sword of Damocles\n  \u2022 Talaria\n  \u2022 Thunderbolt\n  \u2022 Thymiaterion\n  \u2022 Thyrsus\n  \u2022 Trident\n  \u2022 Trojan Horse\n  \u2022 Winnowing Oar\n  \u2022 Wheel of Fortune\n  \u2022 Wheel of fire\n  \u2022 Xoanon\nSymbols\n  \u2022 Arkalochori Axe\n  \u2022 Labrys\n  \u2022 Ouroboros\n  \u2022 Owl of Athena\nMythological powers\n  \u2022 Anthropomorphism\n  \u2022 Divination\n  \u2022 Eternal youth\n  \u2022 Evocation\n  \u2022 Fortune-telling\n  \u2022 Immortality\n  \u2022 Language of the birds\n  \u2022 Nympholepsy\n  \u2022 Magic\n  \u2022 Ornithomancy\n  \u2022 Shamanism\n  \u2022 Shapeshifting\n  \u2022 Weather modification\nStorage containers\/cups\n  \u2022 Amphora\n  \u2022 Calathus\n  \u2022 Chalice\n  \u2022 Ciborium\n  \u2022 Cotyla\n  \u2022 Hydria\n  \u2022 Hydriske\n  \u2022 Kalpis\n  \u2022 Kylix\n  \u2022 Kantharos\n  \u2022 Lebes\n  \u2022 Lekythos\n  \u2022 Loutrophoros\n  \u2022 Oenochoe\n  \u2022 Pelike\n  \u2022 Pithos\n  \u2022 Skyphos\n  \u2022 Stamnos\nMusical Instruments\n  \u2022 Aulos\n  \u2022 Barbiton\n  \u2022 Chelys\n  \u2022 Cithara\n  \u2022 Cochilia\n  \u2022 Crotalum (Castanets)\n  \u2022 Epigonion\n  \u2022 Kollops\n  \u2022 Lyre\n  \u2022 Pan flute\n  \u2022 Pandura\n  \u2022 Phorminx\n  \u2022 Psaltery\n  \u2022 Salpinx\n  \u2022 Sistrum\n  \u2022 Tambourine\n  \u2022 Trigonon\n  \u2022 Tympanum\n  \u2022 Water organ\nGames\nPanhellenic Games\n  \u2022 Olympic Games\n  \u2022 Pythian Games\n  \u2022 Nemean Games\n  \u2022 Isthmian Games\n  \u2022 Agon\n  \u2022 Panathenaic Games\n  \u2022 Rhieia\nFestivals\/feasts\n  \u2022 Actia\n  \u2022 Adonia\n  \u2022 Agrionia\n  \u2022 Amphidromia\n  \u2022 Anthesteria\n  \u2022 Apellai\n  \u2022 Apaturia\n  \u2022 Aphrodisia\n  \u2022 Arrhephoria\n  \u2022 Ascolia\n  \u2022 Bendidia\n  \u2022 Boedromia\n  \u2022 Brauronia\n  \u2022 Buphonia\n  \u2022 Chalceia\n  \u2022 Diasia\n  \u2022 Delphinia\n  \u2022 Dionysia\n  \u2022 Ecdysia\n  \u2022 Elaphebolia\n  \u2022 Gamelia\n  \u2022 Haloa\n  \u2022 Heracleia\n  \u2022 Hermaea\n  \u2022 Hieromenia\n  \u2022 Iolaia\n  \u2022 Kronia\n  \u2022 Lenaia\n  \u2022 Lykaia\n  \u2022 Metageitnia\n  \u2022 Munichia\n  \u2022 Oschophoria\n  \u2022 Pamboeotia\n  \u2022 Pandia\n  \u2022 Plynteria\n  \u2022 Pyanopsia\n  \u2022 Skira\n  \u2022 Synoikia\n  \u2022 Soteria\n  \u2022 Tauropolia\n  \u2022 Thargelia\n  \u2022 Theseia\n  \u2022 Thesmophoria\nVessels\n  \u2022 Argo\n  \u2022 Phaeacian ships\nModern offshoot religions\n  \u2022 Discordianism\n  \u2022 Gaianism\n  \u2022 Greco-Buddhism\n  \u2022 Hellenismos\n  \u2022 Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism\nModern popular culture\n  \u2022 Greek mythology in popular culture\n\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 GND: 118511181\n  \u2022 LCCN: no2014090208\n  \u2022 VIAF: 25393432\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Persephone&oldid=853636674\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Greek goddesses\n  \u2022 Queens in Greek mythology\n  \u2022 Life-death-rebirth goddesses\n  \u2022 Eleusinian Mysteries\n  \u2022 Underworld goddesses\n  \u2022 Greek death goddesses\n  \u2022 Greek underworld\n  \u2022 Divine women of Zeus\n  \u2022 Chthonic beings\n  \u2022 Offspring of Demeter\n  \u2022 Rape of Persephone\n  \u2022 Mythological rape victims\n  \u2022 Nature goddesses\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text\n  \u2022 Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Articles having same image on Wikidata and Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Articles containing Greek-language text\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from March 2011\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Corsu\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Sardu\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 6 August 2018, at 02:28\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5985355041383167183","title":"Colony (biology)","text":"Colony (biology)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nIn biology, a colony is composed of two or more conspecific individuals living in close association with, or connected to, one another. This association is usually for mutual benefit such as stronger defense or the ability to attack bigger prey.[1] It is a cluster of identical cells (clones) on the surface of (or within) a solid medium, usually derived from a single parent cell, as in bacterial colony.[2] In contrast, a solitary organism is one in which all individuals live independently and have all of the functions needed to survive and reproduce.\n\nColonies, in the context of development, may be composed of two or more unitary (or solitary) organisms or be modular organisms. Unitary organisms have determinate development (set life stages) from zygote to adult form and individuals or groups of individuals (colonies) are visually distinct. Modular organisms have indeterminate growth forms (life stages not set) through repeated iteration of genetically identical modules (or individuals), and it can be difficult to distinguish between the colony as a whole and the modules within.[3] In the latter case, modules may have specific functions within the colony.\n\nSome organisms are primarily independent and form facultative colonies in reply to environmental conditions while others must live in a colony to survive (obligate). For example, some carpenter bees will form colonies when a dominant hierarchy is formed between two or more nest foundresses[4] (facultative colony), while corals are animals that are physically connected by living tissue (the coenosarc) that contains a shared gastrovascular cavity.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Colony types\n    \u2022 1.1 Social colonies\n    \u2022 1.2 Modular organisms\n    \u2022 1.3 Microbial colonies\n  \u2022 2 Life history\n  \u2022 3 See also\n  \u2022 4 References\n\nColony types[edit]\n\nSocial colonies[edit]\n\nA breeding colony of Northern gannets on the Heligoland archipelago in the North Sea.\n\nUnicellular and multicellular unitary organisms may aggregate to form colonies. For example,\n\n  \u2022 Protists such as slime molds are many unicellular organisms that aggregate to form colonies when food resources are hard to come by, as together they are more reactive to chemical cues released by preferred prey.\n  \u2022 Eusocial insects like ants and honey bees are multicellular animals that live in colonies with a highly organized social structure. Colonies of some social insects may be deemed superorganisms.\n  \u2022 Animals such as humans and rodents form breeding or nesting colonies, potentially for more successful mating and to better protect offspring.\n    \u2022 The Bracken Cave is the summer home to a colony of around 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats making it the largest known concentration of mammals.[5]\n\nModular organisms[edit]\n\nModular organisms are those in which a genet (or genetic individual formed from a sexually-produced zygote) asexually reproduces to form genetically identical clones called ramets.[6]\n\nA clonal colony is when the ramets of a genet live in close proximity or are physically connected. Ramets may have all of the functions needed to survive on their own or be interdependent on other ramets. For example, some sea anemones go through the process of pedal laceration in which a genetically identical individual is asexually produced from tissue broken off from the anemone's pedal disc. In plants, clonal colonies are created through the propagation of genetically identical trees by stolons or rhizomes.\n\nColonial organisms are clonal colonies composed of many physically connected, interdependent individuals. Colonial organisms can be unicellular, as in the alga Volvox (a coenobium), or multicellular, as in the phylum Bryozoa. The former type may have been the first step toward multicellular organisms.[7] Individuals within a multicellular colonial organism may be called ramets, modules, or zooids. Structural and functional variation (polymorphism), when present, designates ramet responsibilities such as feeding, reproduction, and defense. To that end, being physically connected allows the colonial organism to distribute nutrients and energy obtained by feeding zooids throughout the colony. An example of colonial organisms that is well known are hydrozoans, like Portuguese man o' wars.[8]\n\nMicrobial colonies[edit]\n\nA microbial colony is defined as a visible cluster of microorganisms growing on the surface of or within a solid medium, presumably cultured from a single cell.[9] Because the colony is clonal, with all organisms in it descending from a single ancestor (assuming no contamination), they are genetically identical, except for any mutations (which occur at low frequencies). Obtaining such genetically identical organisms (or pure strains) can be useful; this is done by spreading organisms on a culture plate and starting a new stock from a single resulting colony.\n\nA biofilm is a colony of microorganisms often comprising several species, with properties and capabilities greater than the aggregate of capabilities of the individual organisms.\n\nLife history[edit]\n\nIndividuals in social colonies and modular organisms receive benefit to such a lifestyle. For example, it may be easier to seek out food, defend a nesting site, or increase competitive ability against other species. Modular organisms' ability to reproduce asexually in addition to sexually allows them unique benefits that social colonies do not have.[6]\n\nThe energy required for sexual reproduction varies based on the frequency and length of reproductive activity, number and size of offspring, and parental care.[10] While solitary individuals bear all of those energy costs, individuals in some social colonies share a portion of those costs.\n\nModular organisms save energy by using asexual reproduction during their life. Energy reserved in this way allows them to put more energy towards colony growth, regenerating lost modules (due to predation or other cause of death), or response to environmental conditions.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\nLook up colony in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n  \u2022 Ant colony\n  \u2022 Beehive (beekeeping)\n  \u2022 Bird colony\n  \u2022 Clonal colony\n  \u2022 Colonisation (biology)\n  \u2022 Coral reef\n  \u2022 Eusociality\n  \u2022 Superorganism\n  \u2022 Swarm\n  \u2022 Birth colony\n  \u2022 Austroplatypus incompertus\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Jackson, J.B.C. (1977). \"Competition on Marine Hard Substrata: The Adaptive Significance of Solitary and Colonial Strategies\". The American Naturalist. 111 (980): 743\u2013767. doi:10.1086\/283203.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Colony \u2013 Biology-Online Dictionary\". www.biology-online.org. Retrieved 2017-05-06.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Begon, Michael; et al. (2014). Essentials of Ecology (4th ed.). Wiley. ISBN\u00a00-470-90913-7.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Dunn, T.; Richards, M.H. (2003). \"When to bee social: interactions among environmental constraints, incentives, guarding, and relatedness in a facultatively social carpenter bee\". Behavioral Ecology. 14 (3): 417\u2013424. doi:10.1093\/beheco\/14.3.417.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Grove, Noel (December 1988). \"Quietly Conserving Nature\". National Geographic. 174 (6): 822.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Winston, J. (2010). \"Life in the Colonies: Learning the Alien Ways of Colonial Organisms\". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 50 (6): 919\u2013933. doi:10.1093\/icb\/icq146. PMID\u00a021714171.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; et al. (1994). Molecular Biology of the Cell (3rd ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN\u00a00-8153-1620-8. Retrieved 2014-06-11.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Hydrozoa\". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2017-05-06.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard J.; Berdell R., Funke; Christine L., Case (2009). Microbiology, An Introduction. Berlin: Benjamin Cummings. pp.\u00a0170\u2013171. ISBN\u00a00-321-58420-1.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Kunz, T.H.; Orrell, K.S. (2004). \"Energy Costs of Reproduction\". Encyclopedia of Energy. 5: 423\u2013442.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Colony_(biology)&oldid=835462497\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Community ecology\n  \u2022 Microbiology terms\n  \u2022 Habitat\n  \u2022 Environmental terminology\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u092d\u094b\u091c\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0940\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 8 April 2018, at 21:15.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2975172535563055798","title":"The Man in the High Castle (TV series)","text":"The Man in the High Castle (TV series)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThe Man in the High Castle\nThe Man in the High Castle (TV title).png\nGenre\n  \u2022 Alternate history\n  \u2022 Drama\n  \u2022 Dystopia\n  \u2022 Thriller\n  \u2022 Science fiction\nCreated by Frank Spotnitz\nBased on The Man in the High Castle\nby Philip K. Dick\nStarring\n  \u2022 Alexa Davalos\n  \u2022 Rupert Evans\n  \u2022 Luke Kleintank\n  \u2022 DJ Qualls\n  \u2022 Joel de la Fuente\n  \u2022 Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa\n  \u2022 Rufus Sewell\n  \u2022 Brennan Brown\n  \u2022 Callum Keith Rennie\n  \u2022 Bella Heathcote\nOpening theme \"Edelweiss\", performed by Jeanette Olsson\nComposer(s)\n  \u2022 Henry Jackman\n  \u2022 Dominic Lewis\nCountry of origin United States\nOriginal language(s) English\nNo. of seasons 2\nNo. of episodes 20 (list of episodes)\nProduction\nExecutive producer(s)\n  \u2022 Ridley Scott\n  \u2022 Frank Spotnitz\n  \u2022 Christian Baute\n  \u2022 Isa Dick Hackett\n  \u2022 Stewart Mackinnon\n  \u2022 Christopher Tricarico\nProducer(s)\n  \u2022 Michael Cedar\n  \u2022 Jean Higgins\n  \u2022 Jordan Sheehan\n  \u2022 David W. Zucker\nLocation(s)\n  \u2022 Seattle, Washington\n  \u2022 Monroe, Washington\n  \u2022 Vancouver, British Columbia\nCinematography James Hawkinson\nGonzalo Amat\nEditor(s) Kathrynn Himoff\nRunning time 48\u201360 minutes\nProduction company(s)\n  \u2022 Amazon Studios\n  \u2022 Scott Free Productions\n  \u2022 Electric Shepherd Productions\n  \u2022 Headline Pictures\n  \u2022 Big Light Productions\n  \u2022 Picrow\n  \u2022 Reunion Pictures\nDistributor Amazon.com\nRelease\nOriginal network Amazon Video\nOriginal release January 15, 2015\u00a0(2015-01-15)\u00a0\u2013 present\nExternal links\nWebsite www.amazon.com\/The-Man-High-Castle\/dp\/B00RSGFRY8\n\nThe Man in the High Castle is an American dystopian alternative history television series produced by Amazon Studios, Scott Free Productions, Headline Pictures, Electric Shepherd Productions and Big Light Productions.[1] The series is loosely based on the 1962 novel of the same name by science fiction author Philip K. Dick.[2] In the series' alternate version of 1962 America, the Axis powers have won World War II and divided the United States into two puppet states: the Greater Nazi Reich and the Japanese Pacific States. The series follows characters whose destinies intertwine after coming into contact with a series of propaganda films that show a vastly different history from that of their own.\n\nPremiering in January 2015, the pilot was Amazon's \"most-watched since the original series development program began.\"[3] The next month Amazon ordered episodes to fill out a ten-episode season,[4] which was released in November, to positive reviews.[5][6] A second season of ten episodes premiered in December 2016,[7] with a third season announced a few weeks later to be released in 2018.[8][9]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Synopsis\n    \u2022 1.1 Season one\n    \u2022 1.2 Season two\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n    \u2022 2.1 Main\n    \u2022 2.2 Recurring\n      \u2022 2.2.1 John Smith's family\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Juliana Crain's family\n      \u2022 2.2.3 Nobusuke Tagomi's family\n      \u2022 2.2.4 Historical figures\n  \u2022 3 Episodes\n    \u2022 3.1 Season 1 (2015)\n    \u2022 3.2 Season 2 (2016)\n  \u2022 4 Production\n  \u2022 5 Reception\n    \u2022 5.1 Accolades\n    \u2022 5.2 Advertising controversy\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nSynopsis[edit]\n\nSeason one[edit]\n\nThe central characters are Juliana Crain, Frank Frink, Joe Blake, John Smith, Nobusuke Tagomi, and Takeshi Kido. The series takes place in an alternate 1962.\n\nFlag of the Greater Nazi Reich in America\nFlag of the Japanese Pacific States\n\nJuliana Crain is a San Francisco woman who becomes entangled with the resistance when her half-sister Trudy is killed by the Kempeitai, just after giving Juliana a film reel that contains newsreel-style footage depicting an alternate history in which the Allies won World War II and Germany and Japan were defeated. The film is entitled The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, and is part of a series of similar newsreels being collected by someone referred to as \"The Man in the High Castle\". Juliana believes the newsreel reflects some sort of alternate reality and that it is part of some kind of larger truth about how the world should be. Her boyfriend, Frank Frink (who keeps his Jewish roots hidden in order to avoid extradition and death at the hands of the Nazis), believes that the newsreel has no relation to real-life events. Juliana learns Trudy was carrying the film to Canon City, Colorado, in the Neutral Zone, where she was going to meet someone. Juliana decides to travel there in Trudy's place to find out what her half-sister's mission was. When she arrives in Canon City, she encounters Joe Blake.\n\nBlake is a 27-year-old New Yorker who is a double agent working for the Nazis under Obergruppenf\u00fchrer John Smith, a former US Army officer who joined the Nazis and rose through the ranks to become a senior officer in the SS. Blake is pretending to be a member of the resistance while he searches for the resistance contact in Canon City, which is Juliana, substituting for Trudy.\n\nNobusuke Tagomi is a high-ranking Japanese official (the Trade Minister) in San Francisco. He meets in secret with Nazi official Rudolph Wegener, who is traveling incognito as Swedish businessman Victore Baynes. Tagomi and Wegener are concerned about the power vacuum that will exist when the Reich's F\u00fchrer Adolf Hitler dies, or is forced to step down due to his worsening Parkinson's disease. Wegener explains that Hitler's successor will want to use the Reich's nuclear bombs against Japan to gain control of the rest of the former United States. Currently, however, Japan and the Third Reich are engaged in a cold war full of tension but no open warfare, with the Japanese lagging behind the Germans technologically.\n\nFrank Frink ends up being arrested when the Japanese and the Nazis become suspicious of Juliana's activities. Not having the information they seek, he is unable to give the Japanese what they are looking for, and they kill Frink's sister and her two children in retaliation, using their Jewish heritage as an excuse for their executions. This leads Frink to plan to kill the visiting Japanese Crown Prince and Princess, but he ultimately decides against going through with his plan.\n\nSeason two[edit]\n\nSeason Two of the show broadly encompasses Frank Frink deciding to forgo his hesitancy and relative pacifism and choosing to become a committed member of the American Resistance to the Japanese Empire inside the Pacific States, eventually participating in a successful terrorist bombing of a central-command building of the Pacific States government in downtown San Francisco. The attack kills many members of the Japanese military and other top-level leadership.\n\nJuliana Crain claims asylum in the Nazi Reich using their San Francisco Embassy so she can escape Japanese soldiers who hold her responsible for at least one murder. John Smith, seeing that her asylum claim is unlikely to succeed, steps in to the interrogation room and assumes command of her claim himself, ensuring it goes through, and he takes her to New York without Joe Blake's knowledge. Joe Blake himself discovers he was a product of the Lebensborn programme, and also that he is the sole biological son of a top-ranking Nazi official in Berlin, Martin Heusmann. Eventually Blake reconciles with Heusmann on the personal level and, in so doing, becomes second-in-command of the Chancellorship after Adolf Hitler dies and the Nazi leadership in Berlin grants Heusmann the Reich's Acting Chancellor title, which they do quickly and almost by default.\n\nHitler's death is abruptly pinned upon Japanese spies, and Heusmann suddenly announces on television that the Japanese agents whom he claims assassinated the F\u00fchrer will be brought to justice by any means necessary, including war. John Smith is the only high-ranking Nazi official to be suspicious of the nature of Heusmann's sudden announcement. To gain insight in to why it has happened, he interrogates another high-ranking Nazi, Reinhard Heydrich, who reveals a far-reaching conspiracy led by Heusmann designed to result in a Nazi nuclear onslaught against the Japanese Empire that will kill tens of millions of Japanese, decimate their Empire, level Tokyo, kill their Emperor, and force the surviving Japanese to permanently absorb themselves in to a global Nazi Reich. John Smith undertakes carefully-calculated stealth actions to disrupt and dismantle the Heusmann conspiracy and, as a final act, travels to Berlin and informs Heinrich Himmler \u2014 the Nazi Reichsf\u00fchrer and not involved in the conspiracy \u2014 of the existence of the conspiracy. Audiotapes, together with physical and written evidence reaching too deep within the existing Reich's power structure to be dismissed as hearsay, are handed personally by John Smith over to the Reichsf\u00fchrer, who then angrily leads Smith and several of his closest Berlin subordinates in to the late F\u00fchrer's office occupied by the Acting Chancellor. He arrests Heusmann for high treason and the murder of Adolf Hitler, detains Joe Blake along with Heusmann, and then addresses the Volkshalle packed with hundreds of thousands of Reich civilians and uniformed stormtroopers, nixing the war-declaration speech meant to have been delivered by Heusmann and instead informing the Reich of Heusmann's conspiracy and John Smith's exposing of it. Upon learning this, the entire Volkshalle erupts in to a celebratory mood marked by repeated mass Nazi salutes of Himmler's men in general and then John Smith in particular.\n\nThe second season ends with Himmler and John Smith implicitly assuming command of the Reich, and an implied new era of peace and tranquility between the Japanese Empire and the Greater Nazi Reich. Juliana Crain continues to live out her asylum claim inside New York Nazi territory, and the final few minutes of the final episode of the second season show Trudy (or an alternate-universe version of her) alive and well. In a basement somewhere, John Smith is given access to a room filled to bursting with reels of films watched by the late F\u00fchrer.\n\nCast[edit]\n\nMain[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Alexa Davalos as Juliana Crain, a young woman from San Francisco who is outwardly happy living under Japanese control; she has become an expert in aikido and is friendly with Japanese people living in San Francisco. Her mother harbors hatred of the Japanese, as they killed Juliana's father during the war.\n  \u2022 Rupert Evans as Frank Frink, Juliana's boyfriend. He works in a factory, creating replicas of pre-war American pistols that are prized by the Japanese, while on his own time he creates original jewelry and sketches. When Juliana vanishes just after the police kill her sister, Frank is taken into custody, which is particularly dangerous since he had a Jewish grandfather and would face execution if this fact were exposed. His experience with the Japanese causes him to turn against the state.\n  \u2022 Luke Kleintank as Joe Blake, a new recruit to the underground American resistance who is actually an agent working for the SS under Obergruppenf\u00fchrer John Smith. He transports a copy of a reel of the forbidden film The Grasshopper Lies Heavy to the neutral Rocky Mountain States as part of his mission to infiltrate the American resistance.\n  \u2022 DJ Qualls as Ed McCarthy, Frank's co-worker and friend. He closely follows politics and cares very much about Juliana and Frank's well being.\n  \u2022 Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Nobusuke Tagomi, the Trade Minister of the Pacific States of America. His true loyalties are ambiguous throughout the first season.\n  \u2022 Rufus Sewell as John Smith, an SS Obergruppenf\u00fchrer investigating the Resistance in New York. He is a natural-born American who previously served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps and lives a comfortable suburban life with a wife and three children. It is implied that he embraced Nazism because he grew up in poverty as a result of the Great Depression.\n  \u2022 Joel de la Fuente as Chief Inspector Takeshi Kido, the ruthless head of the Kempeitai stationed in San Francisco.\n  \u2022 Brennan Brown as Robert Childan, an antique store owner who makes secret deals with Frank. (recurring, season 1; main, season 2)\n  \u2022 Callum Keith Rennie as Gary Connell, leader of the West Coast Resistance movement and enforcer for Abendsen. (season 2)[10]\n  \u2022 Bella Heathcote as Nicole D\u00f6rmer, a young Berlin-born filmmaker who will cross paths with Joe. (season 2)[11]\n\nRecurring[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Carsten Norgaard as Rudolph Wegener, a disillusioned high-ranking Nazi official who trades secrets with Tagomi.\n  \u2022 Rick Worthy as Lemuel \"Lem\" Washington, owner of the Sunrise Diner in Canon City and member of the Resistance.\n  \u2022 Camille Sullivan as Karen Vecchione, a leader of the Pacific States branch of the Resistance.\n  \u2022 Lee Shorten as Sergeant Hiroyuki Yoshida, Inspector Kido's right-hand man.\n  \u2022 Arnold Chun as Kotomichi, Tagomi's assistant.\n  \u2022 Hank Harris as Randall Becker, a member of the Pacific States branch of the Resistance\n  \u2022 Christine Chatelain as Laura Crothers, Frank's sister.\n  \u2022 Allan Havey as the Origami Man, a Nazi spy sent to Canon City to eliminate members of the Resistance.\n  \u2022 Burn Gorman as the Marshal, a bounty hunter searching for concentration camp escapees.\n  \u2022 Shaun Ross as the Shoe Shine Boy, a young albino man living in Canon City.\n  \u2022 Rob LaBelle as Carl, a bookstore clerk in Canon City who is revealed to be a concentration camp escapee named David P. Frees.\n  \u2022 Geoffrey Blake as Jason Meyer, a Jewish member of the Resistance.\n  \u2022 Michael Gaston as Mark Sampson, a Jew living in the Pacific States; he is Frank's friend\n  \u2022 Louis Ozawa Changchien as Paul Kasoura, a wealthy lawyer who collects pre-war American memorabilia.\n  \u2022 Tao Okamoto as Betty, Paul's wife.\n  \u2022 Daisuke Tsui as the Crown Prince of Japan\n  \u2022 Mayumi Yoshida as the Crown Princess of Japan\n  \u2022 Amy Okuda as Christine Tanaka, an office worker in the Nippon building.\n  \u2022 Hiro Kanagawa as Taishi Okamura, the leader of a Yakuza based in the Pacific States.\n  \u2022 Stephen Root as Hawthorne Abendsen\/The Man in the High Castle. (season 2)\n  \u2022 Sebastian Roch\u00e9 as Reichsminister Martin Heusmann, Joe Blake's estranged father and high-ranking member of the Reich. (season 2)[12]\n  \u2022 Cara Mitsuko as Sarah, a Japanese American Resistance member, confidante of Frank and survivor of the Manzanar concentration camp. (season 2)\n  \u2022 Tate Donovan as George Dixon, a mysterious friend of the Crains (season 2).\n  \u2022 Michael Hogan as Hagan, an ex-preacher and leader in the San Francisco resistance. (season 2)\n  \u2022 Tzi Ma as General Hidehisa Onoda, a leading member of the Japanese military. (season 2)\n\nJohn Smith's family[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Chelah Horsdal as Helen Smith, John's wife.\n  \u2022 Quinn Lord as Thomas Smith, John and Helen's son and the eldest child. A member of the Hitler Youth, it is later revealed that he has inherited a form of muscular dystrophy from his father's side of the family.\n  \u2022 Gracyn Shinyei as Amy Smith, John and Helen's daughter.\n  \u2022 Genea Charpentier as Jennifer Smith, John and Helen's daughter.\n\nJuliana Crain's family[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Daniel Roebuck as Arnold Walker, Juliana's stepfather and Trudy's father.\n  \u2022 Macall Gordon as Anne Crain Walker, Juliana's mother who is still bitter about losing her husband in World War II.\n  \u2022 Conor Leslie as Trudy Walker, Juliana's half sister who is shot dead by the Kempeitai. However, she is shown alive at the end of the second season.\n\nNobusuke Tagomi's family[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Yukari Komatsu as Michiko Tagomi, Nobusuke's wife. (season 2)\n  \u2022 Eddie Shin as Noriaki Tagomi, Nobusuke and Michiko's son. (season 2)\n\nHistorical figures[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Wolf Muser as Adolf Hitler.\n  \u2022 Ray Proscia as SS-Oberst-Gruppenf\u00fchrer Reinhard Heydrich.\n  \u2022 Kenneth Tigar as SS-Reichsf\u00fchrer Heinrich Himmler (season 2)\n  \u2022 Peter Anderson as Joseph Goebbels, Nazi Minister of Propaganda (season 2)\n  \u2022 Lisa Paxton as Eva Braun, Hitler's wife (season 2)\n\nEpisodes[edit]\n\nSeason 1 (2015)[edit]\n\nThe pilot and the second episode were screened at a special Comic-Con event. The season premiered on November 20, 2015.[13][14]\n\nNo.\noverall\nNo. in\nseason\nTitle Directed by Written by Original release date\n1 1 \"The New World\" David Semel Frank Spotnitz January\u00a015,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-01-15)\nA young man, Joe Blake, volunteers to serve the resistance by driving a truck from Nazi New York to the neutral zone in the Rockies. In Japan-occupied San Francisco, Juliana Crain receives a package from her sister Trudy, only to see her get shot by the Japanese police. She returns home where her boyfriend Frank urges her to go to the police and tell them she had nothing to do with Trudy's treason. The package contains film of the Allies winning World War II, which Juliana watches. She boards a bus to the Neutral Zone to deliver the film in Trudy's place. A female agent on the bus attempts to steal the film but only escapes with decoys. Joe befriends Juliana in Canon City while in San Francisco, Frank is arrested by the Kempeitai, who want to know Juliana's destination. Joe calls a Nazi commandant, Smith, revealing that he is working for them.\n2 2 \"Sunrise\" Daniel Percival Frank Spotnitz October\u00a023,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-10-23)\nIn the Canon City diner, Juliana meets a man she assumes is her contact. Smith tells Joe that the contact is a Sicherheitsdienst (SD) agent trying to stop the resistance, and orders him not to intervene. However, when the SD agent tries to kill Juliana, Joe drives up, and she is able to throw the agent over the railing to his death. In New York, Smith is attacked by resistance fighters. In prison, Frank meets a resistance fighter who convinces him not to inform on Juliana. The Kempeitai kill Frank's sister and her children, but do not kill him when the woman who stole Juliana's bag is found with fake film reels.\n3 3 \"The Illustrated Woman\" Ken Olin Thomas Schnauz and Evan Wright November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nJoe spots a Nazi bounty hunter in town, looking for the man Juliana killed. They go to dispose of his body and car, but find a map which leads them to a cave where they find a dead woman and list of names. They realize that Juliana's boss from the diner was her actual contact. Frank breaks the news of his sister and her children's deaths to his brother-in-law. Frank returns to work where he makes a real gun. The bounty hunter realizes Juliana's identity and tries to kill her.\n4 4 \"Revelations\" Michael Rymer Thomas Schnauz and Jace Richdale November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nJoe quickly saves Juliana from the Marshal. Joe and Juliana confront Lemuel who leads them into the woods, where they are surrounded by resistance fighters, who force them to give them the films and leave. Joe and Juliana are attacked again by the Marshal, causing Joe to reveal to the Marshal that he is a Nazi agent. The Marshal pursues Juliana on the highway. When Juliana gets far enough, she burns her car and hides. When the Marshal reaches the car, he assumes that she has died. Back in the Reich, SS Captain Connolly is suspected by Smith for telling the resistance members who attacked him, which route he was taking to work. In the Pacific States, Frank heads to the Crown Prince's speech with a gun to assassinate him, but hesitates to do so. The Crown Prince is then shot by an unseen gunman.\n5 5 \"The New Normal\" Bryan Spicer Rob Williams November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nThe Crown Prince is rushed to the hospital after the attack, and the captain of the Imperial Guard is ordered to commit seppuku, for not protecting the Crown Prince. Kido then states that if he cannot find the gunman, he will do the same. Meanwhile, Juliana returns home to find an angry Frank, who alludes to his time in prison. Juliana visits her parents and learns the Japanese killed Frank's sister and children. When she later reports to the Japanese military, she is interrogated and asked about Trudy's partner Randall but is ultimately let go. She then visits Simone and meets an agent of the resistance who gives her a visitor's card to the government building. Joe returns to New York from the Neutral Zone and is kidnapped by Gestapo agents and brought to Smith's office. He is then forced to tell Smith what happened in Canon City. Smith tells Joe he has failed in his mission because the leader of the resistance escaped. Smith believes Joe is being truthful and invites him over for VA day (Victory in America day).\n6 6 \"Three Monkeys\" Nelson McCormick Rob Williams November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nJoe celebrates VA day at Smith's house. Juliana accepts a job working for Tagomi as she continues her search for answers. Smith, who has received intelligence about Wegener's activities but also happens to be an old friend, intercepts him at the airport and invites him for dinner hoping to probe Wegener for answers. Smith has Wegener arrested. Smith catches Joe sneaking through his files.\n7 7 \"Truth\" Brad Anderson Emma Frost November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nJuliana makes a startling discovery about her sister's death. Frank reflects on recent events and makes an important decision about his future, and Tagomi gains greater insight into Juliana's past. Smith catches Joe in his home office and interrogates him about Juliana and Canon City.\n8 8 \"End of the World\" Karyn Kusama Walon Green November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nJuliana and Frank make plans to escape the Pacific States, only to be dragged back into danger by Joe as he tries to retrieve a new film, and walks directly into the Kempeitai's ambush. Meanwhile, Smith's loyalty is put to the ultimate test when confronted with a startling family discovery. The episode is named after the song of the same name, which is performed by Lini Evans during the episode with Japanese lyrics she co-wrote.\n9 9 \"Kindness\" Michael Slovis Jace Richdale November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nWith time running out, a desperate Frank is forced to put his life on the line to help Joe. The pieces finally fall into place for Smith as he uncovers who was behind the assassination attempt. Tagomi is devastated when he is confronted with the consequences of his scheming, and Kido's investigation takes a dramatic turn when he makes an important discovery. Meanwhile, Frank and Juliana, after taking possession of the new film, decide to watch it, but they are shocked to find out that the film describes, apparently in the near future, a nuclear-bombed San Francisco where the SS are rounding up and executing survivors; Frank is shown being executed by Joe, who is wearing an SS uniform.\n10 10 \"A Way Out\" Daniel Percival Rob Williams November\u00a020,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-11-20)\nFrank and Juliana angrily confront Joe as a Nazi agent. He goes to the Nazi embassy with the film. Joe learns that Heydrich is preparing a trap. Kido acts on the information from the Yakuza and kills the Nazi sniper that shot the Crown Prince. Ed is caught with Frank's gun and is used as a scapegoat for the attempted assassination of the Crown Prince, averting the need for Kido to commit seppuku. Heydrich demands Smith's loyalty ahead of Wegener assassinating Hitler. Wegener says goodbye to his family and travels to Hitler's alpine castle (filmed at Hohenwerfen Castle), but after confronting Hitler (who is watching the alternate newsreels in his huge film vault saying that he learns something every time he watches), kills himself instead. Smith captures the traitor Heydrich and reports such to Hitler. Joe evades Lem's ambush and boards a boat to Mexico in Juliana's place. Frank finds out that Ed has been arrested and returns to the Kempeitai headquarters to find him being detained. Tagomi goes to Union Square to meditate with Juliana's charm and opens his eyes to find himself in an alternate 1962 where the Allies won World War II and America is in the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis.\n\nSeason 2 (2016)[edit]\n\nThe second season was released on December 16, 2016.[15]\n\nNo.\noverall\nNo. in\nseason\nTitle Directed by Written by Original release date\n11 1 \"The Tiger's Cave\" Daniel Percival Frank Spotnitz December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nJoe returns to New York to hand over the film to Smith and request for his resignation, but Smith denies his request before delivering the film to Hitler. Karen and Lem confront Juliana for not shooting Joe before she is tranquilized. She wakes up in the home of Hawthorne Abendsen, The Man in the High Castle, and his vast film collection. Meanwhile, General Onoda reveals to Tagomi and his staff that the capsule Science Minister Shimada found in his pocket contains the plans for a nuclear weapon that the Empire intends to use to crush the Nazis, much to Tagomi's dismay. Frank confronts Arnold about spying over his own family. Desperate to clear Ed's name, Frank goes to Childan and asks for his help. Juliana attempts to get answers from an evasive Abendsen and receives a clue which may help to avert nuclear war. Gary Connell, leader of the West Coast Resistance, goes against orders and tries to kill Juliana, but she escapes at a Kempeitai checkpoint. A gunfight ensues between the Resistance members and the Japanese soldiers. Karen is killed in the crossfire.\n12 2 \"The Road Less Traveled\" Colin Bucksey Rob Williams December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nKido investigates the shootout at the checkpoint and suspects Juliana is involved. Frank decides to get Paul Kasoura, who is a defense lawyer, to help Ed. In desperation, he reveals to Kasoura that the antique goods he and Childan sold him are fake, leading the pair to be imprisoned by the Yakuza, to whom Kasoura has a connection. Frank is almost killed by Okamura, the Yakuza leader, in the previous incident with Joe. However, he manages to convince Okamura to allow him to repay his debt for the forgery, with a condition that Ed is to work with him as his assistant. Kido is forced by Okamura to release Ed. He later pins the assassination of the Crown Prince on the deceased Karen. Joe is ordered by Smith to visit his father, a Reichminister named Heusmann, in Berlin. Smith tells Joe that Juliana is possibly dead. Meanwhile, Juliana evades Gary and Lem and tries to convince her parents to leave San Francisco, to no avail. Using the clue on a mysterious man that Abendsen is fixated on, Juliana discovers the man is a family friend named George Dixon, who is Trudy's real father. Learning he may be in Brooklyn, Juliana risks her life to reach the Nazi embassy and request asylum, while leaving a letter to Frank.\n13 3 \"Travelers\" Daniel Sackheim Erik Oleson December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nSmith is warned by Dr. Adler, the family physician, to end his son Thomas's life, as the boy's incurable illness prevents him from being accepted in the Reich. Juliana makes it to New York and is questioned by Smith, who is notified of her arrival and arranges her stay. He keeps this a secret from Joe. Frank learns of Juliana's defection to the Nazi states, though he does not believe Gary on her betrayal. While he works with Ed and Childan to create forgeries for the Yakuza to repay his debt, Frank is convinced by the Resistance to help them liberate innocent citizens from the Kempeitai in retaliation for the checkpoint murders. While saving a Resistance member named Sarah, Frank commits his first kill against the Japanese. Juliana looks for Joe but is told by his ex-lover that he has rejoined the Nazis, leading her to think he may have betrayed her. Joe travels to Berlin and meets with his father but is distant due to the latter's treatment of his mother. He crosses paths with Nicole Becker, a filmmaker. Smith is unable to kill his son when given the chance to do so. He meets with Dr. Adler and kills him to ensure his silence.\n14 4 \"Escalation\" David Petrarca Wesley Strick December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nJuliana adjusts to life in the Reich under the tutelage of Smith's wife Helen and Thomas. While looking for George Dixon at his old apartment, she is pursued by two unknown agents and almost killed. General Onoda has the Kempeitai execute numerous citizens for the murder of the Japanese soldiers during the Resistance rescue. Enraged, Frank starts to neglect his debt with the Yakuza and accepts a risky assignment to siphon materials from an unexploded Japanese bomb for a Resistance mission, much to Ed's dismay. Frank begins to get close with Sarah during the assignment. Smith reveals to a suspecting Helen that he killed Dr. Adler to keep their son's illness a secret. Kido gets Onoda drunk and tricks him into approving an unknown order. After escaping from her pursuers, Juliana is approached by Dixon. Tagomi travels to the alternate timeline once again and sees his still-living wife Michiko, who is deceased in his own timeline.\n15 5 \"Duck and Cover\" John Fawcett Erik Oleson & Rick Cleveland December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nDixon is revealed to be a Resistance leader and meets up with Juliana after she tells him that the Man in the High Castle sent her. Juliana tells him he may be somehow involved in the possible San Francisco bombing as he has appeared several times in the films. Dixon forces Juliana to spy on Smith and his family to redeem her betrayal when she allowed Joe to escape with the film. Joe is upset when his father brings him to his place of birth and reveals he is one of the Lebensborn, an experiment to perfect racial purity. Despite this, he takes up his father's offer to remain in Berlin for a few more days. Kido attempts to use Onoda's approval to extradite Juliana from the Nazi states, though he fails and reveals his motive for visiting Smith for an unknown reason. Frank becomes further involved with the Resistance while Ed is revealed to be under the control of the Kempeitai to report on the Yakuza's counterfeiting activities in exchange for his and Frank's lives. Lem assists Abendsen in moving to a new location under the possibility the location of the High Castle is compromised and Abendsen destroys most of the films before leaving. Tagomi reveals himself to the alternate Michiko and his son Noriyuke, but discovers the alternate Tagomi's relationship with them is estranged. He is shocked to see Noriyuke married to an alternate Juliana with their son.\n16 6 \"Kintsugi\" Paul Holahan Francesca Gardiner December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nJuliana starts to socialize with the Ladies Committee as planned and gains the support of one of the members, Lucy. Helen discovers Thomas has been selected by the Hitler Youth group to go for an expedition in South America. She forbids her son to go until she finds out that Smith arranged to have their son disappear from society by staging a fake abduction and live a life of anonymity. Joe starts to get closer to Nicole, who reveals herself as one of the Lebensborn and brings him to meet with some of the others. After spending the night with Nicole, Joe begins to embrace his real heritage. Tagomi attempts to mend his alternate self's relationship with his family, and is dismayed by the alternate Noriyuke's foregoing of the Japanese culture. Kido is informed by his right hand man, Yoshida, that they have found Abendsen's burnt hideout and learns the Yakuza is also looking for the films.\n17 7 \"Land O' Smiles\" Karyn Kusama Rob Williams December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nEd and Childan go to Okamura to repay their debt with the sale from Frank's forgery but are locked up in a storage room when Kido and his men pay a visit. Kido kills Okamura and the Yakuza members present for treason as he has deduced the Yakuza are working with the Nazis. Yoshida discovers Ed and Childan but lets them go. Frank is tasked to plant a bomb at the harbor where General Onoda is visiting. However, Frank aborts the mission when he discovers that the Japanese are secretly building an atomic bomb there and alerts the Resistance of this information. While at Adler's funeral, Smith is dismayed when Adler's wife Alice raises her suspicion on her husband's sudden death and plans to have an autopsy performed. Juliana also attends the funeral and while talking to Thomas, she notices he has a seizure and covers for him. Later, she promises Helen that she will not reveal Thomas's condition. Smith has further troubles when Heinrich Himmler informs him that Hitler has suffered a collapse.\n18 8 \"Loose Lips\" Alex Zakrzewski Rick Cleveland December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nSmith questions Juliana about Joe's film and learns of San Francisco's impending destruction. Lucy tells Juliana she knows that supposedly live footage of Hitler is actually archival because her husband manages the TV broadcast. Juliana shares with Dixon her belief that Hitler may be dead. The Resistance decide it is time to stage an uprising, leaving Juliana concerned that she may have caused the nuclear catastrophe she is trying to prevent. Heusmann is made Acting Chancellor while Joe decides to support his father. Frank learns from Arnold that Juliana has warned them to leave San Francisco and has not betrayed him. Enraged, he confronts Gary but the Resistance is determined to go ahead with the uprising. Armed with the knowledge from Juliana and Kido, Smith misleads a secretly imprisoned Heydrich into thinking Germany and Japan are already at war, leading Heydrich to confirm what Smith has suspected: a conspiracy to create a pretext for war with the Japanese exists among the Nazi ranks. Smith executes Heydrich, but not before learning he is not the mastermind behind the rush to war. Hitler passes away, leaving Heusmann in charge, and the new Chancellor is revealed to have orchestrated the looming conflict.\n19 9 \"Detonation\" Chris Long Wesley Strick December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nTagomi watches a film with his alternate family showing the recent test detonation of a hydrogen bomb at Bikini Atoll. Finally resolved to stop war between Japan and the Nazis, Tagomi takes the film and returns to his reality. Thomas confides to Juliana about his condition, unaware that their conversation is being recorded. Smith later learns of the tape and takes it to protect Thomas' secret. In a televised address, Heusmann frames the Japanese for Hitler's death by poison and promises retaliation much to Joe's horror. Frank decides to assist the Resistance in assassinating Onoda using their homemade bombs. Before the operation, he convinces Ed and Childan to leave San Francisco. Frank and Sarah smuggle a car bomb into the Kempeitai HQ underground parking garage. They set the bomb timer and attempt to leave the building, but are spotted by Kido, which starts a gunfight in the lobby. Just as Tagomi arrives, the bomb detonates, killing General Onoda and his staff and collapsing most of the building. Frank and Sarah's fate is not shown.\n20 10 \"Fallout\" Daniel Percival Erik Oleson December\u00a016,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-16)\nTagomi and Kido, who survived the bombing, deal with the aftermath of the destruction of the Kempeitai HQ. Afterwards, Kido travels to New York and plays the film for Smith appearing to provide evidence that the Japanese possess a hydrogen bomb. The resistance attempts to avenge Karen's death by killing Juliana, but she escapes and kills Susan in the process. She then confronts and kills Dixon, who was threatening to expose Smith by broadcasting the tape of her conversation with Thomas. Smith travels to Berlin with the film to convince the Nazi higher-ups not to attack Japan out of fear of nuclear retaliation and meets privately with Himmler, exposing Heusmann as the traitor. After arresting Heusmann and Joe, Himmler addresses the worldwide public from the Volkshalle, possibly assuming control of the Reich, and rewards Smith for his service. The recognition Smith receives inspires Thomas to turn himself over to the Public Health Department to be euthanized. After traveling to the Neutral Zone, a bereft Juliana learns from Abendsen that hope remains and that her sister is alive. Finally, Lem hands over Abendsen's remaining films to Tagomi.\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nIn 2010, it was announced that the BBC would co-produce a four-part TV adaptation of The Man in the High Castle for BBC One together with Headline Pictures, FremantleMedia Enterprises and Scott Free Films. Director Ridley Scott was to act as executive producer of the adaptation by Howard Brenton.[16]\n\nOn February 11, 2013, Variety reported that Syfy was adapting the book as a four-part miniseries, with Ridley Scott and Frank Spotnitz as executive producers, co-produced with Scott Free Prods., Headline Pictures and Electric Shepherd Prods.[17]\n\nOn October 1, 2014, Amazon.com began filming the pilot episode in Roslyn, Washington,[18] for a new television drama to be aired on their Prime web video streaming service.[19] This has been adapted by Frank Spotnitz and is being produced for Amazon by Ridley Scott, David Zucker and Jordan Sheehan for Scott Free, Stewart Mackinnon and Christian Baute for Headline Pictures, Isa Hackett and Kalen Egan for Electric Shepherd and Spotnitz's Big Light Productions.[1] The pilot episode was released by Amazon Studios on January 15, 2015.[20] Amazon Studios' production process is somewhat different from those of other conventional television channels. They produce pilot episodes of a number of different prospective programs, then release them and gather data on their success. The most promising shows are then picked up as regular series. On February 18, 2015, Amazon.com announced that The Man in the High Castle was given the green-light along with four other series, and a full season would be produced.[21]\n\nProduction for the pilot episode began in October 2014. Principal filming took place in Seattle, with the city standing in for San Francisco and locations in New York City, as well as Roslyn, Washington, which was the long-time shooting location for Northern Exposure. Sites used in Seattle include the Seattle Center Monorail, the Paramount Theatre, a newspaper office in the Pike Place Market area, as well as various buildings in the city's Capitol Hill, International District, and Georgetown neighborhoods. In Roslyn, the production used external shots of the Roslyn Cafe which featured prominently in Northern Exposure along with several local businesses and scenery.[18][22]\n\nIn April 2015, filming took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, in the downtown area of West Georgia Street, along the promenade of the Coast Capital Savings building.[23] In May and June 2015 filming also took place at the University of British Columbia.[24] Exterior shots of Hohenwerfen Castle in Werfen, Austria, were filmed in September 2015 for the tenth episode of the first season.[25]\n\nAmazon announced that they were bringing on new executive producer and showrunner Eric Overmyer for season three to replace Frank Spotnitz after his sudden departure from the show during the middle of season two.[26]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nThe first season of The Man in the High Castle received acclaim from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives season 1 an approval rating of 95% based on reviews from 58 critics, with an average rating of 7.54 out of 10. The site's critical consensus states, \"By executive producer Ridley Scott, The Man in the High Castle is unlike anything else on TV, with an immediately engrossing plot driven by quickly developed characters in a fully realized post-WWII dystopia.\"[27] Metacritic gives the first season a score of 77 out of 100, based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".[28]\n\nMeredith Woerner from io9 wrote, \"I can honestly say I loved this pilot. It's an impressive, streamlined undertaking of a fairly complicated and very beloved novel.\"[29] Matt Fowler from IGN gave 9.2 out of 10 and described the series as a \"a superb, frightening experience filled with unexpected twists and (some sci-fi) turns.\"[30] Brian Moylan of The Guardian was positive and praised the convincing depiction as well as the complex, and gripping, plot.[31] The Los Angeles Times described the pilot as \"provocative\" and \"smartly adapted by The X-Files' Frank Spotnitz.\" The Daily Telegraph said it was \"absorbing\" and Wired called it \"must-see viewing.\" Entertainment Weekly said it was \"engrossing\" and \"a triumph in world-building,\" cheering, \"The Man in the High Castle is king.\"\n\nAfter its first season, Rolling Stone included it on a list of the forty best science fiction television shows of all time.[32]\n\nAmazon subsequently announced it was the service's most-streamed original series and had been renewed for a second season.[33][34] Season 2 was met with mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives the second season an approval rating of 63% based on reviews from 19 critics, with an average rating of 6.86 out of 10. The site's critical consensus states, \"Although its plot is admittedly unwieldy, The Man in the High Castle's second season expands its fascinating premise in powerful new directions, bolstered by stunning visuals, strong performances, and intriguing new possibilities.\"[35] Metacritic gives season 2 a score of 62 out of 100, based on reviews from ten critics.[36]\n\nAccolades[edit]\n\nYear Award Category Nominee(s) Result\n2015 IGN Awards[37] Best New TV Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated\nSouth by Southwest Awards[citation needed] Excellence in Title Design Patrick Clair Nominated\n2016 American Society of Cinematographers Awards[38] Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Television Movie, Mini-Series or Pilot James Hawkinson (Episode: \"The New World\") Nominated\nCreative Arts Emmy Awards[39] Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series James Hawkinson Won\nOutstanding Main Title Design Patrick Clair, Paul Kim, Jose Limon, Raoul Marks Won\nOutstanding Production Design for a Narrative Contemporary or Fantasy Program (One Hour or More) Drew Boughton, Linda King, Brenda Meyers-Ballard Nominated\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects The Man in the High Castle Nominated\nCritics' Choice Television Awards[40] Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Rufus Sewell Nominated\nMonte-Carlo Television Festival[citation needed] Best TV Series Drama The Man in the High Castle Nominated\nSaturn Awards[41] Best New Media Television Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated\nUSC Scripter Awards[42] Best Television Script Frank Spotnitz and Philip K. Dick Nominated\nVisual Effects Society Awards[43] Outstanding Created Environment in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project Casi Blume, David Andrade, Nick Chamberlain, Lawson Deming Nominated\nOutstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode Lawson Deming, Cory Jamieson, Casi Blume, Nick Chamberlain Nominated\nYoung Artist Awards[44] Best Performance in a TV Series \u2013 Recurring Young Actor (14\u201321) Quinn Lord Nominated\n2017 Artios Awards[45] Television Pilot And First Season - Drama Denise Chamian, Liz Ludwitzke, Candice Elzinga, Patti Kalles Nominated\nCreative Arts Emmy Awards[46] Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series (One Hour) James Hawkinson Nominated\nOutstanding Original Creative Achievement in Interactive Media within a Scripted Program \"Resistance Radio\" Nominated\nOutstanding Production Design for a Narrative Period Program (One Hour or More) Drew Boughton, Dawn Swiderski, Jon Lancaster Nominated\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Lawson Deming, Cory Jamieson, Casi Blume, Nick Chamberlain, David Andrade, Bill Parker, Justin Fox, Danielle Malambri Nominated\nCostume Designers Guild Awards[47] Outstanding Fantasy Television Series J.R. Hawbaker Nominated\nLeo Awards[48] Best Guest Performance by a Male in a Dramatic Series Kurt Evans Nominated\nBest Supporting Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series Chelah Horsdal Won\nLocation Managers Guild Awards[49] Outstanding Locations in a Period TV Series Nicole Noelle Chartrand, Robert Murdoch Nominated\nSaturn Awards[50] Best New Media Television Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated\n\nAdvertising controversy[edit]\n\nAs part of an advertising campaign for the release of the first season, one entire New York City Subway car was covered with Nazi and Imperial Japanese imagery as seen in the show, including multiple American flags with the Nazi eagle emblem in place of the 50 stars and multiple flags of the fictional Pacific States.[51] In response to criticism from \"state lawmakers and city leaders\", the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) released a statement saying that there were no grounds to reject the ads due to the fact that neutral content subway ad standards only prohibit advertising that is a political advertisement or disparages an individual or group. MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz stated that, \"The MTA is a government agency and can't accept or reject ads based on how we feel about them; we have to follow the standards approved by our board. Please note they're commercial ads.\" Spokesperson Adam Lisberg said, \"This advertising, whether you find it distasteful or not, obviously they're not advertising Nazism; they're advertising a TV show.\" After complaints from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo and New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio, initial reports indicated that Amazon pulled the advertisement from the subway. It was later announced that it was the MTA, not Amazon, that pulled the ad, due to pressure from Governor Cuomo.[52]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 SS-GB, 2017 TV series\n  \u2022 Fatherland, 1994 TV movie\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"TV Review: The Man in the High Castle\". Variety. November 18, 2015. Retrieved November 18, 2015.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\". Amazon Prime.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved January 18, 2015.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy. \"Amazon orders 5 original series including Man in the High Castle, Mad Dogs\". Deadline.com. Retrieved January 18, 2015.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Spotnitz, Frank [@FrankSpotnitz] (August 17, 2015). \"@dlairman @HighCastleTV Ten\" (Tweet) \u2013 via Twitter.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Fienberg, Daniel [@TheFienPrint] (August 3, 2015). \"Time for 'Man in the High Castle,' which premieres on November 20 on #Amazon. #TCA15\" (Tweet) \u2013 via Twitter.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"'The Man in the High Castle' season 2 premiere date: Season releases Dec. 16\". Den of Geek. August 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Trendacosta, Katharine (January 3, 2017). \"'The Man in the High Castle' Gets Another Season and Another Showrunner\". Gizmodo. Retrieved May 30, 2017.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VP9wkTEgORI\n  10. Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (April 15, 2016). \"Callum Keith Rennie joins Amazon's Man in the High Castle; Rafael de la Fuente in When We Rise ABC Miniseries\". Deadline.com. Retrieved April 17, 2016.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (April 6, 2016). \"Bella Heathcote joins Man in the High Castle; Warren Christie in Eyewitness\". Deadline.com. Retrieved April 8, 2016.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"FX's Tyrant casts Annet Mahendru; Sebastian Roch\u00e9 in Amazon's Man in the High Castle\". Deadline.com.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"A New Trailer for The Man in the High Castle and Episode Two Preview\". Newsweek. July 13, 2015. Retrieved August 19, 2015.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Jarvey, Natalie (August 3, 2015). \"The Man in the High Castle Creator Frank Spotnitz on Creating Alternate Histories\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 19, 2015.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle Season 2 Release Date, Trailer, and Review\". Den of Geek. December 12, 2016. Retrieved December 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Sweney, Mark (October 7, 2010). \"Ridley Scott to return to work of sci-fi icon for BBC mini-series\". The Guardian. Retrieved October 7, 2010.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Marechal, A.J. (February 10, 2013). \"Syfy, Ridley Scott, Frank Spotnitz set miniseries\". Variety. Retrieved August 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Muir, Pat (October 6, 2014). \"Roslyn hopes new TV show brings 15 more minutes of fame: The Man in the High Castle\". Yakima Herald-Republic. Archived from the original on December 13, 2015.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (July 24, 2014). \"Amazon Studios adds drama The Man in the High Castle, comedy Just Add Magic to pilot slate\". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: Season 1, Episode 1\". Amazon.com. January 15, 2015. Retrieved January 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Amazon greenlights full seasons of Mad Dogs, The Man in the High Castle, The New Yorker Presents, and children's shows Just Add Magic and The Stinky & Dirty Show\" (Press release). Amazon.com. February 18, 2015. Retrieved February 18, 2015.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Amazon builds film sets around DJC Building\". Daily Journal of Commerce. October 9, 2014. Retrieved August 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Shoot: The Man in the High Castle's American Nazi John Smith (Rufus Sewell) films at Vancouver's Arthur Erickson-designed concrete tower\". YVRShoots.com. April 21, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Hauen, Jack (June 1, 2015). \"The Man in the High Castle is filming at UBC\". The Ubyssey. Retrieved August 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Hakenkreuzflagge flatterte auf der Burg Hohenwerfen\" [Swastika flag flutters on Hohenwerfen Castle]. Salzburger Nachrichten (in German). September 16, 2015. Archived from the original on November 19, 2015.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (January 3, 2017). \"'The Man In the High Castle' Renewed For Season 3 By Amazon, Gets A Showrunner\". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle Season 1\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved January 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: Season 1 reviews\". Metacritic. Retrieved January 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Woerner, Meredith (January 16, 2015). \"Man in the High Castle is wildly different from the book but still great\". io9. Retrieved January 18, 2015.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: Series 1 review\". IGN. November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 22, 2015.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: the Nazis win, but so do viewers\". The Guardian. November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 22, 2015.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Adams, Sam; Collins, Sean T.; Fear, David; Murray, Noel; Scherer, Jenna; Tobias, Scott (May 26, 2016). \"40 Best Science Fiction TV Shows of All Time\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle is Amazon's most-watched Original\". The Hollywood Reporter. December 21, 2015. Retrieved December 21, 2015.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Amazon Original Series The Man in the High Castle, Recently Renewed for Season Two, Marks Biggest Launch Month in Prime Video History\" (Press release). Amazon Studios. December 21, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2016.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle Season 2\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved January 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle: Season 2 reviews\". Metacritic. Retrieved January 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Best New Series - IGN's Best of 2015 - IGN\". IGN. Retrieved 4 July 2017.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"The ASC -- Past ASC Awards\". www.theasc.com. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\". Emmys. Retrieved September 11, 2016.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Best Picture - Critics' Choice Awards: The Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Bryant, Jacob (February 24, 2016). \"'Star Wars,' 'Mad Max,' 'Walking Dead' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"USC Scripter Awards Nominations\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 10, 2017). \"'Rogue One' Leads Visual Effects Society Feature Competition With 7 Nominations As 'Doctor Strange,' 'Jungle Book' Grab 6 Each\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"2016 Young Artist Awards\u00a0\u00bb Young Artist Awards\". web.archive.org. 30 October 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"The Casting Society of America\". www.castingsociety.com. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"The Man in the High Castle\". Emmys. Retrieved September 11, 2016.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Outstanding Fantasy Television Series\". costumedesignersguild.com. Retrieved February 18, 2017.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Leo Awards, Nominees by Name 2017\". www.leoawards.com. Retrieved May 2, 2017.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Outstanding Locations in a Period TV Series - 'Hidden Figures,' 'La La Land' Among Location Managers Guild Award Nominees\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 26, 2017.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (March 2, 2017). \"Saturn Awards Nominations 2017: 'Rogue One,' 'Walking Dead' Lead\". Variety. Retrieved March 2, 2017.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"New York Subway pulls Nazi-themed ads for new show, Man in the High Castle\". NPR. November 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Man in the High Castle subway ads, featuring Nazi symbols, removed from trains\". CBS New York. November 24, 2015. Retrieved December 5, 2015.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: The Man in the High Castle (TV series)\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 The Man in the High Castle on IMDb\nWikimedia Commons has media related to The Man in the High Castle.\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAmazon Video original programming\nOriginal series\nCurrent\n  \u2022 Bosch (2014\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Mozart in the Jungle (2014\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Transparent (2014\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Just Add Magic (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Man in the High Castle (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 One Mississippi (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Patriot (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Sneaky Pete (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Kamen Rider Amazons (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Collection (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Crayon Shin-chan Gaiden (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Fleabag (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Goliath (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Grand Tour (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 I Love Dick (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Jean-Claude Van Johnson (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Tick (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Inside Edge (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Comrade Detective (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Lore (2017\u2013present)\nFormer\n  \u2022 Alpha House (2013\u201314)\n  \u2022 Betas (2013\u201314)\n  \u2022 Hand of God (2014\u201317)\n  \u2022 Red Oaks (2014\u201317)\n  \u2022 Z: The Beginning of Everything (2015\u201317)\n  \u2022 Mad Dogs (2015\u201316)\n  \u2022 Crisis in Six Scenes (2016)\n  \u2022 Good Girls Revolt (2015\u201316)\n  \u2022 The New Yorker Presents (2016)\n  \u2022 The Last Tycoon (2016\u201317)\n  \u2022 American Playboy: The Hugh Hefner Story (2017)\n  \u2022 The Idolmaster KR (2017)\nContinuations\n  \u2022 Ripper Street (series 3\u20135; 2014\u201316)\nChildren's\nprogramming\n  \u2022 Creative Galaxy (2013\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Tumble Leaf (2014\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Gortimer Gibbon's Life on Normal Street (2014\u201316)\n  \u2022 Annedroids (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Wishenpoof! (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Danger & Eggs (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Niko and the Sword of Light (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Stinky & Dirty Show (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 The Kicks (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Little Big Awesome (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Lost In Oz (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (2017\u2013present)\nUpcoming\n  \u2022 The Romanoffs (2018)\n  \u2022 Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan (2018)\n  \u2022 Carnival Row (2019)\n  \u2022 Good Omens (2019)\n  \u2022 Homecoming (TBA)\n  \u2022 Tong Wars (TBA)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWorks by Philip K. Dick\nNovels\n  \u2022 Gather Yourselves Together (1950)\n  \u2022 Voices from the Street (1952)\n  \u2022 Solar Lottery (1954)\n  \u2022 Mary and the Giant (1954)\n  \u2022 The World Jones Made (1954)\n  \u2022 Eye in the Sky (1955)\n  \u2022 The Man Who Japed (1955)\n  \u2022 A Time for George Stavros (1956)\n  \u2022 Pilgrim on the Hill (1956)\n  \u2022 The Broken Bubble (1956)\n  \u2022 The Cosmic Puppets (1957)\n  \u2022 Puttering About in a Small Land (1957)\n  \u2022 Nicholas and the Higs (1958)\n  \u2022 Time Out of Joint (1958)\n  \u2022 In Milton Lumky Territory (1958)\n  \u2022 Confessions of a Crap Artist (1959)\n  \u2022 The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike (1960)\n  \u2022 Humpty Dumpty in Oakland (1960)\n  \u2022 Vulcan's Hammer (1960)\n  \u2022 Dr. Futurity (1960)\n  \u2022 The Man in the High Castle (1961)\n  \u2022 We Can Build You (1962)\n  \u2022 Martian Time-Slip (1962)\n  \u2022 Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1963)\n  \u2022 The Game-Players of Titan (1963)\n  \u2022 The Simulacra (1963)\n  \u2022 The Crack in Space (1963)\n  \u2022 Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)\n  \u2022 The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1964)\n  \u2022 The Zap Gun (1964)\n  \u2022 The Penultimate Truth (1964)\n  \u2022 The Unteleported Man (1964)\n  \u2022 The Ganymede Takeover (1965)\n  \u2022 Counter-Clock World (1965)\n  \u2022 Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1966)\n  \u2022 Nick and the Glimmung (1966)\n  \u2022 Now Wait for Last Year (1966)\n  \u2022 Ubik (1966)\n  \u2022 Galactic Pot-Healer (1968)\n  \u2022 A Maze of Death (1968)\n  \u2022 Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1969)\n  \u2022 Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974)\n  \u2022 Deus Irae (1976)\n  \u2022 Radio Free Albemuth (1976; published 1985)\n  \u2022 A Scanner Darkly (1977)\n  \u2022 VALIS (1981)\n  \u2022 The Divine Invasion (1981)\n  \u2022 The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982)\n  \u2022 The Owl in Daylight (unfinished)\nCollections\n  \u2022 A Handful of Darkness (1955)\n  \u2022 The Variable Man (1956)\n  \u2022 The Preserving Machine (1969)\n  \u2022 The Book of Philip K. Dick (1973)\n  \u2022 The Best of Philip K. Dick (1977)\n  \u2022 The Golden Man (1980)\n  \u2022 Robots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities (1984)\n  \u2022 I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon (1985)\n  \u2022 The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick (1987)\n  \u2022 Beyond Lies the Wub (1988)\n  \u2022 The Dark Haired Girl (1989)\n  \u2022 The Father-Thing (1989)\n  \u2022 Second Variety (1989)\n  \u2022 The Days of Perky Pat (1990)\n  \u2022 The Little Black Box (1990)\n  \u2022 The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford (1990)\n  \u2022 We Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990)\n  \u2022 The Minority Report (1991)\n  \u2022 Second Variety (1991)\n  \u2022 The Eye of the Sibyl (1992)\n  \u2022 The Philip K. Dick Reader (1997)\n  \u2022 Minority Report (2002)\n  \u2022 Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick (2002)\n  \u2022 Paycheck (2004)\n  \u2022 Vintage PKD (2006)\nShort stories\n  \u2022 \"Beyond Lies the Wub\" (1952)\n  \u2022 \"The Gun\" (1952)\n  \u2022 \"The Skull\" (1952)\n  \u2022 \"The Little Movement\" (1952)\n  \u2022 \"The Defenders\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Mr. Spaceship\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Piper in the Woods\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Roog\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Infinites\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Second Variety\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Colony\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Cookie Lady\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Impostor\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Paycheck\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Preserving Machine\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Expendable\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Indefatigable Frog\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Commuter\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Out in the Garden\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Great C\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The King of the Elves\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Trouble with Bubbles\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Variable Man\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Planet for Transients\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"The Builder\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Tony and the Beetles\" (1953)\n  \u2022 \"Prize Ship\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Beyond the Door\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Crystal Crypt\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Golden Man\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Sales Pitch\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Breakfast at Twilight\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Crawlers\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Exhibit Piece\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Adjustment Team\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Shell Game\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Meddler\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"A World of Talent\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Last of the Masters\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Upon the Dull Earth\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Father-thing\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Strange Eden\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"The Turning Wheel\" (1954)\n  \u2022 \"Foster, You're Dead!\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Human Is\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"War Veteran\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Captive Market\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Nanny\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"The Chromium Fence\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Service Call\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"The Mold of Yancy\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Autofac\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"Psi-man Heal My Child!\" (1955)\n  \u2022 \"The Minority Report\" (1956)\n  \u2022 \"Pay for the Printer\" (1956)\n  \u2022 \"A Glass of Darkness\" (1956)\n  \u2022 \"The Unreconstructed M\" (1957)\n  \u2022 \"Null-O\" (1958)\n  \u2022 \"Explorers We\" (1959)\n  \u2022 \"Recall Mechanism\" (1959)\n  \u2022 \"Fair Game\" (1959)\n  \u2022 \"War Game\" (1959)\n  \u2022 \"All We Marsmen\" (1963)\n  \u2022 \"What'll We Do with Ragland Park?\" (1963)\n  \u2022 \"The Days of Perky Pat\" (1963)\n  \u2022 \"If There Were No Benny Cemoli\" (1963)\n  \u2022 \"Waterspider\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"Novelty Act\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"Oh, to Be a Blobel!\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"The War with the Fnools\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"What the Dead Men Say\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"Cantata 140\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"The Unteleported Man\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"Retreat Syndrome\" (1965)\n  \u2022 \"Project Plowshare\" (1965)\n  \u2022 \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\" (1966)\n  \u2022 \"Faith of Our Fathers\" (1967)\n  \u2022 \"Not by Its Cover\" (1968)\n  \u2022 \"The Electric Ant\" (1969)\n  \u2022 \"A. Lincoln, Simulacrum\" (1969)\n  \u2022 \"The Pre-persons\" (1974)\n  \u2022 \"A Little Something for Us Tempunauts\" (1974)\n  \u2022 \"The Exit Door Leads In\" (1979)\n  \u2022 \"Rautavaara's Case\" (1980)\n  \u2022 \"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon\" (1980)\n  \u2022 \"The Eye of the Sibyl\" (1987)\n  \u2022 \"Stability\" (1987)\nAdaptations\nFilms\n  \u2022 Blade Runner (1982)\n  \u2022 Total Recall (1990)\n  \u2022 Confessions d'un Barjo (1992)\n  \u2022 Screamers (1995)\n  \u2022 Impostor (2002)\n  \u2022 Minority Report (2002)\n  \u2022 Paycheck (2003)\n  \u2022 A Scanner Darkly (2006)\n  \u2022 Next (2007)\n  \u2022 Screamers: The Hunting (2009)\n  \u2022 Radio Free Albemuth (2010)\n  \u2022 The Adjustment Bureau (2011)\n  \u2022 Total Recall (2012)\n  \u2022 2036: Nexus Dawn (2017)\n  \u2022 2048: Nowhere to Run (2017)\n  \u2022 Blade Runner Black Out 2022 (2017)\n  \u2022 Blade Runner 2049 (2017)\nTV series\n  \u2022 Total Recall 2070 (1999)\n  \u2022 The Man in the High Castle (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Minority Report (2015)\n  \u2022 Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams (2017)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Man_in_the_High_Castle_(TV_series)&oldid=816091741\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2010s American drama television series\n  \u2022 2015 American television series debuts\n  \u2022 Alternate history television series\n  \u2022 Amazon Video original programming\n  \u2022 Dystopian television series\n  \u2022 Fictional states of the United States\n  \u2022 Nazism in fiction\n  \u2022 Television programs based on works by Philip K. Dick\n  \u2022 Television series by Scott Free Productions\n  \u2022 Television series produced in British Columbia\n  \u2022 Television series set in 1962\n  \u2022 Television shows set in Colorado\n  \u2022 Television shows set in New York City\n  \u2022 Television shows set in San Francisco\n  \u2022 World War II alternate histories\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 German-language sources (de)\n  \u2022 Use American English from December 2015\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from May 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing German-language text\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox television with editor parameter\n  \u2022 Articles containing Japanese-language text\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 19 December 2017, at 05:54.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1052334833502528495","title":"List of heads of state of Nigeria","text":"List of heads of state of Nigeria\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nNigeria\nCoat of arms of Nigeria.svg\nThis article is part of a series on the\npolitics and government of\nNigeria\n  \u2022 Constitution\n    Human rights\n  \u2022 President (list)\n    Muhammadu Buhari\n  \u2022 Vice President\n    Yemi Osinbajo\n  \u2022 Cabinet\n  \u2022 Federal Parastatals\n  \u2022 National Assembly\n    Senate\n    House of Representatives\n  \u2022 Supreme Court\n  \u2022 Subdivisions\n    States\n    State governors\n    Local Government Areas\n  \u2022 Recent elections\n    \u2022 Presidential: 2011\n    \u2022 2015\n    \u2022 Parliamentary: 2011\n    \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 Political parties\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\nFlag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria portal\n  \u2022 Other countries\n  \u2022 Atlas\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nThis is a list of the heads of state of Nigeria, from independence in 1960 to the present day.\n\nFrom 1960 to 1963 the head of state under the Nigeria Independence Act 1960 was the Queen of Nigeria, Elizabeth II, who was also monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen was represented in Nigeria by a Governor-General. Nigeria became a federal republic under the Constitution of 1963 and the monarch and Governor-General were replaced by a ceremonial President. In 1979, under the 1979 Constitution, the President gained executive powers, becoming head of both state and government. Since 1994, under the 1993 Constitution and the current 1999 Constitution, the head of state and government has been called the President.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Monarchs (1960\u20131963)\n    \u2022 1.1 Governors-General\n  \u2022 2 First Republic (1963\u20131966)\n  \u2022 3 Military rule (1966\u20131979)\n  \u2022 4 Second Republic (1979\u20131983)\n  \u2022 5 Military rule (1983\u20131993)\n  \u2022 6 Third Republic (1993)\n  \u2022 7 Military rule (1993\u20131999)\n  \u2022 8 Fourth Nigerian Republic\n  \u2022 9 Living former heads of state\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nMonarchs (1960\u20131963)[edit]\n\nThe succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.\n\nQueen Reign Royal House Prime Minister\n\u2116 Portrait Name Start End Duration\n1 Queen Elizabeth II - 1953-Dress.JPG Elizabeth II\n(1926\u2013)\n1 October 1960 1 October 1963 7003109500000000000\u26603\u00a0years, 0\u00a0days Windsor Balewa\n\nGovernors-General[edit]\n\nStandard of the Governor-General of Nigeria\n\nThe Governor-General was the representative of the monarch in Nigeria and exercised most of the powers of the monarch. The Governor-General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the monarch. Since Nigeria was granted independence by the Nigeria Independence Act 1960, rather than being first established as a semi-autonomous Dominion and later promoted to independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of the Nigerian cabinet without the involvement of the British government, with the sole of exception of James Robertson, the former colonial governor, who served as Governor-General temporarily until he was replaced by Nnamdi Azikiwe. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice would have served as Officer Administering the Government.\n\nGovernor-General Term of office Monarch Prime Minister\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration\n1 No image.png Sir James Robertson\n(1899\u20131983)\n1 October 1960 16 November 1960 7001460000000000000\u266046\u00a0days Elizabeth II Balewa\n2 Azikiwe-Commander-in-Chief.JPG Nnamdi Azikiwe\n(1904\u20131996)\n16 November 1960 1 October 1963 7003104900000000000\u26602\u00a0years, 319\u00a0days Elizabeth II Balewa\n\nFirst Republic (1963\u20131966)[edit]\n\nUnder the 1963 Constitution, the first constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President replaced the monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five-year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate would have served as Acting President.\n\nPresident Term of office Political party\n(at time of election)\nPrime Minister(s)\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration\n1 Azikiwe-Commander-in-Chief.JPG Nnamdi Azikiwe\n(1904\u20131996)\n1 October 1963 16 January 1966\n(deposed.)\n7002838000000000000\u26602\u00a0years, 107\u00a0days National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons Balewa\n\nMilitary rule (1966\u20131979)[edit]\n\nMajor Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup d'\u00e9tat in 1966 which overthrew President Azikiwe and his government.\n\nHead of State Term of Office Military\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration\n2 JTUAguiyiIronsi.JPG Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi\n(1924\u20131966)\n16 January 1966 12 July 1966\n(assassinated.)\n7002177000000000000\u2660177\u00a0days Federal Military Government\n3 No image.png General Yakubu Gowon\n(1934\u2013)\n1 August 1966 29 July 1975\n(deposed.)\n7003328400000000000\u26608\u00a0years, 362\u00a0days Federal Military Government\n4 Murtala Muhammed.jpg General Murtala Mohammed\n(1938\u20131976)\n29 July 1975 13 February 1976\n(assassinated.)\n7002199000000000000\u2660199\u00a0days Federal Military Government\n5 Obasanjo 1978.gif Major-General Olusegun Obasanjo\n(1937\u2013)\n13 February 1976 1 October 1979\n(resigned.)\n7003135400000000000\u26603\u00a0years, 258\u00a0days Federal Military Government\n\nSecond Republic (1979\u20131983)[edit]\n\nUnder the 1979 Constitution, the second constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President was head of both state and government. The President was elected by for a four-year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President would have served as Acting President.\n\nPresident Term of office Political party\n(at time of election)\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration\n6 Shagaricropped.jpg Shehu Shagari\n(1925\u2013)\n1 October 1979 31 December 1983\n(deposed.)\n7003155200000000000\u26604\u00a0years, 91\u00a0days National Party of Nigeria\n\nMilitary rule (1983\u20131993)[edit]\n\nMajor-General Muhammadu Buhari led a coup d'\u00e9tat which overthrew President Shagari and his government.\n\nHead of State Term of Office Military\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration\n7 Muhammadu Buhari - Chatham House.jpg Major-General Muhammadu Buhari\n(1942\u2013)\n31 December 1983 27 August 1985\n(deposed.)\n1 year, 239 days Supreme Military Council\n8 Ibrahim Babangida (cropped).jpg General Ibrahim Babangida\n(1941\u2013)\n27 August 1985 26 August 1993\n(resigned.)\n7003292100000000000\u26607\u00a0years, 364\u00a0days Armed Forces Ruling Council\n\nThird Republic (1993)[edit]\n\nThe Third Republic was the planned republican government of Nigeria in 1993 which was to be governed by the Third Republican constitution.\n\nThe constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in 1989, when General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB), the military Head of State, promised to terminate military rule by 1990 \u2013 a date which was subsequently pushed back to 1993. IBB lifted the ban on political activity in the spring of 1989, and his government established two political parties: the center-right National Republican Convention (NRC) and the center-left Social Democratic Party (SDP). Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were conducted in December 1991, while the presidential election was postponed till 12 June 1993 \u2013 due to political unrest. M. K. O. Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman, won a decisive victory in the presidential elections on the SDP platm.\n\nPresident Term of office Political party\n(at time of election)\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration\n9 Ambassador Bob Dewar with Ernest Shonekan (3509232597) (cropped).jpg Ernest Shonekan\n(1936\u2013)\n26 August 1993 17 November 1993\n(deposed.)\n7001830000000000000\u266083\u00a0days Independent\n\nMilitary rule (1993\u20131999)[edit]\n\nGeneral Sani Abacha led a coup d'\u00e9tat which overthrew President Shonekan and his government.\n\nHead of State Term of Office Military\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Duration\n10 Sani Abacha.jpg General Sani Abacha\n(1943\u20131998)\n17 November 1993 8 June 1998\n(died in office.)\n7003166400000000000\u26604\u00a0years, 203\u00a0days Provisional Ruling Council\n11 Abdulsalami Abubakar detail DF-SC-02-04323.jpg General Abdulsalami Abubakar\n(1942\u2013)\n8 June 1998 29 May 1999\n(resigned.)\n7002355000000000000\u2660355\u00a0days Provisional Ruling Council\n\nFourth Nigerian Republic[edit]\n\nUnder the fourth Constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President is head of both state and government. The President is elected by for a four-year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President serves as Acting President.\n\nStatus\n\u00a0\u00a0Denotes Vice President acting as President\nPresident Term of office Political party\n(at time of election)\n\u2116 Portrait Name Took office Left office Duration\n12 Olusegun Obasanjo DD-SC-07-14396-cropped.jpg Olusegun Obasanjo\n(1937\u2013)\n29 May 1999 29 May 2007 7003292200000000000\u26608\u00a0years, 0\u00a0days People's Democratic Party\n13 YarAdua WEF 2008.jpg Umaru Musa Yar'Adua\n(1951\u20132010)\n29 May 2007 5 May 2010[2]\n(died in office.)\n7003107200000000000\u26602\u00a0years, 341\u00a0days People's Democratic Party\n14 Goodluck Jonathan World Economic Forum 2013.jpg Goodluck Jonathan\n(1957\u2013)\n5 May 2010 29 May 2015 7003185100000000000\u26605\u00a0years, 25\u00a0days People's Democratic Party\n15 Muhammadu Buhari - Chatham House.jpg Muhammadu Buhari\n(1942\u2013)\n29 May 2015 Incumbent 7002886000000000000\u26602\u00a0years, 155\u00a0days All Progressives Congress\n\nLiving former heads of state[edit]\n\nName Term\/Reign Office Date of birth\nElizabeth II 1952\u20131961 Queen of Nigeria (1926-04-21) April 21, 1926 (age\u00a091)\nYakubu Gowon 1966\u20131975 Military ruler (1934-10-19) October 19, 1934 (age\u00a083)\nOlusegun Obasanjo 1976\u20131979\n1999\u20132007\nMilitary ruler\nPresident of Nigeria\n(1937-03-05) March 5, 1937 (age\u00a080)\nShehu Shagari 1979\u20131983 President of Nigeria (1925-02-25) February 25, 1925 (age\u00a092)\nIbrahim Babangida 1985\u20131993 Military ruler (1941-08-17) August 17, 1941 (age\u00a076)\nErnest Shonekan 1993 President of Nigeria (1936-05-09) May 9, 1936 (age\u00a081)\nAbdulsalami Abubakar 1998\u20131999 Military ruler (1942-06-13) June 13, 1942 (age\u00a075)\nGoodluck Jonathan 2010\u20132015 President of Nigeria (1957-11-20) November 20, 1957 (age\u00a059)\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Past Presidents & Heads of State\". StateHouse, Federal Republic of Nigeria.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Goodluck Jonathan was Acting President from 9 February to 5 May 2010\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 State House of the Federal Republic of Nigeria\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHeads of State of Nigeria\nQueen (1960\u20131963)\n  \u2022 Elizabeth II\nFlag of Nigeria.svg\nPresident of the First Republic (1963\u20131966)\n  \u2022 Azikiwe\nMilitary regime (1966\u20131979)\n  \u2022 Aguiyi-Ironsi\n  \u2022 Gowon\n  \u2022 Mohammed\n  \u2022 Obasanjo\nPresident of the Second Republic (1979\u20131983)\n  \u2022 Shehu Shagari\nMilitary regime (1983\u20131999)\n  \u2022 Buhari\n  \u2022 Babangida\n  \u2022 Shonekan (interim)*\n  \u2022 Abacha\n  \u2022 Abubakar\nPresident of the Fourth Republic (from 1999)\n  \u2022 Obasanjo\n  \u2022 Yar'Adua\n  \u2022 Jonathan\n  \u2022 Buhari\n*civilian; headed transition to abortive Third Republic\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRepresentatives of the monarch in Commonwealth realms and Dominions\nNational\n  \u2022 Counsellors of State\n    \u2022 \u00a0United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Governors-general\n    \u2022 Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda\n    \u2022 Australia Australia\n    \u2022 The Bahamas Bahamas\n    \u2022 Barbados Barbados\n    \u2022 Belize Belize\n    \u2022 Canada Canada\n    \u2022 Grenada Grenada\n    \u2022 Jamaica Jamaica\n    \u2022 New Zealand New Zealand\n    \u2022 Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea\n    \u2022 Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis\n    \u2022 Saint Lucia Saint Lucia\n    \u2022 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\n    \u2022 Solomon Islands Solomon Islands\n    \u2022 Tuvalu Tuvalu\nSub-national\n\u00a0Australia\n  \u2022 Governors\n    \u2022 New South Wales New South Wales\n    \u2022 Queensland Queensland\n    \u2022 South Australia South Australia\n    \u2022 Tasmania Tasmania\n    \u2022 Victoria (Australia) Victoria\n    \u2022 Western Australia Western Australia\n\u00a0Canada\n  \u2022 Lieutenant governors\n    \u2022 Alberta Alberta\n    \u2022 British Columbia British Columbia\n    \u2022 Manitoba Manitoba\n    \u2022 New Brunswick New Brunswick\n    \u2022 Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland\n    \u2022 Nova Scotia Nova Scotia\n    \u2022 Ontario Ontario\n    \u2022 Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island\n    \u2022 Quebec Quebec\n    \u2022 Saskatchewan Saskatchewan\nNew Zealand Realm of New Zealand\n  \u2022 Governor-general\n    \u2022 \u00a0Niue, \u00a0New Zealand\n  \u2022 Queen's Representative\n    \u2022 \u00a0Cook Islands\n  \u2022 Administrator\n    \u2022 \u00a0Tokelau\n\u00a0United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Lords lieutenant\n    \u2022 \u00a0England, \u00a0Wales, \u00a0Scotland, \u00a0Northern Ireland (list\nFormer\n  \u2022 Governors general\n    \u2022 Dominion of Ceylon Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)\n    \u2022 Dominion of Fiji Fiji\n    \u2022 The Gambia (Commonwealth realm) The Gambia\n    \u2022 Ghana (Commonwealth realm) Ghana\n    \u2022 Guyana (Commonwealth realm) Guyana\n    \u2022 Dominion of India India\n    \u2022 Irish Free State Irish Free State (now Ireland)\n    \u2022 Kenya (Commonwealth realm) Kenya\n    \u2022 Malawi (Commonwealth realm) Malawi\n    \u2022 State of Malta Malta\n    \u2022 Mauritius (Commonwealth realm) Mauritius\n    \u2022 Federation of Nigeria Nigeria\n    \u2022 Dominion of Pakistan Pakistan\n    \u2022 Sierra Leone (Commonwealth realm) Sierra Leone\n    \u2022 Union of South Africa Union of South Africa\n    \u2022 Tanganyika Tanganyika\n    \u2022 Trinidad and Tobago (Commonwealth realm) Trinidad and Tobago\n    \u2022 Uganda (Commonwealth realm) Uganda\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_heads_of_state_of_Nigeria&oldid=808050051\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Government of Nigeria\n  \u2022 Lists of political office-holders in Nigeria\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Official website not in Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Yor\u00f9b\u00e1\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 31 October 2017, at 15:48.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-6252343352866892945","title":"List of awards and nominations received by Game of Thrones","text":"List of awards and nominations received by Game of Thrones\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nList of awards won by Game of Thrones\nGame of Thrones logo\n[show]Awards and nominations\nAward Won Nominated\nArt Directors Guild\n5 7\nAmerican Cinema Editors\n1 6\nAFI Awards\n6 6\nAnnie Awards\n0 2\nBritish Academy Television Awards\n2 8\nAmerican Society of Cinematographers\n3 10\nArtios Awards\n1 7\nCinema Audio Society\n5 7\nCostume Designers Guild\n4 7\nCritics' Choice Television Awards\n2 20\nDirectors Guild of America Awards\n2 8\nPrimetime Emmy Awards\n38 110\nGLAAD Media Awards\n0 1\nGolden Globe Awards\n1 6\nGrammy Award\n0 1\nGolden Nymph Awards\n1 5\nGolden Reel Awards\n11 22\nHollywood Post Alliance\n7 19\nIrish Film & Television Academy\n4 27\nKerrang! Awards\n1 1\nLocation Managers Guild Awards\n4 5\nNational Television Awards\n0 4\nPeabody Awards\n1 1\nPeople's Choice Awards\n0 12\nProducers Guild of America Awards\n1 7\nRoyal Television Society\n1 1\nSatellite Awards\n3 14\nSaturn Awards\n2 25\nScream Awards\n3 8\nScreen Actors Guild Awards\n7 18\nTCA Awards\n3 15\nVisual Effects Society\n26 47\nWriters Guild of America Awards\n0 10\nYoung Artist Awards\n0 3\nTotal number of wins and nominations\nTotals 239 682[a]\nRatio (%) 34 66\nReferences\n\nGame of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created for HBO by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R. R. Martin's series of fantasy novels.[1][2] The story takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, it has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast. The first story arc follows a dynastic conflict among competing claimants for succession to the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms, with other noble families fighting for independence from the throne. The second covers attempts to reclaim the throne by the exiled last scion of the realm's deposed ruling dynasty; the third chronicles the threat of the impending winter and the legendary creatures and fierce peoples of the North.[3]\n\nThe series, mostly written by Benioff, Weiss and Martin, has been nominated for many awards, including six Golden Globe Awards (one win),[4] ten Writers Guild of America Awards,[5] seven Producers Guild of America Awards (one win), eight Directors Guild of America Awards (two wins), eight Art Directors Guild Awards (five wins), twenty one Saturn Awards (two wins),[6] fourteen Satellite Awards (three wins), and one Peabody Award.[7] The series has received 110 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including six consecutive Outstanding Drama Series nominations, with 38 wins to date.[8] Game of Thrones received many nominations, with awards recognizing various aspects of the series such as directing, writing, cast, visual effects, or overall quality.\n\nPeter Dinklage is the most rewarded member of the cast, with recognitions such as the Primetime Emmy Award[9] and Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor in a Series.[10] In addition, cast members Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.[11] The rest of the cast was also very praised, many receiving various awards nominations, including six Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series nominations rewarding all of the main cast for seasons 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.[12] In 2015, it set a record for winning the most number of Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a single year, with 12 wins out of 24 nominations.[13] In 2016, it became the most awarded series in Emmy Awards history, with a total of 38 wins.[8] To date, Game of Thrones has won 239 awards out of 682 nominations.\n\nGame of Thrones also holds six world records from the Guinness Book of World Records: \"Most pirated TV program and Largest TV drama simulcast\" among others.[14][15]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Total nominations and awards for the cast\n  \u2022 2 Emmy nominations and awards for the cast\n  \u2022 3 Significant Guild and Peer Awards\n    \u2022 3.1 AFI Awards\n    \u2022 3.2 American Cinema Editors Awards\n    \u2022 3.3 American Society of Cinematographers\n    \u2022 3.4 Annie Awards\n    \u2022 3.5 Australian Production Design Guild\n    \u2022 3.6 Art Directors Guild Awards\n    \u2022 3.7 Artios Awards\n    \u2022 3.8 ASCAP Awards\n    \u2022 3.9 ASTRA Awards\n    \u2022 3.10 BAFTA Awards\n      \u2022 3.10.1 British Academy Television Awards\n      \u2022 3.10.2 British Academy Television Craft Awards\n    \u2022 3.11 British Society of Cinematographers\n    \u2022 3.12 Canadian Society of Cinematographers\n    \u2022 3.13 Cinema Audio Society Awards\n    \u2022 3.14 Costume Designers Guild Awards\n    \u2022 3.15 Directors Guild of America Awards\n    \u2022 3.16 Emmy Awards\n      \u2022 3.16.1 Primetime Emmy Awards\n      \u2022 3.16.2 Creative Arts Emmy Awards\n    \u2022 3.17 Golden Reel Awards\n    \u2022 3.18 Grammy Awards\n    \u2022 3.19 Hollywood Post Alliance\n    \u2022 3.20 Irish Film & Television Awards\n    \u2022 3.21 Location Managers Guild Awards\n    \u2022 3.22 Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards\n    \u2022 3.23 Producers Guild of America Awards\n    \u2022 3.24 Screen Actors Guild Awards\n    \u2022 3.25 Society of Camera Operators Awards\n    \u2022 3.26 Visual Effects Society\n    \u2022 3.27 Writers Guild of America Awards\n  \u2022 4 Significant critical awards\n    \u2022 4.1 Critics' Choice Television Awards\n    \u2022 4.2 Golden Globe Awards\n    \u2022 4.3 Guinness World Records\n    \u2022 4.4 Hugo Awards\n    \u2022 4.5 IGN Awards\n    \u2022 4.6 IGN People's Choice Award\n    \u2022 4.7 National Television Awards\n    \u2022 4.8 People's Choice Awards\n    \u2022 4.9 Peabody Awards\n    \u2022 4.10 Poppy Awards\n    \u2022 4.11 Satellite Awards\n    \u2022 4.12 Saturn Awards\n    \u2022 4.13 Scream Awards\n    \u2022 4.14 Television Critics Association Awards\n  \u2022 5 Other awards\n    \u2022 5.1 Dorian Awards\n    \u2022 5.2 Dragon Awards\n    \u2022 5.3 Empire Awards\n    \u2022 5.4 E! Online Best. Ever. TV. Awards\n    \u2022 5.5 GLAAD Media Awards\n    \u2022 5.6 Glamour Awards\n    \u2022 5.7 Gold Derby TV Awards\n    \u2022 5.8 Golden Nymph Awards\n    \u2022 5.9 Gracie Allen Awards\n    \u2022 5.10 Hollywood Music in Media Awards\n    \u2022 5.11 Humanitas Prize\n    \u2022 5.12 International Film Music Critics Association\n    \u2022 5.13 Jupiter Awards\n    \u2022 5.14 Kerrang! Awards\n    \u2022 5.15 MTV Fandom Awards\n    \u2022 5.16 MTV Millennial Awards\n    \u2022 5.17 MTV Movie & TV Awards\n    \u2022 5.18 NewNowNext Awards\n    \u2022 5.19 Portal Awards\n    \u2022 5.20 Royal Television Society\n    \u2022 5.21 Screenwriters Choice Awards\n    \u2022 5.22 SFX Awards\n    \u2022 5.23 Shorty Awards\n    \u2022 5.24 TV Choice Awards\n    \u2022 5.25 USC Scripter Awards\n    \u2022 5.26 Webby Awards\n    \u2022 5.27 Women's Image Network Awards\n    \u2022 5.28 World Soundtrack Awards\n    \u2022 5.29 Young Artist Awards\n    \u2022 5.30 Young Hollywood Awards\n    \u2022 5.31 Zulu Awards\n  \u2022 6 Notes\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nTotal nominations and awards for the cast[edit]\n\nPeter Dinklage at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2013\nPeter Dinklage is the series's most successful cast member in terms of awards, having won seven awards and received 37 additional nominations\nActor Character Tenure Nominations Awards\nPeter Dinklage Tyrion Lannister 2011\u2013present 44 7\nLena Headey Cersei Lannister 2011\u2013present 30 6\nEmilia Clarke Daenerys Targaryen 2011\u2013present 30 5\nMaisie Williams Arya Stark 2011\u2013present 20 5\nSophie Turner Sansa Stark 2011\u2013present 13 4\nKit Harington Jon Snow 2011\u2013present 19 3\nSean Bean Eddard \"Ned\" Stark 2011 8 3\nPedro Pascal Oberyn Martell 2014 5 3\nJack Gleeson Joffrey Baratheon 2011\u20132014 12 2\nDiana Rigg Olenna Tyrell 2013\u20132017 8 2\nNatalie Dormer Margaery Tyrell 2012\u20132016 4 2\nNikolaj Coster-Waldau Jaime Lannister 2011\u2013present 15 1\nMichelle Fairley Catelyn Stark 2011\u20132013 8 1\nLiam Cunningham Davos Seaworth 2012\u2013present 8 1\nCharles Dance Tywin Lannister 2011\u20132015 6 1\nIain Glen Jorah Mormont 2011\u2013present 7 1\nIsaac Hempstead Wright Brandon \"Bran\" Stark 2011\u20132014, 2016\u2013present 7 1\nGwendoline Christie Brienne of Tarth 2012\u2013present 6 1\nConleth Hill Varys 2011\u2013present 6 1\nNathalie Emmanuel Missandei 2013\u2013present 6 1\nRory McCann Sandor \"The Hound\" Clegane 2011\u20132014, 2016\u2013present 6 1\nIan McElhinney Barristan Selmy 2011, 2013\u20132015 5 1\nJohn Bradley Samwell Tarly 2011\u2013present 5 1\nJosef Altin Pypar 2011, 2013\u20132014 4 1\nJulian Glover Pycelle 2011\u20132016 4 1\nMark Stanley Grenn 2011\u20132014 4 1\n\nEmmy nominations and awards for the cast[edit]\n\nActor Character Category Seasons\n1 2 3 4 5 6\nPeter Dinklage Tyrion Lannister Supporting Actor Won Nominated Nominated Nominated Won Nominated\nDiana Rigg Olenna Tyrell Guest Actress Nominated Nominated Nominated\nEmilia Clarke Daenerys Targaryen Supporting Actress Nominated Nominated Nominated\nLena Headey Cersei Lannister Supporting Actress Nominated Nominated Nominated\nKit Harington Jon Snow Supporting Actor Nominated\nMaisie Williams Arya Stark Supporting Actress Nominated\nMax von Sydow Three-eyed Raven Guest Actor Nominated\n\nSignificant Guild and Peer Awards[edit]\n\nAFI Awards[edit]\n\nThe AFI Award, created in 2000 by the American Film Institute, is given annually to ten films and ten television programs to acknowledge the \"most significant achievements in the art of the moving image\".[16] Game of Thrones has been awarded seven times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [17]\n2012 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [18]\n2013 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [19]\n2014 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [20]\n2015 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [20]\n2016 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [21]\n2017 AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won [22]\n\nAmerican Cinema Editors Awards[edit]\n\nTim Porter at the 68th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2016\nTim Porter won one American Cinema Editors Award in 2017\n\nThe American Cinema Editors presents annual awards for outstanding achievements in film editing.[23] Game of Thrones has won one out of five nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Edited One-Hour Series For Non-Commercial Television Frances Parker (for \"Baelor\") Nominated [23]\n2014 Best Edited One-Hour Series For Non-Commercial Television Oral Norrie Ottey (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Nominated [24]\n2016 Best Edited One-Hour Series For Non-Commercial Television Katie Weiland (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Nominated [25]\n[26]\nTim Porter (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\n2017 Best Edited One-Hour Series For Non-Commercial Television Tim Porter (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won [27]\n2018 Best Edited Drama Series for Non-Commercial Television Tim Porter (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Nominated [28]\n\nAmerican Society of Cinematographers[edit]\n\nThe American Society of Cinematographers presents annual awards for outstanding achievements in directors of photography and special effects for film and television.[29]Game of Thrones has been nominated eight times, winning three times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in One-Hour Episodic Television Series Kramer Morgenthau (for \"The North Remembers\") Won [30]\n2013 One-Hour Episodic Television Series Jonathan Freeman (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Won [31]\n[29]\nAnette Haellmigk (for \"Kissed by Fire\") Nominated\n2014 Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series Anette Haellmigk (for \"The Children\") Nominated [30]\nFabian Wagner (for \"Mockingbird\") Nominated\n2015 Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series Fabian Wagner (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated [32]\n2016 Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series Fabian Wagner (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won [33]\nAnette Haellmigk (for \"Book of the Stranger\") Nominated\n2017 Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series for Non-Commercial Television Robert McLachlan (for \"The Spoils of War\") Nominated [34]\nGregory Middleton (for \"Dragonstone\") Nominated\n\nAnnie Awards[edit]\n\nFirst awarded in 1972, the Annie Awards are given exclusively for animation.[35] Game of Thrones has been nominated twice.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2017 Outstanding Achievement, Character Animation in a Live Action Production Nicholas Tripodi, Dean Elliott, James Hollingworth, Matt Weaver (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated [35]\n[36]\n2018 Outstanding Achievement, Character Animation in a Live Action Production Paul Story, Todd Labonte, Matthew Muntean, Cajun Hylton, Georgy Arevshatov (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Nominated [37]\n\nAustralian Production Design Guild[edit]\n\nThe Australian Production Design Guild are awarded annually.[38] Game of Thrones has won three out of three nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Production Design for a Television Drama Deborah Riley Won [39]\n2016 Production Design for a Television Drama Deborah Riley Won [40]\n3D Award for Visual Effects Design Iloura (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\n\nArt Directors Guild Awards[edit]\n\nThe ADG Excellence in Production Design Award is presented each year by the American Art Directors Guild to recognize the best production design and art direction in the film and television industries.[41] Game of Thrones has won four out of seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 One-Hour Single Camera Television Series Gemma Jackson (for \"A Golden Crown\") Nominated [42]\n2013 One-Hour Single Camera Television Series Gemma Jackson (for \"The Ghost of Harrenhal\") Won [43]\n2014 One-Hour Single Camera Television Series Gemma Jackson (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Won [44]\n[45]\n2015 One-Hour Single Camera Fantasy Television Series Deborah Riley (for \"The Laws of Gods and Men\" and \"The Mountain and the Viper\") Won [46]\n2016 One-Hour Single Camera Fantasy Television Series Deborah Riley (for \"High Sparrow\", \"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken\", and \"Hardhome\") Won [47]\n2017 One-Hour Single Camera Period Or Fantasy Television Series Deborah Riley (for \"Blood of My Blood\", \"The Broken Man\", and \"No One\") Nominated [48]\n2018 One-Hour Single Camera Period Or Fantasy Television Series Deborah Riley (for \"Dragonstone\", \"The Queen's Justice\", and \"Eastwatch\") Won [49]\n\nArtios Awards[edit]\n\nThe Casting Society of America awarded annually to honor the top works of casting directors in feature films, television and theatre.[50] Game of Thrones has won one out of seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Pilot Drama Nina Gold Nominated [51]\nOutstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nominated\n2012 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nina Gold Nominated [50]\n2013 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nina Gold Nominated [52]\n2014 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nina Gold Nominated [53]\n2015 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nina Gold Won [54]\n2016 Outstanding Achievement in Casting \u2013 Television Series Drama Nina Gold, Robert Sterne, Carla Stronge Nominated [55]\n\nASCAP Awards[edit]\n\nRamin Djawadi in May 2008\nRamin Djawadi won two ASCAP Awards in 2012 and 2013\n\nThe ASCAP Awards are awarded annually to composers for outstanding achievements and contributions to the world of film and television music.[56] Game of Thrones has won two out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Top Television Series Ramin Djawadi Won [57]\n2013 Top Television Series Ramin Djawadi Won [58]\n\nASTRA Awards[edit]\n\nThe ASTRA Awards awarded annually. According to the Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association (ASTRA), the awards \"recognise the wealth of talent that drives the Australian subscription television industry and highlight the creativity, commitment and investment in production and broadcasting.\"[59] Game of Thrones has won three out of four nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Favourite Program \u2013 International Drama Game of Thrones Won [60]\n2013 Favourite Program \u2013 International Drama Game of Thrones Won [60]\n2014 Favourite Program \u2013 International Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [61]\n[62]\n2015 Favourite Program \u2013 International Drama Game of Thrones Won [60]\n\nBAFTA Awards[edit]\n\nThe British Academy Television Awards are presented in an annual award show hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).[63] They have been awarded annually since 1955. It is the British equivalent to the Emmy Awards in the United States. Game of Thrones has won two out of eight nominations. British Academy Television Awards recognize outstanding work in British television programming, while the British Academy Television Craft Awards are presented to honor technical and creative achievements, and include categories recognising work of art directors, lighting and costume designers, cinematographers, casting directors, and other production-based personnel.[64]\n\nBritish Academy Television Awards[edit]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2013 Best International Programme David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger Nominated [65]\nRadio Times Audience Award Game of Thrones Won\n2015 Radio Times Audience Award Game of Thrones Nominated [66]\n2017 Must-See Moment Battle of the Bastards Nominated [67]\n2018 Must-See Moment \"Viserion is Killed by the Night King\" (for Beyond the Wall) Pending [68]\n\nBritish Academy Television Craft Awards[edit]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2018 Costume Design Michele Clapton Pending [69]\nProduction Design Deborah Riley, Rob Cameron Pending\nSpecial Award Game of Thrones Won [70]\n\nBritish Society of Cinematographers[edit]\n\nThe British Society of Cinematographers Awards are awarded annually to honor the top works of cinematographers in feature films and television.[71] Game of Thrones has been nominated five times, and won once.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Cinematography in a Television Drama Sam McCurdy (for \"Blackwater\") Nominated [72]\n2015 Best Cinematography in a Television Drama Fabian Wagner (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated [73]\nACO\/BSC\/GBCT Operators TV Drama Award David Morgan, Sean Savage, Ben Wilson, David Worley (for \"Hardhome\") Won [74]\n2016 Best Cinematography in a Television Drama Fabian Wagner (for \"The Winds of Winter\") Nominated [73]\nACO\/BSC\/GBCT Operators TV Drama Award Sean Savage, David Morgan & John Ferguson (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated [74]\n\nCanadian Society of Cinematographers[edit]\n\nThe Canadian Society of Cinematographers Awards are awarded annually to honor the top works of cinematographers in feature films and television.[75] Game of Thrones has been nominated four times and won twice.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 TV Series Cinematography Robert McLachlan (for \"Oathkeeper\") Nominated [76]\n2016 TV Series Cinematography Robert McLachlan (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Won [77]\nTV Series Cinematography Gregory Middleton (for \"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken\") Nominated\n2017 TV Series Cinematography Gregory Middleton (for \"Home\") Won [78]\n\nCinema Audio Society Awards[edit]\n\nThe Cinema Audio Society presents annual awards for outstanding achievements in sound mixing.[79] Game of Thrones has won five out of seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Mark Taylor (for \"Baelor\") Nominated [80]\n2013 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, and Brett Voss (for \"Blackwater\") Nominated [81]\n2014 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, and Brett Voss (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Won [82]\n2015 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, Brett Voss (for \"The Children\") Won [83]\n2016 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, Brett Voss (for \"Hardhome\") Won [79]\n2017 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, Richard Dyer, Brett Voss (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won [84]\n2018 Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing \u2013 Television Series \u2013 One Hour Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, Brett Voss (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Won [85]\n\nCostume Designers Guild Awards[edit]\n\nThe Costume Designers Guild presents annual awards for excellence in costume design in motion pictures, television, and commercials.[86] Game of Thrones has won four out of seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Period\/Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Nominated [87]\n2013 Outstanding Period\/Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Nominated [88]\n2014 Outstanding Period\/Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Nominated [89]\n2015 Outstanding Period\/Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Won [86]\n2016 Outstanding Period\/Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Won [90]\n2017 Outstanding Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton, April Ferry Won [91]\n2018 Outstanding Fantasy Television Series Michele Clapton Won [92]\n\nDirectors Guild of America Awards[edit]\n\nDavid Nutter at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2015\nDavid Nutter won one Directors Guild of America Award for \"Mother's Mercy\" in 2015\n\nThe Directors Guild of America Awards are awarded annually by the Directors Guild of America.[93] Game of Thrones has been nominated for eight awards for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Series, winning in 2015 and 2016.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Dramatic Series Tim Van Patten (for \"Winter Is Coming\") Nominated [94]\n2014 Dramatic Series David Nutter (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Nominated [95]\n2015 Dramatic Series Alex Graves (for \"The Children\") Nominated [93]\n2016 Dramatic Series David Nutter (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Won [96]\n2017 Dramatic Series Miguel Sapochnik (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won [97]\n2018 Dramatic Series Jeremy Podeswa (for \"The Dragon and the Wolf\") Nominated [98]\nMatt Shakman (for \"The Spoils of War\") Nominated\nAlan Taylor (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Nominated\n\nEmmy Awards[edit]\n\nD. B. Weiss and David Benioff in 2013\nD. B. Weiss and David Benioff received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for \"Mother's Mercy\" in 2015\nLena Headey at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2014\nLena Headey received her first Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her performance as Cersei Lannister in 2014\n\nThe Emmy Awards were established in 1949 in order to recognize excellence in the American television industry, and are bestowed by members of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Emmy Awards are given in different ceremonies presented annually; Primetime Emmy Awards recognize outstanding work in American primetime television programming, while the Creative Arts Emmy Awards are presented to honor technical and creative achievements, and include categories recognising work of art directors, lighting and costume designers, cinematographers, casting directors, and other production-based personnel.[99] The Emmy Award corresponds to the Academy Award (for film), the Tony Award (for theatre), and the Grammy Award (for music).[100]\n\nGame of Thrones has won 38 out of 110 nominations.[11] Peter Dinklage has been nominated for the best supporting actor six times in a row for playing Tyrion Lannister, with an win in 2011 and 2015. Showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss have won twice for writing. Game of Thrones has six nominations for the best drama series, winning two in 2015 and 2016. Both David Nutter and Miguel Sapochnik have won for directing. Game of Thrones holds the Emmy-award record for most wins for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37).[101]\n\nAt the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards the show's fifth season was nominated for 24 awards. The show ultimately won twelve awards, setting a new record for most Emmy wins by a series in a single year, replacing the previous holder The West Wing's nine wins, and tying that show and Hill Street Blues for the most wins by a drama series throughout its run.[13] At the nominee announcement for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, the show's sixth season received the most nominations of any show with 23. The show yet again won twelve awards, setting the same record for most Emmy wins by a series in a single year.[11]\n\nPrimetime Emmy Awards[edit]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Outstanding Drama Series Vince Gerardis, Frank Doelger, Ralph Vicinanza, Mark Huffam, David Benioff, Carolyn Strauss, George R. R. Martin, Guymon Casady and D. B. Weiss Nominated [102]\n[11]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Won\nOutstanding Directing for a Drama Series Tim Van Patten (for \"Winter Is Coming\") Nominated\nOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"Baelor\") Nominated\n2012 Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss, George R. R. Martin, Vanessa Taylor, Alan Taylor, Guymon Casady, Vince Gerardis and Bernadette Caulfield Nominated [103]\n[104]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2013 Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield, Guymon Casady, Vince Gerardis, George R. R. Martin, Vanessa Taylor, Chris Newman and Greg Spence Nominated [105]\n[106]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\nOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Nominated\n2014 Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield, Guymon Casady, Vince Gerardis, George R. R. Martin, Chris Newman and Greg Spence Nominated [107]\n[108]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Lena Headey Nominated\nOutstanding Directing for a Drama Series Neil Marshall (for \"The Watchers on the Wall\") Nominated\nOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series David Benioff & D. B. Weiss (for \"The Children\") Nominated\n2015 Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield, Guymon Casady, Vince Gerardis, George R. R. Martin, Chris Newman, Greg Spence, Lisa McAtackney and Bryan Cogman Won [109]\n[9]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Won\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\nLena Headey Nominated\nOutstanding Directing for a Drama Series David Nutter (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Won\nJeremy Podeswa (for \"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken\") Nominated\nOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series D. B. Weiss and David Benioff (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Won\n2016 Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield, Vince Gerardis, Guymon Casady, George R. R. Martin, Bryan Cogman, Chris Newman, Greg Spence and Lisa McAtackney Won [110]\n[11]\nOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nKit Harington Nominated\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\nLena Headey Nominated\nMaisie Williams Nominated\nOutstanding Directing for a Drama Series Miguel Sapochnik (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\nJack Bender (for \"The Door\") Nominated\nOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series D. B. Weiss and David Benioff (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\n\nCreative Arts Emmy Awards[edit]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold and Robert Sterne Nominated [102]\n[11]\nOutstanding Costumes for a Series Michele Clapton and Rachael Webb-Crozier (for \"The Pointy End\") Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander and Candice Banks (for \"A Golden Crown\") Nominated\nOutstanding Main Title Design Angus Wall, Hameed Shaukat, Kirk Shintani, and Robert Feng Won\nOutstanding Makeup for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Paul Engelen and Melissa Lackersteen (for \"Winter is Coming\") Nominated\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special Paul Engelen and Conor O'Sullivan (for \"A Golden Crown\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Robin Quinn, Steve Fanagan, Eoghan McDonnell, Jon Stevenson, Tim Hands, Stefan Henrix, Caoimhe Doyle, Michelle McCormack and Andy Kennedy (for \"A Golden Crown\") Nominated\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Rafael Morant, Adam McInnes, Graham Hills, Lucy Ainsworth-Taylor, Stuart Brisdon, Damien Mac\u00e9, Henry Badgett and Angela Barson (for \"Fire and Blood\") Nominated\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination Paul Jennings for (The Wolf and the Lion\") Nominated\n2012 Outstanding Art Direction for a Single-Camera Series Gemma Jackson, Frank Walsh, and Tina Jones (for \"Garden of Bones\", \"The Ghost of Harrenhal\", and \"A Man Without Honor\") (shared with Boardwalk Empire) Won [103]\n[104]\nOutstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold and Robert Sterne Nominated\nOutstanding Costumes for a Series Michele Clapton, Alexander Fordham, and Chloe Aubry (for \"The Prince of Winterfell\") Won\nOutstanding Creative Achievement in Interactive Media HBO Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks, Rosalia Culora, and Gary Machin (for \"The Old Gods and the New\") Nominated\nOutstanding Makeup for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Paul Engelen and Melissa Lackersteen (for \"The Old Gods and the New\") Won\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special Paul Engelen, Conor O'Sullivan, and Rob Trenton (for \"Valar Morghulis\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Peter Brown, Kira Roessler, Tim Hands, Paul Aulicino, Stephen P. Robinson, Vanessa Lapato, Brett Voss, James Moriana, Jeffrey Wilhoit, and David Klotz (for \"Blackwater\") Won\nOutstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One-Hour) Matthew Waters, Onnalee Blank, Ronan Hill, and Mervyn Moore (for \"Blackwater\") Won\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Rainer Gombos, Juri Stanossek, Sven Martin, Steve Kullback, Jan Fiedler, Chris Stenner, Tobias Mannewitz, Thilo Ewers, and Adam Chazen (for \"Valar Morghulis\") Won\n2013 Outstanding Art Direction for a Single-Camera Series Gemma Jackson, Frank Walsh, and Tina Jones (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Nominated [105]\n[106]\nOutstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold and Robert Sterne Nominated\nOutstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series Rob McLachlan (for \"Mhysa\") Nominated\nOutstanding Costumes for a Series Michele Clapton, Alexander Fordham, and Chloe Aubry (for \"Walk of Punishment\") Nominated\nOutstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series Diana Rigg Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks, Rosalia Culora, and Gary Machin (for \"Second Sons\") Nominated\nOutstanding Interactive Program Game of Thrones Season Three Enhanced Digital Experience Nominated\nOutstanding Makeup for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Paul Engelen and Melissa Lackersteen (for \"Kissed by Fire\") Won\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie or a Special Paul Engelen, Conor O'Sullivan, and Rob Trenton (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Nominated\nOutstanding Single-camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series Oral Ottey (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Peter Brown, Kira Roessler, Tim Hands, Paul Aulicino, Stephen P. Robinson, Vanessa Lapato, Brett Voss, James Moriana, Jeffrey Wilhoit, and David Klotz (for \"And Now His Watch Is Ended\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series (1 hour) Matthew Waters, Onnalee Blank, Ronan Hill, and Mervyn Moore (for \"And Now His Watch Is Ended\") Nominated\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Doug Campbell, Rainer Gombos, Juri Stanossek, Sven Martin, Steve Kullback, Jan Fiedler, Chris Stenner, Tobias Mannewitz, Thilo Ewers, and Adam Chazen (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Won\n2014 Outstanding Art Direction for a Single-Camera Fantasy Series Deborah Riley, Paul Ghirardani, and Rob Cameron (for \"The Laws of Gods and Men\", and \"The Mountain and the Viper\") Won [107]\n[111]\nOutstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold and Robert Sterne Nominated\nOutstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series Anette Haellmigk (for \"The Lion and the Rose\") Nominated\nJonathan Freeman (for \"Two Swords\") Nominated\nOutstanding Costumes for a Series Michele Clapton, Sheena Wichary, Alexander Fordham, and Nina Ayres for (The Lion and the Rose\") Won\nOutstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series Diana Rigg Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks, Rosalia Culora, Gary Machin, and Nicola Mount for (The Lion and the Rose\") Nominated\nOutstanding Interactive Program Game of Thrones Premiere \u2013 Facebook Live and Instagram, by Sabrina Caluori, Paul Beddoe-Stephens, Jim Marsh, Michael McMorrow, Michael McMillian Nominated\nOutstanding Makeup for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Jane Walker and Ann McEwan (for \"Oathkeeper\") Nominated\nOutstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score) Ramin Djawadi (for \"The Mountain and the Viper\") Nominated\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Limited Series, Movie, or Special Jane Walker and Barrie Gower (for \"The Children\") Won\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Tim Kimmel, Jed M. Dodge, Tim Hands, Paula Fairfield, David Klotz, Bradley C. Katona, Brett Voss, Jeffrey Wilhoit, and Dylan T. Wilhoit (for \"The Watchers on the Wall\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series (One Hour) Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, and Mathew Waters (for The Watchers on the Wall) Nominated\nOutstanding Special And Visual Effects Joe Bauer, Joern Grosshans, Steve Kullback, Adam Chazen, Eric Carney, Sabrina Gerhardt, Matthew Rouleau, Thomas H. Schelesny, and Robert Simon (for \"The Children\") Won\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination for a Drama Series Paul Herbert Nominated\n2015 Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold, Robert Sterne, and Carla Stronge Won [109]\n[112]\nOutstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series Fabian Wagner (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\nAnette Haellmigk (for \"Sons of the Harpy\") Nominated\nRob McLachlan (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Nominated\nGreg Middleton (for \"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken\") Nominated\nOutstanding Costumes for a Fantasy Series Michele Clapton, Sheena Wichary, Nina Ayres, Alex Fordham (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Nominated\nOutstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series Diana Rigg Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks, Rosalia Culora, Gary Machin, Laura Pollock, Nicola Mount (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Nominated\nOutstanding Make-up for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Jane Walker and Nicola Matthews (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Won\nOutstanding Production Design for a Fantasy Program Deborah Riley, Paul Ghirardani, Rob Cameron (for \"High Sparrow\", \"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken\", and \"Hardhome\") Won\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series Jane Walker, Barrie Gower, and Sarah Gower (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\nOutstanding Single-camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series Tim Porter (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\nKatie Weiland (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Won\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Tim Kimmel, Paula Fairfield, Bradley C. Katona, Peter Bercovitch, David Klotz, Jeffrey Wilhoit, Dylan T. Wilhoit (for \"Hardhome\") Won\nOutstanding Sound Mixing for a Series Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters (for \"Hardhome\") Won\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Steve Kullback, Joe Bauer, Adam Chazen, Jabbar Raisani, Eric Carney, Stuart Brisdon, Derek Spears, James Kinnings, Matthew Rouleau (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Won\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination for a Series Rowley Irlam Won\n2016 Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold, Robert Sterne, and Carla Stronge Won [110]\n[11]\nOutstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series Gregory Middleton (for \"Home\") Nominated\nOutstanding Costumes for a Fantasy Series Michele Clapton, Chloe Aubry, Sheena Wichary (for \"The Winds of Winter\") Won\nOutstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Max von Sydow Nominated\nOutstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks, Nicola Mount, Laura Pollock, Gary Machin, Rosalia Culora (for \"The Door\") Nominated\nOutstanding Make-up for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) Jane Walker, Kate Thompson, Nicola Mathews, Kay Bilk, Marianna Kyriacou, Pamela Smyth (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\nOutstanding Production Design for a Fantasy Program Deborah Riley, Paul Ghirardani, Rob Cameron (for \"Blood of My Blood\", \"The Broken Man\", and \"No One\") Won\nOutstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series Jane Walker, Sarah Gower, Emma Sheffield, Tristan Versluis, Barrie Gower (for \"The Door\") Won\nOutstanding Single-camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series Tim Porter (for Battle of the Bastards) Won\nKatie Weiland (for \"Oathbreaker\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Editing for a Series Tim Kimmel, Tim Hands, Paul Bercovitch, Paula Fairfield, Bradley C. Katona, Michael Wabro, David Klotz, Brett Voss, Jeffrey Wilhoit, Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit (for \"The Door\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Mixing for a Series Ronan Hill, Richard Dyer, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\nOutstanding Special Visual Effects Steve Kullback, Joe Bauer, Adam Chazen, Derek Spears, Eric Carney, Sam Conway, Matthew Rouleau, Michelle Blok, Glenn Melenhorst (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination for a Series Rowley Irlam Won\nOutstanding Interactive Program Game of Thrones Main Titles 360 Experience Nominated\n\nGolden Reel Awards[edit]\n\nThe Golden Reel Award presents awards annually to sound editors in the several categories for feature film and television.[113] Game of Thrones has received eleven awards out of twenty two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things\") Won [114]\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Winter is Coming\") Won\n2013 Best Sound Editing \u2013 Long Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Valar Morghulis\") Won [113]\n[115]\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Long Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Valar Morghulis\") Won\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Blackwater\") Nominated\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Music in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Blackwater\") Nominated\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television Game of Thrones (for \"Blackwater\") Nominated\n2014 Best Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Jed Dodge and Tim Hands (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Won [116]\n[117]\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Music David Klotz (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Won\nBest Sound Editing \u2013 Short Form Sound Effects and Foley Tim Kimmel (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Nominated\n2015 Best Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: FX\/Foley Game of Thrones (for \"The Children\") Won [118]\n[119]\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Dialogue \/ ADR Game of Thrones (for \"The Children\") Nominated\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Music Game of Thrones (for \"The Watchers on the Wall\") Nominated\n2016 Best Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: FX\/Foley Tim Kimmel (for \"Hardhome\") Won [120]\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Dialogue \/ ADR Tim Kimmel (for \"Hardhome\") Won\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Music David Klotz (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\n2017 Best Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: FX\/Foley Tim Kimmel, Brett Voss, John Matter, Jeffrey Wilhoit, Dylan Wilhoit, Paula Fairfield and Bradley Katona (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated [121]\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Dialogue \/ ADR Tim Kimmel and Tim Hands (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Music David Klotz (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated\n2018 Best Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: FX\/Foley Tim Kimmel, Paula Fairfield, Bradley Katona, Brett Voss and Jeffrey Wilhoit (for \"The Spoils of War\") Won [122]\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Dialogue \/ ADR Tim Kimmel, Paul Bercovitch and Tim Hands (for \"The Spoils of War\") Won\nBest Sound Editing in Television, Short Form: Music David Klotz (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Nominated\n\nGrammy Awards[edit]\n\nThe Grammy, is an honor awarded by The Recording Academy to recognize outstanding achievement in the music industry. Game of Thrones has one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2018 Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media Ramin Djawadi (for Game of Thrones Season 7) Nominated [123]\n\nHollywood Post Alliance[edit]\n\nThe Hollywood Post Alliance presents awards to individuals and organizations to recognize the achievement of post production talent.[124] Game of Thrones has received seven awards out of nineteen nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Visual Effects \u2013 Television The Prince of Winterfell Won [125]\n2013 Outstanding Color Grading \u2013 Television Joe Finley (for \"Kissed by Fire\") Nominated [126]\n[127]\nOutstanding Sound \u2013 Television Paula Fairfield, Brad Katona, Jed Dodge, Onnalee Blank and Mathew Waters (for \"The Climb\") Won\nOutstanding Visual Effects \u2013 Television Joe Bauer and Jabbar Raisani, J\u00f6rn Grosshans and Sven Martin, and Doug Campbell (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Won\n2014 Outstanding Sound Tim Kimmel, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters, Paula Fairfield, Brad Katona and Jed M. Dodge (for \"The Children\") Nominated [128]\n[129]\nOutstanding Color Grading Joe Finley (for \"Mockingbird\") Nominated\nOutstanding Visual Effects Joe Bauer, Sven Martin, J\u00f6rn Grosshans, Thomas Schelesny, Matthew Rouleau (for \"The Children\") Won\n2015 Outstanding Sound Tim Kimmel, Paula Fairfield, Bradley Katona, Paul Bercovitch, Onnalee Blank, Mathew Waters (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated [130]\n[131]\nOutstanding Color Grading Joe Finley (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\nOutstanding Editing Tim Porter (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated\nOutstanding Visual Effects Joe Bauer, Steve Kullback, Derek Spears, Eric Carney, Jabbar Raisani (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Won\n2016 Outstanding Sound Tim Kimmel, Paula Fairfield, Mathew Waters, Onnalee Blank, Bradley Katona, Paul Bercovitch (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated [132]\nOutstanding Editing Tim Porter (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\nOutstanding Visual Effects Joe Bauer, Eric Carney, Derek Spears, Glenn Melenhorst, Matthew Rouleau (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won\n2017 Outstanding Color Grading Joe Finley (for \"Dragonstone\") Nominated [133]\nOutstanding Editing Tim Porter (for \"Stormborn\") Nominated\nJesse Parker (for \"The Queen's Justice\") Nominated\nCrispin Green (for \"Dragonstone\") Nominated\nOutstanding Sound Tim Kimmel, Paula Fairfield, Mathew Waters, Onnalee Blank, Bradley C. Katona, Paul Bercovitch (for \"The Spoils of War\") Nominated\n\nIrish Film & Television Awards[edit]\n\nMichelle Fairley at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2013\nMichelle Fairley won one Irish Film & Television Award in 2014\n\nThe Irish Film & Television Awards are presented in an annual award show hosted by the Irish Film & Television Academy.[134] Game of Thrones has received four awards out of twenty-seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Television Drama Mark Huffam Nominated [135]\nBest Director Television Drama Brian Kirk Nominated\nBest Actress \u2013 Television Michelle Fairley Nominated\nBest Supporting Actor \u2013 Television Aidan Gillen Nominated\nBest Sound (Film\/TV Drama) Ronan Hill Nominated\nBest Sound Ronan Hill Nominated\n2013 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [136]\nBest Director of Photography P.J. Dillon Nominated\nBest Sound Ronan Hill, Mervyn Moore Nominated\n2014 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [137]\nActor in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Liam Cunningham Nominated\nAidan Gillen Nominated\nActress in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Michelle Fairley Won\nBest Sound Ronan Hill Won\n2015 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [138]\nActor in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Liam Cunningham Nominated\nBest Sound Game of Thrones Nominated\n2016 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [139]\nActor in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Liam Cunningham Nominated\n2017 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [140]\nActor in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Liam Cunningham Nominated\nBest Sound Ronan Hill, Onnalee Blank and Matthew Waters Nominated\nBest VFX Ed Bruce & Nicholas Murphy Nominated\n2018 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Won [141]\n[142]\nActor in a Supporting Role \u2013 Television Liam Cunningham Won\nAidan Gillen Nominated\nBest Sound Ronan Hill, Onnalee Blank and Matthew Waters Nominated\nBest VFX Ed Bruce & Nicholas Murphy Nominated\n\nLocation Managers Guild Awards[edit]\n\nThe Location Managers Guild Awards are awarded annually by the Location Managers Guild International. Game of Thrones took the most awards, two in total, and claimed the top TV award at the inaugural LMGA Awards in 2014.[143]\n\nIn 2016 the show became the first series to win multiple LMGI Awards, with Location Managers Robert Boake and Tate Araez taking home the award for Outstanding Locations in a Period Television Series.[144] Nominated again in 2017 and 2018, Game of Thrones took back the period television throne from The Crown in 2018, and currently holds a record 4 LMGI Award wins out of 5 nominations.\n\nThe film locations featured in Game of Thrones have also proven to be winners themselves, as the show has been responsible for driving a significant increase in tourism to the host regions filmed by the series.[145][146]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 Outstanding Achievement by a Location Professional in Television Robert Boake Won [143]\nOutstanding use of Locations in Television Game of Thrones Won\n2016 Outstanding Locations in Period Television Robert Boake and Tate Araez Won [144]\n2017 Outstanding Locations in Period Television Matt Jones and Naomi Liston Nominated [147]\n2018 Outstanding Locations in a Period Television Series Robert Boake, Matt Jones, Tate Araez Won [148]\n\nMakeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards[edit]\n\nThe Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild are awarded annually to make-up artists and hair stylist in feature films, television programs, commercials, live network events and theatrical productions in the United States.[149][150] Game of Thrones has won six out of nine nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 Best Period and\/or Character Makeup \u2013 Television Paul Engelen, Melissa Lackersteen Nominated [151]\n2016 Best Period and\/or Character Makeup \u2013 Television Jane Walker Won [152]\nBest Period and\/or Character Hair Styling \u2013 Television Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks Won\n2017 Best Period and\/or Character Makeup \u2013 Television Jane Walker, Kay Bilk Won [153]\nBest Period and\/or Character Hair Styling \u2013 Television Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks Won\nBest Special Makeup Effects \u2013 Television Barrie Gower, Sarah Gower Nominated\n2018 Best Period and\/or Character Makeup \u2013 Television Jane Walker, Nicola Matthews Won [154]\nBest Period and\/or Character Hair Styling \u2013 Television Kevin Alexander, Candice Banks Nominated\nBest Special Makeup Effects \u2013 Television Barrie Gower, Sarah Gower Won\n\nProducers Guild of America Awards[edit]\n\nThe Producers Guild of America Award is bestowed by the Producers Guild of America to honor the work of producers in film and television.[155]Game of Thrones has been nominated for seven awards for Best Episodic Drama, winning in 2016.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 \"Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, Frank Doelger, Mark Huffam, Carolyn Strauss, D. B. Weiss Nominated [155]\n2013 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss, D. B. Weiss Nominated [156]\n2014 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Christopher Newman, Greg Spence, Carolyn Strauss, and D. B. Weiss Nominated [157]\n2015 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Chris Newman, Greg Spence, Carolyn Strauss, D. B. Weiss Nominated [158]\n2016 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss, Bryan Cogman, Lisa McAtackney, Chris Newman, Greg Spence Won [159]\n2017 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss, Bryan Cogman, Lisa McAtackney, Chris Newman, Greg Spence Nominated [160]\n2018 \"The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama\" David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Bernadette Caulfield, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss, Bryan Cogman, Lisa McAtackney, Chris Newman, Greg Spence Nominated [161]\n\nScreen Actors Guild Awards[edit]\n\nThe Screen Actors Guild Award, given by the Screen Actors Guild\u2010American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA), is an award dedicated to honor the best performances of actors in film and television.[162] Game of Thrones has received seven awards out of fifteen nominations. Dinklage was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series in 2014, his first for the series.[163]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Amrita Acharia, Mark Addy, Alfie Allen, Josef Altin, Sean Bean, Susan Brown, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Peter Dinklage, Ron Donachie, Michelle Fairley, Jerome Flynn, Elyes Gabel, Aidan Gillen, Jack Gleeson, Iain Glen, Julian Glover, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Isaac Hempstead Wright, Conleth Hill, Richard Madden, Jason Momoa, Rory McCann, Ian McElhinney, Luke McEwan, Roxanne McKee, Dar Salim, Mark Stanley, Donald Sumpter, Sophie Turner, and Maisie Williams Nominated [164]\nOutstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Game of Thrones Won\n2013 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Rob Cooper, Jamie Edgell, Dave Fisher, Dave Forman, Paul Herbert, Michelle McKeown, Sian Miline, Jimmy O'Dee, Domonkos Pardanyi, Marcus Shakesheff, CC Smiff, and Mark Southworth Won [165]\n2014 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated [163]\n[166]\nOutstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Alfie Allen, John Bradley, Oona Chaplin, Gwendoline Christie, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Mackenzie Crook, Charles Dance, Joe Dempsie, Peter Dinklage, Natalie Dormer, Nathalie Emmanuel, Michelle Fairley, Jack Gleeson, Iain Glen, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Isaac Hempstead Wright, Kristofer Hivju, Paul Kaye, Sibel Kekilli, Rose Leslie, Richard Madden, Rory McCann, Michael McElhatton, Ian McElhinney, Philip McGinley, Hannah Murray, Iwan Rheon, Sophie Turner, Carice Van Houten, and Maisie Williams Nominated\nOutstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Rachelle Beinart, Richard Bradshaw, Ben Dimmock, Levan Doran, Jamie Edgell, Bradley Farmer, Jozsef Fodor, Dave Forman, Paul Herbert, Paul Howell, Daniel Naprous, Florian Robin, CC Smiff, and Roy Taylor Won\n2015 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Lucy Allen, Cole Armitage, Gary Arthurs, Rachelle Beinart, Ferenc Berecz, Richard Bradshaw, Andy Butcher, Michael Byrch, Neil Chapelhow, Nick Chopping, Jonathan Cohen, Joel Conlan, Gary Connery, James Cox, Tom Cox, Jason Curle, Nicholas Daines, Bill Davey, Kelly J. Dent, Ben Dimmock, Levan Doran, Jamie Edgell, Bradley Farmer, Neil Finnighan, Jozsef Fodor, Dean Forster, David Garrick, James Grogan, Tim Halloran, Paul Heasman, Robert Hladik, Al Holland, Gergely Horpacsi, Paul Howell, Stewart James, Gary Kane, Ian Kay, Robbie Keane, George Kirby, Cristian Knight, Laszlo Kosa, Geza Kovacs, Norbert Kovacs, Guy List, Phil Lonergan, Russell Macleod, Tina Maskell, Adrian McGaw, Nick McKinless, Erol Mehmet, Andy Merchant, Sian Milne, Daniel Naprous, Chris Newton, Ray Nicholas, Bela Orsanyi, Sam Parham, Ian Pead, Justin Pearson, Martin Pemberton, Heather Phillips, Rashid Phoenix, Andy Pilgrim, Christopher Pocock, Curtis Rivers, Marcus Shakesheff, Matt Sherren, Anthony Skrimshire, Mark Slaughter, Karen Smithson, Mark Southworth, Helen Steinway Bailey, Shane Steyn, Matthew Stirling, John Street, Gaspar Szabo, Gabor Szeman, Roy Taylor, Gyula Toth, Tony Van Silva, Reg Wayment, Linda Weal, Richard J Wheeldon, Heron White, Maxine Whittaker, Simon Whyman, Donna C. Williams, Lou Wong, Annabel E. Wood, Liang Yang, and Steen Young Won [167]\n[168]\nOutstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Josef Altin, Jacob Anderson, John Bradley, Dominic Carter, Gwendoline Christie, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Ben Crompton, Charles Dance, Peter Dinklage, Natalie Dormer, Nathalie Emmanuel, Iain Glen, Julian Glover, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Conleth Hill, Rory McCann, Ian McElhinney, Pedro Pascal, Daniel Portman, Mark Stanley, Sophie Turner, and Maisie Williams Nominated\nOutstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2016 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Boian Anev, Richard Bradshaw, Jonathan Cohen, Christopher Cox, Jacob Cox, Matt Crook, Rob DeGroot, Levan Doran, Clint Elvy, James Embree, Bradley Farmer, Richard Hansen, Bobby Holland-Hanton, Radoslav Ignatov, Borislav Iliev, Rowley Irlam, Erol Ismail, Milen Kaleychev, Paul Lowe, Jonathan McBride, Sian Milne, David Newton, Radoslav Parvanov, Ian Pead, Jan Petrina, Rashid Phoenix, Andy Pilgrim, Dominic Preece, Marc Redmond, Paul Shapcott, Ryan Stuart, Pablo Verdejo, Calvin Warrington-Heasman, Annabel E. Wood, Danko Yordanov, and Lewis Young Won [169]\nOutstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Alfie Allen, Ian Beattie, John Bradley, Gwendoline Christie, Emilia Clarke, Michael Condron, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Ben Crompton, Liam Cunningham, Stephen Dillane, Peter Dinklage, Nathalie Emmanuel, Tara Fitzgerald, Jerome Flynn, Brian Fortune, Joel Fry, Aidan Gillen, Iain Glen, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Michiel Huisman, Hannah Murray, Brenock O'Connor, Daniel Portman, Iwan Rheon, Owen Teale, Sophie Turner, Carice Van Houten, Maisie Williams, and Tom Wlaschiha Nominated\nOutstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2017 Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Boian Anev, Kristina Baskett, Rachelle Beinart, Richard Bradshaw, Michael Byrch, Nick Chopping, Christopher Cox, Jake Cox, David Cronnelly, Matt Crook, Levan Doran, Bradley Farmer, Vladimir Furdik, Richard Hansen, Rob Hayns, Paul Howell, Rowley Irlam, Erol Ismail, Milen Kaleychev, Leigh Maddern, Jonathan McBride, Leona McCarron, Kim McGarrity, Richard Mead, Casey Michaels, Sian Milne, David Newton, Jason Otelle, Radoslav Parvanov, Ian Pead, Rashid Phoenix, Andy Pilgrim, Marc Redmond, Paul Shapcott, Jonny Stockwell, Ryan Stuart, Edward Upcott, and Leo Woodruff Won [170]\nOutstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Alfie Allen, Jacob Anderson, Dean-Charles Chapman, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Liam Cunningham, Peter Dinklage, Nathalie Emmanuel, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Conleth Hill, Kristofer Hivju, Michiel Huisman, Faye Marsay, Jonathan Pryce, Sophie Turner, Carice Van Houten, Gemma Whelan, and Maisie Williams Nominated\nOutstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2018 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated [171]\nOutstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Alfie Allen, Jacob Anderson, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Liam Cunningham, Peter Dinklage, Nathalie Emmanuel, James Faulkner, Jerome Flynn, Aidan Gillen, Iain Glen, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Isacc Hempstead Wright, Conleth Hill, Kristofer Hivju, Tom Hopper, Anton Lesser, Rory McCann, Sophie Turner, Carice Van Houten, Gemma Whelan, Rupert Vansittart and Maisie Williams Nominated\nOutstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series N\/A Won\n\nSociety of Camera Operators Awards[edit]\n\nThe Society of Camera Operators Awards are awarded annually to honor the creative contribution of the camera operator in the motion picture and television industries.[172] Game of Thrones has been nominated one time.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2017 Camera Operator of the Year \u2013 Television Sean Savage Nominated [173]\n\nVisual Effects Society[edit]\n\nVisual Effects Society honors visual effects in film, television, commercials, music videos and video games. At the 11th annual Visual Effects Society awards, the show won four awards, the most of the TV shows nominated.[174] In 2014 the show was the most successful TV nominee at the Visual Effects Society awards for the second year in a row, winning three of its four nominations.[175] In 2015 Game of Thrones was the most successful TV nominee at the Visual Effects Society awards for the third consecutive year, winning three of its five nominations.[176][177] In 2016 the show was the most successful TV nominee at the Visual Effects Society awards for the fourth consecutive year, winning four of its nine nominations.[178] Game of Thrones has received twenty six awards out of forty seven nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Animated Character in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Henry Badgett, Mark Brown, Rafael Morant, James Sutton (for \"Fire and Blood\") Nominated [179]\nOutstanding Created Environment in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Markus Kuha, Damien Mac\u00e9, Dante Harbridge Robinson, Fani Vassiadi (for \"The Icewall\") Won\nOutstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program Lucy Ainsworth-Taylor, Angela Barson, Ed Bruce, Adam McInnes (for \"Winter Is Coming\") Won\n2013 Outstanding Animated Character in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Irfan Celik, Florian Friedmann, Ingo Schachner, Chris Stenner (for \"Training the Dragons\") Won [174]\nOutstanding Compositing in a Broadcast Program Falk Boje, Esther Engel, Alexey Kuchinsky, Klaus Wuchta (for \"White Walker Army\") Won\nOutstanding Created Environment in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Rene Borst, Thilo Ewers, Adam Figielski, Jonas Stuckenbrock (for \"Pyke\") Won\nOutstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program Rainer Gombos, Steve Kullback, Sven Martin, Juri Stanossek (for \"Valar Morghulis\") Won\n2014 Outstanding Animated Character in a Broadcast Philip Meyer, Ingo Schachner, Travis Nobles, Florian Friedmann (for \"Raising the Dragons\") Nominated [180]\n[175]\nOutstanding Compositing in a Broadcast Program Kirk Brillon, Steve Gordon, Geoff Sayer, Winston Lee (for \"The Climb\") Won\nOutstanding Created Environment in a Broadcast Program Patrick Zentis, Mayur Patel, Nitin Singh, Tim Alexander (for \"The Climb\") Won\nOutstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program Steve Kullback, Joe Bauer, J\u00f6rn Gro\u00dfhans, Sven Martin (for \"Valar Dohaeris\") Won\n2015 Outstanding Performance of an Animated Character in a Commercial, Broadcast Program, or Video Game Philip Meyer, Thomas Kutschera, Igor Majdandzic, and Mark Spindler (for \"Drogon\") Nominated [176]\n[181]\nOutstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects-Driven Photoreal\/Live Action Broadcast Program Game of Thrones (for \"The Children\") Won\nOutstanding Created Environment in a Commercial, Broadcast Program, or Video Game Rene Borst, Christian Zilliken, Jan Burda, Steffen Metzner (for \"Braavos Establisher\") Won\nOutstanding Compositing in a Photoreal\/Live Action Broadcast Program Keegan Douglas, Okan Ataman, Brian Fortune, David Lopez (for \"Wight Attack\") Nominated\nDan Breckwoldt, Martin Furman, Sophie Marfleet, Eric Andrusyszyn (for \"The Watchers on the Wall\") Won\n2016 Outstanding Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode Joe Bauer, Steve Kullback, Eric Carney, Derek Spears, Stuart Brisdon (for \"The Dance of Dragons\") Won [178]\nOutstanding Animated Performance in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project Florian Friedmann, Jonathan Symmonds, Sven Skoczylas, Sebastian Lauer (for \"Mother's Mercy\" \u2013 \"Wounded Drogon\") Nominated\nJames Kinnings, Michael Holzl, Joseph Hoback, Matt Derksen (for \"The Dance of Dragons\" \u2013 \"Drogon Arena Rescue\") Nominated\nOutstanding Created Environment in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project Dominic Piche, Christine Leclerc, Patrice Poissant, Thomas Montminy-Brodeur (for \"City of Volantis\") Won\nRajeev B R., Loganathan Perumal, Ramesh Shankers, Anders Ericson (for \"Drogon Arena\") Nominated\nOutstanding Effects Simulations in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project David Ramos, Antonio Lado, Piotr Weiss, F\u00e9lix Berg\u00e9s (for \"Hardhome\") Won\nOutstanding Compositing in a Photoreal Episode Eduardo D\u00edaz, Guillermo Orbe, Oscar Perea, Inmaculada Nadela (for \"Hardhome\") Won\nDan Breckwoldt, Martin Furman, Sophie Marfleet, Eric Andrusyszyn (for \"Drogon Arena\") Nominated\nTravis Nobles, Mark Spindler, Max Riess, Nadja Ding (for \"Drogon Lair\") Nominated\n2017 Outstanding Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode Joe Bauer, Steve Kullback, Glenn Melenhorst, Matthew Rouleau, Sam Conway (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Won [182]\n[183]\nOutstanding Animated Performance in an Episode or Real-Time Project James Kinnings, Michael Holzl, Matt Derksen, Joeseph Hoback (for \"Battle of the Bastards\" \u2013 \"Drogon\") Won\nSebastian Lauer, Jonathan Symmonds, Thomas Kutschera, Anthony Sieben (for \"Home\" \u2013 \"Emaciated Dragon\") Nominated\nOutstanding Created Environment in an Episode, Commercial or Real-Time Project Deak Ferrand, Dominic Daigle, Fran\u00e7ois Croteau, Alexandru Banuta (for \"Battle of the Bastards\" \u2013 \"Meereen City\") Won\nEdmond Engelbrecht, Tomoka Matsumura, Edwin Holdsworth, Cheri Fojtik (for \"The Winds of Winter\" \u2013 \"Citadel\") Nominated\nOutstanding Virtual Cinematography in a Photoreal Project Patrick Tiberius Gehlen, Michelle Blok, Christopher Baird, Drew Wood-Davies (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated\nOutstanding Effects Simulations in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project Kevin Blom, Sasmit Ranadive, Wanghua Huang, Ben Andersen (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated\nThomas Hullin, Dominik Kirouac, James Dong, Xavier Fourmond (for \"Battle of the Bastards\" \u2013 \"Meereen City\") Won\nOutstanding Compositing in a Photoreal Episode Thomas Montminy-Brodeur, Patrick David, Michael Crane, Joe Salazar (for \"Battle of the Bastards\" \u2013 \"Meereen City\") Nominated\nDominic Hellier, Morgan Jones, Thijs Noij, Caleb Thompson (for \"Battle of the Bastards\" \u2013 \"Retaking Winterfell\") Won\nEduardo D\u00edaz, An\u00edbal Del Busto, Angel Rico, Sonsoles L\u00f3pez-Aranguren (for \"The Door\" \u2013 \"Land of Always Winter\") Nominated\n2018 Outstanding Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode Joe Bauer, Steve Kullback, Chris Baird, David Ramos, Sam Conway (for \"Beyond the Wall\") Won [184]\nOutstanding Animated Character in an Episode or Real-Time Project Paul Story, Todd Labonte, Matthew Muntean, Nicholas Wilson (for \"Beyond the Wall\" \u2013 \"Zombie Polar Bear\") Nominated\nJonathan Symmonds, Thomas Kutschera, Philipp Winterstein, Andreas Krieg (for \"Eastwatch\" \u2013 \"Drogon Meets Jon\") Nominated\nMurray Stevenson, Jason Snyman, Jenn Taylor, Florian Friedmann (for \"The Spoils of War\" \u2013 \"Drogon Loot Train Attack\") Won\nOutstanding Created Environment in an Episode, Commercial or Real-Time Project Daniel Villalba, Antonio Lado, Jos\u00e9 Luis Barreiro, Isaac de la Pompa (for \"Beyond the Wall\" \u2013 \"Frozen Lake\") Won\nPatrice Poissant, Deak Ferrand, Dominic Daigle, Gabriel Morin (for \"Eastwatch\") Nominated\nOutstanding Effects Simulations in an Episode, Commercial, or Real-Time Project Manuel Ram\u00edrez, \u00d3scar M\u00e1rquez, Pablo Hern\u00e1ndez, David Gacituaga (for \"Beyond the Wall\" \u2013 \"Frozen Lake\") Nominated\nThomas Hullin, Dominik Kirouac, Sylvain Nouveau, Nathan Arbuckle (for \"The Dragon and the Wolf\" \u2013 \"Wall Destruction\") Won\nOutstanding Compositing in a Photoreal Episode \u00d3scar Perea, Santiago Martos, David Esteve, Michael Crane (for \"Beyond the Wall\" \u2013 \"Frozen Lake\") Nominated\nThomas Montminy Brodeur, Xavier Fourmond, Reuben Barkataki, S\u00e9bastien Raets (for \"Eastwatch\") Nominated\nDom Hellier, Thijs Noij, Edwin Holdsworth, Giacomo Matteucci (for \"The Spoils of War\" \u2013 \"Loot Train Attack\") Won\n\nWriters Guild of America Awards[edit]\n\nFirst presented in 1949, the Writers Guild of America Award recognizes the work of film, television and radio screenwriters.[185] Game of Thrones has been nominated ten times.\n\nIn June 2013, the show was placed at number 40 on the list of the 101 best written shows of all time by the Writers Guild of America, assessing series from the previous 70 years.[186][187] HBO had attempted to submit the show for a third consecutive Writers Guild Award for Best Drama Series, but a technical error during the process meant it was not submitted and the fault was discovered too late for the show to be entered.[188]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 New Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, Jane Espenson, George R. R. Martin, D. B. Weiss Nominated [189]\nTelevision Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, Jane Espenson, George R. R. Martin, D. B. Weiss Nominated\n2013 Television Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, George R. R. Martin, Vanessa Taylor, D. B. Weiss Nominated [190]\n2015 Episodic Drama George R. R. Martin (for \"The Lion and the Rose\") Nominated [191]\nTelevision Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, George R. R. Martin, D. B. Weiss Nominated\n2016 Episodic Drama David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"Mother's Mercy\") Nominated [192]\nTelevision Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, Dave Hill, D. B. Weiss Nominated\n2017 Episodic Drama David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"The Winds of Winter\") Nominated [193]\nTelevision Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, Dave Hill, D. B. Weiss Nominated\n2018 Television Drama Series David Benioff, Bryan Cogman, Dave Hill, D. B. Weiss Nominated [194]\n\nSignificant critical awards[edit]\n\nCritics' Choice Television Awards[edit]\n\nKit Harington in June 2014\nKit Harington was nominated for a Critics' Choice Television Award in 2016\n\nThe Critics' Choice Television Award is an annual accolade given by the Broadcast Film Critics Association since 2011 in order to recognize the most significant achievements in television.[195] Game of Thrones has won two out of seventeen nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [196]\n2012 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [197]\nBest Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2013 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Won [198]\n[199]\nBest Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Nikolaj Coster-Waldau Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\nBest Guest Performer in a Drama Series Diana Rigg Nominated\n2014 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [200]\nBest Guest Performer in a Drama Series Diana Rigg Nominated\n2015 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [201]\nMost Bingeworthy Show Game of Thrones Nominated\n2016 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Won [202]\n[203]\n[204]\nBest Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nKit Harington Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\nLena Headey Nominated\nMost Bingeworthy Show Game of Thrones Nominated\n2018 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [205]\nBest Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated\n\nGolden Globe Awards[edit]\n\nPeter Dinklage at the 69th Golden Globes Awards in 2012\nPeter Dinklage won one Golden Globe Award in 2012\n\nThe Golden Globe Awards are awarded annually by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association to honor the best achievements in film and television.[206] In 2012, The show was nominated for 2 Golden Globe awards including Best Drama Series and Best Supporting Actor, taken by Dinklage.[207][10] Game of Thrones has won one out of six nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries or Television Film Peter Dinklage Won [207]\n[10]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Drama Game of Thrones Nominated\n2015 Best Television Series \u2013 Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [208]\n2016 Best Television Series \u2013 Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [209]\n2017 Best Television Series \u2013 Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [210]\nBest Supporting Actress \u2013 Series, Miniseries or Television Film Lena Headey Nominated\n2018 Best Television Series - Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [211]\n\nGuinness World Records[edit]\n\nThe Guinness World Records is a reference book published annually, containing a collection of world records.[212] Game of Thrones currently holds six records.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Most pirated TV program Game of Thrones Won [14]\nMost viewers sharing a single torrent file simultaneously Game of Thrones Won [213]\n2016 Largest TV drama simulcast Game of Thrones Won [15]\nMost \"in demand\" TV show Game of Thrones Won [213]\nMost Emmy Awards for a drama series Game of Thrones Won\nMost VES Awards won by a TV series Game of Thrones Won\n\nHugo Awards[edit]\n\nGeorge R. R. Martin at an event in Tucson, Arizona\nGeorge R. R. Martin won a Hugo Award for \"Blackwater\", along with director Neil Marshall, in 2013\n\nThe Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year.[214] Game of Thrones has won three out of six nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form David Benioff, D. B. Weiss, Bryan Cogman, Jane Espenson, George R. R. Martin, Tim Van Patten, Brian Kirk, Daniel Minahan and Alan Taylor for Game of Thrones \u2013 Season 1 Won [215]\n2013 Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form Neil Marshall (director) and George R. R. Martin (writer) (for \"Blackwater\") Won [216]\n2014 Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form David Benioff (writer), D. B. Weiss (writer), and David Nutter (director) (for \"The Rains of Castamere\") Won [217]\n2015 Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form David Benioff (writer), D. B. Weiss (writer), and Alex Graves (director) (for \"The Mountain and the Viper\") Nominated [218]\n2017 Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form David Benioff (writer), D. B. Weiss (writer), and Miguel Sapochnik (director) (for \"Battle of the Bastards\") Nominated [219]\nDavid Benioff (writer), D. B. Weiss (writer), and Jack Bender (director) (for \"The Door\") Nominated\n\nIGN Awards[edit]\n\nSean Bean at the 2015 Tornoto International Film Festival\nSean Bean won an IGN Awards in 2011\n\nThe IGN Awards are chosen annually by the IGN editors, honoring the best in film, television, games, comics and anime.[220] Game of Thrones has won nine out of thirty two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best TV Hero Sean Bean as Ned Stark Won [221]\nBest TV Hero Kit Harington as Jon Snow Nominated\nBest TV Twist \"Off with his head!\" Won\nBest TV Episode \"Baelor\" Won\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest TV Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Nominated\n2012 Best TV Episode \"Blackwater\" Won [222]\nBest TV DVD or Blu-ray For the complete first season on Blu-ray Won\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Nominated\n2013 Best TV Episode \"The Rains of Castamere\" Nominated [223]\nBest TV DVD or Blu-ray For the complete second season on Blu-ray Nominated\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Villain David Bradley as Walder Frey Nominated\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Nominated\n2014 Best TV Episode \"The Children\" Nominated [224]\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won\n2015 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated [225]\nBest TV Episode \"Hardhome\" Won\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Villain Iwan Rheon as Ramsay Bolton Nominated\n2016 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated [226]\nBest TV Episode \"The Winds of Winter\" Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\n2017 Best Action Series Game of Thrones Won [227]\nBest TV Episode \"The Spoils of War\" Won\n\nIGN People's Choice Award[edit]\n\nJack Gleeson in August 2012\nJack Gleeson won an IGN People's Choice Award in 2012 and 2013\n\nThe IGN People's Choice Awards are voted on annually by the general public, they honor the best in film, television, games, comics and anime[220] Game of Thrones has won sixteen out of thirty two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Won [221]\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won\nBest TV Hero Sean Bean as Ned Stark Won\nBest TV Hero Kit Harington as Jon Snow Nominated\nBest TV Twist \"Off with his head!\" Won\nBest TV Episode \"Baelor\" Nominated\nBest TV Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest TV Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Nominated\n2012 Best TV Episode \"Blackwater\" Won [222]\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Won\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Won\nBest TV DVD or Blu-ray For the complete first season on Blu-ray Won\n2013 Best TV Episode \"The Rains of Castamere\" Nominated [223]\nBest TV DVD or Blu-ray For the complete second season on Blu-ray Nominated\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Villain David Bradley as Walder Frey Nominated\nBest TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Won\n2014 Best TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won [224]\nBest TV Episode \"The Children\" Nominated\nBest TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated\n2015 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated [225]\nBest TV Episode \"Hardhome\" Nominated\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Villain Iwan Rheon as Ramsay Bolton Nominated\n2016 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Won [226]\nBest TV Episode \"The Winds of Winter\" Won\nBest TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won\n2017 Best Action Series Game of Thrones Won [227]\nBest TV Episode \"The Spoils of War\" Won\n\nNational Television Awards[edit]\n\nThe National Television Awards are presented in an annual award show broadcast by the ITV network.[228] The results are voted on by the general public. Game of Thrones has been nominated four times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Multichannel show Game of Thrones Nominated [229]\n2016 Best International Show Game of Thrones Nominated [228]\n[230]\n2017 Best Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [231]\n[232]\n2018 Best Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [233]\n\nPeople's Choice Awards[edit]\n\nThe People's Choice Awards recognize the people and the work of popular culture.[234] Game of Thrones has been nominated twelve times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Favorite Cable TV Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [235]\n2013 Favorite Thriller Show Game of Thrones Nominated [236]\n2014 Favorite Premium Cable TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated [237]\nFavorite TV Anti-Hero Nikolaj Coster-Waldau as Jaime Lannister Nominated\nFavorite Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\n2015 Favorite TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated [238]\nFavorite Cable Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated\n2016 Favorite TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated [239]\nFavorite Cable Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated\nFavorite Cable Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\n2017 Favorite Premium Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated [240]\nFavorite Sci-Fi\/Fantasy TV Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\n\nPeabody Awards[edit]\n\nNikolaj Coster-Waldau at the 71st Peabody Awards in 2012\nNikolaj Coster-Waldau accepted the Peabody Award on behalf of the show in 2012\n\nThe Peabody Award recognizes excellence in various platforms of the media, including film, television, and radio. The award \"spotlight[s] instances of how electronic media can teach, expand our horizons, defend the public interest, or encourage empathy with others\".[241] Game of Thrones was honored with a Peabody Award in 2011 for its first season. The award association gave the following description of the show:[7]\n\n\u201c Adapted from dark-age fantasy books by George R.R. Martin, the series immerses viewers in a multilayered, distinctly imagined world of mysticism and earthiness, fidelity and deceit, wonder and mayhem. \u201d\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Peabody Award Game of Thrones Won [7]\n\nPoppy Awards[edit]\n\nSophie Turner at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2017\nSophie Turner won one Poppy Award in 2016\n\nThe Poppy Awards, formerly known as the EWwys, honors the Emmy-snubbed shows and actors of the year.[242] Game of Thrones has received six awards from ten nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Emilia Clarke Won [243]\nBest Actor, Drama Sean Bean Nominated\n2012 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Lena Headey Won [244]\n2013 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Natalie Dormer Won [245]\n2014 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Maisie Williams Won [246]\nBest Supporting Actor, Drama Charles Dance Nominated\nBest Guest Actor, Drama Pedro Pascal Won\n2015 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Maisie Williams Nominated [247]\nSophie Turner Nominated\n2016 Best Supporting Actress, Drama Sophie Turner Won [248]\n\nSatellite Awards[edit]\n\nPeter Dinklage at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2013\nPeter Dinklage won one Satellite Award in 2011\n\nThe Satellite Award is given annually by the International Press Academy (IPA) to honor the best work in the entertainment industry.[249] Game of Thrones has received three awards out of fourteen nominations.\n\nIn 2011, Dinklage received the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film, and received three more nominations (2012, 2014\u20132015).[250] In 2014, Game of Thrones won the Satellite Award for Best Television Series \u2013 Genre, while Nikolaj Coster-Waldau and Emilia Clarke received nominations for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress, respectively.[251]\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Peter Dinklage Won [252]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Nominated\n2012 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Peter Dinklage Nominated [250]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Drama Game of Thrones Nominated\n2013 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Nikolaj Coster-Waldau Nominated [251]\n[253]\nBest Supporting Actress \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Emilia Clarke Nominated\nBest Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Won\n2014 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Peter Dinklage Nominated [254]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Nominated\n2015 Best Supporting Actor \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Peter Dinklage Nominated [255]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Nominated\n2016 Best Supporting Actress \u2013 Series, Miniseries, or Television Film Lena Headey Nominated [256]\n[257]\nBest Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Nominated\n2017 Best Television Series \u2013 Genre Game of Thrones Won [258]\n\nSaturn Awards[edit]\n\nMaisie Williams at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2015\nMaisie Williams won one Saturn Award in 2015\n\nThe Saturn Awards are awarded annually by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films to honor the top works mainly in science fiction, fantasy, and horror in film, television, and home video. In 2014, The show tie for most nominations with Breaking Bad and Falling Skies with five.[259] Game of Thrones has won two out of twenty-one nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best Television Presentation Game of Thrones Nominated [260]\nBest Actor on Television Sean Bean Nominated\nBest Actress on Television Lena Headey Nominated\nBest Supporting Actor on Television Kit Harington Nominated\n2013 Best Television Presentation Game of Thrones Nominated [261]\n2014 Best Television Presentation Game of Thrones Nominated [259]\nBest Performance by a Younger Actor on Television Jack Gleeson Nominated\nBest Supporting Actor on Television Nikolaj Coster-Waldau Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress on Television Gwendoline Christie Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress on Television Michelle Fairley Nominated\n2015 Best Limited Run Television Series Game of Thrones Won [262]\n[263]\nBest Performance by a Younger Actor on Television Maisie Williams Won\nBest Supporting Actress on Television Emilia Clarke Nominated\n2016 Best Fantasy Television Series Game of Thrones Nominated [264]\nBest Supporting Actor on Television Kit Harington Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress on Television Lena Headey Nominated\nBest Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series Maisie Williams Nominated\nBrenock O'Connor Nominated\n2017 Best Fantasy Television Series Game of Thrones Nominated [265]\nBest Supporting Actor on Television Kit Harington Nominated\nBest Actress on Television Lena Headey Nominated\n2018 Best Fantasy Television Series Game of Thrones Pending [266]\nBest Actress on a Television Series Lena Headey Pending\nBest Supporting Actor on a Television Series Kit Harington Pending\nNikolaj Coster-Waldau Pending\n\nScream Awards[edit]\n\nEmilia Clarke at the premiere of the third season of Game of Thrones in 2013\nEmilia Clarke won one Scream Award in 2011\n\nThe Scream Awards were awarded annually to honor the top works mainly in the horror, sci-fi, and fantasy genres of feature films and television.[267] Game of Thrones has won three out of eight nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Ensemble Amrita Acharia, Mark Addy, Alfie Allen, Josef Altin, Sean Bean, Susan Brown, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Peter Dinklage, Ron Donachie, Michelle Fairley, Jerome Flynn, Elyes Gabel, Aidan Gillen, Jack Gleeson, Iain Glen, Julian Glover, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Isaac Hempstead Wright, Conleth Hill, Richard Madden, Jason Momoa, Rory McCann, Ian McElhinney, Luke McEwan, Roxanne McKee, Dar Salim, Mark Stanley, Donald Sumpter, Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams Nominated [268]\nBest Fantasy Actor Sean Bean Nominated\nBest Fantasy Actress Lena Headey Nominated\nBest Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Won\nBest TV Show Game of Thrones Won\nBreakout Performance \u2013 Female Emilia Clarke Won\nMost Memorable Mutilation \"Head covered in molten gold\" (from \"A Golden Crown\") Nominated\nThe Ultimate Scream Game of Thrones Nominated\n\nTelevision Critics Association Awards[edit]\n\nThe TCA Awards are awarded annually by the Television Critics Association for outstanding achievements in television.[269] Game of Thrones has won three out of fifteen nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Individual Achievement in Drama Peter Dinklage Nominated [269]\n[270]\nOutstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated\nOutstanding New Program Game of Thrones Won\nProgram of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated\n2012 Program of the Year Game of Thrones Won [271]\n[272]\nIndividual Achievement in Drama Peter Dinklage Nominated\nOutstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated\n2013 Outstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Won [273]\n[274]\nProgram of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated\n2014 Outstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [275]\nProgram of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated\n2015 Outstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [276]\nProgram of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated\n2016 Outstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [277]\nProgram of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated\n\nOther awards[edit]\n\nDorian Awards[edit]\n\nThe Dorian Awards are awarded annually by the Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association.[278] Game of Thrones has been nominated twice.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2013 TV Drama of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated [279]\n2017 TV Drama of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated [278]\n\nDragon Awards[edit]\n\nThe Dragon Awards are awarded annually, winners are voted upon by the general public.[280] Game of Thrones has won one out of one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Best Science Fiction or Fantasy TV Series Game of Thrones Won [281]\n\nEmpire Awards[edit]\n\nThe cast of Game of Thrones at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2014\nThe cast won an Empire Award in 2015\n\nThe Empire Awards are awarded annually, winners are voted upon by the general public.[282] Game of Thrones has won one out of three nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Hero Award Josef Altin, Jacob Anderson, John Bradley, Thomas Brodie-Sangster, Dominic Carter, Dean-Charles Chapman, Gwendoline Christie, Emilia Clarke, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Ben Crompton, Liam Cunningham, Charles Dance, Peter Dinklage, Natalie Dormer, Nathalie Emmanuel, Iain Glen, Julian Glover, Kit Harington, Lena Headey, Isaac Hempstead-Wright, Conleth Hill, Rory McCann, Ian McElhinney, Pedro Pascal, Daniel Portman, Mark Stanley, Sophie Turner, Indira Varma and Maisie Williams Won [282]\n2016 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated [283]\n2017 Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated [284]\n\nE! Online Best. Ever. TV. Awards[edit]\n\nThe E! Online Best. Ever. TV. Awards are awarded annually.[285] Game of Thrones has been nominated once.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Outstanding Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [285]\n\nGLAAD Media Awards[edit]\n\nThe GLAAD Media Awards are awarded annually by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation.[286] Game of Thrones has been nominated once.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Outstanding Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [286]\n\nGlamour Awards[edit]\n\nThe Glamour Awards are awarded annually.[287] Game of Thrones has won two out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Best UK TV Actress Sophie Turner Won [288]\n2017 Best UK TV Actress Sophie Turner Won [287]\n\nGold Derby TV Awards[edit]\n\nDiana Rigg in 1973\nDiana Rigg won a Gold Derby TV Awards in 2013 and 2015\n\nThe Gold Derby TV Awards are awarded annually to the best of television.[289] Game of Thrones has won thirteen out of forty nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [290]\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2012 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [291]\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest Drama Supporting Actress Lena Headey Nominated\nBreakthrough Performer of the Year Maisie Williams Nominated\nEnsemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Nominated\n2013 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [292]\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nNikolaj Coster-Waldau Nominated\nBest Drama Supporting Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\nMichelle Fairley Nominated\nBest Drama Guest Actress Diana Rigg Won\nBest Drama Episode \"The Rains of Castamere\" Won\nEnsemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Won\n2014 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated [293]\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nCharles Dance Nominated\nBest Drama Supporting Actress Emilia Clarke Nominated\nLena Headey Nominated\nBest Drama Guest Actor Pedro Pascal Won\nBest Drama Guest Actress Diana Rigg Nominated\nBest Drama Episode \"The Lion and the Rose\" Nominated\n\"The Watchers on the Wall\" Nominated\nEnsemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Nominated\n2015 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Won [294]\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Won\nBest Drama Supporting Actress Lena Headey Won\nBest Drama Guest Actress Diana Rigg Won\nBest Drama Episode \"Hardhome\" Nominated\n\"Mother's Mercy\" Won\nEnsemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Won\n2016 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Won [289]\nEnsemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest Drama Supporting Actor Kit Harington Won\nBest Drama Supporting Actress Lena Headey Won\nBest Drama Guest Actor Ian McShane Nominated\nMax von Sydow Nominated\nBest Drama Episode \"Battle of the Bastards\" Nominated\n\"The Winds of Winter\" Nominated\n\nGolden Nymph Awards[edit]\n\nThe Golden Nymph Awards are awarded annually at the Monte-Carlo Television Festival.[295] Game of Thrones has won one out of five nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding International Producer David Benioff, Frank Doelger, Carolyn Strauss and D. B. Weiss Won [295]\nOutstanding Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated [296]\nLena Headey Nominated\nOutstanding Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated\nKit Harington Nominated\n\nGracie Allen Awards[edit]\n\nThe Gracie Award was established in 1975 by the Alliance for Women in Media to recognize the best representation of women in the media. The award is given to various types of programming or individuals.[297] Game of Thrones has won one out of one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Outstanding Female Rising Star in a Drama Series or Special Emilia Clarke Won [298]\n\nHollywood Music in Media Awards[edit]\n\nThe Hollywood Music in Media Awards are awarded annually to recognize the music of visual mediums such as film, television, movie trailers, video games and commercials.[299] Game of Thrones has been nominated one time.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 Best Original Score \u2013 TV Show \/ Digital Streaming Series Ramin Djawadi Nominated [299]\n\nHumanitas Prize[edit]\n\nThe Humanitas Prize are awarded annually to film and television writing intended to promote human dignity, meaning, and freedom. Game of Thrones has been nominated one time.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2017 60 Minute Network or Syndicated Television David Benioff, D. B. Weiss (for \"The Dragon and the Wolf\") Nominated [300]\n\nInternational Film Music Critics Association[edit]\n\nThe International Film Music Critics Association are awarded annually to film and television composers.[301] Game of Thrones has been nominated four times, and won once.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Original Score for a Television Series Ramin Djawadi Nominated [302]\n2013 Best Original Score for a Television Series Ramin Djawadi Nominated [301]\n2016 Best Original Score for a Television Series Ramin Djawadi Won [303]\nFilm Music Composition of the Year Ramin Djawadi for \"Light of the Seven\" Nominated [304]\n\nJupiter Awards[edit]\n\nThe Jupiter Awards are awarded annually.[305] Game of Thrones has won once.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 Best International TV Series Game of Thrones Won [305]\n\nKerrang! Awards[edit]\n\nThe Kerrang! Awards are awarded annually.[306] Game of Thrones has won two out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best TV Show Game of Thrones Won [306]\n2014 Best TV Show Game of Thrones Won [307]\n\nMTV Fandom Awards[edit]\n\nThe MTV Fandom Awards are awarded annually, voted by the public.[308] Game of Thrones has won one out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 OMG Moment of the Year Game of Thrones \u2013 The Purple Wedding Won [308]\n2016 Fan Freak Out of the Year Game of Thrones \u2013 Resurrection of Jon Snow Nominated [309]\n\nMTV Millennial Awards[edit]\n\nThe MTV Millennial Awards are annual awards that celebrates the music, videos and digital culture of the Millennial Generation in Latin America.[310] Game of Thrones has won one out of one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Killer Serie del A\u00f1o Game of Thrones Won [310]\n\nMTV Movie & TV Awards[edit]\n\nThe MTV Movie & TV Awards is an annual award show presented by MTV to honor outstanding achievements in film and television. Founded in 1992, the winners of the awards are decided online by the audience.[311] Game of Thrones has been nominated three times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2017 Show of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated [312]\nBest Actor in a Show Emilia Clarke Nominated\nTearjerker Hodor's (Kristian Nairn) death Nominated\n\nNewNowNext Awards[edit]\n\nThe NewNowNext Awards are awarded annually.[313] Game of Thrones has been nominated three times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 TV You Betta Watch Game of Thrones Nominated [313]\n2013 Cause You're Hot Richard Madden Nominated [314]\n2014 Best New Television Actor Pedro Pascal Nominated [315]\n\nPortal Awards[edit]\n\nThe Portal Awards are awarded annually for genre television and movies.[316] Game of Thrones has won seven out of sixteen nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Best Actor Sean Bean Won [316]\nBest Actress Lena Headey Nominated\nBest Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest Episode Winter Is Coming Won\nBest Series Game of Thrones Won\nBest Young Actor Isaac Hempstead-Wright Nominated\nMaisie Williams Nominated\n2012 Best Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated [317]\nBest Actress Lena Headey Won\nBest Supporting Actor Aidan Gillen Nominated\nBest Supporting Actress Michelle Fairley Nominated\nMaisie Williams Won\nBest Episode The Ghost of Harrenhal Nominated\nBest Series Game of Thrones Won\nBest Young Actor Jack Gleeson Nominated\nMaisie Williams Won\n\nRoyal Television Society[edit]\n\nThe Royal Television Society presents annual awards honoring the best in television. In 2014, the show won the International Program Award at the in 2014.[318] Game of Thrones has won one out of one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 International Program Game of Thrones Won [318]\n\nScreenwriters Choice Awards[edit]\n\nThe Screenwriters Choice Awards are awarded annually.[319] Game of Thrones has won one out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2015 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated [319]\n2016 Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Won [320]\n\nSFX Awards[edit]\n\nThe SFX Awards are awarded annually to celebrate achievements in science fiction and are voted on by the readers of the SFX magazine.[321] Game of Thrones has won two out of thirteen nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2012 Best New TV Show David Benioff and D. B. Weiss Won [322]\nBest TV Show David Benioff and D. B. Weiss Nominated\nBest Actress Maisie Williams Nominated\nBest Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2013 Best Actress Emilia Clarke Won [323]\nBest Actress Lena Headey Nominated\nBest Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\n2015 Best Actress Maisie Williams Nominated [321]\nBest Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated\nBest Villain Charles Dance as Tywin Lannister Nominated\nBiggest Disappointment No Hodor in Game of Thrones season five Nominated\nBest TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated\nBest TV Episode The Mountain and the Viper Nominated\n\nShorty Awards[edit]\n\nThe Shorty Awards are annual awards, recognizing the people and organizations producing real-time short form content across social media.[324] Game of Thrones has been nominated twice.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Favorite TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated [324]\n[325]\nGIF of The Year Game of Thrones Come at Me Bro Nominated\n\nTV Choice Awards[edit]\n\nThe TV Choice Awards are awarded annually, the nominees are selected by the editors at TV Choice magazine and the winners are chosen by voting of the general public.[326] Game of Thrones has won two out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2014 Best International Show Game of Thrones Won [327]\n2016 Best International Show Game of Thrones Won [326]\n\nUSC Scripter Awards[edit]\n\nThe USC Scripter Awards are awarded annually by the USC Libraries Board of Councilors in recognition of the year's best adaptation of the printed word into film.[328] Game of Thrones has been nominated two times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Best Adapted Screenplay David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"Hardhome\") Nominated [328]\n2017 Best Adapted Screenplay David Benioff and D. B. Weiss (for \"The Winds of Winter\") Nominated [329]\n\nWebby Awards[edit]\n\nThe Webby Awards are awards for excellence on the Internet presented annually by the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences.[330] Game of Thrones has won three awards out of five nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Best Overall Social Presence Game of Thrones Won [331]\n2017 Best Overall Social Presence Game of Thrones Won [330]\nUnscripted (Branded) Battle of the Bastards Featurette Won [332]\n2018 Best Overall Social Presence Game of Thrones Pending [333]\nBest Trailer Game of Thrones Pending [334]\n\nWomen's Image Network Awards[edit]\n\nThe Women's Image Network Awards are annual awards presented to individuals who promote women and girls in the media.. Game of Thrones has won one out of two nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2011 Actress Drama Series Lena Headey Nominated [335]\n2014 Actress Drama Series Lena Headey Won [336]\n\nWorld Soundtrack Awards[edit]\n\nThe World Soundtrack Academy presents annual awards honoring the music professionals involved in film and television.[337] Game of Thrones has one nomination.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2016 Television Composer of the Year Ramin Djawadi Nominated [337]\n\nYoung Artist Awards[edit]\n\nThe Young Artist Awards are awarded annually to young artists.[338] Game of Thrones has been nominated three times.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2013 Best Performance in a TV Series \u2013 Supporting Young Actor Isaac Hempstead-Wright Nominated [339]\nBest Performance in a TV Series \u2013 Supporting Young Actress Sophie Turner Nominated\nBest Performance in a TV Series \u2013 Supporting Young Actress Maisie Williams Nominated\n\nYoung Hollywood Awards[edit]\n\nThe Young Hollywood Awardss are bestowed annually to honor the achievements in pop music, film and television, sports, fashion and social media.[340] Game of Thrones has won one out of three nominations.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2013 Actor of the Year Kit Harington Won [341]\n2014 We Love to Hate You Jack Gleeson Nominated [342]\n[343]\nBingeworthy TV Show Game of Thrones Nominated\n\nZulu Awards[edit]\n\nThe Zulu Awards are awarded annually, nominees are selected by Danish broadcaster Zulu and the winners are voted upon by the general public.[344] Game of Thrones has been nominated one time.\n\nYear Category Recipient Result Ref.\n2017 Best Actor Nikolaj Coster-Waldau Nominated [344]\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Awards in certain categories do not have prior nominations and only winners are announced by the jury. For simplification and to avoid errors, each award in this list has been presumed to have had a prior nomination.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Meslow, Scott. \"How 'Game of Thrones' Masters the Art of Adapting Novels for TV\". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Armstrong, Jennifer (April 4, 2011). \"'Game of Thrones': George R. R. Martin talks HBO show\". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on April 12, 2017. Retrieved July 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Fowler, Matt (April 8, 2011). \"Game of Thrones: \"Winter is Coming\" Review\". IGN. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved July 10, 2016.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Game of Thrones\". www.goldenglobes.com. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Previous Nominees & Winners\". awards.wga.org. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Past Saturn Award Recipients\". www.saturnawards.org. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Complete List of Recipients of the 71st Annual Peabody Awards\". Peabody Award. April 4, 2012. Archived from the original on June 1, 2012. Retrieved April 4, 2012.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b \"'Game of Thrones' makes Emmy history: Most awards ever\". EW.com. 18 September 2016. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Hipes, Patrick (September 20, 2015). \"Primetime Emmy Awards Winners: The Complete List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on September 21, 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2015.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Golden Globes 2012: The Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. January 15, 2012. Archived from the original on August 27, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"Game of Thrones\". Emmy Award. Academy of Television Arts & Sciences\/National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on April 19, 2012. Retrieved January 16, 2013.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Advanced Search | Screen Actors Guild Awards\". www.sagawards.org. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Prudom, Laura (September 20, 2015). \"'Game of Thrones' Sets Record for Most Emmy Wins in a Year\". Variety.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Jennifer Lawrence, Game of Thrones, Frozen among new entertainment record holders in Guinness World Records 2015 book\". Guinness World Records. September 3, 2014. Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2016.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Lynch, Kevin (August 31, 2015). \"Maisie Williams overjoyed as Game of Thrones marches into Guinness World Records 2016\". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on June 3, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2015.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"About AFI Awards\". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on April 17, 2016.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"AFI Awards 2011\". American Film Institute. 2011. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Abramovitch, Seth (December 10, 2012). \"AFI Names Best Movies and TV Series of 2012\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 10, 2012. Retrieved December 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (December 9, 2013). \"TV Nominees For PGA Awards Unveiled\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013. Retrieved December 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b \"American Film Institute\". AFI. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Nemetz, Dave (December 8, 2016). \"AFI Awards: This Is Us, Stranger Things, Atlanta Make TV's Top 10 of 2016\". TVLine. Retrieved December 9, 2016.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.afi.com\/afiawards\/AFI-Awards-2017.aspx\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b \"American Cinema Editors Announce Nominees for the 62nd Annual ACE Eddie Awards\". Studio Daily. January 17, 2012. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Film Editors Unveil ACE Eddie Award Nominations\". Deadline.com. January 10, 2014. Archived from the original on January 10, 2014. Retrieved January 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ L. Sklar, Debbie (January 4, 2016). \"American Cinema Editors' 66th annual ACE Eddie Awards announced\". MyNewsLA.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Grobar, Matthew; Pedersen, Erik. \"ACE Eddie Awards: 'Mad Max' & 'The Big Short' Take Top Prizes; TV Trophies To 'Mad Men', 'Amy Schumer' \u2013 Winners List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 18, 2017. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 27, 2017). \"'Arrival,' 'La La Land' Top American Cinema Editors Eddie Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 28, 2017. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 26, 2018). \"Best Edited Drama Series for Non-Commercial Television - Eddie Awards: 'Dunkirk,' 'I, Tonya' Top American Cinema Editors' Honors\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 28, 2018.\u00a0\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b Yamato, Jen (February 1, 2014). \"28th Annual ASC Awards: 'Gravity's Emmanuel Lubezki Wins Feature Film Honor; TV Winners Include 'Killing Lincoln', 'Game Of Thrones', 'Drunk History'\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2014. Retrieved February 2, 2014.\u00a0\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The ASC \u2013 Past ASC Awards\". American Society of Cinematographers. Archived from the original on August 8, 2011.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"HBO, Starz Lead ASC TV Nominees\". Deadline.com. November 20, 2013. Archived from the original on November 20, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2013.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"30th ASC Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography\". American Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved December 7, 2016.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 4, 2017). \"'Lion' Tops ASC Cinematographer Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Tapley, Kristopher. \"'Blade Runner,' 'Mudbound,' 'Game of Thrones' Land ASC Cinematography Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved January 9, 2018.\u00a0\n  35. ^ Jump up to: a b \"'Zootopia' and 'Kubo' Lead Annie Awards Nominations; 'Game of Thrones' and 'Civil War' Land Nods\". Collider.com. November 28, 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2016.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"44th Annual Annie Awards Nominees\". Annieawards.org. Retrieved November 28, 2016.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (December 4, 2017). \"Annie Awards: Disney\/Pixar's 'Coco' Tops Nominations\". Deadline.com. Retrieved December 4, 2017.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"AWARDS\". APDG. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"The 2015 APDG Awards Winners\". APDG. Retrieved February 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"The 2016 APDG Awards Winners\". APDG. Retrieved November 15, 2016.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Wolfe, Jennifer (February 2, 2015). \"'Grand Budapest Hotel,' 'Birdman,' 'Guardians' Top 19th Annual ADG Awards\" (Press release). Animation World Network. Archived from the original on February 5, 2015.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (January 3, 2012). \"Art Directors Nominate Movies as Different as 'Harry Potter' and 'The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on March 2, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Yamato, Jen (February 2, 2013). \"Art Directors Guild Awards: 'Skyfall', 'Life Of Pi', 'Anna Karenina' Take Film Honors; Also 'Game Of Thrones', 'American Horror Story: Asylum', 'Girls', 84th Oscars, 'SNL'\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2013. Retrieved February 3, 2013.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Art Directors Guild Film, TV Nominees Announced\". Deadline.com. January 9, 2014. Archived from the original on January 9, 2014. Retrieved January 9, 2014.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"2014 Winners Announced\". Art Directors Guild. February 8, 2014. Archived from the original on February 13, 2014. Retrieved February 13, 2014.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"ADG Awards: 'Birdman', 'Grand Budapest Hotel', & 'Guardians' Take Top Film Prizes \u2013 'Game Of Thrones', 'True Detective Among TV Winners\". Deadline.com. January 31, 2015. Archived from the original on February 1, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"2016 Art Directors Guild Awards Winners \u2013 Deadline\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on December 8, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2016.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (January 5, 2017). \"Art Directors Guild Awards Nominations: 'Rogue One', 'Game Of Thrones' & More\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 16, 2017. Retrieved January 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave. \"'Star Wars: The Last Jedi,' 'Dunkirk,' 'Lady Bird' Nab Art Directors Guild Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved 4 January 2018.\u00a0\n  50. ^ Jump up to: a b \"2012 Artios Casting Award Winners Announced \u2013 Once, Venus in Fur & More\". Broadway World. October 30, 2012. Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved October 30, 2012.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Artios Award Winners\". Casting Society of America. 2011. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Weisman, Jon (August 19, 2013). \"Artios Awards: Casting Society Reveals 2013 Nominees\". Variety. Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Casting Society of America Artios Awards Nominess 2015\". Casting Society of America. August 21, 2015. Archived from the original on July 18, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Casting Society of America Artios Awards Winners 2015\". Casting Society of America. January 22, 2016. Archived from the original on July 17, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ THR Staff (September 27, 2016). \"Artios Awards Unveil 2017 Nominees; Joel McHale to Host L.A. Ceremony\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 3, 2016. Retrieved October 5, 2016.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"ASCAP\u00a0: We Create Music\u00a0: Events and Awards\". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. Retrieved April 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 27th Annual Awards Celebration\". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ \"ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 28th Annual Awards Celebration\". American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Astra About\". Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association. Retrieved February 23, 2017.\u00a0\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Home \u2013 Astra: Subscription Television Australia\". Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Winners List Of ASTRA Awards: With Interviews On Red Carpet\". Hush Hush Biz. March 31, 2014. Retrieved April 11, 2017.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ \"2014 Awards Astra: Subscription Television Australia\". Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association. Retrieved April 11, 2017.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ \"About\". www.bafta.org. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Craft Awards: Ten Years of Talent - Craft Awards - Television - The BAFTA site\". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. April 7, 2018. Retrieved April 6, 2018.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Television in 2013\". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. 2013. Archived from the original on March 8, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2014.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Television in 2015\". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Archived from the original on October 20, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ \"Game of Thrones, Line of Duty and Strictly Come Dancing are up for Virgin TV's Must-See Moment at BAFTA TV Awards\". Digital Spy. April 10, 2017. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ \"'The Crown' Battles It Out With 'Black Mirror' & 'Line Of Duty' As BAFTA TV Nominations Are Unveiled\". Deadline Hollywood. April 4, 2018. Retrieved April 5, 2018.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"'The Crown' & 'Taboo' Lead BAFTA TV Craft Nominations \u2013 Full List\". Deadline Hollywood. March 23, 2018. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ \"'Game of Thrones' to Receive Special BAFTA Award\". Variety. April 15, 2018. Retrieved April 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ \"About the BSC\". British Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ \"Best Cinematography in a Television Drama Award\". British Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  73. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Past nominees\" (PDF). British Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  74. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Past winners\" (PDF). British Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ \"About the CSC\". Canadian Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ \"CSC Awards 2015\". Canadian Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved October 7, 2016.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ \"CSC Awards 2016\". Canadian Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  78. Jump up ^ \"CSC Awards 2017\". Canadian Society of Cinematographers. Retrieved April 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  79. ^ Jump up to: a b Pond, Steve (February 21, 2016). \"'The Revenant' Sounds Best to Cinema Audio Society\". TheWrap. Archived from the original on February 8, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 19, 2012). \"'Hanna,' 'Hugo' and 'Moneyball' Nominated for Cinema Audio Society Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ \"Cinema Audio Society Sound Mixing Noms\". Deadline.com. January 8, 2013. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ \"Cinema Audio Society Awards: 'Gravity', 'Frozen' Take Film Honors\". Deadline.com. February 22, 2014. Archived from the original on February 23, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2014.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (February 14, 2015). \"Cinema Audio Society Winners: 'Birdman', 'Big Hero 6\u2032 & 'Game Of Thrones' Take Top Honors\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 18, 2017). \"'La La Land' Wins Cinema Audio Society Award for Sound Mixing\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 19, 2017. Retrieved February 19, 2017.\u00a0\n  85. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 24, 2018). \"Cinema Audio Society Awards: Sound Mixers Hear 'Dunkirk'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  86. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Nominees for the 17th Costume Designers Guild Awards Announced\". Costume Designers Guild. February 17, 2015. Archived from the original on March 5, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2015.\u00a0\n  87. Jump up ^ Carlson, Erin (January 19, 2012). \"Costume Designers Guild Awards: The Nominees List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  88. Jump up ^ \"Costume Designers Unveil CDG Awards Nominees\". Deadline.com. January 17, 2013. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved January 17, 2013.\u00a0\n  89. Jump up ^ \"Articles & Videos\". Costume Designers Guild. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  90. Jump up ^ \"18th CDGA Winners and Honoree Information\". Costume Designers Guild. Archived from the original on October 20, 2016. Retrieved February 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  91. Jump up ^ Calvario, Liz; Pedersen, Erik (February 21, 2017). \"Costume Designers Guild Awards: 'La La Land,' 'Hidden Figures' & 'The Crown' Among Winners \u2013 Complete List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved February 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  92. Jump up ^ \"'Greatest Showman,' 'Young Pope,' 'Phantom Thread' Earn Costume Designers Guild Nominations\". Variety. January 10, 2018. Retrieved January 10, 2018.\u00a0\n  93. ^ Jump up to: a b Chitwood, Adam (January 14, 2015). \"DGA Awards Nominations For Television Include True Detective, Game of Thrones, And Louie\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on January 14, 2015. Retrieved January 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ \"64th Guild Award\". DGA. January 28, 2012. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ \"DGA Awards TV Nominations Unveiled\". Deadline.com. January 9, 2014. Archived from the original on January 9, 2014. Retrieved January 9, 2014.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ \"DGA Winners for Television\". DGA. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (February 4, 2017). \"Damien Chazelle Wins Directors Guild's Top Film Award for 'La La Land'\". Variety. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  98. Jump up ^ Marotta, Jenna (February 4, 2018). \"DGA Awards 2018: Full Winners List, from Guillermo del Toro to Jordan Peele\". IndieWire. Retrieved February 4, 2018.\u00a0\n  99. Jump up ^ \"About the Academy\". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Archived from the original on April 2, 2016.\u00a0\n  100. Jump up ^ \"The Awards\". Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Retrieved October 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  101. Jump up ^ Dockterman, Eliana (September 18, 2016). \"Game of Thrones Now Has the Most Emmy Wins Ever\". Time. Retrieved July 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  102. ^ Jump up to: a b \"2011 Emmy winners complete list\". The Washington Post. September 19, 2011. Archived from the original on March 10, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  103. ^ Jump up to: a b Finke, Nikki; Andreeva, Nellie (September 15, 2012). \"HBO Leads With 17 Creative Arts Emmys, CBS 13, PBS 11; 'Undercover Boss' Wins Reality Emmy; 'Daily Show' Writers, Jimmy Fallon, Kathy Bates, Jeremy Davies, Martha Plimpton Win Emmys; 'Wizards of Waverly Place' & 'The Penguins of Madagascar'\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved September 16, 2012.\u00a0\n  104. ^ Jump up to: a b Finke, Nikki (September 23, 2012). \"Nikki Finke: Live-Snarking The 64th Emmys\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved September 24, 2012.\u00a0\n  105. ^ Jump up to: a b Finke, Nikki (July 18, 2012). \"2013 Primetime Emmy Nominations (LIVE)\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on August 4, 2013. Retrieved August 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  106. ^ Jump up to: a b Andreeva, Nellie (September 15, 2013). \"HBO, 'Behind The Candelabra' Lead Creative Arts Emmy Awards; Bob Newhart, Dan Bucatinsky, Melissa Leo, Carrie Preston, Heidi Klum & Tim Gunn, 'Undercover Boss', 'South Park' & Tony Awards Among Winners\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on September 16, 2013. Retrieved September 16, 2013.\u00a0\n  107. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Primetime Emmys: Full List Of Nominees\". Deadline.com. July 10, 2014. Archived from the original on July 10, 2014. Retrieved July 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  108. Jump up ^ Brown, Tracy (July 10, 2014). \"Emmys 2014: Complete list of nominees\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 10, 2014. Retrieved July 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  109. ^ Jump up to: a b Hipes, Patrick (July 16, 2015). \"Emmy Nominations 2015 \u2013 Full List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2015. Retrieved July 16, 2015.\u00a0\n  110. ^ Jump up to: a b Prudom, Laura (July 14, 2016). \"'Game of Thrones' Rules 2016 Emmy Race With 23 Nominations\". Variety. Archived from the original on October 5, 2016. Retrieved July 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  111. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (August 16, 2014). \"Creative Arts Emmy Awards: 'Saturday Night Live' Top Winner, HBO Grabs Most Trophies\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on August 17, 2014. Retrieved August 17, 2014.\u00a0\n  112. Jump up ^ Moraes, Lisa; Lincoln, Ross A.; Haithman, Diane (September 12, 2015). \"Creative Arts Emmy Awards: HBO, 'Game Of Thrones' Lead The Way\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on September 13, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  113. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Sound Editors Announce Nominations For Golden Reel Awards\". Deadline.com. January 17, 2013. Archived from the original on February 18, 2013. Retrieved January 17, 2013.\u00a0\n  114. Jump up ^ \"2012 Golden Reel Award Nominees: Television\". Golden Reel Award. Motion Picture Sound Editors. February 19, 2012. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2012.\u00a0\n  115. Jump up ^ \"MPSE Golden Reel Awards: 'Life Of Pi', 'Les Mis\u00e9rables', 'Skyfall', 'Wreck-It Ralph', 'Game Of Thrones', 'Fringe'\". Deadline.com. February 17, 2013. Archived from the original on February 18, 2013. Retrieved February 18, 2013.\u00a0\n  116. Jump up ^ \"UPDATE: Motion Picture Sound Editors Unveil Full List Of Golden Reel Nominees\". Deadline.com. January 17, 2014. Archived from the original on January 18, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2014.\u00a0\n  117. Jump up ^ \"Complete list of 2014 Golden Reel award winners\". Los Angeles Times. February 16, 2014. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved February 26, 2014.\u00a0\n  118. Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik (February 15, 2015). \"'Birdman', 'American Sniper' Top Golden Reel Awards: MPSE Winners List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on May 28, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  119. Jump up ^ Dave McNary (January 14, 2015). \"Motion Picture Sound Editors Announce Golden Reel Nominees\". Variety. Archived from the original on March 24, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  120. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 27, 2016). \"Golden Reel Awards: The Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 3, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  121. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 19, 2017). \"Golden Reel Awards: 'Hacksaw Ridge' Tops Feature Competition at Sound Editors' Ceremony\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  122. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 18, 2018). \"Golden Reel Awards: Oscar Nominees 'Blade Runner 2049,' 'Dunkirk' Among Sound Editor Winners\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 19, 2018.\u00a0\n  123. Jump up ^ \"Grammys 2018: See the Complete List of Winners\". Billboard. Retrieved 30 January 2018.\u00a0\n  124. Jump up ^ \"Nominations Sought for 2012 HPA Awards\". TV Technology. May 16, 2012. Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  125. Jump up ^ \"The 7th Annual Hollywood Post Alliance Awards Winners Unveiled\". Hollywood Post Alliance. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  126. Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey (September 4, 2013). \"'Star Trek Into Darkness,' 'Pacific Rim,' 'Iron Man 3' Lead HPA Awards Feature Nominations\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on September 4, 2013. Retrieved September 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  127. Jump up ^ Ma, Max (November 8, 2013). \"'Star Trek Into Darkness,' 'Pacific Rim,' 'Iron Man 3' Lead HPA Awards Feature Nominations\". Hollywood Post Alliance. Archived from the original on November 20, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2013.\u00a0\n  128. Jump up ^ \"The Hollywood Post Alliance Announces Nominees for the 2014 HPA Awards\". Hollywood Post Alliance. Archived from the original on March 10, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ \"2014 Hollywood Professional Alliance Award Winners Announced\". Hollywood Post Alliance. Archived from the original on November 14, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  130. Jump up ^ \"Hollywood Post Alliance Announces 2015 Award Winners HPA Awards Honors Artists and Innovators at 10th Anniversary Gala\". Shoot. November 12, 2015. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015.\u00a0\n  131. Jump up ^ THR Staff (November 12, 2015). \"Hollywood Post Alliance Reveals Winners at 10th Annual Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 10, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  132. Jump up ^ \"'The Jungle Book' Claims VFX Trophy at HPA Awards\". Yahoo!. November 18, 2016. Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  133. Jump up ^ \"HPA Awards: 'Dunkirk' Wins Best Editing in a Feature\". The Hollywood Reporter. November 16, 2017. Retrieved February 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  134. Jump up ^ \"Ifta Film & Drama Awards\". Irish Film & Television Academy. Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  135. Jump up ^ \"IFTA 2012 Winners Announced \u2013 The Irish Film & Television Network\". Irish Film & Television Academy. February 11, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  136. Jump up ^ \"Irish Film & Television Academy \u2013 Irish Film & Television Awards\". Irish Film & Television Academy. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  137. Jump up ^ \"IFTA Award Winners\". Irish Film & Television Academy. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  138. Jump up ^ Lubin, Rhian (May 24, 2015). \"IFTA Awards 2015: It's a gongsters' paradise as Love\/Hate cleans house\". Irish Mirror. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  139. Jump up ^ IFTA Staff. \"IFTA 2016 Nominees And Winners\". Irish Film & Television Academy. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  140. Jump up ^ \"Here's the full list of nominees for this year's Irish Film and Television Awards\". entertainment.ie. March 8, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  141. Jump up ^ \"Ifta Awards 2018: the full list of nominations\". The Irish Times. January 11, 2018. Retrieved February 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  142. Jump up ^ \"IFTAs: Full list of winners as Gabriel Byrne is honoured with Lifetime Achievement Award\". Irish Independent. February 16, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  143. ^ Jump up to: a b \"'Game of Thrones,' 'The Secret Life of Walter Mitty,' 'Iron Man 3\u2032 Win Top Honors at First Annual Location Managers Guild Awards\". Deadline.com. March 29, 2014. Archived from the original on April 13, 2014. Retrieved April 13, 2014.\u00a0\n  144. ^ Jump up to: a b Giardina, Carolyn (April 3, 2016). \"Location Managers Awards: The Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 4, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  145. Jump up ^ Bukszpan, Daniel (March 8, 2016). \"Where 'Game of Thrones' Fans Go on Vacation\". Fortune Magazine. Retrieved 24 February 2018.\u00a0\n  146. Jump up ^ Zuo, Mandy (August 26, 2017). \"From King's Landing to Winterfell, Chinese tourists flock to locations made famous by TV shows such as Game of Thrones\". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 24 February 2018.\u00a0\n  147. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (April 8, 2017). \"'Hidden Figures,' 'La La Land' Win Location Managers Guild Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  148. Jump up ^ Caranicas, Peter (7 April 2018). \"'Dunkirk,' 'Baby Driver' Score Motion Picture Wins at LMGI Awards\". Variety. Retrieved 8 April 2018.\u00a0\n  149. Jump up ^ \"About Make-Up Artists & Hair Stylists Guild Local 706\". Make-Up Artists & Hair Stylists Guild. Retrieved March 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  150. Jump up ^ McKenzie, Lesley (February 15, 2015). \"Inside the Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 4, 2016. Retrieved March 1, 2017.\u00a0\n  151. Jump up ^ Stephanie Chan (January 14, 2014). \"Makeup Artists and Hairstylists Guild Awards Nominations Announced\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  152. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 21, 2016). \"Makeup Artists and Hairstylists Guild Awards: The Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 3, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2016.\u00a0\n  153. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 19, 2017). \"'Suicide Squad,' 'Star Trek Beyond' Among Winners at Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 20, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  154. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 24, 2018). \"'Darkest Hour' Tops Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 25, 2018.\u00a0\n  155. ^ Jump up to: a b \"PGA Announced Theatrical Motion Picture and Long-Form Television Nominations for 2012 PGA Awards\". TVLine. January 3, 2012. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  156. Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (November 28, 2012). \"Homeland, Game of Thrones, Modern Family, and Louie Lead Television Nominations for 2013 Producers Guild Awards\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on January 3, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2012.\u00a0\n  157. Jump up ^ \"TV Nominees For PGA Awards Unveiled\". Deadline.com. December 3, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved December 3, 2013.\u00a0\n  158. Jump up ^ \"'American Sniper,' 'Birdman' & 'Boyhood' Among PGA Awards Nominees\". Deadline.com. January 5, 2015. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved January 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  159. Jump up ^ \"'Big Short' takes home top prize at Producers Guild of America awards\". Fox News. January 24, 2016. Archived from the original on April 6, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  160. Jump up ^ DeSantis, Rachel (January 5, 2017). \"People v. O.J., Stranger Things score Producers Guild Award nominations\". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on January 6, 2017. Retrieved January 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  161. Jump up ^ Dupre, Elyse (5 January 2018). \"2018 Producers Guild Award Nominations: The Full List of Film and TV Nominees\". E! News. Retrieved 5 January 2018.\u00a0\n  162. Jump up ^ \"Screen Actors Guild Award \u2013 About\". SAG-AFTRA. Archived from the original on April 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  163. ^ Jump up to: a b \"SAG Awards Nominations: '12 Years A Slave' And 'Breaking Bad' Lead Way\". Deadline.com. December 11, 2013. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2013.\u00a0\n  164. Jump up ^ \"The 18th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards\". Screen Actors Guild Award. Screen Actors Guild. January 29, 2012. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  165. Jump up ^ \"Screen Actors Guild 2013 Awards: 'Argo' Cast, Daniel Day-Lewis In 'Lincoln', Jennifer Lawrence In 'Silver Linings Playbook', Anne Hathaway in 'Les Miserables', Tommy Lee Jones In 'Lincoln', 'Downton Abbey' Cast, Bryan Cranston In 'Breaking Bad', Claire Danes In 'Homeland', Julianne Moore In 'Game Change', Kevin Costner in 'Hatfields & McCoy', 'Modern Family' Cast, Tiny Fey & Alec Baldwin In '30 Rock'\". Deadline.com. January 27, 2013. Archived from the original on January 28, 2013. Retrieved January 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  166. Jump up ^ \"SAG Awards: 'Lone Survivor', 'Game Of Thrones' Win Stunt Honors\". Deadline.com. January 18, 2014. Archived from the original on January 19, 2014. Retrieved January 19, 2014.\u00a0\n  167. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (December 10, 2014). \"SAG Awards Nominations: 'Birdman' & 'Boyhood' Lead Film Side, HBO & 'Modern Family' Rule TV \u2013 Full List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 26, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.\u00a0\n  168. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (January 25, 2015). \"SAG Awards: 'Birdman' Flies Even Higher & 'Orange Is The New Black' Shines \u2013 List Of Winners\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 26, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.\u00a0\n  169. Jump up ^ \"SAG Awards: The Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. January 30, 2016. Archived from the original on August 22, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  170. Jump up ^ Nolfi, Joey (December 14, 2016). \"SAG Awards nominations 2017: See the full list\". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on January 11, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  171. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (13 December 2017). \"SAG Awards Nominations: 'Three Billboards' Tops Film List, Netflix Leads In TV\". Deadline. Retrieved 13 December 2017.\u00a0\n  172. Jump up ^ \"Society of Camera Operators Lifetime Achievement Awards\". Society of Operating Cameramen. Retrieved April 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  173. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 11, 2017). \"'La La Land' Camera Operator Tops SOC Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 16, 2017.\u00a0\n  174. ^ Jump up to: a b Giardina, Carolyn (February 5, 2013). \"VES Awards 2013: 'Life of Pi' Wins Top Prize\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 6, 2013. Retrieved February 6, 2013.\u00a0\n  175. ^ Jump up to: a b \"VES Awards: 'Gravity' Wins 6 Including Top Prize; 'Frozen' Goes 4-For-4; 3 Nods For 'Game Of Thrones'\". Deadline.com. February 12, 2014. Archived from the original on February 13, 2014. Retrieved February 13, 2014.\u00a0\n  176. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Visual Effects Society Awards Nominations Announced\". Deadline.com. January 13, 2015. Archived from the original on February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  177. Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik; Bloom, David (February 4, 2015). \"VES Awards: 'Apes' Wins Top Live-Action Movie Prize; 'Big Hero 6\u2032 Leads All With Five Nods\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  178. ^ Jump up to: a b Giardina, Carolyn (February 3, 2016). \"Visual Effect Society Awards Unveils Winners\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  179. Jump up ^ \"10th Annual VES Awards\". Visual Effects Society. Archived from the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  180. Jump up ^ Bacardi, Francesca (January 14, 2014). \"'Gravity' Tops Visual Effects Society Nominations\". Variety. Archived from the original on January 15, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2014.\u00a0\n  181. Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik; Bloom, David (February 4, 2015). \"VES Awards: 'Apes' Wins Top Live-Action Movie Prize; 'Big Hero 6\u2032 Leads All With Five Nods\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  182. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 10, 2017). \"'Rogue One' Leads Visual Effects Society Feature Competition With 7 Nominations As 'Doctor Strange,' 'Jungle Book' Grab 6 Each\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  183. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 7, 2017). \"'The Jungle Book' Takes Top Visual Effects Society Honors\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2016.\u00a0\n  184. Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 13, 2018). \"Visual Effects Society Awards: 'War for the Planet of the Apes' Wins Big\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  185. Jump up ^ \"Writing Awards Database\". Writers Guild Foundation. Archived from the original on May 7, 2016.\u00a0\n  186. Jump up ^ \"'101 Best Written TV Series of All Time' From WGA\/TV Guide: Complete List\". Deadline.com. June 2, 2013. Archived from the original on June 3, 2013. Retrieved June 3, 2013.\u00a0\n  187. Jump up ^ The Deadline Team. \"'101 Best Written TV Series Of All Time' From WGA\/TV Guide: Complete List\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on January 28, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2016.\u00a0\n  188. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (November 22, 2013). \"HBO's 'Game of Thrones' Won't Compete in 2014 WGA Awards Drama Series Category\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on November 23, 2013. Retrieved November 23, 2013.\u00a0\n  189. Jump up ^ A. Fernandez, Jay (February 19, 2012). \"Writers Guild Awards: Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  190. Jump up ^ \"WGA Announces TV Nominations\". The Hollywood Reporter. December 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 6, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2012.\u00a0\n  191. Jump up ^ Hipes, Patrick (December 4, 2014). \"Writers Guild TV Nominations: 'True Detective' & 'Louie' Lead Way, Amazon Breaks Through With 'Transparent'\". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  192. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (February 13, 2016). \"WGA Honors 'Big Short,' 'Spotlight,' 'Mad Men' at 68th Awards\". Variety. Archived from the original on May 3, 2016. Retrieved December 5, 2016.\u00a0\n  193. Jump up ^ O'Connell, Michael (December 5, 2016). \"WGA TV Nominations Include 'Westworld,' 'This Is Us' and 'Stranger Things'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 6, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2016.\u00a0\n  194. Jump up ^ Littleton, Cynthia. \"Writers Guild Award TV Nominations: 'The Americans,' 'Handmaid's Tale,' 'GLOW' Grab Multiple Mentions\". Variety. Retrieved December 7, 2017.\u00a0\n  195. Jump up ^ Keveney, Bill (June 20, 2011). \"'Mad Men,' Hamm take Critics' Choice Television Awards\". USA Today. Archived from the original on December 23, 2015.\u00a0\n  196. Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (June 6, 2011). \"Mad Men, Fringe, Good Wife, Modern Family, Community, Justified Lead Critics Choice Kudos\". TVLine. Archived from the original on October 14, 2015. Retrieved October 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  197. Jump up ^ Roots, Kimberly (June 5, 2012). \"Community, Breaking Bad, Parks and Rec, Mad Men, Girls Lead Critics' Choice Nominations\". Producers Guild of America. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  198. Jump up ^ \"HBO, FX Lead Critics' Choice TV Awards \u2013 But Where Are 'Mad Men', 'Modern Family'?\". Deadline.com. May 22, 2013. Archived from the original on May 22, 2013. Retrieved May 22, 2013.\u00a0\n  199. Jump up ^ \"2013 Critics' Choice TV Awards: 'Big Bang Theory,' 'Behind The Candelabra,' 'American Horror Story,' 'Breaking Bad'\". Deadline.com. June 10, 2013. Archived from the original on June 11, 2013. Retrieved June 11, 2013.\u00a0\n  200. Jump up ^ Bacle, Ariana (May 28, 2014). \"Critics' Choice TV Awards 2014: And the nominees are...\" Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on July 16, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  201. Jump up ^ Keene, Allison (March 6, 2015). \"Critics' Choice Tv Award Nominations Spotlight Justified, Silicon Valley, And More\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2015. Retrieved March 6, 2015.\u00a0\n  202. Jump up ^ Winfrey, Graham (November 14, 2016). \"Critics' Choice TV Awards: HBO Leads With 22 Nominations\". IndieWire. Archived from the original on January 17, 2017. Retrieved November 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  203. Jump up ^ \"Fan Favorite Most Bingeworthy Show\". A&E. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2016.\u00a0\n  204. Jump up ^ Costantino, George (December 12, 2016). \"Critics' Choice Awards 2016: Complete Winners List\". ABC News. Archived from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved December 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  205. Jump up ^ Hammond, Pete (6 December 2017). \"Critics' Choice Awards Nominations: 'The Shape Of Water' Leads With 14; Netflix Tops TV Contenders\". Deadline. Retrieved 6 December 2017.\u00a0\n  206. Jump up ^ \"The Golden Globes \u2013 Trivia\". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Archived from the original on April 1, 2016.\u00a0\n  207. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Nominations and Winners 2011\". Golden Globe Award. Hollywood Foreign Press Association. January 15, 2012. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  208. Jump up ^ \"2015 Golden Globe Nominations\". Golden Globe Award. Hollywood Foreign Press Association. December 11, 2014. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved January 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  209. Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb (January 10, 2016). \"Golden Globes: Mr. Robot and Mozart Win Big; Taraji P. Henson, Lady Gaga, Jon Hamm, Rachel Bloom Grab Gold\". TVLine. Archived from the original on November 25, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  210. Jump up ^ \"The 74th Annual Golden Globe Awards (2017)\". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  211. Jump up ^ Miller, Liz Shannon (January 8, 2018). \"Golden Globes 2018 Winners List: Every Film and TV Award Here\". IndieWire. Retrieved January 8, 2018.\u00a0\n  212. Jump up ^ \"Corporate\". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on March 19, 2010. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  213. ^ Jump up to: a b Swatman, Rachel (July 14, 2017). \"Game of Thrones: 10 records deserving of the Iron Throne\". Guinness World Records. Retrieved February 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  214. Jump up ^ \"The Hugo Awards: Introduction\". World Science Fiction Society. Archived from the original on May 7, 2011. Retrieved April 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  215. Jump up ^ \"2012 Hugo Award Winners\". World Science Fiction Society. September 2, 2012. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2012.\u00a0\n  216. Jump up ^ \"2013 Hugo Award Winners\". World Science Fiction Society. September 1, 2013. Archived from the original on September 23, 2013. Retrieved September 23, 2013.\u00a0\n  217. Jump up ^ \"2014 Hugo Award Winners\". World Science Fiction Society. August 17, 2014. Archived from the original on August 17, 2014. Retrieved August 17, 2014.\u00a0\n  218. Jump up ^ \"2015 Nominations\". World Science Fiction Society. April 4, 2015. Archived from the original on May 25, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  219. Jump up ^ Gartenberg, Chaim (April 4, 2017). \"Here are the 2017 Hugo Award nominees\". The Verge. Archived from the original on April 5, 2017. Retrieved April 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  220. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2016 Awards - IGN\". IGN. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  221. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2011\". IGN. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  222. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2012\". IGN. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  223. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2013\". IGN. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  224. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2014\". IGN. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  225. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2015\". IGN. January 28, 2016. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  226. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2016\". IGN. December 18, 2016. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2016.\u00a0\n  227. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Best of 2017\". IGN.\u00a0\n  228. ^ Jump up to: a b Hogan, Michael (January 20, 2016). \"National Television Awards 2016 Nominations\". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 1, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  229. Jump up ^ Denham, Jess (January 21, 2015). \"National Television Awards 2015: Nominations in full as Mary Berry battles Simon Cowell\". The Independent. Archived from the original on January 22, 2015. Retrieved January 21, 2015.\u00a0\n  230. Jump up ^ \"National Television Awards 2016 Nominations\". National Television Awards. January 20, 2016. Archived from the original on January 21, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  231. Jump up ^ Harp, Justin (January 3, 2017). \"National Television Awards reveals its 2017 nominees \u2013 check out the full rundown and vote now\". Digital Spy. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 19, 2017.\u00a0\n  232. Jump up ^ \"National Television Awards 2017: Mary Berry triumphs and Casualty wins over Game of Thrones, plus full list of winners\". The Daily Telegraph. January 26, 2017. Archived from the original on January 25, 2017. Retrieved January 26, 2017.\u00a0\n  233. Jump up ^ Lewis, Rebecca. \"National Television Awards 2018 winners\". Metro.\u00a0\n  234. Jump up ^ \"People's Choice\". People's Choice Awards. Archived from the original on April 21, 2016. Retrieved October 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  235. Jump up ^ \"People's Choice Award Winners\". USA Today. January 12, 2012. Archived from the original on February 29, 2016. Retrieved January 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  236. Jump up ^ \"Nominees Announced for the 'People's Choice Awards 2013'\". TV by the Numbers. January 12, 2013. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  237. Jump up ^ Toomey, Alyssa (November 4, 2014). \"Glee, Katy Perry Lead People's Choice Award Nominations, 2 Broke Girls' Kat Dennings and Beth Behrs to Hos\". EOnline. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  238. Jump up ^ Toomey, Alyssa (November 4, 2014). \"Jennifer Lawrence, Shailene Woodley and Robert Downey Jr. Among People's Choice Nominees, Plus Find Out Who's Hosting!\". EOnline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2014.\u00a0\n  239. Jump up ^ \"Nominees and Winners 2016\". People's Choice Awards. November 3, 2015. Archived from the original on August 19, 2016. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  240. Jump up ^ Johnson, Zach (November 15, 2016). \"People's Choice Awards 2017: Complete List of Nominations\". EOnline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved November 15, 2016.\u00a0\n  241. Jump up ^ \"The Peabody Awards \u2013 Who We Are\". The Peabody Awards. Archived from the original on April 29, 2016.\u00a0\n  242. Jump up ^ \"Poppy Awards 2016: Vote for your favorite limited series\/movie nominees\". Entertainment Weekly. August 25, 2016. Archived from the original on December 23, 2016. Retrieved August 25, 2016.\u00a0\n  243. Jump up ^ Darq (September 17, 2011). \"The 2011 EWwy Award Winners Announced (EW.com Awards)\". Spoilertv.com. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  244. Jump up ^ \"EWwys 2012: Meet Your Winners!\". Entertainment Weekly. September 14, 2012. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  245. Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi (September 13, 2013). \"EWwy Awards 2013: Meet Your 10 Winners!\". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  246. Jump up ^ Wehelie, Benazir (August 18, 2014). \"And your 2014 EWwy Award winners are\u2026\". SiriusXM. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  247. Jump up ^ \"EWwy Awards 2015: Meet Your Winners\". Entertainment Weekly. August 11, 2015. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  248. Jump up ^ \"Poppy Awards 2016: Meet Your Winners\". Entertainment Weekly. September 13, 2016. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2016.\u00a0\n  249. Jump up ^ \"About the IPA\". International Press Academy. Archived from the original on March 22, 2016.\u00a0\n  250. ^ Jump up to: a b Kilday, Gregg (December 3, 2012). \"Satellite Awards Nominates 10 Films for Best Motion Picture\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  251. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The International Press Academy Announces Nominations for the 18th Annual Satellite Awards\". PR Newswire. December 2, 2013. Archived from the original on December 2, 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2013.\u00a0\n  252. Jump up ^ \"2011 Winners\". Satellite Award. International Press Academy. 2011. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  253. Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (February 23, 2014). \"Satellite Awards: '12 Years a Slave' Wins Best Motion Picture\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 24, 2014. Retrieved February 23, 2014.\u00a0\n  254. Jump up ^ Pond, Steve (December 1, 2014). \"'Birdman' Leads Satellite Awards Nominations\". TheWrap. Archived from the original on October 14, 2015. Retrieved October 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  255. Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (February 21, 2016). \"Satellite Awards: 'Spotlight' Collects Four Prizes, Including Best Picture\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 27, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  256. Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (November 29, 2016). \"Satellite Award Nominees Revealed\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on December 25, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.\u00a0\n  257. Jump up ^ \"The International Press Academy Announces Winners For The 21 Annual Satellite Awards\" (PDF). International Press Academy. December 18, 2016. Retrieved December 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  258. Jump up ^ \"2017 NOMINEES\". International Press Academy. Retrieved February 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  259. ^ Jump up to: a b Goldberg, Matt (February 26, 2014). \"Saturn Award Nominations Announced; Gravity and the Hobbit: The Desolation Of Smaug Lead With 8 Nominations Each\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved February 26, 2014.\u00a0\n  260. Jump up ^ \"Nominations for the 38th Annual Saturn Awards\". Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films. February 29, 2012. Archived from the original on February 29, 2012. Retrieved February 29, 2012.\u00a0\n  261. Jump up ^ Truit, Brian (February 20, 2013). \"'The Hobbit' leads Saturn Awards with nine nominations\". USA Today. Archived from the original on February 20, 2013. Retrieved February 20, 2013.\u00a0\n  262. Jump up ^ Foutch, Haleigh (March 3, 2015). \"Interstellar and the Winter Soldier Lead Saturn Award Nominations\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on March 5, 2015. Retrieved March 5, 2015.\u00a0\n  263. Jump up ^ \"The 41st Annual Saturn Awards Winners 2015\". Saturn Award. Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films. 2015. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2015.\u00a0\n  264. Jump up ^ Bryant, Jacob (February 24, 2016). \"'Star Wars,' 'Mad Max,' 'Walking Dead' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations\". Variety. Archived from the original on December 12, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  265. Jump up ^ Couch, Aaron (March 2, 2017). \"'Rogue One,' 'Walking Dead' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on March 2, 2017. Retrieved March 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  266. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (15 March 2018). \"'Black Panther,' 'Walking Dead' Rule Saturn Awards Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved 15 March 2018.\u00a0\n  267. Jump up ^ \"2011 Spike TV Scream Award Winners\". ScienceFiction.com. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  268. Jump up ^ Murray, Rebecca. \"2011 SCREAM Awards Nominees and Winners\". About.com. IAC. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved January 16, 2013.\u00a0\n  269. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Television Critics Association Announces 2011 TCA Awards Nominees\". TCA Awards. Television Critics Association. June 13, 2011. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 6, 2012.\u00a0\n  270. Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (August 7, 2011). \"'Friday Night Lights,' 'Game of Thrones' & 'Mad Men' win big at the TCA Awards\". HitFix. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 6, 2012.\u00a0\n  271. Jump up ^ Bettinger, Brendan (June 6, 2012). \"2012 TCA Award Nominations \u2013 Breaking Bad, Game of Thrones, Homeland, Mad Men, and Downton Abbey Vie for Program of the Year\". Collider.com. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 6, 2012.\u00a0\n  272. Jump up ^ \"The Television Critics Association Announces 2012 TCA Awards Winners\" (Press release). Television Critics Association. July 28, 2012. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012.\u00a0\n  273. Jump up ^ Webb, Matt (June 5, 2012). \"TCA Awards 2013: The Americans, Breaking Bad Lead Nominees; Orphan Black Scores Twin Nods\". TVLine. Archived from the original on June 10, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.\u00a0\n  274. Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey (August 3, 2013). \"'Breaking Bad,' 'The Americans' Top TCA Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on August 4, 2013. Retrieved August 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  275. Jump up ^ \"Television Critics Association Unveils Nominees For TCA Awards\". Deadline.com. May 27, 2014. Archived from the original on May 27, 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2014.\u00a0\n  276. Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 4, 2015). \"2015 TCA Award Nominees Include 'Game of Thrones', 'Empire', 'The Americans' & More\". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on June 5, 2015. Retrieved June 5, 2015.\u00a0\n  277. Jump up ^ Prudom, Laura (June 22, 2016). \"'Mr. Robot,' 'The People v. O.J. Simpson' Lead TCA Awards Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved June 22, 2016.\u00a0\n  278. ^ Jump up to: a b Dry, Jude (January 12, 2017). \"Gay and Lesbian Critics Association Honor 'Moonlight' and 'Jackie' with Dorian Award Noms\". IndieWire. Retrieved January 12, 2017.\u00a0\n  279. Jump up ^ \"2013 Dorian Award Winners - Galeca - Argo - New Normal - Happy Endings - homorazzi.com\". Homorazzi.com. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  280. Jump up ^ Liptak, Andrew (13 August 2016). \"The first ever Dragon Awards shortlist aims to be the next major award for science fiction fans\". The Verge. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  281. Jump up ^ \"Winners \u2013 The Dragon Award\". Dragon Con. September 4, 2016. Archived from the original on September 8, 2016. Retrieved September 7, 2016.\u00a0\n  282. ^ Jump up to: a b Barraclough, Leo (March 30, 2015). \"'Interstellar' wins Film, Director at Empire Awards\". Variety. Archived from the original on March 12, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  283. Jump up ^ Lewis, Rebecca (February 18, 2016). \"Mad Max: Fury Road leads the pack at the 2016 Jameson Empire Awards\". Metro. Archived from the original on January 27, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  284. Jump up ^ \"2017 Three Empire Awards \u2013 Nominations\". Wemakemoviesonweekends.com. February 8, 2017. Retrieved March 4, 2017.\u00a0\n  285. ^ Jump up to: a b \"E! Online Award Winners 2015: 'Outlander' 'Game of Thrones' (Full List) \u2013 eonline\". EOnline. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  286. ^ Jump up to: a b Blake, Meredith (January 21, 2015). \"GLAAD Media Award nominees include 'Transparent,' 'Game of Thrones,' 'Looking'\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 22, 2015. Retrieved January 21, 2015.\u00a0\n  287. ^ Jump up to: a b \"GLAMOUR Awards 2017: All the talking points\". Glamour. June 7, 2017. Retrieved June 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  288. Jump up ^ \"Here's who won what at the GLAMOUR Awards\". Glamour. 2016. Retrieved June 8, 2016.\u00a0\n  289. ^ Jump up to: a b Montgomery, Daniel (September 7, 2016). \"Gold Derby TV Awards 2016: 'People v. O.J. Simpson' leads winners, 'Game of Thrones' & 'Veep' also prevail\". Gold Derby. Retrieved September 11, 2016.\u00a0\n  290. Jump up ^ Montgomery, Daniel (July 26, 2011). \"Gold Derby TV Awards 2011: Complete List of Nominations\". Gold Derby. Retrieved August 20, 2016.\u00a0\n  291. Jump up ^ Montgomery, Daniel (September 20, 2012). \"'Breaking Bad' and 'Community' win top honors at the Gold Derby TV Awards\". Gold Derby. Retrieved August 20, 2016.\u00a0\n  292. Jump up ^ Montgomery, Daniel (September 18, 2013). \"'Breaking Bad,' 'Parks and Rec' win big at Gold Derby TV Awards!\". Gold Derby. Retrieved August 20, 2016.\u00a0\n  293. Jump up ^ Montgomery, Daniel (August 20, 2014). \"'Orange is the New Black,' 'Breaking Bad' sweep Gold Derby TV Awards\". Gold Derby. Retrieved August 20, 2016.\u00a0\n  294. Jump up ^ Montgomery, Daniel (September 17, 2015). \"Gold Derby TV Awards: 'Game of Thrones' sweeps, big wins for Amy Schumer, 'Parks and Rec'\". Gold Derby. Retrieved August 20, 2016.\u00a0\n  295. ^ Jump up to: a b Leffler, Rebecca (June 14, 2012). \"HBO's 'Game of Thrones,' 'Game Change' Win Top Prizes at Monte Carlo TV Festival\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  296. Jump up ^ \"'Downton Abbey', 'Game of Thrones' nominated for Monte Carlo TV awards\". Digital Spy. April 5, 2012. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  297. Jump up ^ \"Advancing Women in Media \u2013 About\". Advancing Women in Media. Archived from the original on May 17, 2016.\u00a0\n  298. Jump up ^ \"2012 Gracie Awards Winners\". Alliance for Women in Media. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  299. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Hollywood Music in Media Awards Nominations Announced\". Filmmusicreporter.com. October 8, 2014. Retrieved February 28, 2017.\u00a0\n  300. Jump up ^ \"'Game of Thrones,' 'Black-ish' Top Humanitas Prize Finalists\". Variety. January 11, 2018. Retrieved January 11, 2018.\u00a0\n  301. ^ Jump up to: a b \"IFMCA Award Nominations 2013 \u2013 IFMCA: the International Film Music Critics Association\". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  302. Jump up ^ \"IFMCA Award Nominations 2011 \u2013 IFMCA: the International Film Music Critics Association\". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved February 23, 2017.\u00a0\n  303. Jump up ^ \"IFMCA Award Winners 2016 | IFMCA: International Film Music Critics Association\". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  304. Jump up ^ \"IFMCA Award Nominations 2016 | IFMCA: International Film Music Critics Association\". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  305. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Der Jupiter Award 2014 in der Presse.... \u2013 Cinema Blog\". Cinema Blog. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  306. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Kerrang! Awards Fuelled By Relentless Energy Drink 2012 \u2013 The Winners!\". Kerrang!. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  307. Jump up ^ Emily. \"Relentless Kerrang! Awards 2014 Winners List\". Kerrang. Archived from the original on June 14, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  308. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Nikolaj Coster-Waldau And Natalie Dormer Accept The Award For OMG Moment Of The Year\". MTV. July 27, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  309. Jump up ^ \"MTV Fandom Awards: Game of Thrones, Hamilton among nominees\". Entertainment Weekly. June 22, 2016. Retrieved February 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  310. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Killer Serie Del Anio\". Archived from the original on May 5, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  311. Jump up ^ Feeney, Nolan (March 4, 2015). \"Here Are the Nominees for the MTV Movie Awards\". Time. Archived from the original on July 24, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2017.\u00a0\n  312. Jump up ^ Johnson, Zach (April 6, 2017). \"Guardians of the Galaxy Lands 7 MTV Movie Awards Nominations\". E!. Archived from the original on April 7, 2017. Retrieved April 6, 2017.\u00a0\n  313. ^ Jump up to: a b Stransky, Tanner (February 27, 2012). \"'Revenge,' 'Magic Mike,' and Jessie J lead nominees for the 2012 'NewNowNext Awards' \u2013 Exclusive\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  314. Jump up ^ \"2013 Logo NewNowNext Awards: And The Nominees Are\u2026\". Newnownext.com. March 15, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  315. Jump up ^ \"2014 New Now Next Awards Nominees Announced\". The Huffington Post. November 13, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  316. ^ Jump up to: a b Hinman, Michael (August 19, 2011). \"'Game of Thrones,' 'Fringe' Split 2011 Portal Awards\". Airlockalpha.com. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  317. Jump up ^ \"'Game of Thrones' Conquers With 4 Portal Awards\". airlockalpha.com. September 17, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  318. ^ Jump up to: a b Kemp, Stuart (March 19, 2014). \"'Game of Thrones' Wins Royal Television Society Award\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on March 19, 2014. Retrieved March 19, 2014.\u00a0\n  319. ^ Jump up to: a b \"2014 Screenwriters Choice Awards\". Finaldraft.com. February 12, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  320. Jump up ^ Lewis, Hilary (February 11, 2016). \"Final Draft Screenwriters Choice Awards: The Complete Winners List\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 9, 2016.\u00a0\n  321. ^ Jump up to: a b SFX Staff (February 12, 2015). \"Vote in the SFX Awards 2015! POLL NOW CLOSED\". GamesRadar+. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  322. Jump up ^ \"List of winners from the SFX 2012 awards\". Hypable. February 6, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  323. Jump up ^ van Oosten de Boer, Caroline; Vermeulen, Milo. \"Vote in The SFX Awards 2013 - Fandom&Fun - Whedonesque.com\". Whedonesque.com. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  324. ^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Ashley (January 19, 2016). \"Shorty Awards Nominees Include Adele, Kevin Hart, Amy Schumer (Exclusive)\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  325. Jump up ^ \"Shorty Awards Winners\". Shorty Awards. April 11, 2016. Retrieved April 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  326. ^ Jump up to: a b Sanusi, Hassan (September 6, 2016). \"Game of Thrones wins at 2016 TV Choice Awards as Big Bang Theory, The Walking Dead lose out\". The Net. Retrieved September 6, 2016.\u00a0\n  327. Jump up ^ \"Sherlock And EastEnders Win at TV Choice Awards\". MTV. September 9, 2014. Archived from the original on September 10, 2014. Retrieved September 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  328. ^ Jump up to: a b THR Staff (January 7, 2016). \"USC Scripter Awards Unveils Film Nominations, Expands into TV\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on January 14, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  329. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (January 11, 2017). \"'Arrival,' 'Fences,' 'Game of Thrones' Earn USC Scripter Award Nominations\". Variety. Retrieved January 11, 2017.\u00a0\n  330. ^ Jump up to: a b \"2017 Webby Awards: Lady Gaga, Kimmel's Mean Tweets, and 'Mr. Robot' Among Winners\". Variety. April 25, 2017. Archived from the original on April 25, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  331. Jump up ^ \"Best Overall Social Presence 2016 \u2013 The Webby Awards\". Webby Award. April 26, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  332. Jump up ^ \"Film & Video - Unscripted (Branded)\". Webby Award. Retrieved April 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  333. Jump up ^ \"Social - Features Best Overall Social Presence Media\/Entertainment\". Webby Award. Retrieved April 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  334. Jump up ^ \"Film & Video - Trailer\". Webby Award. Retrieved April 14, 2018.\u00a0\n  335. Jump up ^ \"Women's Image Network Awards 13 Nominees\". Women's Image Network Awards. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  336. Jump up ^ \"Women's Image Network Awards\". Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  337. ^ Jump up to: a b Gent, Film Fest. \"16th World Soundtrack Awards announces first wave of nominees\". Film Fest Gent. Retrieved 6 July 2017.\u00a0\n  338. Jump up ^ Tech, Simon. \"About - Young Artist Awards\". www.youngartistawards.org. Retrieved 9 July 2017.\u00a0\n  339. Jump up ^ \"34th Annual Young Artist Awards\". Young Artist Award. 2013. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved April 2, 2013.\u00a0\n  340. Jump up ^ \"2014 Young Hollywood Awards Nominees Include 'Pretty Little Liars,' 'Fault in Our Stars'\". Variety. June 26, 2014. Retrieved September 2, 2016.\u00a0\n  341. Jump up ^ \"2014 Award Winners\". Young Hollywood Awards. Retrieved January 31, 2017.\u00a0\n  342. Jump up ^ \"Nominees and Winners\". Young Hollywood Awards.\u00a0\n  343. Jump up ^ \"2014 Young Hollywood Awards Nominees Include 'Pretty Little Liars,' 'Fault in Our Stars'\". Variety. June 26, 2014. Retrieved October 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  344. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Stem P\u00e5 \u00c5rets Skuespiller - Afstemning afsluttet\". TV2. January 10, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2017.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official U.S. website HBO\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones on IMDb\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones at TV.com\n  \u2022 Official UK website HBO UK\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGeorge R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire\n  \u2022 A Game of Thrones (1996)\n  \u2022 A Clash of Kings (1998)\n  \u2022 A Storm of Swords (2000)\n  \u2022 A Feast for Crows (2005)\n  \u2022 A Dance with Dragons (2011)\n  \u2022 The Winds of Winter (TBA)\nFranchise media\nNovellas\n  \u2022 Tales of Dunk and Egg (1998\u20132010)\n  \u2022 The Princess and the Queen (2013)\n  \u2022 The Rogue Prince (2014)\n  \u2022 The Sons of the Dragon (2017)\nTV series\n  \u2022 Episodes\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\n    \u2022 4\n    \u2022 5\n    \u2022 6\n    \u2022 7\n    \u2022 8\n  \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 Characters\n  \u2022 Music\n    \u2022 \"Game of Thrones Theme\"\n    \u2022 \"The Rains of Castamere\"\n    \u2022 \"The Bear and the Maiden Fair\"\n    \u2022 \"Light of the Seven\"\n    \u2022 Catch the Throne\n    \u2022 Live Concert Experience\n  \u2022 Soundtracks\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\n    \u2022 4\n    \u2022 5\n    \u2022 6\n    \u2022 7\n  \u2022 Title sequence\n  \u2022 After the Thrones\n  \u2022 Thronecast\nVideo games\n  \u2022 A Game of Thrones: Genesis\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones (2012)\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones Ascent\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones (2014)\nOther media\n  \u2022 The World of Ice & Fire (2014)\n  \u2022 Board game\n  \u2022 Card game (Second edition)\n  \u2022 Comic book series\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Petyr Baelish\n  \u2022 Joffrey Baratheon\n  \u2022 Renly Baratheon\n  \u2022 Robert Baratheon\n  \u2022 Stannis Baratheon\n  \u2022 Tommen Baratheon\n  \u2022 Ramsay Bolton\n  \u2022 Roose Bolton\n  \u2022 Bronn\n  \u2022 Gregor Clegane\n  \u2022 Sandor Clegane\n  \u2022 Khal Drogo\n  \u2022 Gendry\n  \u2022 Tormund Giantsbane\n  \u2022 Gilly\n  \u2022 Theon Greyjoy\n  \u2022 Cersei Lannister\n  \u2022 Jaime Lannister\n  \u2022 Tyrion Lannister\n  \u2022 Tywin Lannister\n  \u2022 Oberyn Martell\n  \u2022 Melisandre\n  \u2022 Missandei\n  \u2022 Jorah Mormont\n  \u2022 Daario Naharis\n  \u2022 Ellaria Sand\n  \u2022 Davos Seaworth\n  \u2022 Jon Snow\n  \u2022 High Sparrow\n  \u2022 Arya Stark\n  \u2022 Bran Stark\n  \u2022 Catelyn Stark\n  \u2022 Ned Stark\n  \u2022 Rickon Stark\n  \u2022 Robb Stark\n  \u2022 Sansa Stark\n  \u2022 Daenerys Targaryen\n  \u2022 Viserys Targaryen\n  \u2022 Samwell Tarly\n  \u2022 Brienne of Tarth\n  \u2022 Margaery Tyrell\n  \u2022 Olenna Tyrell\n  \u2022 Varys\n  \u2022 Ygritte\nWorld\nLanguages\n  \u2022 Dothraki\n  \u2022 Valyrian\nThemes\n  \u2022 Iron Throne\n  \u2022 White Walker\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 Fandom\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Game_of_Thrones&oldid=836796412\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Game of Thrones\n  \u2022 Lists of awards by television series\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from April 2017\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 16 April 2018, at 22:08.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5847589205369456560","title":"Judaism","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nJudaism\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article is about the Jewish religion. For consideration of ethnic, historic and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity, see Jews.\n\nJudaica (clockwise from top): Shabbat candlesticks, handwashing cup, Chumash and Tanakh, Torah pointer, shofar and etrog box\nPart of a series on\nJudaism\nStar of David Ten Commandments Menorah\nMovements[show]\n  \u2022 Orthodox\n    \u2022 Haredi\n    \u2022 Hasidic\n    \u2022 Modern\n  \u2022 Conservative\n  \u2022 Reform\n  \u2022 Karaite\n  \u2022 Reconstructionist\n  \u2022 Renewal\n  \u2022 Humanistic\n  \u2022 Haymanot\nPhilosophy[show]\n  \u2022 Principles of faith\n  \u2022 Kabbalah\n  \u2022 Messiah\n  \u2022 Ethics\n  \u2022 Chosenness\n  \u2022 Names of God\n  \u2022 Musar movement\nTexts[show]\n  \u2022 Tanakh\n    \u2022 Torah\n    \u2022 Nevi'im\n    \u2022 Ketuvim\n  \u2022 \u1e24umash\n  \u2022 Siddur\n  \u2022 Piyutim\n  \u2022 Zohar\n  \u2022 Rabbinic\n    \u2022 Mishnah\n    \u2022 Talmud\n    \u2022 Midrash\n    \u2022 Tosefta\nLaw[show]\n  \u2022 Mishneh Torah\n  \u2022 Tur\n  \u2022 Shulchan Aruch\n  \u2022 Mishnah Berurah\n  \u2022 Aruch HaShulchan\n  \u2022 Kashrut\n  \u2022 Tzniut\n  \u2022 Tzedakah\n  \u2022 Niddah\n  \u2022 Noahide laws\nHoly cities\u00a0\/ places[show]\n  \u2022 Jerusalem\n  \u2022 Safed\n  \u2022 Hebron\n  \u2022 Tiberias\n\n  \u2022 Synagogue\n  \u2022 Beth midrash\n  \u2022 Mikveh\n  \u2022 Sukkah\n  \u2022 Chevra kadisha\n  \u2022 Holy Temple\n  \u2022 Tabernacle\nImportant figures[show]\n  \u2022 Abraham\n  \u2022 Isaac\n  \u2022 Jacob\n  \u2022 Moses\n  \u2022 Aaron\n  \u2022 David\n  \u2022 Solomon\n  \u2022 Sarah\n  \u2022 Rebecca\n  \u2022 Rachel\n  \u2022 Leah\n  \u2022 Rabbinic sages\n    Chazal\n    \u2022 Tannaim\n    \u2022 Amoraim\n    \u2022 Savoraim\n  \u2022 Geonim\n  \u2022 Rishonim\n  \u2022 Acharonim\nReligious roles[show]\n  \u2022 Rabbi\n  \u2022 Rebbe\n  \u2022 Posek\n  \u2022 Hazzan\n  \u2022 Dayan\n  \u2022 Rosh yeshiva\n  \u2022 Mohel\n  \u2022 Kohen\nCulture and education[show]\n  \u2022 Brit\n  \u2022 Pidyon haben\n  \u2022 Bar and Bat Mitzvah\n  \u2022 Marriage\n  \u2022 Bereavement\n\n  \u2022 Yeshiva\n  \u2022 Kolel\n  \u2022 Cheder\nRitual objects[show]\n  \u2022 Sefer Torah\n  \u2022 Tallit\n  \u2022 Tefillin\n  \u2022 Tzitzit\n  \u2022 Kippah\n  \u2022 Mezuzah\n  \u2022 Menorah\n  \u2022 Shofar\n  \u2022 Four species\n    \u2022 Etrog\n    \u2022 Lulav\n    \u2022 Hadass\n    \u2022 Arava\n  \u2022 Kittel\n  \u2022 Gartel\nPrayers[show]\n  \u2022 Shema (Sh'ma)\n  \u2022 Amidah\n  \u2022 Aleinu\n  \u2022 Kaddish\n  \u2022 Minyan\n  \u2022 Birkat Hamazon\n  \u2022 Shehecheyanu\n  \u2022 Hallel\n  \u2022 Havdalah\n  \u2022 Tachanun\n  \u2022 Kol Nidre\n  \u2022 Selichot (S'lichot)\nMajor holidays[show]\n  \u2022 Rosh Hashana\n  \u2022 Yom Kippur\n  \u2022 Sukkot\n  \u2022 Pesach\n  \u2022 Shavuot\nOther religions[show]\n  \u2022 Judaism and Christianity\n  \u2022 Hinduism\n  \u2022 Islam\n  \u2022 Abrahamic religions\n  \u2022 Judeo-Christian\n  \u2022 Pluralism\nRelated topics[show]\n  \u2022 Jews\n  \u2022 Zionism\n  \u2022 Israel\n  \u2022 Criticism\n  \u2022 Antisemitism\n  \u2022 Anti-Judaism\n  \u2022 Holocaust theology\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Jesus\n  \u2022 Muhammad\n  \u2022 Star of David.svg Judaism portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nJudaism (originally from Hebrew \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u202c, Yehudah, \"Judah\";[1][2] via Latin and Greek) is the religion of the Jewish people. It is an ancient, monotheistic, Abrahamic religion with the Torah as its foundational text.[3] It encompasses the religion, philosophy, and culture of the Jewish people.[4] Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Children of Israel.[5] Judaism encompasses a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. The Torah is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. With between 14.5 and 17.4\u00a0million adherents worldwide,[6] Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world.\n\nWithin Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.[7] Historically, this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites and Sabbateans during the early and later medieval period;[8] and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.[9] Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel.[10] Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.[11][12] Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.[13] Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them.[14]\n\nThe history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years.[15] Judaism has its roots as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age.[16] Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions.[17][18] The Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as \"Jews\" in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title \"Children of Israel\".[19] Judaism's texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i Faith.[20][21] Many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law.[22][page\u00a0needed] Hebraism was just as important a factor in the ancient era development of Western civilization as Hellenism, and Judaism, as the background of Christianity, has considerably shaped Western ideals and morality since Early Christianity.[23]\n\nJews are an ethnoreligious group[24] including those born Jewish, in addition to converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3\u00a0million, or roughly 0.2% of the total world population.[25] About 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and another 43% reside in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other minority groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.[25]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Defining characteristics and principles of faith\n    \u2022 1.1 Defining characteristics\n    \u2022 1.2 Core tenets\n  \u2022 2 Jewish religious texts\n    \u2022 2.1 Jewish legal literature\n    \u2022 2.2 Jewish philosophy\n    \u2022 2.3 Rabbinic hermeneutics\n  \u2022 3 Jewish identity\n    \u2022 3.1 Origin of the term \"Judaism\"\n    \u2022 3.2 Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism\n    \u2022 3.3 Who is a Jew?\n    \u2022 3.4 Jewish demographics\n  \u2022 4 Jewish religious movements\n    \u2022 4.1 Rabbinic Judaism\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism\n      \u2022 4.1.2 Jewish movements in Israel\n    \u2022 4.2 Karaites and Samaritans\n    \u2022 4.3 Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)\n  \u2022 5 Jewish observances\n    \u2022 5.1 Jewish ethics\n    \u2022 5.2 Prayers\n    \u2022 5.3 Religious clothing\n    \u2022 5.4 Jewish holidays\n      \u2022 5.4.1 Shabbat\n      \u2022 5.4.2 Three pilgrimage festivals\n      \u2022 5.4.3 High Holy Days\n      \u2022 5.4.4 Purim\n      \u2022 5.4.5 Hanukkah\n      \u2022 5.4.6 Fast days\n      \u2022 5.4.7 Israeli holidays\n    \u2022 5.5 Torah readings\n    \u2022 5.6 Synagogues and religious buildings\n    \u2022 5.7 Dietary laws: kashrut\n    \u2022 5.8 Laws of ritual purity\n      \u2022 5.8.1 Family purity\n    \u2022 5.9 Life-cycle events\n  \u2022 6 Community leadership\n    \u2022 6.1 Classical priesthood\n    \u2022 6.2 Prayer leaders\n    \u2022 6.3 Specialized religious roles\n  \u2022 7 History\n    \u2022 7.1 Origins\n    \u2022 7.2 Antiquity\n    \u2022 7.3 Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)\n    \u2022 7.4 Persecutions\n    \u2022 7.5 Hasidism\n    \u2022 7.6 The Enlightenment and new religious movements\n    \u2022 7.7 Spectrum of observance\n  \u2022 8 Judaism and other religions\n    \u2022 8.1 Christianity and Judaism\n    \u2022 8.2 Islam and Judaism\n    \u2022 8.3 Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism\n  \u2022 9 See also\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 Bibliography\n  \u2022 12 External links\n\nDefining characteristics and principles of faith\n\nDefining characteristics\n\nGlass platter inscribed with the Hebrew word zokhreinu \u2013 (god) remember us\nA 19th-century silver Macedonian Hanukkah menorah\n\nUnlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created.[26][page\u00a0needed] Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind.[27] According to the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation.[28] Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world.[29] He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people.[30] These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism.\n\nThus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism (Kabbalah), Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as \"normal mysticism\", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.[31] This is played out through the observance of the Halakha (Jewish law) and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled.\n\nThe ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.[32]\n\nWhereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, Halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.\n\nEthical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Jewish Bible (Tanakh) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel.[33] In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.[34]\n\nMoreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God.[citation needed] For some, observance of Jewish law is more important than belief in God per se.[35] In modern times, some liberal Jewish movements do not accept the existence of a personified deity active in history.[36][37] The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians.[38]\n\nCore tenets\n\nMain article: Jewish principles of faith\n13 Principles of Faith:\n  1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.\n  2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.\n  3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.\n  4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.\n  5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.\n  6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.\n  7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.\n  8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.\n  9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.\n  10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, \"Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions\" (Psalms 33:15).\n  11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.\n  12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.\n  13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.\n\n\u2014Maimonides\n\nScholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.[39] The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.[40][41] Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles.[42][43]\n\nIn Maimonides' time, his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo. Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith.\n\nAlong these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe Jewish law and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.[44] Later, two poetic restatements of these principles (\"Ani Ma'amin\" and \"Yigdal\") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies,[45] leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.[46][47]\n\nIn modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma.[14][48] Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.[42] Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible and various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses, who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet.[42][49][50][51][52] In the Mishnah, a core text of Rabbinic Judaism, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.[53]\n\nEstablishing the core tenets of Judaism in the modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary Jewish denominations. Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated. Thus for instance, Joseph Soloveitchik's (associated with the Modern Orthodox movement) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following the halakha whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world. Mordecai Kaplan, the founder of the Reconstructionist Judaism, abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with civilization and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible. In turn, Solomon Schechter's Conservative Judaism was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation. Finally, David Philipson draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of the Conservative movement.[54]\n\nJewish religious texts\n\nThe following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought.\n\n  \u2022 Tanakh[55] (Hebrew Bible) and Rabbinic literature\n    \u2022 Mesorah\n    \u2022 Targum\n    \u2022 Jewish Biblical exegesis (also see Midrash below)\n  \u2022 Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature)\n    \u2022 Mishnah and commentaries\n    \u2022 Tosefta and the minor tractates\n    \u2022 Talmud:\n      \u2022 The Babylonian Talmud and commentaries\n      \u2022 Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries\n  \u2022 Midrashic literature:\n    \u2022 Halakhic Midrash\n    \u2022 Aggadic Midrash\n  \u2022 Halakhic literature\n    \u2022 Major Codes of Jewish Law and Custom\n      \u2022 Mishneh Torah and commentaries\n      \u2022 Tur and commentaries\n      \u2022 Shulchan Aruch and commentaries\n    \u2022 Responsa literature\n  \u2022 Jewish Thought and Ethics\n    \u2022 Jewish philosophy\n    \u2022 Musar literature and other works of Jewish ethics\n    \u2022 Kabbalah\n    \u2022 Hasidic works\n  \u2022 Siddur and Jewish liturgy\n  \u2022 Piyyut (Classical Jewish poetry)\n\nMany traditional Jewish texts are available online in various Torah databases (electronic versions of the Traditional Jewish Bookshelf). Many of these have advanced search options available.\n\nJewish legal literature\n\nMain article: Halakha\n\nThe basis of Jewish law and tradition (halakha) is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition, there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today.[56]\n\nWhile there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees, and the Karaites), most Jews believe in the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee school of thought of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis.\n\nAccording to Rabbinical Jewish tradition, God gave both the Written Law (the Torah) and the Oral law to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Oral law is the oral tradition as relayed by God to Moses and from him, transmitted and taught to the sages (rabbinic leaders) of each subsequent generation.\n\nFor centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi Judah haNasi undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the Mishnah.[57]\n\nThe Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying Jewish law, which are the basis of the Talmud. According to Abraham ben David, the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Judah haNasi after the destruction of Jerusalem, in anno mundi 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE.[58]\n\nOver the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia). The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into the two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) and the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli). These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages.\n\nIn the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions. Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with a parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources.[59]\n\nHalakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition\u2014the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew, Sheelot U-Teshuvot.) Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.\n\nJewish philosophy\n\nMain article: Jewish philosophy\n\nJewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, and Emmanuel L\u00e9vinas.\n\nRabbinic hermeneutics\n\n13 Principles of Hermeneutics:\n  1. A law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form\n  2. A law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation if the text characterizes both situations in identical terms.\n  3. A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served.\n  4. When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it.\n  5. A law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization.\n  6. A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization, can be applied only to the particular cases specified.\n  7. The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language.\n  8. A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization.\n  9. A penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty.\n  10. A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generalization, with a modification in the penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe.\n  11. A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them.\n  12. Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages\n  13. Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages.\n\n\u2014R. Ishmael[60]\n\nOrthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself. According to the Talmud,\n\nThese are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a).\n\nIn Judaism, \"the study of Torah can be a means of experiencing God\".[61] Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed:\n\nThe rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world .... Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacralization but of sanctification.\"[62]\n\nTo study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God.\n\nIn the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. According to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axioms:\n\nfirst, the belief in the omni-significance of Scripture, in the meaningfulness of its every word, letter, even (according to one famous report) scribal flourish; second, the claim of the essential unity of Scripture as the expression of the single divine will.[63]\n\nThese two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. According to the Talmud,\n\nA single verse has several meanings, but no two verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold, My word is like fire\u2014declares the Lord\u2014and like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes the rock), so a single verse has several meanings.\" (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a).\n\nObservant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations[64]\n\nAccording to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.[65]\n\nThus, Hillel called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws (baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael, thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel).[66] Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by Malbim in Ayyelet ha-Shachar, the introduction to his commentary on the Sifra. Nevertheless, R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important, and one of Judaism's earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and jurisprudence.[67] Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.[68] Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.[69][70][71][72]\n\nJewish identity\n\nOrigin of the term \"Judaism\"\n\nA mezuzah case\n\nThe term \"Judaism\" derives from Iudaismus, a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek Ioudaismos (\u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2) (from the verb \u1f30\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u0390\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \"to side with or imitate the [Judeans]\"),[73] and it was ultimately inspired by the Hebrew \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4, Yehudah, \"Judah\";[74][75] in Hebrew: \u05d9\u05b7\u05d4\u05b2\u05d3\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea, Yahadut. The term \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 first appears in the Hellenistic Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE. In the context of the age and period it meant \"seeking or forming part of a cultural entity\"[76] and it resembled its antonym hellenismos, a word that signified a people's submission to Hellenic (Greek) cultural norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the Maccabean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos.[76]\n\nShaye J. D. Cohen writes in his book The Beginnings of Jewishness:\n\nWe are tempted, of course, to translate [Iouda\u00efsm\u00f3s] as \"Judaism,\" but this translation is too narrow, because in this first occurrence of the term, Iouda\u00efsm\u00f3s has not yet been reduced to the designation of a religion. It means rather \"the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish).\" Among these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call \"religious,\" but these practices and beliefs are not the sole content of the term. Thus Iouda\u00efsm\u00f3s should be translated not as \"Judaism\" but as Judaeanness.[77]\n\nThe earliest instance in Europe where the term was used to mean \"the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews\"[citation needed] is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce a 1513. \"Judaism\" as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the apocrypha (Deuterocanon in Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy), 2 Macc. ii. 21: \"Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme.\"[78]\n\nDistinction between Jews as a people and Judaism\n\nAccording to Daniel Boyarin, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism.[79] Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. In the Diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel. They also saw an elite population convert to Judaism (the Khazars), only to disappear as the centers of power in the lands once occupied by that elite fell to the people of Rus and then the Mongols.[citation needed] Thus, Boyarin has argued that \"Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension.\"[80]\n\nIn contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.\n\nWho is a Jew?\n\nMain article: Who is a Jew?\n\nAccording to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with Jewish Law. Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches.[clarification needed] All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.[81] Converts are called \"ben Abraham\" or \"bat Abraham\", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.[82]\n\nRabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew,[83][84] and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes.[85] However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism \"without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community\" and \"A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew\".[86]\n\nKaraite Judaism believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent. Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father. They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.[87]\n\nThe question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on mihu Yehudi (\"Who is a Jew\") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.\n\nHistorical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1\u20135, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because \"[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others.\" Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is \"of the community of Israel.\" This is complemented by Ezra 10:2\u20133, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[88][89] A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.[90][91] Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[92]\n\nJewish demographics\n\nMain article: Jewish population by country\n\nThe total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of \"who is a Jew\" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3\u00a0million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6\u00a0million. Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001.\n\nJewish religious movements\n\nMain article: Jewish religious movements\n\nRabbinic Judaism\n\nRabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rabbinism) (Hebrew: \"Yahadut Rabanit\" \u2013 \u05d9\u05d4\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea \u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.\n\nThe Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.\n\n  \u2022 Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of Jewish law. Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith.\n  \u2022 Orthodoxy is often divided into Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism. Haredi Judaism is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel.\n  \u2022 Conservative Judaism is characterized by a commitment to traditional Jewish laws and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that Jewish law is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.[93][94] Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.\n  \u2022 Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.\nA Reform synagogue with mixed seating and equal participation of men and women\n  \u2022 Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that Jewish law, as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.\n  \u2022 Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of Jewish law. Men and women participate equally in prayer.\n  \u2022 Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.\n\nSephardi and Mizrahi Judaism\n\nWhile traditions and customs (see also \"Sephardic law and customs\") vary between discrete communities, it can be said that Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the \"movement\" framework popular in and among Ashkenazi Jewry.[95] Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a \"big tent\" approach.[96] This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world. (However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.)\n\nSephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the conservative, and prayer rites are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel.\n\nJewish movements in Israel\n\nMain article: Religion in Israel\n\nMost Jewish Israelis classify themselves as \"secular\" (hiloni), \"traditional\" (masorti), \"religious\" (dati) or Haredi. The term \"secular\" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).\n\nThe term \"traditional\" (masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of \"eastern\" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the Conservative Judaism, which also names itself \"Masorti\" outside North America. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways \"secular\" and \"traditional\" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term \"Orthodox\" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the diaspora. What would be called \"Orthodox\" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati (religious) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called \"Religious Zionism\" or the \"National Religious\" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredi-leumi (nationalist haredi), or \"Hardal\", which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as frum, as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)).\n\nHaredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) \"Lithuanian\" (non-hasidic) haredim of Ashkenazic origin; (2) Hasidic haredim of Ashkenazic origin; and (3) Sephardic haredim.\n\nKaraites and Samaritans\n\nKaraite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees. The Karaites (\"Scripturalists\") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat (\"simple\" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.\n\nThe Samaritans, a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus\/Shechem region of the West Bank and in Holon, near Tel Aviv in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age kingdom of Israel. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written Torah (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the Samaritan Book of Joshua).\n\nHaymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)\n\nSee also: Haymanot; Beta Israel.\n\nHaymanot (meaning \"religion\" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier. Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like Sigd.\n\nJewish observances\n\nJewish ethics\n\nMain article: Jewish ethics\n\nJewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness (chesed), compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech (lashon hara). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews.\n\nPrayers\n\nMain article: Jewish services\nA Yemenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a kippah skullcap, prayer shawl and tefillin\n\nTraditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad\u2014\"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!\"\n\nMost of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews, called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well.\n\nIn addition to prayer services, observant traditional Jews recite prayers and benedictions throughout the day when performing various acts. Prayers are recited upon waking up in the morning, before eating or drinking different foods, after eating a meal, and so on.\n\nThe approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs.\n\nReligious clothing\n\nFurther information: kippah, tzitzit, and tefillin\n\nA kippah (Hebrew: \u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4, plural kippot; Yiddish: \u05d9\u05d0\u05b7\u05e8\u05de\u05dc\u05e7\u05e2, yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown.\n\nTzitzit (Hebrew: \u05e6\u05b4\u05d9\u05e6\u05d9\u05b4\u05ea) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tzitzis) are special knotted \"fringes\" or \"tassels\" found on the four corners of the tallit (Hebrew: \u05d8\u05b7\u05dc\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05ea) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis), or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities, it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing.\n\nTefillin (Hebrew: \u05ea\u05b0\u05e4\u05b4\u05dc\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05df), known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, meaning safeguard or amulet), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.[97]\n\nA kittel (Yiddish: \u05e7\u05d9\u05d8\u05dc), a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the High Holidays. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim (burial garments).\n\nJewish holidays\n\nMain article: Jewish holiday\n\nJewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.\n\nShabbat\n\nMain article: Shabbat\nTwo braided Shabbat challahs placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the Shabbat meal\n\nShabbat, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall on Saturday night, commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation.[98] It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. During Shabbat, Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of melakhah, translated literally as \"work\". In fact the activities banned on the Sabbath are not \"work\" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel and using electricity.\n\nThree pilgrimage festivals\n\nMain article: Shalosh regalim\nSome sukkot in Jerusalem\n\nJewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called \"regalim\" (derived from the Hebrew word \"regel\", or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple.\n\n  \u2022 Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread.\n  \u2022 Shavuot (\"Pentecost\" or \"Feast of Weeks\") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.\n  \u2022 Sukkot (\"Tabernacles\" or \"The Festival of Booths\") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. sukkah) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, \"Rejoicing of the Torah\", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.\n\nHigh Holy Days\n\nYom Kippur by Maurycy Gottlieb (1878)\nMain article: High Holidays\n\nThe High Holidays (Yamim Noraim or \"Days of Awe\") revolve around judgment and forgiveness.\n\n  \u2022 Rosh Hashanah, (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or \"Day of Remembrance\", and Yom Teruah, or \"Day of the Sounding of the Shofar\"). Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally, \"head of the year\"), although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar, Tishri. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates.\n  \u2022 Yom Kippur, (\"Day of Atonement\") is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a \"Machzor\". Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the \"seuda mafseket\", is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service, called \"Ne'ilah\", ends with a long blast of the shofar.\n\nPurim\n\nMain article: Purim\nPurim street scene in Jerusalem\nTorah reading, France, 1860 Museum of Jewish Art and History\n\nPurim (Hebrew: About this sound\u00a0\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u00a0(help\u00b7info) P\u00fbr\u00eem \"lots\") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman, who sought to exterminate them, as recorded in the biblical Book of Esther. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organizing carnivals and parties.\n\nPurim has celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of Adar, which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar.\n\nHanukkah\n\nMain article: Hanukkah\n\nHanukkah (Hebrew: \u05d7\u05b2\u05e0\u05bb\u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u200e, \"dedication\") also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev (Hebrew calendar). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.\n\nThe holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning \"dedication\") because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the \"Miracle of the Oil\". According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days \u2013 which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil.\n\nHanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel.\n\nFast days\n\nMain articles: Tisha B'Av, Seventeenth of Tamuz, 10th of Tevet, and Tzom Gedaliah\n\nTisha B'Av (Hebrew: \u05ea\u05e9\u05e2\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d0\u05d1\u200e or \u05d8\u05f3 \u05d1\u05d0\u05d1, \"the Ninth of Av\") is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, and in later times, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.\n\nThere are three more minor Jewish fast days that commemorate various stages of the destruction of the Temples. They are the 17th Tamuz, the 10th of Tevet and Tzom Gedaliah (the 3rd of Tishrei).\n\nIsraeli holidays\n\nMain articles: Yom Hashoah, Yom Hazikaron, and Yom Ha'atzmaut\n\nThe modern holidays of Yom Ha-shoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day), Yom Hazikaron (Israeli Memorial Day) and Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the Holocaust, the fallen soldiers of Israel and victims of terrorism, and Israeli independence, respectively.\n\nThere are some who prefer to commemorate those who were killed in the Holocaust on the 10th of Tevet.\n\nTorah readings\n\nMain article: Torah reading\n\nThe core of festival and Shabbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called Haftarah. Over the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on Simchat Torah.\n\nSynagogues and religious buildings\n\nMain article: Synagogue\nInterior of the Belz Great Synagogue in Jerusalem.\n\nSynagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some traditional features of a synagogue are:\n\n  \u2022 The ark (called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (parochet) outside or inside the ark doors);\n  \u2022 The elevated reader's platform (called bimah by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);\n  \u2022 The eternal light (ner tamid), a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem\n  \u2022 The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying.\n\nIn addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths.\n\nDietary laws: kashrut\n\nMain article: Kashrut\n\nThe Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\".[99]\n\nMany of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.[100] Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud.[101] For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.[99]\n\nIn addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as shechitah. Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.[99]\n\nJewish law also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community, and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic law.[99] Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibition is Rabbinic, not Biblical.[102]\n\nThe use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.[99]\n\nFurthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by non-Jews, due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals.[99] Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.[103]\n\nThe Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut.[99] However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.[104] The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained.[105] In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because \"they are unclean\".[106] The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.[107]\n\nSurvival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.[108][109]\n\nLaws of ritual purity\n\nMain article: Tumah\nA silver matchbox holder for ritual use on Shabbat with inscription in Hebrew\n\nThe Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flux, vaginal flux, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.[110][111] In Rabbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.[112] During the Temple period, such priests (Kohanim) were required to eat their bread offering (Terumah) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as hand-washing which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.\n\nFamily purity\n\n18th-century circumcision chair Museum of Jewish Art and History\nMain article: Niddah\n\nAn important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as niddah, literally \"separation\", or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.[113]\n\nEspecially in Orthodox Judaism, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.[110] The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as zavah, and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. In addition, Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh.[113]\n\nTraditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple's special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.[114][115]\n\nLife-cycle events\n\nLife-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him\/her to the entire community.\n\n  \u2022 Brit milah\u00a0\u2013 Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named zeved habat or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.\n  \u2022 Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah\u00a0\u2013 This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat\/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a \"portion\" of the Torah.\n  \u2022 Marriage\u00a0\u2013 Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event. A wedding takes place under a chuppah, or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people.\n  \u2022 Death and Mourning\u00a0\u2013 Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva (literally \"seven\", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months.\n\nCommunity leadership\n\nClassical priesthood\n\nJewish students with their teacher in Samarkand, Uzbekistan c. 1910.\n\nThe role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty.\n\n  \u2022 Kohen (priest) \u2013 patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.\n  \u2022 Levi (Levite) \u2013 Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.\n\nPrayer leaders\n\nFrom the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities\u2014reading the Torah and haftarah (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals\u2014require a minyan, the presence of ten Jews.\n\nThe most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:\n\n  \u2022 Rabbi of a congregation \u2013 Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below).\n    \u2022 Hassidic Rebbe \u2013 rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.\n  \u2022 Hazzan (note: the \"h\" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) \u2013 a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.\n\nJewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:\n\n  \u2022 Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader\u2014literally \"agent\" or \"representative\"\u2014of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function.\n  \u2022 The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.\n\nMany congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:\n\n  \u2022 Gabbai (sexton) \u2013 Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.\n\nThe three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.\n\nSpecialized religious roles\n\n  \u2022 Dayan (judge) \u2013 An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.\n  \u2022 Mohel (circumciser) \u2013 An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the brit milah (circumcision).\n  \u2022 Shochet (ritual slaughterer) \u2013 In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet.\n  \u2022 Sofer (scribe) \u2013 Torah scrolls, tefillin (phylacteries), mezuzot (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.\n  \u2022 Rosh yeshiva \u2013 A Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva.\n  \u2022 Mashgiach of a yeshiva \u2013 Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics).\n  \u2022 Mashgiach \u2013 Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself.\n\nHistory\n\nMain article: Jewish history\nThis section is about the history of Judaism. For the book on Ancient Judaism, see Ancient Judaism (book).\n\nOrigins\n\nMain article: Origins of Judaism\nFurther information: Ancient Canaanite religion and Ancient Semitic religion\nScenes from the Book of Esther decorate the Dura-Europos synagogue dating from 244 CE\n\nAt its core, the Tanakh is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that Isaac, his second son, would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan). Later, the descendants of Isaac's son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt, and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt. At Mount Sinai, they received the Torah\u2014the five books of Moses. These books, together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav as opposed to the Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud. Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead.\n\nThe Western Wall in Jerusalem is a remnant of the wall encircling the Second Temple. The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism.\n\nOnce King David was established, he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple, and as a reward for his actions, God promised David that he would allow his son, Solomon, to build the First Temple and the throne would never depart from his children.\n\nRabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah or oral law, were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah HaNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah, redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia.[116] Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine.[116] The Babylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of study by the scholars Ravina I, Ravina II, and Rav Ashi by 500 CE, although it continued to be edited later.\n\nSome critical scholars oppose the view that the sacred texts, including the Hebrew Bible, were divinely inspired. Many of these scholars accept the general principles of the documentary hypothesis and suggest that the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.[117][page\u00a0needed][118][119] Many suggest that during the First Temple period, the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.[120][page\u00a0needed][121][page\u00a0needed] Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism.[122] In this view, it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.[123]\n\nJohn Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh, El, Asherah, and Ba'al, may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek pantheon.[124]\n\nAntiquity\n\nMain articles: Ancient Israel and Judah, Babylonian captivity, Hellenistic Judaism, Hasmonean Kingdom, Iudaea Province, and Bar Kokhba revolt\n\nAccording to the Hebrew Bible, the United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem. After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Sargon II in the late 8th century BCE with many people from the capital Samaria being taken captive to Media and the Khabur River valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE, destroying the First Temple that was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judean elite was exiled to Babylonia and this is regarded as the first Jewish Diaspora. Later many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians seventy years later, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. A new Second Temple was constructed, and old religious practices were resumed.\n\nDuring the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly, led by Ezra of the Book of Ezra. Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed.\n\nHellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE. After the Great Revolt (66\u201373 CE), the Romans destroyed the Temple. Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple grounds and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba revolt 132\u2013136 CE after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a religio licita (\"legitimate religion\") until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century.\n\nFollowing the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities (see Jewish diaspora).\n\nHistorical Jewish groupings (to 1700)\n\nThe Torah Ark of the Beth Jakov synagogue in Macedonia\n\nAround the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.[125] Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as \"Judaism\"). The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.)\n\nLike the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites, and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.\n\nOver a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas\u2014amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.\n\nPersecutions\n\nMain articles: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism, and History of antisemitism\n\nAntisemitism arose during the Middle Ages, in the form of persecutions, pogroms, forced conversions, expulsions, social restrictions and ghettoization.\n\nThis was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.[126] During the Middle Ages, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration,[127] but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad's persecutions.[128]\n\nHasidism\n\nMain article: Hasidic Judaism\n\nHasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (1700\u20131760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too \"academic\", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called Shtiebel, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.[129] Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to Tzadiks, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.[130] Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. As some have put it: \"they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost\". Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim, (lit. \"opponents\"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.\n\nThe Enlightenment and new religious movements\n\nMain articles: Haskalah and Jewish religious movements\n\nIn the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the \"Jewish Enlightenment\", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe Jewish law and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.\n\nIn Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of Jewish law. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that Jewish law should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.\n\nSpectrum of observance\n\nJudaism is practised in all parts of the world, for example in a synagogue in downtown Mumbai.\n\nCountries such as the United States, Israel, Canada, United Kingdom, Argentina and South Africa contain large Jewish populations. Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States' Jewish community\u2014the world's second largest\u20144.3\u00a0million Jews out of 5.1\u00a0million had some sort of connection to the religion.[131] Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.[132]\n\nBirth rates for American Jews have dropped from 2.0 to 1.7.[133] (Replacement rate is 2.1.) Intermarriage rates range from 40\u201350% in the US, and only about a third of children of intermarried couples are raised as Jews. Due to intermarriage and low birth rates, the Jewish population in the US shrank from 5.5\u00a0million in 1990 to 5.1\u00a0million in 2001. This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the Diaspora, but a focus on total population obscures growth trends in some denominations and communities, such as Haredi Judaism. The Baal teshuva movement is a movement of Jews who have \"returned\" to religion or become more observant.\n\nJudaism and other religions\n\nChristianity and Judaism\n\nMain article: Christianity and Judaism\nSee also: Christianity and antisemitism and Christian\u2013Jewish reconciliation\n\nChristianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions diverged in the first century. The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of atonement and sin, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the nature of God himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as Shituf or worship of the God of Israel which is not monotheistic. Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church, though a Christian belief in dual-covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how their theology influenced the Nazi Holocaust.[134]\n\nSince the time of the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church upheld the Constitution pro Jud\u00e6is (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated\n\nWe decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse. ... Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live.\"[135]\n\nUntil their emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval Sweden). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example, England in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and Spain in 1492 (readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.[136] In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848. Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid[137] with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858. The newly united German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935.\n\nJewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. An underlying source of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the Holocaust.[138]:21[139]:169[140] These attitudes were reinforced in Christian preaching, art and popular teaching for two millennia, containing contempt for Jews,[141] as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church,[142] as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious r\u00e9gime.[143]\n\nThe attitude of Christians and Christian Churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism, have been changed mostly positive since World War II. Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have \"upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people\" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews.[144] In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.[145]\n\nIslam and Judaism\n\nMain article: Islam and Judaism\n\nBoth Judaism and Islam arose from the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered Abrahamic religions. In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of Abraham\u2014Isaac and Ishmael, respectively. While both religions are monotheistic and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider Jesus or Muhammad to be prophets. The religions' adherents have interacted with each other since the 7th century when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula. Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.[146] For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males,[146] and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.[147] Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Qur'an or the hadiths but invented in early medieval Baghdad and inconsistently enforced.[148] Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution\u2014for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus,[149] as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: Mawza Exile). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence\u2014in Morocco, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.[150]\n\nIn the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries.[151][152][153] Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.[154]\n\nSyncretic movements incorporating Judaism\n\nThere are some movements that combine elements of Judaism with those of other religions. The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,[155][156][157][158] that incorporates elements of Judaism with the tenets of Christianity.[158][159][160][161][162] The movement generally states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the Three Divine Persons,[163][164] and that salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.[165] Some members of the movement argue that Messianic Judaism is a sect of Judaism.[166] Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of Pauline Christianity.[167]\n\nOther examples of syncretism include Semitic neopaganism, a loosely organized sect which incorporates pagan or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices; Jewish Buddhists, another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of Asian spirituality in their faith; and some Renewal Jews who borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Sufism, Native American religions, and other faiths.\n\nThe Kabbalah Centre, which employs teachers from multiple religions, is a New Age movement that claims to popularize the kabbalah, part of the Jewish esoteric tradition.\n\nSee also\n\n  \u2022 Judaism portal\n  \u2022 iconReligion portal\n  \u2022 Book: Abrahamic religions\n  \u2022 Book: Judaism\n  \u2022 Anti-Judaism\n  \u2022 Criticism of Judaism\n  \u2022 Frankism\n  \u2022 Jewish assimilation\n  \u2022 Jewish culture\n  \u2022 Jewish views of religious pluralism\n  \u2022 Judaism by country\n  \u2022 List of converts to Judaism\n  \u2022 Outline of Judaism\n  \u2022 Sabbateanism\n  \u2022 Sumer\n\nReferences\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"The Bible and Interpretation\".\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Oxford Dictionaries \u2013 Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar\".\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties, Berkeley: University of California Press; p.\u00a07\n  4. Jump up ^ Jacobs, Louis (2007). \"Judaism\". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p.\u00a0511. ISBN\u00a0978-0-02-865928-2. Judaism, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Knowledge Resources: Judaism\". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved 22 November 2011.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ 14.3\u00a0million (core Jewish population) to 17.4\u00a0million (including non-Jews who have a Jewish parent), according to:\n    \u2022 DellaPergola, Sergio (2015). World Jewish Population, 2015 (Report). Berman Jewish DataBank. Retrieved 4 May 2016.\u00a0\n    14\u201314.5\u00a0million according to:\n    \u2022 \"Worldwide Jewry numbers 14 million\". Ynet. Retrieved 21 October 2013.\u00a0\n    \u2022 \"Jewish Population\". Judaism101. Retrieved 20 September 2013.\u00a0\n    \u2022 Daniel J. Elazar. \"How Strong is Orthodox Judaism \u2013 Really? The Demographics of Jewish Religious Identification\". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 20 September 2013.\u00a0\n    \u2022 \"The Global Religious Landscape\u00a0\u2013 Jews\". Pew Research Center. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2013.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"What is the oral Torah?\". Torah.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Karaite Jewish University\". Kjuonline.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Society for Humanistic Judaism\". Shj.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Jewish Denominations\". ReligionFacts. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Reform Judaism\". ReligionFacts. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"What is Reform Judaism?\". Reformjudaism.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. \"Britannica Online Encyclopedia: Bet Din\". Britannica.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Judaism 101: Rabbis, Priests and Other Religious Functionaries\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ David P Mindell (30 June 2009). The Evolving World. Harvard University Press. p.\u00a0224. ISBN\u00a0978-0-674-04108-0.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"History of Judaism until 164 BCE\". History of Judaism. BBC.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Religion & Ethics \u2013 Judaism\". BBC. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Religion: Three Religions, One God PBS\n  19. Jump up ^ Settings of silver: an introduction to Judaism p.\u00a059 by Stephen M. Wylen, Paulist Press, 2000\n  20. Jump up ^ Heribert Busse (1998). Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Affiliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp.\u00a063\u2013112. ISBN\u00a0978-1-55876-144-5.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp.\u00a092\u201393. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7456-3999-4.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Jewish Contributions to Civilization: An Estimate (book)\n  23. Jump up ^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.\n  24. Jump up ^ See, for example, Deborah Dash Moore, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p.\u00a0303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890\u20131940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p.\u00a0217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.\u00a064; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.\u00a055; Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman, Donald Altschiller, Charles Walker Bassett, Jews in American politics: essays, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p.\u00a0158; Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W. W. Norton & Company, 1997, p.\u00a0169.\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b \"World Jewish Population 2015\". Retrieved 8 August 2016.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Nahum Sarna 1969 Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken\n  27. Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob (2003). \"Defining Judaism\". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan. The Blackwell companion to Judaism. Blackwell. p.\u00a03. ISBN\u00a0978-1-57718-059-3. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Gen. 17:3\u20138 Genesis 17: 3\u20138: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, \"As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram\u00a0; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;\" Gen. 22:17\u201318 Genesis 22: 17\u201318: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring, all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me.\"\n  29. Jump up ^ Exodus 20:3 \"You shall have no other gods before me; Deut. 6:5 Deuteronomy 6:5 \"Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength.\"\n  30. Jump up ^ Lev. 19:18 Leviticus 19:18: \"'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord\"\n  31. Jump up ^ Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p.\u00a0194\n  32. Jump up ^ Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p.\u00a0203\n  33. Jump up ^ The Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's \"wives turned away his heart after other gods...[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD\" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4\u201310); King Ahab \"went and served Baal, and worshiped him...And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him\" (1 Melachim 16:31\u201333); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who \"prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny\" (Yeshaiahu 65:11\u201312). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at Mechon Mamre.\n  34. Jump up ^ Newman, Carey C.; Davila, James R.; Lewis, Gladys S., eds. (1999). The Jewish roots of Christological monotheism: papers from the St. Andrews conference on the historical origins of the worship of Jesus. Brill. ISBN\u00a0978-90-04-11361-9. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Steinberg, Milton 1947 Basic Judaism New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 36\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Judaism 101: Movements of Judaism\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Theology on Tap Winter 2014 under way in Mandeville: Keeping the Faith\". NOLA.com.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Langton, Daniel R. (2011). Normative Judaism? Jews, Judaism and Jewish Identity. Gorgias press. ISBN\u00a0978-1-60724-161-4.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Rabbi S. of Montpelier, Yad Rama, Y. Alfacher, Rosh Amanah.\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Maimonides' 13 Foundations of Judaism\". Mesora. However if he rejects one of these fundamentals he leaves the nation and is a denier of the fundamentals and is called a heretic, a denier, etc.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Rabbi Mordechai Blumenfeld. \"Maimonides, 13 Principles of Faith\". Aish HaTorah. According to the Rambam, their acceptance defines the minimum requirement necessary for one to relate to the Almighty and His Torah as a member of the People of Israel\u00a0\n  42. ^ Jump up to: a b c Daniel Septimus. \"The Thirteen Principles of Faith\". MyJewishLearning.com.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication Society. p.\u00a0509. ISBN\u00a00-8276-0760-1. The concept of \"dogma\" is ... not a basic idea in Judaism.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner.\n  45. Jump up ^ \"The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith\". Hebrew4Christians. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"What Do Jews Believe?\". Mechon Mamre. The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ The JPS guide to Jewish traditions, p. 510, \"The one that eventually secured almost universal acceptance was the Thirteen Principles of faith\"\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Judaism 101: What Do Jews Believe?\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Description of Judaism, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance\". Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Judaism 101: The Patriarchs and the Origins of Judaism\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. \"How Do You Know the Exodus Really Happened?\". Archived from the original on 18 September 2004.\u00a0 The word \"emunah\" has been translated incorrectly by the King James Bible as merely \"belief\" or \"faith\", when in actuality, it means conviction, which is a much more emphatic knowledge of God based on experience.\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Jewish Sacred Texts\". ReligionFacts. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ M. San 10:1. Translation available here [1].\n  54. Jump up ^ Kosior, Wojciech (2015). Some Remarks on the Self-Images of the Modern Judaism. Textual Analysis. Filozofia kultury. Krak\u00f3w. pp.\u00a091\u2013106.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Judaism 101: A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts\". Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in America. 12 April 2006. Archived from the original on 19 February 2001.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ Danzinger, Eliezer. \"How Many of the Torah's Commandments Still Apply?\". Chabad.org. Retrieved 5 June 2017.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ Codex Judaica Kantor 2006, page 146\" (as cited on Judah haNasi)\n  58. Jump up ^ Abraham ben David, Seder Ha-Kabbalah Leharavad, Jerusalem 1971, p.16 (Hebrew) (as cited on Judah haNasi)\n  59. Jump up ^ Student, Gil. \"Proofs for the Oral Law\". The AishDas Society. Retrieved 5 June 2017.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ The Prayer book: Weekday, Sabbath, and Festival translated and arranged by Ben Zion Bokser. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company. pp.\u00a09\u201310\n  61. Jump up ^ Kadushin, Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind New York: Bloch Publishing. p.\u00a0213\n  62. Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii\u2013xxii\n  63. Jump up ^ Stern, David \"Midrash and Indeterminacy\" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p.\u00a0151.\n  64. Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii-vix; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New York: Basic Books. 3\u20139; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95; Stern, David \"Midrash and Indeterminacy\" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp.\u00a0132\u2013161\n  65. Jump up ^ Stern, David \"Midrash and Indeterminacy\" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p.\u00a0147.\n  66. Jump up ^ Cohen, Abner 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95\n  67. Jump up ^ Cohen, Abner 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95\n  68. Jump up ^ Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. p. 95\n  69. Jump up ^ \u05e1\u05d3\u05d5\u05e8 \u05e8\u05d9\u05e0\u05ea \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc \u05dc\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d7\u05d5\u05f2\u05dc Jerusalem: 1974, pp.\u00a038\u201339\n  70. Jump up ^ Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks, 2006 The Koren Sacks Siddur: Hebrew\/English Prayer Book: The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth London: Harper Collins Publishers pp.\u00a054\u201355\n  71. Jump up ^ Nosson Scherman 2003 The Complete Artscroll Siddur Third Edition Brooklyn, N.Y.: Mesorah Publications pp.\u00a049\u201353\n  72. Jump up ^ Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, Nissen Mangel, 2003 Siddur Tehillat Hashem Kehot Publication Society. pp.\u00a024\u201325\n  73. Jump up ^ \u1f30\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u0390\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek\u2013English Lexicon at the Perseus Project\n  74. Jump up ^ \"Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel\". Bibleinterp.com. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ Judaism, AskOxford Archived 31 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.\n  76. ^ Jump up to: a b Skarsaune, Oskar (2002). In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity. InterVarsity Press. pp.\u00a039ff. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8308-2670-4. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California Press. 105\u2013106\n  78. Jump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary.\n  79. Jump up ^ Boyarin, Daniel (14 October 1994). \"Introduction\". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp.\u00a013\u201338. ISBN\u00a00-520-08592-2. LCCN\u00a093036269. Retrieved 15 June 2006. Paul was motivated by a Hellenistic desire for the One, which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence, beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity, however, was predicated (and still is) on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit, such that while the body is particular, marked through practice as Jew or Greek, and through anatomy as male or female, the spirit is universal. Paul did not, however, reject the body\u2014as did, for instance, the gnostics\u2014but rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place, albeit subordinated to the spirit. Paul's anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component, so also is language itself. It is composed of outer, material signs and inner, spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited, the physical, fleshy signs of the Torah, of historical Judaism, are re-interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal requirements and possibilities for humanity.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ Boyarin, Daniel (1994). \"Answering the Mail\". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN\u00a00-520-08592-2. Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension with one another.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ Weiner, Rebecca (2007). \"Who is a Jew?\". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 6 October 2007.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ Samuel G. Freedman, \"Strains Grow Between Israel and Many Jews in the U.S.\" The New York Times, 6 February 2015\n  83. Jump up ^ \"Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?\". Faqs.org. 29 June 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ Heschel, Susannah (1998) Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 157. ISBN\u00a00-226-32959-3\n  85. Jump up ^ \"Law of Return 5710-1950\". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2007. Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2007.\u00a0\n  86. Jump up ^ Jacob, Walter (1987). Contemporary American Reform Responsa. Mars, Pa.: Central Conference of American Rabbis. pp.\u00a0100\u2013106. ISBN\u00a00-88123-003-0. Retrieved 28 September 2011.\u00a0\n  87. Jump up ^ \"Karaite FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions About Karaism\".\u00a0\n  88. Jump up ^ \"What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?\". Shamash.org. 4 September 2003. Retrieved 9 January 2009.\u00a0[permanent dead link]\n  89. Jump up ^ \"What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?\". Torah.org. Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009.\u00a0\n  90. Jump up ^ Emma Klein (27 July 2016). Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today. Springer. pp.\u00a06\u2013. ISBN\u00a0978-1-349-24319-8.\u00a0\n  91. Jump up ^ Robin May Schott (25 October 2010). Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment. Indiana University Press. pp.\u00a067\u2013. ISBN\u00a00-253-00482-9.\u00a0\n  92. Jump up ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 56\u201357.\n  93. Jump up ^ Robert Gordis. \"Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views\". A Modern Approach to a Living Halachah. Masorti World. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. The Torah is an emanation of God... This conception does not mean, for us, that the process of revelation consisted of dictation by God.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ \"Conservative Judaism\". Jewlicious. We therefore understand this term as a metaphor to mean that the Torah is divine and that it reflects God's will.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ Elazar, Daniel. \"Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?\". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 15 May 2018.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ Jager, Elliot. \"Sephardi Judaism Straining to Stay Non-Denominational\". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 15 May 2018.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ \"Tefillin\", \"The Book of Jewish Knowledge\", Nathan Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p.\u00a0458\n  98. Jump up ^ \"Shabbat\". Judaism 101. 12 April 2006.\u00a0\n  99. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"Judaism 101: Kashrut\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  100. Jump up ^ Chaya Shuchat. \"The Kosher Pig?\". It is also the most quintessentially \"treif\" of animals, with its name being nearly synonymous with non-kosher ... Although far from alone in the litany of non-kosher animals, the pig seems to stand in a class of its own.\u00a0\n  101. Jump up ^ \"Tamar Levy, St. Louis, MO \u2013 Block Yeshiva High School, Grade 9\". OUkosher.org. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  102. Jump up ^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah, (87:3)\n  103. Jump up ^ Elliot Dorff, \"\"On the Use of All Wines\"\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2009.\u00a0\u00a0(2.19\u00a0MB), YD 123:1.1985, pp.\u00a011\u201315.\n  104. Jump up ^ \"Kashrut Facts\". Religionfacts.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  105. Jump up ^ \"Judaism 101: Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  106. Jump up ^ Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 11\n  107. Jump up ^ Rice, Yisrael (10 June 2007). \"Judaism and the Art of Eating\". Chabad. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  108. Jump up ^ Jewish life in WWII England: \"there was a...special dispensation...that allowed Jews serving in the armed services to eat \"non-kosher\" when no Jewish food was available; that deviation from halacha was allowed 'in order to save a human life including your own.'\"\n  109. Jump up ^ Y. Lichtenshtein M.A. \"Weekly Pamphlet #805\". Bar-Ilan University, Faculty of Jewish Studies, Rabbinical office. ... certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for example eating non-kosher food\u00a0\n  110. ^ Jump up to: a b Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 15.\n  111. Jump up ^ Bamidbar (Numbers) 19.\n  112. Jump up ^ Avi Kehat. \"Torah tidbits\". Ou.org. Archived from the original on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  113. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Judaism 101: Kosher Sex\". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  114. Jump up ^ \"Karaites\". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\u00a0\n  115. Jump up ^ Wasserfall, Rahel (1999). Women and water: menstruation in Jewish life and law. Brandeis University Press. ISBN\u00a00-87451-960-8.\u00a0\n  116. ^ Jump up to: a b Wilhelm Bacher. \"Talmud\". Jewish Encyclopedia.\u00a0\n  117. Jump up ^ Yehezkal Kauffman, The Religion of Israel\n  118. Jump up ^ Robert Alter The Art of Biblical Poetry\n  119. Jump up ^ E. A. Speiser Genesis (The Anchor Bible)\n  120. Jump up ^ John Bright A History of Israel\n  121. Jump up ^ Martin Noth The History of Israel\n  122. Jump up ^ Ephraim Urbach The Sages\n  123. Jump up ^ Shaye Cohen The beginnings of Jewishness\n  124. Jump up ^ John Day Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan, page 68.\n  125. Jump up ^ Sara E. Karesh; Mitchell M. Hurvitz (2005). Encyclopedia of Judaism. Infobase Publishing. pp.\u00a0444\u2013. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8160-6982-8. The Sadducees disappeared when the second Temple was destroyed in the year 70 C.E and Pharisaic Judaism became the preeminent Jewish sect.\u00a0\n  126. Jump up ^ Langmuir, Gavin (1993). History, religion, and antisemitism. University of California Press. ISBN\u00a00-520-07728-8.\u00a0\n  127. Jump up ^ Cohen, Mark R. \"The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History.\" Tikkun 6.3 (1991)\n  128. Jump up ^ Amira K. Bennison and Mar\u00eda \u00c1ngeles Gallego. \"Jewish Trading in Fes On The Eve of the Almohad Conquest.\" MEAH, secci\u00f3n Hebreo 56 (2007), 33\u201351\n  129. Jump up ^ Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. pp.\u00a0205\u2013207.\u00a0\n  130. Jump up ^ Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. pp.\u00a0202\u2013204.\u00a0\n  131. Jump up ^ \"National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) 2000\u201301\".\u00a0\n  132. Jump up ^ Taylor, Humphrey (15 October 2003). \"While Most Americans Believe in God, Only 36% Attend a Religious Service Once a Month or More Often\" (PDF). HarrisInteractive. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2010.\u00a0\n  133. Jump up ^ This is My Beloved, This is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate relations, p.\u00a027, Elliot N. Dorff\n  134. Jump up ^ R. Kendall Soulen, The God of Israel and Christian Theology, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) ISBN\u00a0978-0-8006-2883-3\n  135. Jump up ^ Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (12 July 2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a0120. ISBN\u00a09780521869607.\u00a0\n  136. Jump up ^ \"New Amsterdam's Jewish Crusader\". Jewish Virtual Library.\u00a0\n  137. Jump up ^ \"Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, 1st Baronet\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\u00a0\n  138. Jump up ^ Richard Harries. After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-926313-4\n  139. Jump up ^ Hans K\u00fcng. On Being a Christian. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y., 1976 ISBN\u00a0978-0-385-02712-0\n  140. Jump up ^ Lucy Dawidowicz The War Against the Jews, 1933\u20131945. First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p.\u00a023. ISBN\u00a00-553-34532-X\n  141. Jump up ^ Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. 5 May 2009. The Origins of Christian Anti-Semitism: Interview with Pieter van der Horst\n  142. Jump up ^ Gill, Anton (1994). An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler. Heinemann Mandarin. 1995 paperback ISBN\u00a0978-0-434-29276-9; p.57\n  143. Jump up ^ Gottfried, Ted (2001). Heroes of the Holocaust. Twenty-First Century Books. pp.\u00a024\u201325. ISBN\u00a09780761317173. Retrieved 14 January 2017. Some groups that are known to have helped Jews were religious in nature. One of these was the Confessing Church, a Protestant denomination formed in May 1934, the year after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. One of its goals was to repeal the Nazi law \"which required that the civil service would be purged of all those who were either Jewish or of partly Jewish descent.\" Another was to help those \"who suffered through repressive laws, or violence.\" About 7,000 of the 17,000 Protestant clergy in Germany joined the Confessing Church. Much of their work has one unrecognized, but two who will never forget them are Max Krakauer and his wife. Sheltered in sixty-six houses and helped by more than eighty individuals who belonged to the Confessing Church, they owe them their lives. German Catholic churches went out of their way to protect Catholics of Jewish ancestry. More inclusive was the principled stand taken by Catholic Bishop Clemens Count von Galen of Munster. He publicly denounced the Nazi slaughter of Jews and actually succeeded in having the problem halted for a short time. ... Members of the Society of Friends\u2014German Quakers working with organizations of Friends from other countries\u2014were particularly successful in rescuing Jews. ... Jehovah's Witnesses, themselves targeted for concentration camps, also provided help to Jews.\u00a0\n  144. Jump up ^ Wigoder, Geoffrey (1988). Jewish-Christian Relations Since the Second World War. Manchester University Press. p.\u00a087. ISBN\u00a09780719026393. Retrieved 14 January 2017.\u00a0\n  145. Jump up ^ \"Vatican issues new document on Christian-Jewish dialogue\".\u00a0\n  146. ^ Jump up to: a b Lewis (1984), pp.\u00a010, 20\n  147. Jump up ^ Lewis (1984), pp.\u00a09, 27\n  148. Jump up ^ Lewis (1999), p.\u00a0131\n  149. Jump up ^ Lewis (1984), pp.\u00a017, 18, 52, 94, 95; Stillman (1979), pp.\u00a027, 77\n  150. Jump up ^ Lewis (1984), p.\u00a028\n  151. Jump up ^ \"Why Jews Fled the Arab Countries\". Middle East Forum. Retrieved on 28 July 2013.\n  152. Jump up ^ Shumsky, Dmitry. (12 September 2012) \"Recognize Jews as refugees from Arab countries\". Haaretz. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.\n  153. Jump up ^ Meir, Esther. (9 October 2012) \"The truth about the expulsion\". 'Haaretz. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.\n  154. Jump up ^ Bernard Lewis (June 1998). \"Muslim Anti-Semitism\". Middle East Quarterly.\u00a0\n  155. Jump up ^ Feher, Shoshanah. Passing over Easter: Constructing the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism, Rowman Altamira, 1998, ISBN\u00a0978-0-7619-8953-0, p.\u00a0140. \"This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the 1960s, when Messianic Judaism arose.\"\n  156. Jump up ^ Ariel, Yaakov (2006). \"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism\". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p.\u00a0191. ISBN\u00a0978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN\u00a02006022954. OCLC\u00a0315689134. In the late 1960s and 1970s, both Jews and Christians in the United States were surprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish Christians or Christian Jews.\u00a0\n  157. Jump up ^ Ariel, Yaakov (2006). \"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism\". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p.\u00a0194. ISBN\u00a0978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN\u00a02006022954. OCLC\u00a0315689134. The Rise of Messianic Judaism. In the first phase of the movement, during the early and mid-1970s, Jewish converts to Christianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish Christians, Messianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or Christian denominations, even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community.\u00a0\n  158. ^ Jump up to: a b Melton, J. Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Infobase Publishing, 2005, ISBN\u00a0978-0-8160-5456-5, p.\u00a0373. \"Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith.... By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews.\"\n  159. Jump up ^ Ariel, Yaakov (2006). \"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism\". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. p.\u00a0191. ISBN\u00a0978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN\u00a02006022954. OCLC\u00a0315689134. While Christianity started in the first century of the Common Era as a Jewish group, it quickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it; ever since the relationship between the two traditions has often been strained. But in the twentieth century groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome the historical differences between the two religions and amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the Christian faith.\u00a0\n  160. Jump up ^ Ariel, Yaakov (2006). \"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism\". In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp.\u00a0194\u2013195. ISBN\u00a0978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN\u00a02006022954. OCLC\u00a0315689134. When the term resurfaced in Israel in the 1940s and 1950s, it designated all Jews who accepted Christianity in its Protestant evangelical form. Missionaries such as the Southern Baptist Robert Lindsey noted that for Israeli Jews, the term nozrim, \"Christians\" in Hebrew, meant, almost automatically, an alien, hostile religion. Because such a term made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that Christianity was their religion, missionaries sought a more neutral term, one that did not arouse negative feelings. They chose Meshichyim, Messianic, to overcome the suspicion and antagonism of the term nozrim. Meshichyim as a term also had the advantage of emphasizing messianism as a major component of the Christian evangelical belief that the missions and communities of Jewish converts to Christianity propagated. It conveyed the sense of a new, innovative religion rather that [sic] an old, unfavorable one. The term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted Jesus as their personal savior, and did not apply to Jews accepting Roman Catholicism who in Israel have called themselves Hebrew Christians. The term Messianic Judaism was adopted in the United States in the early 1970s by those converts to evangelical Christianity who advocated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts towards their Jewish roots and heritage.\u00a0\n  161. Jump up ^ Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2000). \"Messianic Jewish mission\". Messianic Judaism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p.\u00a0179. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8264-5458-4. OCLC\u00a042719687. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement.\u00a0\n  162. Jump up ^ Ariel, Yaakov S. (2000). \"Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism\". Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America, 1880\u20132000. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p.\u00a0223. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8078-4880-7. OCLC\u00a043708450. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Messianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly, the missions' publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism, it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.\u00a0\n  163. Jump up ^ \"What are the Standards of the UMJC?\". Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations. June 1998. Archived from the original on 20 October 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015. 1. We believe the Bible is the inspired, the only infallible, authoritative Word of G-d.\n    2. We believe that there is one G-d, eternally existent in three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.\n    3. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua, the Messiah, in His virgin birth, in His sinless life, in His miracles, in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood, in His bodily resurrection, in His ascension to the right hand of the Father, and in His personal return in power and glory.\n    \u00a0\n  164. Jump up ^ Israel b. Betzalel (2009). \"Trinitarianism\". JerusalemCouncil.org. Retrieved 3 July 2009. This then is who Yeshua is: He is not just a man, and as a man, he is not from Adam, but from God. He is the Word of HaShem, the Memra, the Davar, the Righteous One, he didn't become righteous, he is righteous. He is called God's Son, he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem, and he is \"HaShem\" who we interact with and not die.\u00a0\n  165. Jump up ^ \"Do I need to be Circumcised?\". JerusalemCouncil.org. 10 February 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2010. To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech, accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after one's heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah \u2013 as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God, and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come.... Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem, and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come \u2013 at which point, what good is Messiah Yeshua, the Word of HaShem to you? He would have died for nothing!... As a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is, being made righteous before HaShem, and thus obtaining eternal life), but it is a requirement of obedience to God's commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death, the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the Messiah.\u00a0\n  166. Jump up ^ *\"Jewish Conversion \u2013 Giyur\". JerusalemCouncil.org. JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009. We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism), a sect of Judaism.\u00a0\n  167. Jump up ^\n    Orthodox\n    Simmons, Shraga. \"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus\". Aish HaTorah. Retrieved 28 July 2010. Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because:\n    #Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. #Biblical verses \"referring\" to Jesus are mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on national revelation.\n    \u00a0\n    Conservative\n    Waxman, Jonathan (2006). \"Messianic Jews Are Not Jews\". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s\/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the Christian side....we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.\u00a0\n    Reform\n    \"Missionary Impossible\". Hebrew Union College. 9 August 1999. Archived from the original on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to \"Jews-for-Jesus,\" \"Messianic Jews,\" and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries.\u00a0\n    Reconstructionist\/Renewal\n    \"FAQ's About Jewish Renewal\". Aleph.org. 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2007. What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called \"Messianic Judaism\" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.\u00a0\n\nBibliography\n\n  \u2022 Marc Lee Raphael, Judaism in America (Columbia University Press, 2003)\n  \u2022 Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob (eds.), The Blackwell reader in Judaism (Blackwell, 2001)\n  \u2022 Cohn-Sherbok, Dan, Judaism: history, belief, and practice (Routledge, 2003)\n  \u2022 Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Blackwell, 2003)\n  \u2022 Boyarin, Daniel (1994). A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.\n  \u2022 Max Weber, Ancient Judaism, Free Press, 1967, ISBN\u00a00-02-934130-2.\n  \u2022 Wayne Dosick, Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice.\n  \u2022 Neil Gillman, Conservative Judaism: The New Century, Behrman House.\n  \u2022 Jeffrey S. Gurock, American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective. 1996, Ktav.\n  \u2022 Julius Guttmann, trans. by David Silverman, Philosophies of Judaism. JPS. 1964\n  \u2022 Barry W. Holtz, ed., Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts. Summit Books.\n  \u2022 Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews. HarperCollins, 1988\n  \u2022 Jack Wertheime, A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America, Brandeis University Press, 1997.\n  \u2022 Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing, CD-ROM edition, 1997\n  \u2022 Egon Mayer, Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar, \"The American Jewish Identity Survey\", a subset of The American Religious Identity Survey, City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in The New York Jewish Week, 2 November 2001.\n  \u2022 Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN\u00a00-691-00807-8.\n  \u2022 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN\u00a00-393-31839-7.\n  \u2022 Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN\u00a00-8276-0198-0.\n  \u2022 Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Chippenham: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.\n  \u2022 Dever, William G. Did God Have a Wife?. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2005.\n  \u2022 Walsh, J. P. M. The Mighty from Their Thrones. Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1987.\n  \u2022 Finkelstein, Israel (1996). \"Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up?\" The Biblical Archaeologist, 59(4).\n\nJews in Islamic countries:\n\n  \u2022 A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006).\n\nExternal links\n\nFind more aboutJudaismat Wikipedia's sister projects\n  \u2022 Definitions from Wiktionary\n  \u2022 Media from Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 News from Wikinews\n  \u2022 Quotations from Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Texts from Wikisource\n  \u2022 Textbooks from Wikibooks\n  \u2022 Travel guide from Wikivoyage\n  \u2022 Learning resources from Wikiversity\nGeneral\n  \u2022 Judaism 101, an extensive FAQ written by a librarian.\n  \u2022 Judaism article from the 1901\u20131906 Jewish Encyclopedia\n  \u2022 Shamash's Judaism resource page\nOrthodox\/Haredi\n  \u2022 Orthodox Judaism \u2013 The Orthodox Union\n  \u2022 Chabad-Lubavitch\n  \u2022 Rohr Jewish Learning Institute\n  \u2022 The Various Types of Orthodox Judaism\n  \u2022 Aish HaTorah\n  \u2022 Ohr Somayach\nTraditional\/Conservadox\n  \u2022 Union for Traditional Judaism\nConservative\n  \u2022 The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism\n  \u2022 Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel\n  \u2022 United Synagogue Youth\nReform\/Progressive\n  \u2022 The Union for Reform Judaism (USA)\n  \u2022 Reform Judaism (UK)\n  \u2022 Liberal Judaism (UK)\n  \u2022 World Union for Progressive Judaism (Israel)\nReconstructionist\n  \u2022 Jewish Reconstructionist Federation\nRenewal\n  \u2022 ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal\n  \u2022 OHALAH Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal\nHumanistic\n  \u2022 Society for Humanistic Judaism\nKaraite\n  \u2022 World Movement for Karaite Judaism\nJewish religious literature and texts\n  \u2022 Complete Tanakh (in Hebrew, with vowels).\n  \u2022 Parallel Hebrew-English Tanakh\n  \u2022 English Tanakh from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version.\n  \u2022 The Judaica Press Complete Tanach with Rashi in English\n  \u2022 Torah.org. (also known as Project Genesis) Contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.\n  \u2022 The complete formatted Talmud online. Audio files of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew. Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud.\n\nSee also Torah database for links to more Judaism e-texts.\n\nWikimedia Torah study projects\nWikisource has original text related to this article:\nPentateuch\n\nText study projects at Wikisource. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English.\n\n  \u2022 Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample).\n  \u2022 Cantillation at the \"Vayavinu Bamikra\" Project in Hebrew (lists nearly 200 recordings) and English.\n  \u2022 Mishnah in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample).\n  \u2022 Shulchan Aruch in Hebrew and English (Hebrew text with English translation).\nshow\nLinks to related articles\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nJews and Judaism\n  \u2022 Outline of Judaism\n  \u2022 Index of Jewish history-related articles\nHistory\n  \u2022 Timeline\n  \u2022 Israelites\n  \u2022 Origins of Judaism\n  \u2022 Ancient Israel and Judah\n  \u2022 Second Temple period\n  \u2022 Rabbinic Judaism\n  \u2022 Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Haskalah\n  \u2022 Zionism\nPopulation\n  \u2022 Assimilation\n  \u2022 Diaspora\n    \u2022 Ashkenazi\n    \u2022 Sephardi\n    \u2022 Mizrahi\n  \u2022 Languages\n    \u2022 Hebrew\n    \u2022 Judeo-Arabic\n    \u2022 Judaeo-Spanish\n    \u2022 Yiddish\n  \u2022 Lists of Jews\n  \u2022 Persecution\n    \u2022 Antisemitism\nPhilosophy\n  \u2022 Beliefs\n    \u2022 Mitzvah\n  \u2022 Chosen people\n  \u2022 Conversion\n  \u2022 Eschatology\n    \u2022 Messiah\n  \u2022 Ethics\n  \u2022 God\n  \u2022 Halakha\n  \u2022 Kabbalah\n  \u2022 Land of Israel\n  \u2022 Who is a Jew?\nSchisms\n  \u2022 Religious movements\n    \u2022 Orthodox\n    \u2022 Haredi\n    \u2022 Hasidic\n    \u2022 Conservative\n    \u2022 Reform\n    \u2022 Karaite\n    \u2022 relations\n  \u2022 Secularism\nLiterature\n  \u2022 Tanakh\n    \u2022 Torah\n    \u2022 Nevi'im\n    \u2022 Ketuvim\n  \u2022 Rabbinic\n    \u2022 Mishnah\n    \u2022 Talmud\n    \u2022 Midrash\n  \u2022 Kabbalah texts\n    \u2022 Zohar\n  \u2022 Shulchan Aruch\n  \u2022 Siddur\n  \u2022 Hebrew literature\nCulture\n  \u2022 Calendar\n    \u2022 Holidays\n  \u2022 Cuisine\n    \u2022 Kashrut\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Leadership\n    \u2022 Rabbi\n  \u2022 Marriage\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Names\n  \u2022 Politics\n  \u2022 Prayer\n    \u2022 Synagogue\n    \u2022 Hazzan\n  \u2022 Symbolism\nStudies\n  \u2022 Ashkenazi intelligence\n  \u2022 Genetics\n  \u2022 Jew (word)\n  \u2022 Jewish Virtual Library\n  \u2022 Relations with other Abrahamic religions\n    \u2022 Christianity\n    \u2022 Islam\n  \u2022 Category\u00a0Category: Jews and Judaism\n  \u2022 Star of David.svg Judaism portal\n  \u2022 Judaism \u2013 Wikipedia book\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nReligion\nshow\nMajor religious groups and religious denominations\nAbrahamic\nJudaism\n  \u2022 Orthodox\n    \u2022 Haredi\n    \u2022 Hasidic\n    \u2022 Modern\n  \u2022 Conservative\n  \u2022 Reform\n  \u2022 Karaite\n  \u2022 Samaritanism\n  \u2022 Haymanot\n  \u2022 Reconstructionist\n  \u2022 Renewal\n  \u2022 Humanistic\nChristianity\n  \u2022 Catholic Church\n    \u2022 Latin Church\n    \u2022 Eastern Catholic Churches\n  \u2022 Eastern Orthodox Church\n  \u2022 Oriental Orthodoxy\n  \u2022 Assyrian Church\n    \u2022 Ancient Church\n  \u2022 Protestantism\n    \u2022 Waldensians\n    \u2022 Moravian Church\n    \u2022 Lutheranism\n    \u2022 Calvinism\/Presbyterianism\n    \u2022 Anabaptism\n    \u2022 Anglicanism\n    \u2022 Methodism\n    \u2022 Baptists\n    \u2022 Quakerism\n    \u2022 Evangelicalism\n    \u2022 Restorationism\n    \u2022 Adventism\n    \u2022 Pentecostalism (Charismatic)\n  \u2022 Independent Catholicism\n  \u2022 Nontrinitarianism\n    \u2022 Unitarianism\n    \u2022 Swedenborgianism\n    \u2022 Mormonism\n    \u2022 Christadelphians\n    \u2022 Jehovah's Witnesses\n  \u2022 Spiritual\n  \u2022 Esoteric\n  \u2022 Nondenominational\nIslam\n  \u2022 Sunni\n    \u2022 Hanafi\n    \u2022 Maliki\n    \u2022 Shafi'i\n    \u2022 Hanbali\n    \u2022 Salafism\n      \u2022 Wahhabism\n      \u2022 Ahl al-Hadith\n  \u2022 Shia\n    \u2022 Twelver\n    \u2022 Zaidiyyah\n    \u2022 Isma'ilism\n    \u2022 Alawis\n  \u2022 Sufism\n  \u2022 Khawarij\n    \u2022 Ibadi\n  \u2022 Alevism\n  \u2022 Ahmadi\n  \u2022 Mahdavia\n  \u2022 Quranism\n  \u2022 Non-denominational\nOthers\n  \u2022 B\u00e1bism\n    \u2022 Azali\n    \u2022 Bah\u00e1'\u00ed\n  \u2022 Druze\n  \u2022 Ali-Illahism\n  \u2022 Yarsanism\n  \u2022 Mandaeism\n  \u2022 Rastafarianism\nDharmic\nHinduism\n  \u2022 Vaishnavism\n    \u2022 Srivaishnavism\n    \u2022 Krishnaism\n    \u2022 Ramaism\n    \u2022 Mahanubhava\n    \u2022 Varkari\n  \u2022 Shaivism\n    \u2022 Siddhantism\n    \u2022 Kaumaram\n    \u2022 Lingayatism\n    \u2022 Nath\n  \u2022 Shaktism\n  \u2022 Smartism\n  \u2022 Tantrism\n  \u2022 Bhakti\n  \u2022 Ayyavazhi\n  \u2022 Balinese\n  \u2022 Neohinduism\nBuddhism\n  \u2022 Theravada\n  \u2022 Mahayana\n    \u2022 Chan\/Zen\n    \u2022 Amidism\n    \u2022 Nichiren\n  \u2022 Vajrayana\n    \u2022 Tibetan\n  \u2022 Neo-Buddhism\nOthers\n  \u2022 Jainism\n    \u2022 Digambara\n    \u2022 \u015av\u0113t\u0101mbara\n  \u2022 Sikhism\n  \u2022 Kalash\nIranian\n  \u2022 Zoroastrianism\n  \u2022 Yazidis\n  \u2022 Ossetian\nEuropean\n  \u2022 Armenian\n  \u2022 Baltic\n  \u2022 Celtic\n    \u2022 Druidry\n  \u2022 Germanic\n  \u2022 Hellenism\n  \u2022 Italo-Roman\n  \u2022 Romanian\n  \u2022 Slavic\nUralic\n  \u2022 Estonian\n  \u2022 Finnish\n  \u2022 Hungarian\n  \u2022 Mari\n  \u2022 Mordvin\n  \u2022 Sami\n  \u2022 Udmurt\nSiberian\n  \u2022 Turkic-Mongolic\n    \u2022 Tengrism\n    \u2022 Burkhanism\n    \u2022 Vattisen Yaly\n  \u2022 Tungusic\n    \u2022 Manchu\n    \u2022 Evenki\n  \u2022 Nivkh\nChinese\n  \u2022 Confucianism\n  \u2022 Taoism\n    \u2022 Folk Taoism\n    \u2022 Yao Taoism\n  \u2022 Nuo\n  \u2022 Salvationist\n    \u2022 Yiguandao\n  \u2022 Luoism\nTibetic\n  \u2022 Bon\n  \u2022 Burmese\n  \u2022 Benzhuism\n  \u2022 Bimoism\n  \u2022 Bathouism\n  \u2022 Bongthingism\n  \u2022 Donyi-Polo\n  \u2022 Kiratism\n  \u2022 Sanamahism\nKorean\n  \u2022 Sindoism\n  \u2022 Cheondoism\n  \u2022 Jeungsanism\nJapanese\n  \u2022 Shinto\n  \u2022 Tenrikyo\n  \u2022 Ryukyuan\nAustroasiatic\n  \u2022 Vietnamese\n    \u2022 Caodaism\n    \u2022 \u0110\u1ea1o M\u1eabu\n    \u2022 Hoahaoism\n  \u2022 Sarnaism\nAustronesian\n  \u2022 Batak Parmalim\n  \u2022 Dayak Kaharingan\n  \u2022 Javanese Kejaw\u00e8n\n  \u2022 Karo Pemena\n  \u2022 Malaysian\n  \u2022 Philippine Dayawism\n    \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 Polynesian\n    \u2022 Hawaiian\n  \u2022 Sumbese Marapu\n  \u2022 Sundanese Wiwitan\nAfrican\nTraditional\n  \u2022 Akan\n  \u2022 Akamba\n  \u2022 Baluba\n  \u2022 Bantu\n  \u2022 Berber\n  \u2022 Bushongo\n  \u2022 Dinka\n  \u2022 Efik\n  \u2022 Fon and Ewe\n  \u2022 Guanche\n  \u2022 Igbo\n  \u2022 Isoko\n  \u2022 Lotuko\n  \u2022 Lozi\n  \u2022 Lugbara\n  \u2022 Maasai\n  \u2022 Mbuti\n  \u2022 San\n  \u2022 Serer\n  \u2022 Tumbuka\n  \u2022 Waaq\n  \u2022 Yoruba\n  \u2022 Zulu\nDiasporic\n  \u2022 Candombl\u00e9\n  \u2022 Kumina\n  \u2022 Obeah\n  \u2022 Quimbanda\n  \u2022 Palo\n  \u2022 Santer\u00eda\n  \u2022 Umbanda\n  \u2022 Vodou\n  \u2022 Voodoo\n  \u2022 Winti\nOther groups\n  \u2022 Circassian\n  \u2022 Dravidian\n  \u2022 Hmongism\n  \u2022 Mo\n  \u2022 Satsana Phi\n  \u2022 Inuit\n  \u2022 Native American\n  \u2022 Mesoamerican\n    \u2022 Aztec\n    \u2022 Maya\n  \u2022 Aboriginal Australian\n  \u2022 Papuan\nRecent\n  \u2022 Agni Yoga\n  \u2022 Anthroposophy\n  \u2022 Discordianism\n  \u2022 Eckankar\n  \u2022 Falun Gong\n  \u2022 Fourth Way\n  \u2022 Goddess movement\n  \u2022 Japanese\n  \u2022 Jediism\n  \u2022 Modekngei\n  \u2022 Neopaganism\n  \u2022 Neoshamanism\n  \u2022 New Acropolis\n  \u2022 New Age\n  \u2022 New Thought\n  \u2022 Osho\n  \u2022 Ra\u00eblism\n  \u2022 Satanism\n  \u2022 Scientology\n  \u2022 Spiritism\n  \u2022 Subud\n  \u2022 Tensegrity\n  \u2022 Thelema\n  \u2022 Theosophy\n  \u2022 Transcendental Meditation\n  \u2022 UFO religion\n  \u2022 Unitarian Universalism\n  \u2022 White Brotherhood\n  \u2022 Wicca\nshow\nHistorical religions\n  \u2022 Paleolithic\n  \u2022 Harappan\n  \u2022 Egyptian\n    \u2022 Atenism\n  \u2022 Mesopotamian\n    \u2022 Sumerian\n  \u2022 Semitic\n    \u2022 Canaanite\n    \u2022 Yahwism\n  \u2022 Arabian\n  \u2022 Somali\n  \u2022 Hurrian\n  \u2022 Urartu\n  \u2022 Etruscan\n  \u2022 Basque\n  \u2022 Georgian\n  \u2022 Vainakh\n  \u2022 Proto-Indo-European\n  \u2022 Proto-Indo-Iranian\n  \u2022 Vedic\n  \u2022 Mazdaism\n  \u2022 Hittite\n  \u2022 Armenian\n  \u2022 Albanian\n  \u2022 Thracian\n  \u2022 Greek\n    \u2022 Mysteries\n    \u2022 Orphism\n    \u2022 Gnosticism\n    \u2022 Hermeticism\n    \u2022 Greco-Buddhism\n  \u2022 Roman\n    \u2022 Imperial cult\n    \u2022 Mithraism\n  \u2022 Manichaeism\n    \u2022 Mazdakism\n  \u2022 Scythian\n  \u2022 Germanic\n    \u2022 Anglo-Saxon\n    \u2022 Continental\n    \u2022 Frankish\n    \u2022 Norse\n  \u2022 Celtic\n  \u2022 Baltic\n  \u2022 Slavic\n  \u2022 Finnish\n  \u2022 Hungarian\n  \u2022 Rapa Nui\n  \u2022 Ainu\n  \u2022 Inca\nshow\nTopics\nAspects\n  \u2022 Apostasy\u00a0\/ Disaffiliation\n  \u2022 Behaviour\n  \u2022 Beliefs\n  \u2022 Clergy\n  \u2022 Conversion\n  \u2022 Deities\n  \u2022 Entheogens\n  \u2022 Ethnic religion\n  \u2022 Denomination\n  \u2022 Faith\n  \u2022 Fire\n  \u2022 Folk religion\n  \u2022 God\n  \u2022 Meditation\n  \u2022 Monasticism\n    \u2022 monk\n    \u2022 nun\n  \u2022 Mysticism\n  \u2022 Mythology\n  \u2022 Nature\n  \u2022 Ordination\n  \u2022 Orthodoxy\n  \u2022 Orthopraxy\n  \u2022 Prayer\n  \u2022 Prophesy\n  \u2022 Religious experience\n  \u2022 Ritual\n    \u2022 liturgy\n    \u2022 sacrifice\n  \u2022 Spirituality\n  \u2022 Supernatural\n  \u2022 Symbols\n  \u2022 Truth\n  \u2022 Water\n  \u2022 Worship\nTheism\n  \u2022 Animism\n  \u2022 Deism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Henotheism\n  \u2022 Monotheism\n  \u2022 Nontheism\n  \u2022 Panentheism\n  \u2022 Pantheism\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Transtheism\nReligious studies\n  \u2022 Anthropology\n  \u2022 Cognitive science\n  \u2022 Comparative\n  \u2022 Development\n  \u2022 Evolutionary origin\n  \u2022 Evolutionary psychology\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Philosophy\n  \u2022 Neurotheology\n  \u2022 Psychology\n  \u2022 Sociology\n  \u2022 Theology\n  \u2022 Theories\n  \u2022 Women\nReligion and\nsociety\n  \u2022 Agriculture\n  \u2022 Business\n  \u2022 Clergy\n    \u2022 monasticism\n    \u2022 ordination\n  \u2022 Conversion\n    \u2022 evangelism\n    \u2022 missionary\n    \u2022 proselytism\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Fanaticism\n  \u2022 Freedom\n    \u2022 pluralism\n    \u2022 syncretism\n    \u2022 toleration\n    \u2022 universalism\n  \u2022 Fundamentalism\n  \u2022 Growth\n  \u2022 Happiness\n  \u2022 Homosexuality\n  \u2022 Minorities\n  \u2022 National church\n  \u2022 National religiosity levels\n  \u2022 Religiocentrism\n  \u2022 Political science\n  \u2022 Populations\n  \u2022 Schism\n  \u2022 Science\n  \u2022 State\n  \u2022 Theocracy\n  \u2022 Vegetarianism\n  \u2022 Video games\n  \u2022 Violence\n    \u2022 persecution\n    \u2022 terrorism\n    \u2022 war\n  \u2022 Wealth\nSecularism and\nirreligion\n  \u2022 Antireligion\n  \u2022 Deism\n  \u2022 Agnosticism\n  \u2022 Atheism\n  \u2022 Criticism\n  \u2022 LaVeyan Satanism\n  \u2022 Deconstruction\n  \u2022 Humanistic Judaism\n  \u2022 Irreligion by country\n  \u2022 Objectivism\n  \u2022 Secular humanism\n  \u2022 Secular theology\n  \u2022 Secularization\n  \u2022 Separation of church and state\n  \u2022 Unaffiliated\nOverviews\nand lists\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Timeline\n  \u2022 Abrahamic prophets\n  \u2022 Deification\n  \u2022 Deities\n  \u2022 Founders\n  \u2022 Mass gatherings\n  \u2022 New religious movements\n  \u2022 Organizations\n  \u2022 Religions and spiritual traditions\n  \u2022 Scholars\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Portal\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 BNE: XX4659796\n  \u2022 BNF: cb133184292 (data)\n  \u2022 GND: 4114087-4\n  \u2022 LCCN: sh85070835\n  \u2022 LIR: 1117\n  \u2022 NARA: 10639246\n  \u2022 NDL: 00574409\n  \u2022 NKC: ph114838\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Judaism&oldid=856463208\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Judaism\n  \u2022 Abrahamic religions\n  \u2022 Monotheistic religions\n  \u2022 Ethnic religion\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from July 2018\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from January 2018\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2017\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2015\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Articles containing Hebrew-language text\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LIR identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikibooks\n  \u2022 Wikinews\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Wikivoyage\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Ac\u00e8h\n  \u2022 \u0410\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0430\u0431\u0437\u044d\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 Alemannisch\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 \u0710\u072a\u0721\u071d\u0710\n  \u2022 Arpetan\n  \u2022 \u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09bc\u09be\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 Bahasa Banjar\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Corsu\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deitsch\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u078b\u07a8\u0788\u07ac\u0780\u07a8\u0784\u07a6\u0790\u07b0\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Estreme\u00f1u\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fiji Hindi\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Furlan\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 Gaelg\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Igbo\n  \u2022 Ilokano\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Interlingua\n  \u2022 Interlingue\n  \u2022 \u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 Kalaallisut\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0439-\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043a\u044a\u0430\u0440\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kernowek\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 Krey\u00f2l ayisyen\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Ladino\n  \u2022 \u041b\u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443\n  \u2022 \u041b\u0435\u0437\u0433\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0ea5\u0eb2\u0ea7\n  \u2022 \u0644\u06ca\u0631\u06cc \u0634\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0644\u06cc\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Ligure\n  \u2022 Limburgs\n  \u2022 Ling\u00e1la\n  \u2022 Lumbaart\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Malagasy\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Malti\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Baso Minangkabau\n  \u2022 M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304\n  \u2022 Mirand\u00e9s\n  \u2022 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\n  \u2022 \u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\n  \u2022 N\u0101huatl\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Nedersaksies\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Napulitano\n  \u2022 \u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d\n  \u2022 Nordfriisk\n  \u2022 Norfuk \/ Pitkern\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Nouormand\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 Oromoo\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 \u092a\u093e\u0932\u093f\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 Papiamentu\n  \u2022 \u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648\n  \u2022 Patois\n  \u2022 Piemont\u00e8is\n  \u2022 Tok Pisin\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Q\u0131r\u0131mtatarca\n  \u2022 Ripoarisch\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 Rumantsch\n  \u2022 Runa Simi\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0442\u044b\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Seeltersk\n  \u2022 Sesotho sa Leboa\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Sicilianu\n  \u2022 \u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u015al\u016fnski\n  \u2022 Soomaaliga\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 Taqbaylit\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n  \u2022 \u0ca4\u0cc1\u0cb3\u0cc1\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrkmen\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 \u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u06d5 \/ Uyghurche\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 V\u00f5ro\n  \u2022 Walon\n  \u2022 \u6587\u8a00\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u5434\u8bed\n  \u2022 Xitsonga\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Zazaki\n  \u2022 \u017demait\u0117\u0161ka\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\n  \u2022 \u0413\u04c0\u0430\u043b\u0433\u04c0\u0430\u0439\n  \u2022 Kab\u0269y\u025b\n  \u2022 Lingua Franca Nova\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 25 August 2018, at 11:39\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-779398336021950751","title":"Hanggang Makita Kang Muli","text":"Hanggang Makita Kang Muli\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nHanggang Makita Kang Muli\nHanggang Makita Kang Multi title card.jpg\nTitle card\nAlso known as Until We Meet Again[1]\nGenre Drama\nCreated by Wiro Michael Ladera\nWritten by\n  \u2022 Christine Badillo-Novicio\n  \u2022 Rhoda Sulit-Marino\n  \u2022 Roan Sales\n  \u2022 Wiro Michael Ladera\nDirected by Laurice Guillen\nCreative director(s) Roy Iglesias\nStarring Bea Binene\nOpening theme \"Hanggang Makita Kang Muli\" by Aicelle Santos\nCountry of origin Philippines\nOriginal language(s) Tagalog\nNo. of episodes 93\nProduction\nExecutive producer(s) Rebya V. Upalda\nProducer(s) Elvie J. Sicangco\nLocation(s)\n  \u2022 Manila, Philippines\n  \u2022 Quezon City, Philippines\n  \u2022 Pangasinan, Philippines\n  \u2022 San Francisco, United States\nCinematography\n  \u2022 Jay Abello\n  \u2022 Boy Arnaldo\nCamera setup Multiple-camera setup\nRunning time 19-29 minutes\nProduction company(s) GMA Entertainment TV\nRelease\nOriginal network GMA Network\nPicture format 1080i (HDTV)\nOriginal release March 7\u00a0(2016-03-07)\u00a0\u2013 July 15, 2016\u00a0(2016-07-15)\nExternal links\nWebsite\n\nHanggang Makita Kang Muli (International title: Until We Meet Again \/ lit.\u2009Until I See You Again) is a 2016 Philippine television drama series broadcast by GMA Network. Directed by Laurice Guillen, it stars Bea Binene. It premiered on March 7, 2016 on the network's Afternoon Prime line up replacing Buena Familia and worldwide on GMA Pinoy TV.[2][3][4] The series concluded on July 15, 2016 with a total of 93 episodes. It was replaced by Sinungaling Mong Puso on its timeslot.\n\nThe series is streaming online on YouTube.[5]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Cast and characters\n    \u2022 2.1 Main cast\n    \u2022 2.2 Supporting cast\n    \u2022 2.3 Extended cast\n    \u2022 2.4 Guest cast\n  \u2022 3 Ratings\n  \u2022 4 International broadcast\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nThe story revolves around the life of Ana (Bea Binene), who was separated from her parents, Evelyn (Angelika Dela Cruz) and Larry (Raymart Santiago) because of Odessa (Ina Feleo). Odessa has kept Ana in a warehouse with a dog all her life, causing her to become feral. Suddenly a fire started which made Ana escape. Ana met Calvin (Derrick Monasterio), a camper who helped Ana to live. Calvin named her Angela since he doesn't know her identity. Calvin brought Angela to Manila and there, Angela became aware of her surroundings. Calvin brought Angela to Dr. Evelyn and took care of her. Evelyn volunteered to be the doctor of Angela and in which she doesn't know Angela's identity. Angela will learn new things of being a human. Claire (Kim Rodriguez), the adoptive daughter of Evelyn, is jealous of Angela spite that the time of Evelyn goes to Angela instead of her. Claire also has a crush on Calvin making her more jealous of Angela because of their closeness. Soon, Claire will make a way to outcast Angela to their house. When Angela is lost, Dr. Francis (Ramon Christopher), a doctor who wants to hold the feral child case, will steal Angela from Evelyn which they refused at first but later will give up.\n\nAngela had therapy with Dr. Francis and learnt many things of being social to others. Later, Angela was healed and she was able to talk to others again. She met Calvin once again and became much closer. Angela worked at Larry's farm with Calvin. She met her new, friend Patricia and her new enemy Myla (Coleen Perez). Calvin and Angela developed a relationship together but will later be broken because of Claire being pregnant and proves that Calvin is the father even though he was not. The baby dies later. Calvin broke up with Angela and causes her to become sad. Later, Angela got a new therapist in America named Dr. John which changed her life.\n\n10 months later, Angela went back to the Philippines. She went back transformed and changed. Angela now is intelligent and acts like a human. Angela learnt to fight Claire and seeks revenge to anyone who hurt her before. She also stayed away from Calvin now because of what Calvin did.\n\nCast and characters[edit]\n\nMain cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bea Binene as Ana Isabelle Medrano \/ Angela \u2013 Evelyn and Larry's missing child. Because of having no background about care and affection, she grew up as a \"feral child\". She acted like an animal because her only friend during that time was a dog. But when she met Calvin, does she feel the true love?\n  \u2022 Derrick Monasterio as Calvin Manahan \u2013 The engineering student that came from luxurious family. He located Ana and he adopted and taught her as a human. He even has a girlfriend, he could not endear Ana. In the end, how can he fight the love he feels?\n  \u2022 Raymart Santiago as Larry Medrano \u2013 Father of Ana and ex-husband of Evelyn. Larry is the one who lost Ana in the mall when he saw his ex-girlfriend, Odessa.\n  \u2022 Angelika dela Cruz as Evelyn Esguerra \u2013 Larry's lovable wife and Ana's mother. Her world collapsed because of losing her child.\n  \u2022 Ina Feleo as Odessa Luna \/ Margaret Herrero-Medrano \u2013 Larry's ex-girlfriend, Evelyn's ex-bestfriend, Lola Conching's niece and Ana's evil guardian. She eventually destroys the family of Larry and Evelyn. She kidnapped and tortured Ana to get revenge to Larry and Evelyn. But when she becomes Margaret, she wants to give a chance to Angela to make her life better and comfortable and she is lovable wife to Larry.\n\nSupporting cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Kim Rodriguez as Claire Sandoval-Esguerra \u2013 Evelyn's adopted child. She loves Calvin. She is filled with envy and anger. She will do everything to seize the love that Ana enjoyed.\n  \u2022 Rita Avila as Glenda Manahan \u2013 Calvin's overprotective mother and Evelyn's best friend. For a while, she is kidnapped and badly tortured by Margaret and Calvin is worried about his mother. Many fishermen found her laying on the beach unconscious. They brought her to the hospital and Calvin didn't know what happened to her. At the same time, she woke up and tell Calvin and Francis who is the one who kidnapped her.\n  \u2022 Ramon Christopher Gutierrez as Dr. Francisco \"Francis\" Manahan \u2013 The psychiatrist, Calvin's father and Glenda's abusive and innocent husband. He has an intense interest on Ana's case as a \"feral child\" so that he placed Ana on the psych facility to learn.\n  \u2022 Luz Valdez as Conching Luna \u2013 Odessa's aunt that tried to stop her on that evil plan. She knows Odessa's past, that's why her niece is crazy and evil-looking.\n  \u2022 Marco Alcaraz as Dominic Reyes \u2013 Larry's best friend that he wants to help to raise Larry's family.\n  \u2022 Jak Roberto as Elmo Manahan-Villamor \u2013 Calvin's close friend with his secret look to Claire.\n  \u2022 Shyr Valdez as Helen Esguerra-Borja \u2013 The older sister is the cornerstore and adviser to Evelyn. She hates Claire when it comes to Angela.\n\nExtended cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Frank Magalona as Bernard Vivas\n  \u2022 Elle Ramirez as Charmaine \"Charm\" Alvarez\n  \u2022 Coleen Perez as Myla\n  \u2022 Allan Paule as Lando Sandoval\n  \u2022 Dexter Doria as Manang Yolanda\n  \u2022 Kevin Sagra as Jomar\n  \u2022 Avery Paraiso as Marlon Santos\n  \u2022 Kyle Vergara as Louie del Castillo\n  \u2022 Shermaine Santiago as Jelly\n\nGuest cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Ar Angel Aviles as young Odessa\n  \u2022 Jayzelle Suan as young Ana\n  \u2022 Lawrence Marasigan as young Calvin\n  \u2022 Thom Brickman as Dr. John\n\nRatings[edit]\n\nAccording to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Mega Manila household television ratings, the pilot episode of Hanggang Makita Kang Muli earned a 13.8% rating.[6] While the final episode scored an 18.9% rating.[7]\n\nInternational broadcast[edit]\n\nCountry Network Title Date Ref.\nEcuador Oromar Televisi\u00f3n Cautiva October 3, 2017 [8]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.gmaworldwide.tv\/programs\/1\/series\/1\/contemporary-drama\/1\/show\/389\/until-we-meet-again\/2016\n  2. Jump up ^ Caligan, Michelle (January 17, 2016). \"'Hanggang Makita Kang Muli', pagbibidahan ni Bea\". Retrieved January 27, 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Bea (February 23, 2016). \"'Bea Binene para daw nagwo-workout habang nagte-taping para sa Hanggang Makita Kang Muli\". Retrieved February 23, 2016.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Ruiz, Marah (February 16, 2016). \"'Bea Binene, gaganap bilang taong asal-hayop sa Hanggang Makita Kang Muli\". Retrieved February 16, 2016.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Hanggang Makita Kang Muli (Full Episodes) - YouTube\". Retrieved February 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Ching, Mark Angelo (April 13, 2016). \"AGB Mega Manila Ratings (March 1-10, 2016): Wowowin outperforms Game ng Bayan\". Retrieved January 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Ching, Mark Angelo (January 1, 2017). \"AGB: 10 Top-rating Pilot and Finale Daytime episodes in 2016\". Retrieved January 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ http:\/\/oromartv.com\/cautiva\/\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 Hanggang Makita Kang Muli on IMDb\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGMA Network drama series\n1980s debuts\n  \u2022 Anna Liza\n  \u2022 Yagit\n1990s debuts\n  \u2022 Anna Karenina\n  \u2022 Click\n  \u2022 Del Tierro\n  \u2022 Di Ba't Ikaw\n  \u2022 Ganyan Kita Kamahal\n  \u2022 Growing Up\n  \u2022 Halik Sa Apoy\n  \u2022 Ikaw Na Sana\n  \u2022 Kadenang Kristal\n  \u2022 Kirara, Ano Ang Kulay ng Pag-ibig?\n  \u2022 Liwanag Ng Hatinggabi\n  \u2022 Mia Gracia\n  \u2022 Pintados\n  \u2022 Rio Del Mar\n  \u2022 T.G.I.S.\n  \u2022 Valiente\n  \u2022 Villa Quintana\n2000s debuts\n  \u2022 Adik Sa'Yo\n  \u2022 Agawin Mo Man Ang Lahat\n  \u2022 Agos\n  \u2022 Ako si Kim Samsoon\n  \u2022 All About Eve\n  \u2022 All My Life\n  \u2022 Ang Babaeng Hinugot sa Aking Tadyang\n  \u2022 Ang Iibigin Ay Ikaw\n  \u2022 Ang Iibigin Ay Ikaw Pa Rin\n  \u2022 Asian Treasures\n  \u2022 Atlantika\n  \u2022 Babangon Ako't Dudurugin Kita\n  \u2022 Bakekang\n  \u2022 Biglang Sibol, Bayang Impasibol\n  \u2022 Captain Barbell\n  \u2022 Codename: Asero\n  \u2022 Dangal\n  \u2022 Dapat Ka Bang Mahalin?\n  \u2022 Darna (2005)\n  \u2022 Darna (2009)\n  \u2022 Duyan\n  \u2022 Dyesebel\n  \u2022 Encantadia\n  \u2022 Encantadia: Pag-ibig Hanggang Wakas\n  \u2022 E.S.P.\n  \u2022 Etheria\n  \u2022 Fantastic Man\n  \u2022 Fantastikids\n  \u2022 Forever in My Heart\n  \u2022 Full House\n  \u2022 Gaano Kadalas ang Minsan?\n  \u2022 Gagambino\n  \u2022 Ganti\n  \u2022 Habang Kapiling Ka\n  \u2022 Hanggang Kailan\n  \u2022 Hawak Ko Ang Langit\n  \u2022 Hongkong Flight 143\n  \u2022 I Luv NY\n  \u2022 Ikaw Lang Ang Mamahalin\n  \u2022 Ikaw sa Puso Ko\n  \u2022 Ikaw Sana\n  \u2022 Impostora\n  \u2022 Joaquin Bordado\n  \u2022 Joyride\n  \u2022 Kahit Kailan\n  \u2022 Kamandag\n  \u2022 Kaputol ng Isang Awit\n  \u2022 Kaya Kong Abutin Ang Langit\n  \u2022 Kung Aagawin Mo Ang Lahat Sa Akin\n  \u2022 Kung Mahawi Man Ang Ulap\n  \u2022 Kung Mawawala Ka\n  \u2022 La Vendetta\n  \u2022 LaLola\n  \u2022 Leya, Ang Pinakamagandang Babae Sa Ilalim Ng Lupa\n  \u2022 Linlang\n  \u2022 Luna Mystika\n  \u2022 Lupin\n  \u2022 Magdusa Ka\n  \u2022 Maging Akin Ka Lamang\n  \u2022 Majika\n  \u2022 Makita Ka Lang Muli\n  \u2022 MariMar\n  \u2022 Marinara\n  \u2022 Mga Mata ni Anghelita\n  \u2022 Mukha\n  \u2022 Mulawin\n  \u2022 Muli\n  \u2022 Munting Anghel\n  \u2022 My Only Love\n  \u2022 Narito Ang Puso Ko\n  \u2022 Ngayon at Kailanman\n  \u2022 Paano Ba Ang Mangarap?\n  \u2022 Pasan Ko Ang Daigdig\n  \u2022 Pati Ba Pintig ng Puso\n  \u2022 Pinakamamahal\n  \u2022 Princess Charming\n  \u2022 Rosalinda\n  \u2022 Saan Darating Ang Umaga?\n  \u2022 Saang Sulok ng Langit\n  \u2022 Sana Ay Ikaw Na Nga\n  \u2022 Sana Ngayong Pasko\n  \u2022 Sinasamba Kita\n  \u2022 Stairway to Heaven\n  \u2022 Sugo\n  \u2022 Super Twins\n  \u2022 Tasya Fantasya\n  \u2022 Te Amo, Maging Sino Ka Man\n  \u2022 Tinig\n  \u2022 Tinik Sa Dibdib\n  \u2022 Totoy Bato\n  \u2022 Twin Hearts\n  \u2022 Umulan Man o Umaraw\n  \u2022 Una Kang Naging Akin\n  \u2022 Walang Hanggan\n  \u2022 Zaido: Pulis Pangkalawakan\n  \u2022 Zorro\n2010s debuts\n  \u2022 Adarna\n  \u2022 Akin Pa Rin ang Bukas\n  \u2022 Alakdana\n  \u2022 Alice Bungisngis and her Wonder Walis\n  \u2022 Alyas Robin Hood\n  \u2022 Amaya\n  \u2022 Ang Dalawang Mrs. Real\n  \u2022 Ang Forever Ko'y Ikaw\n  \u2022 Ang Lihim ni Annasandra\n  \u2022 Anna Karenina\n  \u2022 Aso ni San Roque\n  \u2022 Bantatay\n  \u2022 Basahang Ginto\n  \u2022 Beautiful Strangers\n  \u2022 Beauty Queen\n  \u2022 Because of You\n  \u2022 Binoy Henyo\n  \u2022 Biritera\n  \u2022 Blusang Itim\n  \u2022 The Borrowed Wife\n  \u2022 Broken Vow\n  \u2022 Buena Familia\n  \u2022 Bukod Kang Pinagpala\n  \u2022 Calle Siete\n  \u2022 Mars Ravelo's Captain Barbell\n  \u2022 Carmela: Ang Pinakamagandang Babae sa Mundong Ibabaw\n  \u2022 Cielo de Angelina\n  \u2022 Coffee Prince\n  \u2022 Contessa\n  \u2022 The Cure\n  \u2022 D' Originals\n  \u2022 Dading\n  \u2022 Dangwa\n  \u2022 Daldalita\n  \u2022 Destined to be Yours\n  \u2022 Destiny Rose\n  \u2022 Diva\n  \u2022 Dormitoryo\n  \u2022 Dwarfina\n  \u2022 Encantadia\n  \u2022 Endless Love\n  \u2022 Extraordinary Love\n  \u2022 Faithfully\n  \u2022 First Time\n  \u2022 Forever\n  \u2022 Futbolilits\n  \u2022 G.R.I.N.D. Get Ready It's a New Day\n  \u2022 Genesis\n  \u2022 The Good Daughter\n  \u2022 Grazilda\n  \u2022 Gumapang Ka Sa Lusak\n  \u2022 Hahamakin ang Lahat\n  \u2022 The Half Sisters\n  \u2022 Hanggang Makita Kang Muli\n  \u2022 Haplos\n  \u2022 Healing Hearts\n  \u2022 Hindi Ka Na Mag-iisa\n  \u2022 Hindi Ko Kayang Iwan Ka\n  \u2022 Hiram na Alaala\n  \u2022 Hiram na Puso\n  \u2022 Home Sweet Home\n  \u2022 I Heart Davao\n  \u2022 I Heart You, Pare!\n  \u2022 Iglot\n  \u2022 Ika-6 na Utos\n  \u2022 Ikaw Lang ang Mamahalin\n  \u2022 Ilumina\n  \u2022 Ilustrado\n  \u2022 Impostora\n  \u2022 Ina, Kasusuklaman Ba Kita?\n  \u2022 Inday Will Always Love You\n  \u2022 Indio\n  \u2022 Innamorata\n  \u2022 InstaDad\n  \u2022 Jillian: Namamasko Po\n  \u2022 Juan Happy Love Story\n  \u2022 Kahit Nasaan Ka Man\n  \u2022 Kailan Ba Tama ang Mali?\n  \u2022 Kakambal ni Eliana\n  \u2022 Kambal, Karibal\n  \u2022 Kambal Sirena\n  \u2022 Karibal Ko ang Aking Ina\n  \u2022 Kasalanan Bang Ibigin Ka?\n  \u2022 Katipunan\n  \u2022 Kokak\n  \u2022 Koreana\n  \u2022 Kung Aagawin Mo Ang Langit\n  \u2022 Langit sa Piling Mo\n  \u2022 The Last Prince\n  \u2022 Legacy\n  \u2022 Legally Blind\n  \u2022 Let the Love Begin\n  \u2022 Little Nanay\n  \u2022 Little Star\n  \u2022 Love & Lies\n  \u2022 Luna Blanca\n  \u2022 Machete\n  \u2022 Magdalena\n  \u2022 Maghihintay Pa Rin\n  \u2022 Magic Palayok\n  \u2022 Magkaibang Mundo\n  \u2022 Magkano Ba ang Pag-ibig?\n  \u2022 Makapiling Kang Muli\n  \u2022 MariMar\n  \u2022 Meant to Be\n  \u2022 Mga Basang Sisiw\n  \u2022 The Millionaire's Wife\n  \u2022 Mistaken Identity\n  \u2022 More Than Words\n  \u2022 Mulawin vs. Ravena\n  \u2022 Mundo Mo'y Akin\n  \u2022 Munting Heredera\n  \u2022 My Beloved\n  \u2022 My BFF\n  \u2022 My Daddy Dearest\n  \u2022 My Destiny\n  \u2022 My Faithful Husband\n  \u2022 My Guitar Princess\n  \u2022 My Husband's Lover\n  \u2022 My Korean Jagiya\n  \u2022 My Love from the Star\n  \u2022 My Lover, My Wife\n  \u2022 My Mother's Secret\n  \u2022 Naku, Boss Ko!\n  \u2022 Ni\u00f1o\n  \u2022 Nita Negrita\n  \u2022 Oh, My Mama!\n  \u2022 Once Again\n  \u2022 Once Upon a Kiss\n  \u2022 The One That Got Away\n  \u2022 One True Love\n  \u2022 Pahiram ng Isang Ina\n  \u2022 Pahiram ng Sandali\n  \u2022 Panday Kids\n  \u2022 Paraiso Ko'y Ikaw\n  \u2022 Pari 'Koy\n  \u2022 Paroa: Ang Kuwento ni Mariposa\n  \u2022 Pilyang Kerubin\n  \u2022 Pinulot Ka Lang sa Lupa\n  \u2022 Poor Se\u00f1orita\n  \u2022 Princess in the Palace\n  \u2022 Prinsesa ng Buhay Ko\n  \u2022 Pyra: Babaeng Apoy\n  \u2022 Reel Love Presents Tween Hearts\n  \u2022 Rhodora X\n  \u2022 The Rich Man's Daughter\n  \u2022 Sa Piling ni Nanay\n  \u2022 Sa Puso ni Dok\n  \u2022 Sana Ay Ikaw Na Nga\n  \u2022 Second Chances\n  \u2022 Sherlock Jr.\n  \u2022 Sinner or Saint\n  \u2022 Sinungaling Mong Puso\n  \u2022 Sirkus\n  \u2022 Sisid\n  \u2022 Someone to Watch Over Me\n  \u2022 The Stepdaughters\n  \u2022 Strawberry Lane\n  \u2022 Super Ma'am\n  \u2022 Teen Gen\n  \u2022 Temptation of Wife\n  \u2022 That's My Amboy\n  \u2022 Time of My Life\n  \u2022 Together Forever\n  \u2022 Trops\n  \u2022 Trudis Liit\n  \u2022 Unforgettable\n  \u2022 Villa Quintana\n  \u2022 Wish I May\n  \u2022 With a Smile\n  \u2022 Yagit\n  \u2022 Yesterday's Bride\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Hanggang_Makita_Kang_Muli&oldid=832512069\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 GMA Network drama series\n  \u2022 Philippine television series\n  \u2022 Philippine drama television series\n  \u2022 Philippine telenovelas\n  \u2022 2010s Philippine television series\n  \u2022 2016 Philippine television series debuts\n  \u2022 2016 Philippine television series endings\n  \u2022 Fantaserye and telefantasya\n  \u2022 Television shows set in San Francisco\n  \u2022 Television shows set in the Philippines\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from March 2018\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Tagalog\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 26 March 2018, at 13:16.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"2966400022502400195","title":"Football in Spain","text":"Football in Spain\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFootball in Spain\nSantiagobernabeupanoramav3.jpg\nSantiago Bernabeu, Real Madrid\u2019s Stadium.\nCountry Spain\nGoverning body RFEF\nNational team Spain\nFirst played 1920\nRegistered players 942,674\nClubs 20,588\nNational competitions\n  \u2022 FIFA World Cup\n  \u2022 Confederations Cup\n  \u2022 European Championship\nClub competitions\nList[show]\n    \u2022 League:\n      Primera Divisi\u00f3n\n      Segunda Divisi\u00f3n\n      Segunda Divisi\u00f3n B\n      Tercera Divisi\u00f3n\n      Divisiones Regionales\n    \u2022 Cups:\n      Copa del Rey\n      Copa Federaci\u00f3n\n      Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a\nInternational competitions\n  \u2022 FIFA Club World Cup\n  \u2022 Champions League\n  \u2022 Europa League\n  \u2022 Super Cup\n\nAssociation football is the most popular sport in Spain, followed by basketball and bullfighting. Football is a widespread passion among the people of Spain.[1] Football is the sport with the most registered players (a total of 942,674 of which 898,551 are men and 44,123 women), and most registered clubs (a total of 20,588) among all Spanish sport federations according to data issued by the sports administration of Spain\u2019s government in 2016.[2]\n\nIn a survey of sports habits of the Spanish population made in 2010, football was the second most popular recreational sport practised by the population (17.9%). A total of 75.9% of people said they had ever bought tickets to attend a football match. In addition, a total of 67.3% of the people said that they saw all, almost all, many, or some of the football matches broadcast on television.[3] In another survey made in 2014, the practice of football decreased to 14% of the population, being overtaken by other sports, such as running, cycling and swimming for recreation. However, in this survey football was still the sport that interests the majority of Spain\u2019s people (48%). A total of 67% of the population said they were fans or had sympathy for a particular club. In addition, 74.9% said they watched, whenever possible, the matches broadcast on television regarding their favorite teams; and 42.4% had, flags, badges or objects of their favorite teams.[4] Data of this survey confirmed the widespread impression that most of Spain\u2019s people are supporters of Real Madrid (37.9%) or FC Barcelona (25.4%), and the other teams have fewer supporters nationwide, as Atl\u00e9tico de Madrid (16.1%), Valencia CF (3.5%), Athletic Bilbao (3.3.) or Sevilla FC (3.2%).[4]\n\nA relationship between football, politics, identity and attitudes towards regionalism in Spain has also been reported.[1][5][6][7][8]\n\nThe Royal Spanish Football Federation (Spanish: Real Federaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola de F\u00fatbol) is the national governing body, and it organises two Cup competitions (the Copa del Rey, and the Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a), and the Spain national football team. The Liga de F\u00fatbol Profesional (LFP) (English: Professional Football League), integrated by a total of 42 football clubs, forms part of the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) but has autonomy in its organisation and functioning. It is responsible for the organisation of state football leagues, in coordination with RFEF.[9]\n\nThe Spanish national football team have won the FIFA World Cup once, and has also been successful in the UEFA European Championship and the Olympic tournament. The biggest success achieved by the Spain national football team was the historic treble winning three tournaments in a row: UEFA European Championship in 2008, FIFA World Cup in 2010, and UEFA European Championship in 2012.[10][11][12][13] The men's national teams of Spain, in all categories, have won a total of 26 titles in FIFA, UEFA, and Olympic tournaments.[14][15]\n\nThe First Division of the Liga de F\u00fatbol Profesional, commonly known in the English-speaking world as La Liga, is one of the strongest football leagues in both Europe and the world.[16][17][18] At club level, the Spanish football clubs have won a total of 66 international tournaments. [19][20][21][22] They are the most successful in different current European competitions, such as UEFA Champions League,[23] UEFA Super Cup (shared),[24] and UEFA Europa League;[25] and they also were the most successful in the extinct Inter-Cities Fairs Cup.[22]\n\nThe characteristic football style of play developed by FC Barcelona, and later by the Spanish national football team is Tiki-taka. This football style is characterised by possessing the ball for large portions of the game, moving the ball quickly from one player to the next, with short and quick passes, keeping the ball away from your opponent, and then to deliver that killer pass to score goal.[26][27]\n\nProfessional football in Spain is a sociocultural event that make a significant contribution to the Spanish economy in terms of both demand and supply. In economic terms, during 2013 professional football generated more than \u20ac7.6\u00a0billion including direct, indirect and induced effects, representing 0.75% of Spanish GPD.[28] Moreover, as a result of financial crisis in the last years, many Spanish football clubs in the top two divisions have been facing serious economic troubles due to pay the bank debts. In addition, the European Union authorities have warned to Spanish authorities in order to halt public funding of debt-ridden clubs.[29]\n\nSpain national futsal team is one of the strongest teams in the world, being six times champion in the UEFA Futsal Championship, and two times champion in the FIFA Futsal World Championship.[15]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Spanish national football team (La Roja)\n  \u2022 3 Football club competitions\n  \u2022 4 League (La Liga)\n  \u2022 5 King's Cup (Copa del Rey)\n  \u2022 6 Spanish Supercup (Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a)\n  \u2022 7 Spanish clubs in international competitions\n  \u2022 8 Women's football\n  \u2022 9 References\n  \u2022 10 Further reading\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nModern football was introduced to Spain in the late 19th century by a combination of mostly British immigrant workers, visiting sailors and Spanish students coming from Britain.[30][31][32]\n\nThe oldest football clubs in Spain are Recreativo de Huelva and Sevilla FC.[33][34][35][36] Although Gimn\u00e0stic de Tarragona was formed in 1886, the club did not form an actual football team until 1914. The first official football game played in Spain took place in Seville on 8 March 1890 at the Tablada Hippodrome. Sevilla FC played against Recreativo de Huelva. With the exception of two Spanish players on the Huelva team and another two players on the Seville team, all the players on both sides were British. Sevilla FC won 2\u20130.[31]\n\nIn the Basque Country during the early 1890s, British shipyard workers and miners formed the Bilbao Football Club and Basque students returning from Britain founded the Athletic Club in 1898.[31][32] This early British influence was reflected in the use of English names such as Recreation Club, Athletic Club and Football Club.[32]\n\nIn Catalonia, which had the most developed industry in Spain, there was an important British colony. The first games played by Britishmen and Catalan people who had studied in the United Kingdom were documented in 1882 in Barcelona.[31] However, the first official and registered football club was Palam\u00f3s FC (Costa Brava, North of Catalonia) in 1898.[31] The Swiss Hans Gamper founded FC Barcelona on 29 November 1899.[31] Other clubs were founded in 1900, such as Sant Andreu, Hispania FC and the Sociedad Espa\u00f1ola de Football (one year later the founders changed the name to Real Club Deportivo Espa\u00f1ol).[31] The Catalan Football Federation (Catalan: Federaci\u00f3 Catalana de Futbol), responsible for administering football in Catalonia, was the first football association founded in Spain. It was formed on 11 November 1900 as the Football Association of Catalonia (Catalan: Football Associaci\u00f3 de Catalunya).[31] The Catalan Football Federation organised the Catalan football championship (Catalan: Campionat de Catalunya) that was the first football competition in Spain.[31]\n\nIn Madrid, the first games were promoted by Instituci\u00f3n Libre de Ense\u00f1anza (ILE) (English: Free Educational Institution), an educational and cultural centre. The first club of Madrid was Football Club Sky, founded in 1897, but the club separated into two new clubs in 1890. Then, several clubs also emerged in Madrid, most notably Madrid Football Club, founded in 1902 by Catalan brothers Juan and Carlos Padr\u00f3s.[31]\n\nThe Copa del Rey (English: King's Cup) competition was founded in 1903, one year after a previous football tournament named Coronation Cup. It was Spain's football national Championship from 1903 until the establishment of the League Championship in 1928.[37]\n\nThe Spanish Federation of Football Clubs was formed in 1909, but there were discrepancies between the member clubs years later, and some of the clubs formed other association called Royal Spanish Union of Clubs of Football.[38] Finally, the two associations reached an agreement and the Royal Spanish Football Federation was founded in 1913, which allowed the Spanish football to enter in FIFA.[39] In these years, Athletic was the most dominant club in the country, and the first idols in Spain began to appear, like Pichichi and Paulino Alc\u00e1ntara.[39][40][41]\n\nThe Spain national team was created in 1920 on the occasion of the dispute of the Olympic Games in Antwerp.[32][41] The importance of the success of the Spain national team in the Olympic games, which won the silver medal, was huge in the development of football as mass social event in Spain.[41] The interest on football grew, more people attended to the stadiums, more informations about football appeared in the newspapers, and football was used as element of national prestige and political propaganda.[42]\n\nAfter the Olympic triumph, football was more popular among Spanish fans, the attendances to the stadiums increased, and the pressure of professionalism grew.[43] Spanish football turned professional in 1925.[44] An agreement between several clubs was made on 23 November 1928 which officially established Spain's national football division, and the birth of the Spanish League. The first league championship began in 1929.[32][45]\n\nThe Spanish Civil War (1936\u20131939) brought disruption to the national competitions. Although the Spanish League was suspended, the Catalan and Valencian clubs continued contesting in the Mediterranean League in early 1937. Barcelona later toured Mexico and the United States, raising support for the Spanish Republic.[32]\n\nThe Spanish League and the Cup were restored in the 1939\u201340 season after Civil War had ended. Francisco Franco\u2019s regime, a fascist political system, began to use football as a propaganda tool for the new regime.[46] In 1941, as part of his policy of eradicating regional identities, the Franco's regime banned the use of non-Castilian names. As a result, many clubs that had chosen English prefixes previously, such as Athletic or Football club, had to amend their initial names, for other Castilian (as Atl\u00e9tico, or Club de F\u00fatbol). The Catalan Championship was banned and the Catalan shield taken from FC Barcelona's badge. Spanish football began to rebuild slowly after the War, but Spain's isolated international position meant they did not properly re-enter International football until 1950.[32] Later, Franco's regime was able to use the football, based on the European triumphs of Real Madrid in the 1950s for political purposes. In this manner, Real Madrid was used as a Spanish brand of success to promote Spain\u2019s image abroad, as well as the pride of being Spanish in the country itself.[7][47]\n\nSpain was selected as host of the 1982 FIFA World Cup.\n\nUntil the 1984\u201385 season, the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) was responsible for organizing the league tournament. Since then, the competition was organized by the Liga de F\u00fatbol Profesional (LFP)(English: Professional Football League), an independent body which was formed at the initiative of the clubs themselves after disagreements with the RFEF regarding the management professionalization and economic division of the League benefits.\n\nSince the entry into force of Spanish Law 10\/1990, almost all of the clubs competing professionally in Spain are actually companies under the legal status of sports companies, whose ownership is in the hands of its shareholders. Only three professional clubs (Athletic Club, Barcelona and Real Madrid) kept its original structure, such as sports clubs directly controlled by their members.\n\nAfter the appearance of private television in Spain, football clubs hugely increased its income thanks to the lucrative contracts to broadcast matches on television. This allowed them to hire many of the best players in the world, but most of the clubs also increased vastly their spending. In the last years La Liga is living in a big financial turmoil. Although the two big powerful clubs, Real Madrid and Barcelona, are at the top in Forbes' football rich list, the rest of Spanish clubs are weighed down by a colossal debt around \u20ac4.1\u00a0billion. For this reason, most of the clubs had to cut their budgets drastically.[48]\n\nSpanish national football team (La Roja)[edit]\n\nMain article: Spain national football team\nMain article: List of Spain international footballers\n\nWithin Spain, regional teams, most notably the football team of Catalonia, the football team of Basque Country, and even the football team of Galicia, began to compete against each other from 1915 onwards. Despite not being officially recognised by FIFA, these regional teams still occasionally play friendly games with some national team players playing for both teams. Some autonomous governments and social sectors in the historical communities (especially in Catalonia and Basque Country) prefer to call their regional teams as national team, while claiming to participate in international tournaments.[49]\n\nThe Spain national team, commonly referred to as La selecci\u00f3n (English: The selection) or La Roja (English: The Red one), made their international debut at the 1920 Olympic Games in Belgium and came away with the silver medal.[32][41] Since then the Spanish national team has participated in a total of fourteen out twenty FIFA World Cup and nine out fourteen UEFA European Championship. Historically, the Spanish national team did not achieve important results, in terms of trophies or develop an attractive playing style. Surprisingly, this fact contrasted with the huge success obtained by the main Spanish football clubs at the European level. Nevertheless, the triumphs of Spanish national team in 2008 and 2012 European Championship, and in 2010 FIFA World Cup, with an attractive playing style, marked a point of inflection that divided the history of Spanish national football team in two parts.\n\nThe Spanish national football team has been the winner of FIFA Team of Year in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013, as well as the winner of Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year in 2011.\n\nThe Spanish national football team have won four trophies in FIFA and UEFA tournaments: one FIFA World Cup in 2010, and three UEFA European Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012. In addition, it was runner-up in the UEFA European Championship in 1984 and in the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2013.\n\nThe Spain national under-23 team won the gold medal in 1992 Olympic tournament and the silver medal in 2000.\n\nThe Spain national football team won the gold medal at the Mediterranean Games in 2005 and 2007, the silver medal in 1955, and the bronze medal in 1963 and 1967.\n\nIn addition, the honours list includes numerous titles at junior level teams:\n\nUEFA European Under-21 Championship in 1986, 1998, 2011, and 2013.\n\nFIFA U-20 World Cup in 1999.\n\nUEFA European Under-19 Championship (formerly Under-18) in 1995, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2011 2012 and 2015.\n\nUEFA European Under-17 Championship (formerly Under-16) in 1986, 1988, 1991, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2007 and 2008.\n\n1999 Meridian Cup.\n\nSpain have won the Maurice Burlaz Trophy, the prize awarded to the national association that has achieved the best results in UEFA's men's youth competitions (UEFA European Under-19 Championship and UEFA European Under-17 championship) over the previous two seasons, in 1994, 1996, 1998, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007, and 2011.[50]\n\nA short list of some of the top Spanish football players (grouped by playing positions and era) which have ever played for the Spanish national team include:\n\nGoalkeepers: Ricardo Zamora (1920s\/1930s), Antoni Ramallets (1940s\/1960s), Jos\u00e9 \u00c1ngel Iribar (1960s\/1980s), Luis Arconada (1970s\/1980s), Andoni Zubizarreta (1970s\/1990s), Iker Casillas (1990s\/2010s), V\u00edctor Vald\u00e9s (2000s\/2010s), David de Gea (2010s)\n\nDefenders: Jacinto Quincoces (1920s\/1930s), Joan Segarra (1950s\/1960s), Jes\u00fas Garay (1950s\/1960s), Jos\u00e9 Santamar\u00eda (1950s\/1960s), Feliciano Rivilla (1960s), Jos\u00e9 Antonio Camacho (1970s\/1980s), Antonio Maceda (1980s), Rafael Gordillo (1970s\/1990s), Miguel \u00c1ngel Nadal (1990s\/2000s), Fernando Hierro (1980s\/2000s), Abelardo Fern\u00e1ndez (1990s\/2000s), Carles Puyol (1990s\/2010s), Sergio Ramos (2000s\/2010s), Gerard Piqu\u00e9 (2000s\/2010s), Jordi Alba (2010s)\n\nMidfielders: Josep Samitier (1920s\/1930s), Mart\u00edn Marculeta (1920s\/1930s), Leonardo Cilaurren (1920s\/1930s), Jos\u00e9 Luis Panizo (1940s\/1950s), Antonio Puchades (1940s\/1950s), Alfredo Di St\u00e9fano (1950s\/1960s), Luis del Sol (1960s\/1970s), Luis Su\u00e1rez (1960s\/1970s), Luis Aragon\u00e9s (1960s\/1970s), Jes\u00fas Mar\u00eda Pereda (1960s), Pirri (1960s\/1970s), Jes\u00fas Mar\u00eda Zamora (1970s\/1980s), M\u00edchel (1980s\/1990s), Jos\u00e9 Luis P\u00e9rez Caminero (1990s), Luis Enrique (1990s\/2000s), Pep Guardiola (1990s\/2000s), Julen Guerrero (1990s), Gaizka Mendieta (1990s\/2000s), Xavi (1990s\/2010s), Xabi Alonso (2000s\/2010s), Andr\u00e9s Iniesta (2000s\/2010s), Santi Cazorla (2000s\/2010s), David Silva (2000s\/2010s), Cesc F\u00e0bregas (2000s\/2010s), Juan Mata (2000s\/2010s), Sergio Busquets (2000s\/2010s)\n\nForwards: Pichichi (1910s\/20s), Paulino Alc\u00e1ntara (1910s\/1920s), Luis Regueiro (1920s\/1930s), Isidro L\u00e1ngara (1930s), C\u00e9sar (1940s\/1950s), Telmo Zarra (1940s\/1950s), Agust\u00edn Ga\u00ednza (1940s\/1950s), Estanislau Basora (1940s\/1950s), L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Kubala (1950s\/1960s), Ferenc Pusk\u00e1s (1960s), Francisco Gento (1950s\/1960s), Amancio Amaro (1960s\/1970s), Santillana (1970s\/1980s), Juanito (1970s\/1980s, Quini (1970s\/1980s), Roberto L\u00f3pez Ufarte (1970s\/1980s), Emilio Butrague\u00f1o (1980s\/1990s), Julio Salinas (1980s\/1990s), Ra\u00fal (1990s\/2000s), Fernando Morientes (1990s\/2000s), David Villa (2000s\/2010s), Fernando Torres (2000s\/2010s)\n\nFootball club competitions[edit]\n\nMain article: List of football clubs in Spain\nMain article: Football records in Spain\n\nCurrently, the three most important competitions between clubs in Spain are La Liga (English: League), the Copa del Rey (English: King's Cup) and the Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a (English: Spanish Supercup). Other extinct competitions were the League Cup, the Eva Duarte Cup and the President's Cup of the Spanish Football Federation. Up to a total of fifteen clubs have been winners of some of the official competitions in Spain at the highest level, and FC Barcelona is the most awarded club with seventy-two national titles,\n\nThe Spanish football league system consists of several leagues bound together hierarchically by promotion and relegation. In addition, Spanish Royal Federation Cup is a football competition for teams from the Segunda Divisi\u00f3n B, the Tercera Divisi\u00f3n and sometimes from the Preferente Regional who have failed to qualify or have been eliminated in the first round of the Copa del Rey.\n\nLeague (La Liga)[edit]\n\nMain article: La Liga\nMain article: List of Spanish football champions\nMain article: Football records in Spain\n\nIn April 1927, \u00c1lvaro Trejo, a director at Arenas Club de Getxo, first proposed the idea of a national league in Spain. After much debate about the size of the league and who would take part, the RFEF eventually agreed on the ten teams who would form the first Primera Divisi\u00f3n in 1928. FC Barcelona, Real Madrid, Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad, Arenas Club de Getxo and Real Uni\u00f3n were all selected as previous winners of the Copa del Rey. Athletic Madrid, RCD Espa\u00f1ol and CE Europa qualified as Copa del Rey runners-up and Racing de Santander qualified through a knock-out competition against Sevilla FC. Barcelona was the first winner of the competition. Only three of the founding clubs, Real Madrid, Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao, have never been relegated from the Primera Division; six other clubs have never been below the top two tiers: Sevilla, Real Sociedad, Sporting de Gij\u00f3n, Valencia, Espanyol and Atl\u00e9tico Madrid.\n\nHistorically, some of the best football players in the world have played in the Spanish football league, including Ricardo Zamora, Josep Samitier, Alfredo Di St\u00e9fano, Ladislav Kubala, Ferenc Pusk\u00e1s, Raymond Kopa, H\u00e9ctor Rial, Telmo Zarra, Francisco Gento, Luis Su\u00e1rez, Johan Cruyff, Diego Maradona, Bernd Schuster, Andoni Zubizarreta, Michael Laudrup, Hristo Stoichkov, Rom\u00e1rio, Zinedine Zidane, Rivaldo, Ronaldo, Ra\u00fal, Ronaldinho, Carles Puyol, Xavi, Andr\u00e9s Iniesta, Iker Casillas, Cristiano Ronaldo, and Lionel Messi, among others.\n\nLa Liga de F\u00fatbol Profesional (LFP) is the association responsible for administering the two professional football leagues in Spain. Professional Spanish football is divided into the Primera Divisi\u00f3n (First Division) and Segunda Divisi\u00f3n (Second Division). The First Division is also known as Liga Santander, for sponsorship reasons, while the Second Division is officially called Liga 1|2|3. The First Division consists of 20 professional teams and the Second Division has 22. There are also lower Spanish national football divisions. Every year, the three lowest ranked teams in the First Division pass to the Second Division and the top three ranked teams in the Second Division pass to the First Division.\n\nLa Liga is one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the world. [51] The average stadium attendance was 21,000 in the 2014\u201315 season, with a range of average attendance from 4,780 people in the stadium with the lowest average attendance to 77,632 people in the stadium with highest average attendance.[52]\n\nIn La Liga's 89-year history (with the exeception of the three seasons that the league was suspended due to the civil war), Barcelona and Real Madrid have won 55 titles between them. Barcelona and Real Madrid are two fierce rivals clubs, and the matches between both two clubs are named as El Cl\u00e1sico.[8] Those football matches are one of the most viewed sports events in the world.\n\nAlthough a total of 62 teams have competed in La Liga since its inception, only nine clubs have won the title: Real Madrid (33), Barcelona (25), Atl\u00e9tico Madrid (10), Athletic Bilbao (8), Valencia (6), Real Sociedad (2), Sevilla (1), Deportivo de La Coru\u00f1a (1), and Real Betis (1).\n\nKing's Cup (Copa del Rey)[edit]\n\nMain article: Copa del Rey\nMain article: Football records in Spain\n\nIn 1902, Carlos Padr\u00f3s, later president of Madrid FC (later to be Real Madrid), suggested a football competition to celebrate the coronation of Alfonso XIII. Four other teams entered the Copa del Ayuntamiento de Madrid, which would later develop into the Copa del Rey (English: \"King's Cup\"). These included Barcelona, Club Espa\u00f1ol de F\u00fatbol, Club Bizcaya and New Foot-Ball de Madrid. The competition featured the first recorded game between Barcelona and Madrid FC, with the former emerging 3\u20131 winners. Club Bizcaya, which consisted of players from both Basque teams, eventually beat Barcelona in the final. Alfonso XIII subsequently became the patron of many Spanish football clubs, granting them permission to use \"Real\" (Spanish for \"royal\") in their names. Among the many clubs to add the prefix to their name was Madrid FC, which subsequently became Real Madrid.\n\nFourteen clubs have won the title: Barcelona (30), Athletic Bilbao (23), Real Madrid (19), Atl\u00e9tico Madrid (10), Valencia (7), Real Zaragoza (6), Sevilla (5), Espanyol (4), Real Union (4), Real Betis (2), Deportivo de La Coru\u00f1a (2), Real Sociedad (2), Arenas Club de Getxo (1) and Mallorca (1).\n\nSpanish Supercup (Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a)[edit]\n\nMain article: Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a\n\nThe Spanish Super Cup (Spanish: Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a) is a championship organized by Royal Spanish Football Federation and contested by the winners of La Liga and Copa del Rey. The competition was founded in 1982.\n\nTen clubs have won the title: Barcelona (12), Real Madrid (10), Deportivo de La Coru\u00f1a (3), Atl\u00e9tico Madrid (2), Athletic Bilbao (2), Valencia (1), Real Zaragoza (1), Mallorca (1), Sevilla (1) and Real Sociedad (1).\n\nSpanish clubs in international competitions[edit]\n\nMain article: Spanish football clubs in international competitions\n\nThe Spanish football clubs are very successful in international competitions. They are the most successful in different current European competitions, such as UEFA Champions League,[23] UEFA Super Cup,[24] and UEFA Europa League\u00a0;[25] and they also were the most successful in the extinct Inter-Cities Fairs Cup.[22]\n\nThe most successful clubs in international competitions are Barcelona and Real Madrid. In addition, other Spanish clubs have also won titles in international tournaments, such as Atl\u00e9tico Madrid, Valencia, Sevilla, Real Zaragoza, Villarreal, Deportivo de La Coru\u00f1a, Celta de Vigo and M\u00e1laga.\n\nSpanish football clubs hold different records in international competitions.\n\nReal Madrid is the most successful club in the European Cup\/UEFA Champions League.[23][53] They have won 13 titles and were runners-up three times. Real Madrid is also the most successful club in the Intercontinental Cup (three titles, shared record with A.C. Milan, Pe\u00f1arol, Boca Juniors, Nacional) and FIFA Club World Cup (three titles, shared record with Barcelona).\n\nBarcelona is the most successful club in the FIFA Club World Cup (three titles, shared record with Real Madrid), and it is also the most successful club in the UEFA Super Cup (five titles, shared record with Milan). In addition, Barcelona became the first football club to win six out of six competitions in a single year (2009) completing the sextuple, and the first European club in history to achieve the continental treble twice (2009 and 2015).\n\nSevilla is the most successful club in the UEFA Cup\/UEFA Europa League, with five titles.\n\nIn total, the Spanish football clubs have won 73 international titles as of 2018. Over the years, Spanish clubs have won the European Cups\/Champions League 18 times, the UEFA Super Cup 14 times, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 7 times, the UEFA Europa League 11 times, the UEFA Intertoto Cup 7 times and the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 6 times. In addition, Spanish clubs have also won the Intercontinental Cup 4 times, and the FIFA Club World Cup 6 times.\n\nWomen's football[edit]\n\nMain article: Women's football in Spain\n\nWomen's football is a minor sport in Spain.[54][55] Unlike the men's football, women's football is an amateur sport in Spain. Currently there are two national competitions, the League and the Copa de la Reina (English: Queen's Cup), in the semi-professional clubs involved structure.\n\nThe first teams and the first informal women's football competitions in Spain emerged in the 1970s, although they were not officially recognized by the Royal Spanish Football Federation until 1980, with the founding of the National Women's Football Committee. The first official national competition was the Championships of Spain (Copa de la Reina), established in 1983. The women's national league began to dispute the 1988-89 season.\n\nThe Spain women's national football team has been qualified only once in the FIFA Women's World Cup, and twice in the UEFA Women's Championship. Its youth division have had success in recent times. The Spain women's national under-19 football team won the UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship in 2004. The Spain women's national under-19 football team won the UEFA Women's Under-17 Championship in 2010, 2011, and 2015, as well as their third-place at the FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Spanish football: Well red\". The Economist. 2012-06-09. Retrieved 2013-10-07.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Memory 2016. Licensing and clubs (Document in Spanish)\" (PDF). Consejo Superior de Deportes (CSD)(Sports Council). Retrieved 2016-12-30.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Sports habits IV. Study number 2,833. March-april 2010 (Document in Spanish)\" (PDF). Centro de Investigaciones Sociol\u00f3gicas (Centre for Sociological Research). Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"June Barometer. Study number 3,029. June 2014 (Document in Spanish)\" (PDF). Centro de Investigaciones Sociol\u00f3gicas (Centre for Sociological Research). Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ James Lawton. \"La Roja: a journey through Spanish football, by Jimmy Burns\". The Independent. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Sid Lowe. \"Morbo: The story of Spanish football by Phil Ball (London: WSC Books,2001)\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Aakriti Mehrotra (2014-05-22). \"Fascism & Football: The political history of Spanish football\". Outside of the boot. Retrieved 2015-08-09.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Austin Esecson; Remy Lupica; Neel Muthama. \"El Clasico as Spanish History\". Soccer Politics Pages, Soccer Politics Blog, Duke University. Retrieved 2015-08-25.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"La Liga de F\u00fatbol Profesional (LFP)\". LaLiga. Retrieved 2015-08-21.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Graham Hunter. \"Spain: the inside story of La Roja's historic treble \u2013 extract | Football\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-01-30.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Ahmed, Rizwan (2011-06-28). \"The Success Of Spain: A Lesson For Every Football Nation\". Thehardtackle.com. Retrieved 2015-01-30.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Tim Vickery. \"Tim Vickery: Spain success built on clear football identity\". BBC. Retrieved 2015-01-30.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Paul Wilson. \"How England could learn from Spain's approach to youth | Football\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-01-30.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Associations. Spain. Association Information. Real Federaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola de F\u00fatbol. Honours\". FIFA.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Spain. Royal Spanish Football Federation. Spanish health good from top to bottom. Honours by National Teams\". UEFA.org. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"UEFA ranking for club competitions\". uefa.com. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Andy Mitten. \"La Liga tops Premier League as Spain's European superiority continues\". espn.com. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"The strongest national league of the world\". iffhs.de. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Spain. Royal Spanish Football Federation. Honours by Clubs\". UEFA.org. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"International Club Cup\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"FIFA Club World Championship\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Fairs' Cup\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"European Champions' Cup\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  24. ^ Jump up to: a b \"European Super Cup\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b \"UEFA Cup\". rsssf.com. Retrieved 2015-08-23.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Tiki Taka Football (The Barcelona style of play)\". Soccer Training Info. Retrieved 2015-09-01.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ James Vaughan. \"Creative team cultures: How Spanish football put the 'I' back in team\". bluestoneedge.com. Retrieved 2015-09-01.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Socieconomic impact of professional football in Spain\" (PDF). KMG Sports. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Giles Tremlet. \"EU prepares to blow final whistle on Spain's debt-ridden football clubs\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Jae Allen. \"The history of football in Spain\". Livestrong.com. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  31. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Juan A. Gisbert. \"Total Football: History of Spanish football (I): The Origins\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-24.\u00a0\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Sam Attard. \"A history of La Liga and Spanish football\". Espagnol.com. Retrieved 2015-08-21.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"The British Newspaper Archive\". The British Newspaper Archive. Retrieved October 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"The Courier\". The Courier. Archived from the original on February 13, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Marca\". Marca. Retrieved October 9, 2012.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Evening Times\". Evening Times. Retrieved October 11, 2012.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (II):1900-1905, The first tournaments\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (III):1905-1910, The years of crisis and division\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  39. ^ Jump up to: a b Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (IV):1911-1915, the creation of RFEF, Athletic dominance and first idols\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"Pichichi: The myth\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (V):1916-1920, the Basque power, the Madrid-Bar\u00e7a rivalry and the \"furia roja\"\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"The sports newspapers in Spain\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (VI):1921-1925, Basque-Catalan dominance, the Real Madrid-Athletic Madrid rivalry and first stepts of professionalism\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Juan A. Gisbert. \"The history of football in Spain (VII):1926-1928, the professional football and Samitier's golden era\". tikitaka-futbol. Retrieved 2015-08-31.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Spanish soccer league\". donquijote.com. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Austin Esecson; Remy Lupica; Neel Muthama. \"El Clasico as Spanish History. Origins the rivalry\". Soccer Politics Pages, Soccer Politics Blog, Duke University. Retrieved 2015-08-25.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Austin Esecson; Remy Lupica; Neel Muthama. \"El Clasico as Spanish History. Franco gets his man\". Soccer Politics Pages, Soccer Politics Blog, Duke University. Retrieved 2015-08-25.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Pete Jensen. \"Pain in Spain: La Liga in financial turmoil\". The independent. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Ian Hawkey. \"Catalonia and Basque Country reignite call for independent national identities\". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2015-08-20.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Spain win Maurice Burlaz Trophy\". UEFAorg. Retrieved 2015-08-22.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Primera Divisi\u00f3n 2015\/2016\". worldfootball.net. Retrieved 14 July 2016.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Spain. Primera Divisi\u00f3n 2014\/2015. Attendance. Home matches\". worldfootball.net. Retrieved 2015-08-24.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Sid Lowe. \"Review: The Story of Spanish Football | Football\". theguardian.com. Retrieved 2013-10-07.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Why Spain is absent from the World Cup\". Fox Soccer. Retrieved 2012-12-07.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Spain's women add to La Roja euphoria\". FIFA. Retrieved 2012-12-07.\u00a0[permanent dead link]\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Ball, Phil. Morbo. The story of the Spanish football. WSC Books Ltd, 2011. ISBN\u00a09780956101129\n  \u2022 Burns, Jimmy. La Roja: A journey through Spanish football. Simon & Schuster Ltd, 2012. ISBN\u00a0978-0-85720-652-7 (Hardback) ISBN\u00a0978-0-85720-653-4 (Trade paperback)\n  \u2022 Burns, Jimmy. La Roja: How soccer conquered Spain and how Spanish soccer conquered the world. Nations books, 2012. ISBN\u00a0978-1-56858-717-2 (pbk.) ISBN\u00a0978-1-56858-718-9 (e-book)\n  \u2022 Lowe, Sid. Fear and Loathing in la Liga. Barcelona vs Madrid. Yellow Jersey Press, 2013. ISBN\u00a09780224091787 (Hardback) ISBN\u00a09780224091794 (Trade paperback)\n  \u2022 Hunter, Graham. Spain: The inside history of la Roja\u2019s historic treble. BackPage Press, 2013. ISBN\u00a0978-1-909430-13-6.\n  \u2022 Quiroga, Alejandro. Football and national identities in Spain: the strange death of Don Quixote. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. ISBN\u00a0978-0-230-35540-8\n  \u2022 Vaczi, Mariann. Soccer, culture and society in Spain. An ethnography of Basque fandom. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2015. ISBN\u00a0978-1-138-77830-6 (hbk) ISBN\u00a0978-1-315-77207-3 (ebk)\n  \u2022 Llopis-Goig, Ram\u00f3n. Spanish football and social change. Sociological investigations. Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. ISBN\u00a0978-1-137-46794-2\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official RFEF Site\n  \u2022 Official LFP Site\n  \u2022 (in English) La Liga and Spanish Football in English\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSport in Spain\n  \u2022 Athletics\n  \u2022 Basketball\n  \u2022 Disability\n  \u2022 Football\n  \u2022 Futsal\n  \u2022 Handball\n  \u2022 Motorsport\n  \u2022 Rugby\n  \u2022 Tennis\n  \u2022 Water polo\n  \u2022 Spain at Olympics\n  \u2022 Paralympics\n  \u2022 Deaflympics\n  \u2022 World Games\n  \u2022 Team sport\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSpain Football in Spain\n  \u2022 AFE\n  \u2022 ANEF\n  \u2022 CTA\n  \u2022 CSD\n  \u2022 COE\n  \u2022 LFP\n  \u2022 RFEF\nNational teams\nMen's\n  \u2022 National team\n  \u2022 U-23\n  \u2022 U-21\n  \u2022 U-20\n  \u2022 U-19\n  \u2022 U-18\n  \u2022 U-17\n  \u2022 U-16\n  \u2022 U-15\nWomen's\n  \u2022 National team\n  \u2022 U-20\n  \u2022 U-19\n  \u2022 U-17\nLeague system\nLevel 1\n  \u2022 Primera Divisi\u00f3n\nLevel 2\n  \u2022 Segunda Divisi\u00f3n\nLevel 3\n  \u2022 Segunda Divisi\u00f3n B (4 groups)\nLevel 4\n  \u2022 Tercera Divisi\u00f3n (18 groups)\nLevels 5\u201310\n  \u2022 Divisiones Regionales (Andalusia\n  \u2022 Aragon\n  \u2022 Asturias\n  \u2022 Balearic\n  \u2022 Basque\n  \u2022 Canary\n  \u2022 Cantabria\n  \u2022 Castile-La Mancha\n  \u2022 Castile and Le\u00f3n\n  \u2022 Catalonia\n  \u2022 Extremadura\n  \u2022 Galicia\n  \u2022 La Rioja\n  \u2022 Madrid\n  \u2022 Murcia\n  \u2022 Navarre\n  \u2022 Valencia\n  \u2022 Ceuta, Melilla)\nWomen's league system\nLevel 1\n  \u2022 Primera Divisi\u00f3n\nLevel 2\n  \u2022 Segunda Divisi\u00f3n (7 groups)\nLevels 3\u20135\n  \u2022 Ligas Regionales (Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic, Basque, Canary, Cantabria, Castile-La Mancha, Castile and Le\u00f3n, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Valencia, Ceuta, Melilla)\nYouth league system\n  \u2022 Divisi\u00f3n de Honor Juvenil (7 groups)\n  \u2022 Liga Nacional Juvenil (21 groups)\nDomestic cups\n  \u2022 Copa del Rey\n  \u2022 Copa de la Liga (defunct)\n  \u2022 Copa Eva Duarte (replaced)\n  \u2022 Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a\n  \u2022 Copa Federaci\u00f3n\n  \u2022 Spanish stage of the UEFA Regions' Cup\nWomen's domestic cups\n  \u2022 Copa de la Reina\nYouth domestic cups\n  \u2022 Copa de Campeones Juvenil\n  \u2022 Copa del Rey Juvenil\n  \u2022 Clubs\n  \u2022 Stadiums\n  \u2022 Records\n  \u2022 Foreign players\n  \u2022 Champions\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFootball in Europe\nSovereign states\n  \u2022 Albania\n  \u2022 Andorra\n  \u2022 Armenia\n  \u2022 Austria\n  \u2022 Azerbaijan\n  \u2022 Belarus\n  \u2022 Belgium\n  \u2022 Bosnia and Herzegovina\n  \u2022 Bulgaria\n  \u2022 Croatia\n  \u2022 Cyprus\n  \u2022 Czech Republic\n  \u2022 Denmark\n  \u2022 Estonia\n  \u2022 Finland\n  \u2022 France\n  \u2022 Georgia\n  \u2022 Germany\n  \u2022 Greece\n  \u2022 Hungary\n  \u2022 Iceland\n  \u2022 Ireland\n  \u2022 Israel\n  \u2022 Italy\n  \u2022 Kazakhstan\n  \u2022 Latvia\n  \u2022 Liechtenstein\n  \u2022 Lithuania\n  \u2022 Luxembourg\n  \u2022 Macedonia\n  \u2022 Malta\n  \u2022 Moldova\n  \u2022 Monaco\n  \u2022 Montenegro\n  \u2022 Netherlands\n  \u2022 Norway\n  \u2022 Poland\n  \u2022 Portugal\n  \u2022 Romania\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 San Marino\n  \u2022 Serbia\n  \u2022 Slovakia\n  \u2022 Slovenia\n  \u2022 Spain\n  \u2022 Sweden\n  \u2022 Switzerland\n  \u2022 Turkey\n  \u2022 Ukraine\n  \u2022 United Kingdom\n    \u2022 England\n    \u2022 Northern Ireland\n    \u2022 Scotland\n    \u2022 Wales\n  \u2022 Vatican City\nStates with limited\nrecognition\n  \u2022 Abkhazia\n  \u2022 Artsakh\n  \u2022 Kosovo\n  \u2022 Northern Cyprus\n  \u2022 South Ossetia\n  \u2022 Transnistria\nDependencies and\nother entities\n  \u2022 \u00c5land\n  \u2022 Faroe Islands\n  \u2022 Gibraltar\n  \u2022 Guernsey\n  \u2022 Isle of Man\n  \u2022 Jersey\n  \u2022 Svalbard\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Football_in_Spain&oldid=843210105\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Football in Spain\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from October 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Lingua Franca Nova\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 27 May 2018, at 17:04.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"3542596469291219966","title":"Robot-assisted surgery","text":"Robot-assisted surgery\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nA robotically assisted surgical system used for prostatectomies, cardiac valve repair and gynecologic surgical procedures\n\nRobotic surgery, computer-assisted surgery, and robotically-assisted surgery are terms for technological developments that use robotic systems to aid in surgical procedures. Robotically-assisted surgery was developed to overcome the limitations of pre-existing minimally-invasive surgical procedures and to enhance the capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.\n\nIn the case of robotically-assisted minimally-invasive surgery, instead of directly moving the instruments, the surgeon uses one of two methods to control the instruments; either a direct telemanipulator or through computer control. A telemanipulator is a remote manipulator that allows the surgeon to perform the normal movements associated with the surgery whilst the robotic arms carry out those movements using end-effectors and manipulators to perform the actual surgery on the patient. In computer-controlled systems the surgeon uses a computer to control the robotic arms and its end-effectors, though these systems can also still use telemanipulators for their input. One advantage of using the computerised method is that the surgeon does not have to be present, but can be anywhere in the world, leading to the possibility for remote surgery.\n\nIn the case of enhanced open surgery, autonomous instruments (in familiar configurations) replace traditional steel tools, performing certain actions (such as rib spreading) with much smoother, feedback-controlled motions than could be achieved by a human hand. The main object of such smart instruments is to reduce or eliminate the tissue trauma traditionally associated with open surgery without requiring more than a few minutes' training on the part of surgeons. This approach seeks to improve open surgeries, particularly cardio-thoracic, that have so far not benefited from minimally-invasive techniques.\n\nRobotic surgery has been criticized for its expense, by one estimate costing $1,500 to $2000 more per patient.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Comparison to traditional methods\n  \u2022 2 Uses\n    \u2022 2.1 General surgery\n    \u2022 2.2 Cardiothoracic surgery\n    \u2022 2.3 Cardiology and electrophysiology\n    \u2022 2.4 Colon and rectal surgery\n    \u2022 2.5 Gastrointestinal surgery\n    \u2022 2.6 Gynecology\n    \u2022 2.7 Neurosurgery\n    \u2022 2.8 Ophthalmology\n    \u2022 2.9 Orthopedics\n    \u2022 2.10 Children\n    \u2022 2.11 Radiosurgery\n    \u2022 2.12 Spine surgery\n    \u2022 2.13 Transplant surgery\n    \u2022 2.14 Urology\n    \u2022 2.15 Vascular surgery\n  \u2022 3 Miniature robotics\n  \u2022 4 History\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nComparison to traditional methods[edit]\n\nMajor advances aided by surgical robots have been remote surgery, minimally invasive surgery and unmanned surgery. Due to robotic use, the surgery is done with precision, miniaturization, smaller incisions; decreased blood loss, less pain, and quicker healing time. Articulation beyond normal manipulation and three-dimensional magnification helps resulting in improved ergonomics. Due to these techniques there is a reduced duration of hospital stays, blood loss, transfusions, and use of pain medication.[2] The existing open surgery technique has many flaws like limited access to surgical area, long recovery time, long hours of operation, blood loss, surgical scars and marks.[3]\n\nThe robot normally costs $1,390,000 and while its disposable supply cost is normally $1,500 per procedure, the cost of the procedure is higher.[1] Additional surgical training is needed to operate the system.[4] Numerous feasibility studies have been done to determine whether the purchase of such systems are worthwhile. As it stands, opinions differ dramatically. Surgeons report that, although the manufacturers of such systems provide training on this new technology, the learning phase is intensive and surgeons must operate on twelve to eighteen patients before they adapt. During the training phase, minimally invasive operations can take up to twice as long as traditional surgery, leading to operating room tie ups and surgical staffs keeping patients under anesthesia for longer periods. Patient surveys indicate they chose the procedure based on expectations of decreased morbidity, improved outcomes, reduced blood loss and less pain.[2] Higher expectations may explain higher rates of dissatisfaction and regret.[4]\n\nCompared with other minimally invasive surgery approaches, robot-assisted surgery gives the surgeon better control over the surgical instruments and a better view of the surgical site. In addition, surgeons no longer have to stand throughout the surgery and do not tire as quickly. Naturally occurring hand tremors are filtered out by the robot's computer software. Finally, the surgical robot can continuously be used by rotating surgery teams.[5]\n\nCritics of the system, including the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,[6] say there is a steep learning curve for surgeons who adopt use of the system and that there's a lack of studies that indicate long-term results are superior to results following traditional laparoscopic surgery.[1] Articles in the newly created Journal of Robotic Surgery tend to report on one surgeon's experience.[1]\n\nA Medicare study found that some procedures that have traditionally been performed with large incisions can be converted to \"minimally invasive\" endoscopic procedures with the use of the Da Vinci Surgical System, shortening length-of-stay in the hospital and reducing recovery times. But because of the hefty cost of the robotic system it is not clear that it is cost-effective for hospitals and physicians despite any benefits to patients since there is no additional reimbursement paid by the government or insurance companies when the system is used.[1]\n\nRobot-assisted pancreatectomies have been found to be associated with \"longer operating time, lower estimated blood loss, a higher spleen-preservation rate, and shorter hospital stay[s]\" than laparoscopic pancreatectomies; there was \"no significant difference in transfusion, conversion to open surgery, overall complications, severe complications, pancreatic fistula, severe pancreatic fistula, ICU stay, total cost, and 30-day mortality between the two groups.\"[7] For surgical removal of the uterus and cervix for early cervical cancer robotic and laparoscopic surgery resulted in similar outcomes with respect to the cancer.[8]\n\nUses[edit]\n\nGeneral surgery[edit]\n\nIn early 2000 the field of general surgical interventions with the daVinci device was explored by surgeons at Ohio State University. Reports were published in esophageal and pancreatic surgery for the first time in the world and further data were subsequently published by Horgan and his group at the University of Illinois and then later at the same institution by others.[9][10] In 2007, the University of Illinois at Chicago medical team, led by Prof. Pier Cristoforo Giulianotti, reported a pancreatectomy and also the Midwest's first fully robotic Whipple surgery. In April 2008, the same team of surgeons performed the world's first fully minimally invasive liver resection for living donor transplantation, removing 60% of the patient's liver, yet allowing him to leave the hospital just a couple of days after the procedure, in very good condition. Furthermore, the patient can also leave with less pain than a usual surgery due to the four puncture holes and not a scar by a surgeon.[11]\n\nCardiothoracic surgery[edit]\n\nRobot-assisted MIDCAB and Endoscopic coronary artery bypass (TECAB) operations are being performed with the Da Vinci system. Mitral valve repairs and replacements have been performed. The Ohio State University, Columbus has performed CABG, mitral valve, esophagectomy, lung resection, tumor resections, among other robotic assisted procedures and serves as a training site for other surgeons. In 2002, surgeons at the Cleveland Clinic in Florida reported and published their preliminary experience with minimally invasive \"hybrid\" procedures. These procedures combined robotic revascularization and coronary stenting and further expanded the role of robots in coronary bypass to patients with disease in multiple vessels. Ongoing research on the outcomes of robotic assisted CABG and hybrid CABG is being done.[citation needed]\n\nCardiology and electrophysiology[edit]\n\nAs of 2004, three types of heart surgery are being performed on a routine basis using robotic surgery systems.[12] These three surgery types were:\n\n  \u2022 Atrial septal defect repair \u2013 the repair of a hole between the two upper chambers of the heart,\n  \u2022 Mitral valve repair \u2013 the repair of the valve that prevents blood from regurgitating back into the upper heart chambers during contractions of the heart,\n  \u2022 Coronary artery bypass \u2013 rerouting of blood supply by bypassing blocked arteries that provide blood to the heart.\n\nColon and rectal surgery[edit]\n\nMany studies have been undertaken in order to examine the role of robotic procedures in the field of colorectal surgery.[13][14]\n\nResults to date indicate that robotic-assisted colorectal procedures outcomes are \"no worse\" than the results in the now \"traditional\" laparoscopic colorectal operations. Robotic-assisted colorectal surgery appears to be safe as well.[15] Most of the procedures have been performed for malignant colon and rectal lesions. However, surgeons are now moving into resections for diverticulitis and non-resective rectopexies (attaching the colon to the sacrum in order to treat rectal prolapse.)\n\nWhen evaluated for several variables, robotic-assisted procedures fare equally well when compared with laparoscopic, or open abdominal operations. Study parameters have looked at intraoperative patient preparation time, length of time to perform the operation, adequacy of the removed surgical specimen with respect to clear surgical margins and number of lymph nodes removed, blood loss, operative or postoperative complications and long-term results.\n\nMore difficult to evaluate are issues related to the view of the operative field, the types of procedures that should be performed using robotic assistance and the potential added cost for a robotic operation.\n\nMany surgeons feel that the optics of the 3-dimensional, two camera stereo optic robotic system are superior to the optical system used in laparoscopic procedures. The pelvic nerves are clearly visualized during robotic-assisted procedures. Less clear however is whether or not these supposedly improved optics and visualization improve patient outcomes with respect to postoperative impotence or incontinence, and whether long-term patient survival is improved by using the 3-dimensional optic system. Additionally, there is often a need for a wider, or \"larger\" view of the operative field than is routinely provided during robotic operations.,[16] The close-up view of the area under dissection may hamper visualization of the \"bigger view\", especially with respect to ureteral protection.\n\nQuestions remain unanswered, even after many years of experience with robotic-assisted colorectal operations. Ongoing studies may help clarify many of the issues of confusion associated with this novel surgical approach.\n\nGastrointestinal surgery[edit]\n\nMultiple types of procedures have been performed with either the 'Zeus' or da Vinci robot systems, including bariatric surgery and gastrectomy[17] for cancer. Surgeons at various universities initially published case series demonstrating different techniques and the feasibility of GI surgery using the robotic devices.[10] Specific procedures have been more fully evaluated, specifically esophageal fundoplication for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux[18] and Heller myotomy for the treatment of achalasia.[19][20]\n\nOther gastrointestinal procedures including colon resection, pancreatectomy, esophagectomy and robotic approaches to pelvic disease have also been reported.\n\nGynecology[edit]\n\nRobotic surgery in gynecology is of uncertain benefit with it being unclear if it affects rates of complications. Gynecologic procedures may take longer with robot-assisted surgery but may be associated with a shorter hospital stay following hysterectomy.[21] In the United States, robotic-assisted hysterectomy for benign conditions has been shown to be more expensive than conventional laparoscopic hysterectomy, with no difference in overall rates of complications.[22]\n\nThis includes the use of the da Vinci surgical system in benign gynecology and gynecologic oncology. Robotic surgery can be used to treat fibroids, abnormal periods, endometriosis, ovarian tumors, uterine prolapse, and female cancers. Using the robotic system, gynecologists can perform hysterectomies, myomectomies, and lymph node biopsies.\n\nNeurosurgery[edit]\n\nSeveral systems for stereotactic intervention are currently on the market. The NeuroMate was the first neurosurgical robot, commercially available in 1997.[23] Originally developed in Grenoble by Alim-Louis_Benabid's team, it is now owned by Renishaw. With installations in the United States, Europe and Japan, the system has been used in 8000 stereotactic brain surgeries by 2009. IMRIS Inc.'s SYMBIS(TM) Surgical System[24] will be the version of NeuroArm, the world's first MRI-compatible surgical robot, developed for world-wide commercialization. Medtech's Rosa is being used by several institutions, including the Cleveland Clinic in the U.S, and in Canada at Sherbrooke University and the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital in Montreal (MNI\/H). Between June 2011 and September 2012, over 150 neurosurgical procedures at the MNI\/H have been completed robotized stereotaxy, including in the placement of depth electrodes in the treatment of epilepsy, selective resections, and stereotaxic biopsies.[citation needed]\n\nOphthalmology[edit]\n\nThe first robotic operation inside the eye took place at the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford on 9 September 2016. The robot was developed by Preceyes BV and the surgery was performed by Robert MacLaren, Professor of Ophthalmology at the University of Oxford.[25] They operated successfully on the Reverend Dr William Beaver, a 70 year old man with a macular hole.[26] The researchers commented that robotic eye surgery has taken longer to develop due to the need to miniaturise the components. They observed that the robot could make controlled movements inside the eye as small as 100th of a millimetre.[27]\n\nOrthopedics[edit]\n\nThe ROBODOC system was released in 1992 by Integrated Surgical Systems, Inc. which merged into CUREXO Technology Corporation.[28] Also, The Acrobot Company Ltd. developed the \"Acrobot Sculptor\", a robot that constrained a bone cutting tool to a pre-defined volume. The \"Acrobot Sculptor\" was sold to Stanmore Implants in August 2010. Stanmore received FDA clearance in February 2013 for US surgeries but sold the Sculptor to Mako Surgical in June 2013 to resolve a patent infringement lawsuit.[29] Another example is the CASPAR robot produced by U.R.S.which is used for total hip replacement, total knee replacement and anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.[30] MAKO Surgical Corp (founded 2004) produces the RIO (Robotic Arm Interactive Orthopedic System) which combines robotics, navigation, and haptics for both partial knee and total hip replacement surgery.[31] Blue Belt Technologies received FDA clearance in November 2012 for the Navio Surgical System. The Navio System is a navigated, robotics-assisted surgical system that uses a CT free approach to assist in partial knee replacement surgery.[32]\n\nChildren[edit]\n\nSurgical robotics has been used in many types of pediatric surgical procedures including: tracheoesophageal fistula repair, cholecystectomy, nissen fundoplication, morgagni's hernia repair, kasai portoenterostomy, congenital diaphragmatic hernia repair, and others. On 17 January 2002, surgeons at Children's Hospital of Michigan in Detroit performed the nation's first advanced computer-assisted robot-enhanced surgical procedure at a children's hospital.\n\nThe Center for Robotic Surgery at Children's Hospital Boston provides a high level of expertise in pediatric robotic surgery. Specially-trained surgeons use a high-tech robot to perform complex and delicate operations through very small surgical openings. The results are less pain, faster recoveries, shorter hospital stays, smaller scars, and happier patients and families.\n\nIn 2001, Children's Hospital Boston was the first pediatric hospital to acquire a surgical robot. Today, surgeons use the technology for many procedures and perform more pediatric robotic operations than any other hospital in the world. Children's Hospital physicians have developed a number of new applications to expand the use of the robot, and train surgeons from around the world on its use.[33]\n\nRadiosurgery[edit]\n\nThe CyberKnife Robotic Radiosurgery System uses image guidance and computer controlled robotics to treat tumors throughout the body by delivering multiple beams of high-energy radiation to the tumor from virtually any direction. The system uses a German KUKA KR 240. Mounted on the robot is a compact X-band linac that produces 6MV X-ray radiation. Mounting the radiation source on the robot allows very fast repositioning of the source, which enables the system to deliver radiation from many different directions without the need to move both the patient and source as required by current gantry configurations.\n\nSpine surgery[edit]\n\nRobotic devices started to be used in minimally invasive spine surgery starting in the mid-2000s.[34] As of 2014, there were too few randomized clinical trials to allow judgements as to whether robotic spine surgery is more or less safe than other approaches.[34]\n\nTransplant surgery[edit]\n\nTransplant surgery (organ transplantation) has been considered as highly technically demanding and virtually unobtainable by means of conventional laparoscopy. For many years, transplant patients were unable to benefit from the advantages of minimally invasive surgery. The development of robotic technology and its associated high resolution capabilities, three dimensional visual system, wrist type motion and fine instruments, gave opportunity for highly complex procedures to be completed in a minimally invasive fashion. Subsequently, the first fully robotic kidney transplantations were performed in the late 2000s. After the procedure was proven to be feasible and safe, the main emerging challenge was to determine which patients would benefit most from this robotic technique. As a result, recognition of the increasing prevalence of obesity amongst patients with kidney failure on hemodialysis posed a significant problem. Due to the abundantly higher risk of complications after traditional open kidney transplantation, obese patients were frequently denied access to transplantation, which is the premium treatment for end stage kidney disease. The use of the robotic-assisted approach has allowed kidneys to be transplanted with minimal incisions, which has virtually alleviated wound complications and significantly shortened the recovery period. The University of Illinois Medical Center reported the largest series of 104 robotic-assisted kidney transplants for obese recipients (mean body mass index > 42). Amongst this group of patients, no wound infections were observed and the function of transplanted kidneys was excellent. In this way, robotic kidney transplantation could be considered as the biggest advance in surgical technique for this procedure since its creation more than half a century ago.[35][36][37]\n\nUrology[edit]\n\nRobotic surgery in the field of urology has become very popular, especially in the United States.[38] It has been most extensively applied for excision of prostate cancer because of difficult anatomical access. It is also utilized for kidney cancer surgeries and to lesser extent surgeries of the bladder.\n\nAs of 2014, there is little evidence of increased benefits compared to standard surgery to justify the increased costs.[39] Some have found tentative evidence of more complete removal of cancer and less side effects from surgery for prostatectomy.[40]\n\nIn 2000, the first robot-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy was performed.[4]\n\nVascular surgery[edit]\n\nIn September 2010, the first robotic operations with Hansen Medical's Magellan Robotic System at the femoral vasculature were performed at the University Medical Centre Ljubljana (UMC Ljubljana), Slovenia. The research was led by Borut Ger\u0161ak, the head of the Department of Cardiovascular Surgery at the centre. Ger\u0161ak explained that the robot used was the first true robot in the history of robotic surgery, meaning the user interface was not resembling surgical instruments and the robot was not simply imitating the movement of human hands but was guided by pressing buttons, just like one would play a video game. The robot was imported to Slovenia from the United States.[41][42]\n\nMiniature robotics[edit]\n\nAs scientists seek to improve the versatility and utility of robotics in surgery, some are attempting to miniaturize the robots. For example, the University of Nebraska Medical Center has led a multi-campus effort to provide collaborative research on mini-robotics among surgeons, engineers and computer scientists.[43]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe first robot to assist in surgery was the Arthrobot, which was developed and used for the first time in Vancouver in 1983.[44] Intimately involved were biomedical engineer, Dr. James McEwen, Geof Auchinleck, a UBC engineering physics grad, and Dr. Brian Day as well as a team of engineering students. The robot was used in an orthopaedic surgical procedure on 12 March 1984, at the UBC Hospital in Vancouver. Over 60 arthroscopic surgical procedures were performed in the first 12 months, and a 1985 National Geographic video on industrial robots, The Robotics Revolution, featured the device. Other related robotic devices developed at the same time included a surgical scrub nurse robot, which handed operative instruments on voice command, and a medical laboratory robotic arm. A YouTube video entitled Arthrobot illustrates some of these in operation.\n\nIn 1985 a robot, the Unimation Puma 200, was used to place a needle for a brain biopsy using CT guidance.[45] In 1992, the PROBOT, developed at Imperial College London, was used to perform prostatic surgery by Dr. Senthil Nathan at Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital, London. This was the first pure robotic surgery in the world. The PROBOT was specifically designed for transurethral resection of the prostate. Meanwhile, when PROBOT was being developed, ROBODOC, a robotic system designed to assist hip replacement surgeries was the first surgical robot that was approved by the FDA.[46] The ROBODOC from Integrated Surgical Systems (working closely with IBM) was introduced in 1992 to mill out precise fittings in the femur for hip replacement.[47] The purpose of the ROBODOC was to replace the previous method of carving out a femur for an implant, the use of a mallet and broach\/rasp.\n\nFurther development of robotic systems was carried out by SRI International and Intuitive Surgical with the introduction of the da Vinci Surgical System and Computer Motion with the AESOP and the ZEUS robotic surgical system.[48] The first robotic surgery took place at The Ohio State University Medical Center in Columbus, Ohio under the direction of Robert E. Michler.[49] Examples of using ZEUS include a fallopian tube reconnection in July 1998,[50] a beating heart coronary artery bypass graft in October 1999,[51] and the Lindbergh Operation, which was a cholecystectomy performed remotely in September 2001.[52]\n\nThe original telesurgery robotic system that the da Vinci was based on was developed at SRI International in Menlo Park with grant support from DARPA and NASA.[53] Although the telesurgical robot was originally intended to facilitate remotely performed surgery in battlefield and other remote environments, it turned out to be more useful for minimally invasive on-site surgery. The patents for the early prototype were sold to Intuitive Surgical in Mountain View, California. The da Vinci senses the surgeon's hand movements and translates them electronically into scaled-down micro-movements to manipulate the tiny proprietary instruments. It also detects and filters out any tremors in the surgeon's hand movements, so that they are not duplicated robotically. The camera used in the system provides a true stereoscopic picture transmitted to a surgeon's console. Examples of using the da Vinci system include the first robotically assisted heart bypass (performed in Germany) in May 1998, and the first performed in the United States in September 1999;[citation needed] and the first all-robotic-assisted kidney transplant, performed in January 2009.[54] The da Vinci Si was released in April 2009, and initially sold for $1.75\u00a0million.[55]\n\nIn May 2006 the first artificial intelligence doctor-conducted unassisted robotic surgery on a 34-year-old male to correct heart arythmia. The results were rated as better than an above-average human surgeon. The machine had a database of 10,000 similar operations, and so, in the words of its designers, was \"more than qualified to operate on any patient\".[56][57] In August 2007, Dr. Sijo Parekattil of the Robotics Institute and Center for Urology (Winter Haven Hospital and University of Florida) performed the first robotic assisted microsurgery procedure denervation of the spermatic cord for chronic testicular pain.[58] In February 2008, Dr. Mohan S. Gundeti of the University of Chicago Comer Children's Hospital performed the first robotic pediatric neurogenic bladder reconstruction.[59]\n\nOn 12 May 2008, the first image-guided MR-compatible robotic neurosurgical procedure was performed at University of Calgary by Dr. Garnette Sutherland using the NeuroArm.[60] In June 2008, the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) presented a robotic system for minimally invasive surgery, the MiroSurge.[61] In September 2010, the Eindhoven University of Technology announced the development of the Sofie surgical system, the first surgical robot to employ force feedback.[62] In September 2010, the first robotic operation at the femoral vasculature was performed at the University Medical Centre Ljubljana by a team led by Borut Ger\u0161ak.[41][42]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bone segment navigation\n  \u2022 Computer-assisted surgery\n  \u2022 Computer-integrated surgery\n  \u2022 Minimally invasive surgery\n  \u2022 Patient registration\n  \u2022 Stereolithography (medicine)\n  \u2022 Surgical Segment Navigator\n  \u2022 Telemedicine\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kolata, Gina (13 February 2010). \"Results Unproven, Robotic Surgery Wins Converts\". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2010.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Estey, EP (2009). \"Robotic prostatectomy: The new standard of care or a marketing success?\". Canadian Urological Association Journal. 3 (6): 488\u201390. PMC\u00a02792423\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020019980.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ O'Toole, M. D.; Bouazza-Marouf, K.; Kerr, D.; Gooroochurn, M.; Vloeberghs, M. (2009). \"A methodology for design and appraisal of surgical robotic systems\". Robotica. 28 (2): 297\u2013310. doi:10.1017\/S0263574709990658.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c Finkelstein J; Eckersberger E; Sadri H; Taneja SS; Lepor H; Djavan B (2010). \"Open Versus Laparoscopic Versus Robot-Assisted Laparoscopic Prostatectomy: The European and US Experience\". Reviews in Urology. 12 (1): 35\u201343. PMC\u00a02859140\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020428292.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Gerhardus, D (July\u2013August 2003). \"Robot-assisted surgery: the future is here\". Journal of Healthcare Management. 48 (4): 242\u2013251. PMID\u00a012908224.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Breeden, James T., MD, President of ACOG, [1] Statement on Robotic Surgery, 14 March 2013\n  7. Jump up ^ Zhou, JY; Xin, C; Mou, YP; Xu, XW; Zhang, MZ; Zhou, YC; Lu, C; Chen, RG (2016). \"Robotic versus Laparoscopic Distal Pancreatectomy: A Meta-Analysis of Short-Term Outcomes\". PLoS ONE. 11 (3): e0151189. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1151189Z. PMC\u00a04790929\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a026974961. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0151189.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Zanagnolo, V; Garbi, A; Achilarre, MT; Minig, L (16 January 2017). \"Robot-assisted surgery in Gynecologic cancers.\". Journal of minimally invasive gynecology. 24: 379\u2013396. PMID\u00a028104497. doi:10.1016\/j.jmig.2017.01.006.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Melvin, W. S.; Needleman, B. J.; Krause, K. R.; Ellison, E. C. (February 2003). \"Robotic Resection of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor\". Journal of Laparoendoscopic & Advanced Surgical Techniques. 13 (1): 33\u201336. doi:10.1089\/109264203321235449.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Talamini, M. A.; Chapman, S.; Horgan, S.; Melvin, W. S. (October 2003). \"A prospective analysis of 211 robotic-assisted surgical procedures\". Surgical Endoscopy. 17 (10): 1521\u20131524. PMID\u00a012915974. doi:10.1007\/s00464-002-8853-3.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  11. Jump up ^ Ahmed, K.; Khan, M. S.; Vats, A.; Nagpal, K.; Priest, O.; Patel, V.; Vecht, J. A.; Ashrafian, H.; et al. (October 2009). \"Current status of robotic assisted pelvic surgery and future developments\". International Journal of Surgery. 7 (5): 431\u2013440. PMID\u00a019735746. doi:10.1016\/j.ijsu.2009.08.008.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  12. Jump up ^ Kypson, Alan P; Chitwood Jr., W. Randolph (2004). \"Robotic Applications in Cardiac Surgery\". International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems. 1 (2): 87\u201392. Bibcode:2004cs.......12055K. arXiv:cs\/0412055\u202fFreely accessible.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ D'Annibale, A et al. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. December 2004. Volume 47, issue 12, pp. 2162\u20132168\n  14. Jump up ^ Spinoglio, G. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. November 2008. Volume 51, issue 11, pp. 1627\u20131632\n  15. Jump up ^ Delaney, C. et al. Diseases of the colon and rectum. December 2003. Volume 46, pp. 1633\u20131639\n  16. Jump up ^ Braumann, C. et al. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. December 2005. Volume 48, Number 9, pp1820-1827.\n  17. Jump up ^ Myung-Han, Hyun; Chung-Ho Lee; Hyun-Jung Kim; YiXin Tong; Sung-Soo Park (November 2013). \"Systematic review and meta-analysis of robotic surgery compared with conventional laparoscopic and open resection for gastric carcinoma\". British Journal of Surgery. 100 (12): 1566\u201378. PMID\u00a024264778. doi:10.1002\/bjs.9242.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Melvin, W. Scott; Needleman, Bradley J.; Krause, Kevin R.; Schneider, Carol; Ellison, E. Christopher (2002). \"Computer-Enhanced vs. Standard Laparoscopic Antireflux Surgery\". Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery. 6 (1): 11\u201315; discussion 15\u20136. PMID\u00a011986012. doi:10.1016\/S1091-255X(01)00032-4.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  19. Jump up ^ Melvin, W. S.; Dundon, J. M.; Talamini, M.; Horgan, S. (October 2005). \"Computer-enhanced robotic telesurgery minimizes esophageal perforation during Heller myotomy\". Surgery. 138 (4): 553\u2013558; discussion 558\u20139. PMID\u00a016269282. doi:10.1016\/j.surg.2005.07.025.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  20. Jump up ^ Shaligram A; Unnirevi J; Simorov A; Kothari VM; Oleynikov D (April 2012). \"How does the robot affect outcomes? A retrospective review of open, laparoscopic, and robotic Heller myotomy for achalasia\". Surgical Endoscopy. 26 (4): 1047\u201350. PMID\u00a022038167. doi:10.1007\/s00464-011-1994-5.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Liu, H; Lawrie, TA; Lu, D; Song, H; Wang, L; Shi, G (10 December 2014). \"Robot-assisted surgery in gynaecology\". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 12 (12): CD011422. PMID\u00a025493418. doi:10.1002\/14651858.CD011422.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Committee Opinion: Robotic Surgery in Gynecolgy\". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 125 (3): 760\u2013767. March 2015. doi:10.1097\/01.AOG.0000461761.47981.07.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Robot-Assisted Surgery: Neurosurgery\". Biomed.brown.edu. Retrieved 25 June 2013.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"SYMBIS Homepage on IMRIS Website\".\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Surgeons use robot to operate inside eye in world first\". 9 September 2016 \u2013 via The Guardian.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Walsh, Fergus (9 September 2016). \"Robot operates inside eye in world first\" \u2013 via www.bbc.co.uk.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ UK surgeons carry out world's first robot eye surgery. ITV News, 9 September 2016.\n  28. Jump up ^ ROBODOC history. Robodoc.com. Retrieved 29 November 2011.\n  29. Jump up ^ Acrobot Sculptor[dead link]\n  30. Jump up ^ Siebert, W.; Mai, Sabine; Kober, Rudolf; Heeckt, Peter F. (30 December 2004). \"Chapter 12 \u2013 Total knee replacement: robotic assistive technique\". In DiGioia, Anthony M.; Jaramaz, Branislav; Picard, Frederic; Nolte, Lutz-Peter. Computer and robotic assisted hip and knee surgery. Oxford University Press. pp.\u00a0127\u2013156. ISBN\u00a00-19-850943-X.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Home | MAKO Surgical Corp\". Makosurgical.com. 3 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"Home | Blue Belt Technologies, Inc.\". Bluebelttech.com. 24 June 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2014.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Robotic Surgery\". Children's Hospital Center. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2011.\u00a0\n  34. ^ Jump up to: a b Shweikeh, Faris; Amadio, Jordan P.; Arnell, Monica; Barnard, Zachary R.; Kim, Terrence T.; Johnson, J. Patrick; Drazin, Doniel (2014-03-01). \"Robotics and the spine: a review of current and ongoing applications\". Neurosurgical Focus. 36 (3): E10. PMID\u00a024580002. doi:10.3171\/2014.1.focus13526.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Giulianotti PC, Gorodner V, Sbrana F, Tzvetanov I, Jeon H, Bianco F, Kinzer K, Oberholzer J, Benedetti E (2010). \"Robotic Trans-Abdominal Kidney Transplantation in a Morbidly Obese Patient\". AJT. 10: 1\u20135.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Oberholzer J, Giulianotti P, Danielson KK, Spaggiari M, Bejarano-Pineda L, Bianco F, Tzvetanov I, Ayloo S, Jeon H, Garcia-Roca R, Thielke J, Tang I, Akkina S, Becker B, Kinzer K, Patel A, Benedetti E (2013). \"Minimally invasive robotic kidney transplantation for obese patients previously denied access to transplantation\". American Journal of Transplantation. 13 (3): 721\u20138. PMC\u00a03647345\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a023437881. doi:10.1111\/ajt.12078.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Tzvetanov I, Giulianotti PC, Bejarano-Pineda L, Jeon H, Garcia-Roca R, Bianco F, Oberholzer J, Benedetti E (December 2013). \"Robotic-assisted kidney transplantation\". Surg Clin North Am. 93 (6): 1309\u201323. PMID\u00a024206853. doi:10.1016\/j.suc.2013.08.003.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Lee, DI (April 2009). \"Robotic prostatectomy: what we have learned and where we are going\". Yonsei Med J. 50 (2): 177\u201381. PMC\u00a02678689\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a019430547. doi:10.3349\/ymj.2009.50.2.177.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Williams, SB; Prado, K; Hu, JC (November 2014). \"Economics of robotic surgery: does it make sense and for whom?\". The Urologic clinics of North America. 41 (4): 591\u20136. PMID\u00a025306170. doi:10.1016\/j.ucl.2014.07.013.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Ramsay, C; Pickard, R; Robertson, C; Close, A; Vale, L; Armstrong, N; Barocas, DA; Eden, CG; Fraser, C; Gurung, T; Jenkinson, D; Jia, X; Lam, TB; Mowatt, G; Neal, DE; Robinson, MC; Royle, J; Rushton, SP; Sharma, P; Shirley, MD; Soomro, N (2012). \"Systematic review and economic modelling of the relative clinical benefit and cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic surgery and robotic surgery for removal of the prostate in men with localised prostate cancer.\". Health technology assessment (Winchester, England). 16 (41): 1\u2013313. PMC\u00a04780976\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a023127367. doi:10.3310\/hta16410.\u00a0\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b \"V UKC Ljubljana prvi\u010d na svetu uporabili \u017eilnega robota za posege na femoralnem \u017eilju\" [The First Use of a Vascular Robot for Procedures on Femoral Vasculature] (in Slovenian). 8 November 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2011.\u00a0\n  42. ^ Jump up to: a b \"UKC Ljubljana kljub finan\u010dnim omejitvam uspe\u0161en v razvoju medicine\" [UMC Ljubljana Successfully Develops Medicine Despite Financial Limitations] (in Slovenian). 30 March 2011.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Graham-Rowe, Duncan (26 January 2006). \"Robot set loose to film your insides\". New Scientist (2536). Retrieved 29 November 2011.\u00a0 closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Medical Post 23:1985\" (PDF).\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ Kwoh, Y. S.; Hou, J.; Jonckheere, E. A. & Hayall, S. (February 1988). \"A robot with improved absolute positioning accuracy for CT guided stereotactic brain surgery\". IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 35 (2): 153\u2013161. doi:10.1109\/10.1354.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Lanfranco, Anthony R.; Castellanos, Andres E.; Desai, Jaydev P.; Meyers, William C. (2004). \"Robotic Surgery\". Annals of Surgery. 239 (1): 14\u201321. PMC\u00a01356187\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a014685095. doi:10.1097\/01.sla.0000103020.19595.7d.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"ROBODOC: Surgical Robot Success Story\" (PDF). Retrieved 25 June 2013.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Meadows, Michelle. \"Computer-Assisted Surgery: An Update\". FDA Consumer magazine. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 1 March 2009.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ McConnell, PI; Schneeberger, EW; Michler, RE (2003). \"History and development of robotic cardiac surgery\". Problems in General Surgery. 20 (2): 20\u201330. doi:10.1097\/01.sgs.0000081182.03671.6e.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Leslie Versweyveld (29 September 1999). \"ZEUS robot system reverses sterilization to enable birth of baby boy\". Virtual Medical Worlds Monthly.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Robotics: the Future of Minimally Invasive Heart Surgery\". Biomed.brown.edu. 6 October 1999. Retrieved 29 November 2011.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Linbergh Operation \u2013 IRCAD\/EITS Laparoscopic Center\". Retrieved 19 January 2011.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Telerobotic Surgery\". SRI International. Retrieved 30 September 2013.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"New Robot Technology Eases Kidney Transplants\". CBS News. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2009.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"da Vinci Si Surgical System\". Intuitive Surgical. Retrieved 30 September 2013.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Autonomous Robotic Surgeon performs surgery on first live human\". Engadget. 19 May 2006.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Robot surgeon carries out 9-hour operation by itself\". Phys.Org.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Parekattil, Sijo. \"Robotic Infertility\". Retrieved 11 October 2012.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Surgeons perform world's first pediatric robotic bladder reconstruction\". Esciencenews.com. 20 November 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2011.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"neuroArm\u00a0: revolutionary procedure a world first\". ucalgary.ca. 16 May 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2012.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ Hagn, U.; Nickl, M.; J\u00f6rg, S.; Tobergte, A.; K\u00fcbler, B.; Passig, G.; Gr\u00f6ger, M.; Fr\u00f6hlich, F.; Seibold, U.; Konietschke, R.; Le-Tien, L.; Albu-Sch\u00e4ffer, A.; Grebenstein, M.; Ortmaier, T. & Hirzinger, G. (2008). \"DLR MiroSurge \u2013 towards versatility in surgical robotics\". Jahrestagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Computer und Roboterassistierte Chirurgie; Proceedings of CURAC. 7: 143\u2013146.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ \"Beter opereren met nieuwe Nederlandse operatierobot Sofie\" (in Dutch). TU\/e. 27 September 2010. Retrieved 10 October 2010.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Surgical robots.\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRobotics\nMain articles\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Glossary\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Future\n  \u2022 Geography\n  \u2022 Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 Ethics\n  \u2022 Laws\n  \u2022 AI competitions\nShadow Hand Bulb large.jpg\nTypes\n  \u2022 Anthropomorphic\n    \u2022 Humanoid\n    \u2022 Android\n    \u2022 Cyborg\n  \u2022 Animatronic\n  \u2022 Industrial\n  \u2022 Articulated\n    \u2022 arm\n  \u2022 Domestic\n  \u2022 Entertainment\n  \u2022 Juggling\n  \u2022 Military\n  \u2022 Surgery\n  \u2022 Service\n  \u2022 Disability\n  \u2022 Agricultural\n  \u2022 Food service\n  \u2022 Retailing\n  \u2022 BEAM robotics\n  \u2022 Soft robotics\n  \u2022 Uncrewed vehicle\nClassifications\n  \u2022 Aerial\n  \u2022 Ground\n  \u2022 Mobile robot\n    \u2022 navigation\n  \u2022 Microbotics\n  \u2022 Nanorobotics\n  \u2022 Space\n  \u2022 Swarm\n  \u2022 Underwater\nLocomotion\n  \u2022 Tracks\n  \u2022 Walking\n    \u2022 Hexapod\n  \u2022 Climbing\n  \u2022 Self-balancing unicycle\nResearch\n  \u2022 Evolutionary\n  \u2022 Kits\n  \u2022 Simulator\n  \u2022 Suite\n  \u2022 Open-source\n  \u2022 Software\n  \u2022 Adaptable\n  \u2022 Developmental\n  \u2022 Paradigms\n  \u2022 Ubiquitous\nRelated\n  \u2022 Technological unemployment\n  \u2022 Fictional robots\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nEmerging technologies\nFields\nAgriculture\n  \u2022 Agricultural robot\n  \u2022 Closed ecological systems\n  \u2022 Cultured meat\n  \u2022 Genetically modified food\n  \u2022 Precision agriculture\n  \u2022 Vertical farming\nArchitecture\n  \u2022 Arcology\n  \u2022 Building printing\n    \u2022 Contour crafting\n    \u2022 D-Shape\n  \u2022 Domed city\nBiomedical\n  \u2022 Artificial uterus\n  \u2022 Ampakine\n  \u2022 Brain transplant\n  \u2022 Cryonics\n    \u2022 Cryoprotectant\n    \u2022 Cryopreservation\n    \u2022 Vitrification\n    \u2022 Suspended animation\n  \u2022 De-extinction\n  \u2022 Genetic engineering\n    \u2022 Gene therapy\n  \u2022 Head transplant\n  \u2022 Isolated brain\n  \u2022 Life extension\n    \u2022 Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence\n  \u2022 Nanomedicine\n  \u2022 Nanosensors\n  \u2022 Personalized medicine\n  \u2022 Regenerative medicine\n    \u2022 Stem-cell therapy\n    \u2022 Tissue engineering\n  \u2022 Robot-assisted surgery\n  \u2022 Synthetic biology\n    \u2022 Synthetic genomics\n  \u2022 Virotherapy\n    \u2022 Oncolytic virus\n  \u2022 Tricorder\n  \u2022 Whole genome sequencing\nDisplays\nNext generation\n  \u2022 FED\n  \u2022 FLCD\n  \u2022 iMoD\n  \u2022 Laser\n  \u2022 LPD\n  \u2022 OLED\n  \u2022 OLET\n  \u2022 QD-LED\n  \u2022 SED\n  \u2022 TPD\n  \u2022 TDEL\n  \u2022 TMOS\nScreenless\n  \u2022 Bionic contact lens\n  \u2022 Head-mounted display\n  \u2022 Head-up display\n  \u2022 Optical head-mounted display\n  \u2022 Virtual retinal display\nOther\n  \u2022 Autostereoscopy\n  \u2022 Flexible display\n  \u2022 Holographic display\n    \u2022 Computer-generated holography\n  \u2022 Multi-primary color display\n  \u2022 Ultra HD\n  \u2022 Volumetric display\nElectronics\n  \u2022 Electronic nose\n  \u2022 E-textiles\n  \u2022 Flexible electronics\n  \u2022 Molecular electronics\n  \u2022 Nanoelectromechanical systems\n  \u2022 Memristor\n  \u2022 Spintronics\n  \u2022 Thermal copper pillar bump\nEnergy\nProduction\n  \u2022 Airborne wind turbine\n  \u2022 Artificial photosynthesis\n  \u2022 Biofuels\n  \u2022 Carbon-neutral fuel\n  \u2022 Concentrated solar power\n  \u2022 Fusion power\n  \u2022 Home fuel cell\n  \u2022 Hydrogen economy\n  \u2022 Methanol economy\n  \u2022 Molten salt reactor\n  \u2022 Nantenna\n  \u2022 Photovoltaic pavement\n  \u2022 Space-based solar power\n  \u2022 Vortex engine\nStorage\n  \u2022 Beltway battery\n  \u2022 Compressed air energy storage\n  \u2022 Flywheel energy storage\n  \u2022 Grid energy storage\n  \u2022 Lithium\u2013air battery\n  \u2022 Molten salt battery\n  \u2022 Nanowire battery\n  \u2022 Research in lithium-ion batteries\n  \u2022 Silicon\u2013air battery\n  \u2022 Thermal energy storage\n  \u2022 Ultracapacitor\nOther\n  \u2022 Smart grid\n  \u2022 Wireless power\nInformation and\ncommunications\n  \u2022 Ambient intelligence\n    \u2022 Internet of Things\n  \u2022 Artificial intelligence\n    \u2022 Applications of artificial intelligence\n    \u2022 Progress in artificial intelligence\n    \u2022 Machine translation\n    \u2022 Machine vision\n    \u2022 Semantic Web\n    \u2022 Speech recognition\n  \u2022 Atomtronics\n  \u2022 Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor\n  \u2022 Cybermethodology\n  \u2022 Fourth-generation optical discs\n    \u2022 3D optical data storage\n    \u2022 Holographic data storage\n  \u2022 GPGPU\n  \u2022 Memory\n    \u2022 CBRAM\n    \u2022 FRAM\n    \u2022 Millipede\n    \u2022 MRAM\n    \u2022 NRAM\n    \u2022 PRAM\n    \u2022 Racetrack memory\n    \u2022 RRAM\n    \u2022 SONOS\n  \u2022 Optical computing\n  \u2022 RFID\n    \u2022 Chipless RFID\n  \u2022 Software-defined radio\n  \u2022 Three-dimensional integrated circuit\nManufacturing\n  \u2022 3D printing\n  \u2022 Claytronics\n  \u2022 Molecular assembler\n  \u2022 Utility fog\nMaterials science\n  \u2022 Aerogel\n  \u2022 Amorphous metal\n  \u2022 Artificial muscle\n  \u2022 Conductive polymer\n  \u2022 Femtotechnology\n  \u2022 Fullerene\n  \u2022 Graphene\n  \u2022 High-temperature superconductivity\n  \u2022 High-temperature superfluidity\n  \u2022 Linear acetylenic carbon\n  \u2022 Metamaterials\n    \u2022 Metamaterial cloaking\n  \u2022 Metal foam\n  \u2022 Multi-function structures\n  \u2022 Nanotechnology\n    \u2022 Carbon nanotubes\n    \u2022 Molecular nanotechnology\n    \u2022 Nanomaterials\n  \u2022 Picotechnology\n  \u2022 Programmable matter\n  \u2022 Quantum dots\n  \u2022 Silicene\n  \u2022 Superalloy\n  \u2022 Synthetic diamond\nMilitary\n  \u2022 Antimatter weapon\n  \u2022 Caseless ammunition\n  \u2022 Directed-energy weapon\n    \u2022 Laser\n    \u2022 Maser\n    \u2022 Particle-beam weapon\n    \u2022 Sonic weapon\n    \u2022 Coilgun\n    \u2022 Railgun\n  \u2022 Plasma weapon\n  \u2022 Pure fusion weapon\n  \u2022 Stealth technology\n  \u2022 Vortex ring gun\nNeuroscience\n  \u2022 Artificial brain\n    \u2022 Blue Brain Project\n  \u2022 Brain\u2013computer interface\n  \u2022 Electroencephalography\n  \u2022 Mind uploading\n    \u2022 Brain-reading\n    \u2022 Neuroinformatics\n  \u2022 Neuroprosthetics\n    \u2022 Bionic eye\n    \u2022 Brain implant\n    \u2022 Exocortex\n    \u2022 Retinal implant\nQuantum\n  \u2022 Quantum algorithms\n  \u2022 Quantum amplifier\n  \u2022 Quantum bus\n  \u2022 Quantum channel\n  \u2022 Quantum circuit\n  \u2022 Quantum complexity theory\n  \u2022 Quantum computing\n  \u2022 Quantum cryptography\n  \u2022 Quantum dynamics\n  \u2022 Quantum electronics\n  \u2022 Quantum error correction\n  \u2022 Quantum imaging\n  \u2022 Quantum information\n  \u2022 Quantum key distribution\n  \u2022 Quantum logic\n  \u2022 Quantum logic gates\n  \u2022 Quantum machine\n  \u2022 Quantum machine learning\n  \u2022 Quantum metamaterial\n  \u2022 Quantum metrology\n  \u2022 Quantum network\n  \u2022 Quantum neural network\n  \u2022 Quantum optics\n  \u2022 Quantum programming\n  \u2022 Quantum sensing\n  \u2022 Quantum simulator\n  \u2022 Quantum teleportation\nRobotics\n  \u2022 Domotics\n  \u2022 Nanorobotics\n  \u2022 Powered exoskeleton\n  \u2022 Self-reconfiguring modular robot\n  \u2022 Swarm robotics\n  \u2022 Uncrewed vehicle\nSpace science\nLaunch\n  \u2022 Fusion rocket\n  \u2022 Non-rocket spacelaunch\n    \u2022 Mass driver\n    \u2022 Orbital ring\n    \u2022 Skyhook\n    \u2022 Space elevator\n    \u2022 Space fountain\n    \u2022 Space tether\n  \u2022 Reusable launch system\nPropulsion\n  \u2022 Beam-powered propulsion\n  \u2022 Ion thruster\n  \u2022 Laser propulsion\n  \u2022 Plasma propulsion engine\n    \u2022 Helicon thruster\n    \u2022 VASIMR\n  \u2022 Project Orion\n  \u2022 Nuclear pulse propulsion\n  \u2022 Solar sail\nOther\n  \u2022 Interstellar travel\n  \u2022 Propellant depot\nTransport\nAerial\n  \u2022 Adaptive compliant wing\n  \u2022 Aeroscraft\n  \u2022 Backpack helicopter\n  \u2022 Delivery drone\n  \u2022 Flying car\n  \u2022 High-altitude platform\n  \u2022 Jet pack\n  \u2022 Pulse detonation engine\n  \u2022 Scramjet\n  \u2022 Spaceplane\n    \u2022 Skylon\n  \u2022 Supersonic transport\nLand\n  \u2022 Airless tire\n    \u2022 Tweel\n  \u2022 Alternative fuel vehicle\n    \u2022 Hydrogen vehicle\n  \u2022 Driverless car\n  \u2022 Ground effect train\n  \u2022 Maglev train\n  \u2022 Personal rapid transit\n  \u2022 Vactrain\n    \u2022 ET3 Global Alliance\n    \u2022 Hyperloop\n  \u2022 Vehicular communication systems\nPipeline\n  \u2022 Pneumatic transport\n    \u2022 Automated vacuum collection\n    \u2022 Foodtubes\nOther\n  \u2022 Anti-gravity\n  \u2022 Cloak of invisibility\n  \u2022 Digital scent technology\n  \u2022 Force field\n    \u2022 Plasma window\n  \u2022 Immersive virtual reality\n    \u2022 VirtuSphere\n  \u2022 Magnetic refrigeration\n  \u2022 Phased-array optics\nTopics\n  \u2022 Collingridge dilemma\n  \u2022 Differential technological development\n  \u2022 Ephemeralization\n  \u2022 Exploratory engineering\n  \u2022 Fictional technology\n  \u2022 Proactionary principle\n  \u2022 Technological change\n    \u2022 Technological unemployment\n  \u2022 Technological convergence\n  \u2022 Technological evolution\n  \u2022 Technological paradigm\n  \u2022 Technology forecasting\n    \u2022 Accelerating change\n    \u2022 Moore's law\n    \u2022 Technological singularity\n    \u2022 Technology scouting\n  \u2022 Technology readiness level\n  \u2022 Technology roadmap\n  \u2022 Transhumanism\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 List-Class article List\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Robot-assisted_surgery&oldid=799980818\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Publishing\n  \u2022 Surgery\n  \u2022 Computer-assisted surgery\n  \u2022 Surgical robots\n  \u2022 Telehealth\n  \u2022 Health informatics\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from November 2011\n  \u2022 CS1 Slovenian-language sources (sl)\n  \u2022 CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)\n  \u2022 Articles with a promotional tone from December 2014\n  \u2022 All articles with a promotional tone\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from January 2016\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u017demait\u0117\u0161ka\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 10 September 2017, at 23:37.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5297094182357205561","title":"List of The Fast and the Furious characters","text":"List of The Fast and the Furious characters\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nThe Fast and the Furious is an American action film series, centered around cars produced by Neal H. Moritz and distributed by Universal Pictures. Consisting of eight films and two short films, the following is a list of characters from The Fast and the Furious.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Characters table\n  \u2022 2 Main characters\n    \u2022 2.1 Dominic Toretto\n    \u2022 2.2 Brian O'Conner\n    \u2022 2.3 Letty Ortiz\n    \u2022 2.4 Mia Toretto\n    \u2022 2.5 Roman Pearce\n    \u2022 2.6 Tej Parker\n    \u2022 2.7 Sean Boswell\n    \u2022 2.8 Han Lue\n    \u2022 2.9 Gisele Yashar\n    \u2022 2.10 Luke Hobbs\n  \u2022 3 Supporting characters\n    \u2022 3.1 The Fast and the Furious\n      \u2022 3.1.1 Vince\n      \u2022 3.1.2 Leon\n      \u2022 3.1.3 Jesse\n      \u2022 3.1.4 Hector\n    \u2022 3.2 2 Fast 2 Furious\n      \u2022 3.2.1 Suki\n      \u2022 3.2.2 Jimmy\n      \u2022 3.2.3 Slap Jack\n      \u2022 3.2.4 Orange Julius\n    \u2022 3.3 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n      \u2022 3.3.1 Twinkie\n      \u2022 3.3.2 Neela\n      \u2022 3.3.3 Earl\n      \u2022 3.3.4 Reiko\n    \u2022 3.4 Fast & Furious\n      \u2022 3.4.1 Rico Santos\n      \u2022 3.4.2 Tego Leo\n      \u2022 3.4.3 Cara\n    \u2022 3.5 Fast Five\n      \u2022 3.5.1 Elena Neves\n    \u2022 3.6 Furious 7\n      \u2022 3.6.1 Ramsey\n      \u2022 3.6.2 Safar\n      \u2022 3.6.3 Mando\n    \u2022 3.7 The Fate of the Furious\n      \u2022 3.7.1 Magdalene Shaw\n  \u2022 4 Antagonists\n    \u2022 4.1 The Fast and the Furious\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Johnny Tran\n      \u2022 4.1.2 Lance Nguyen\n    \u2022 4.2 2 Fast 2 Furious\n      \u2022 4.2.1 Carter Verone\n      \u2022 4.2.2 Enrique\n      \u2022 4.2.3 Roberto\n    \u2022 4.3 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n      \u2022 4.3.1 Takashi\n      \u2022 4.3.2 Morimoto\n      \u2022 4.3.3 Clay\n    \u2022 4.4 Fast & Furious\n      \u2022 4.4.1 Arturo Braga\n      \u2022 4.4.2 Fenix Calderon\n      \u2022 4.4.3 Ramon Campos\n    \u2022 4.5 Fast Five\n      \u2022 4.5.1 Hernan Reyes\n      \u2022 4.5.2 Zizi\n    \u2022 4.6 Fast & Furious 6\n      \u2022 4.6.1 Owen Shaw\n      \u2022 4.6.2 Agent Riley Hicks\n      \u2022 4.6.3 Vegh\n      \u2022 4.6.4 Klaus\n      \u2022 4.6.5 Jah\n      \u2022 4.6.6 Denlinger\n      \u2022 4.6.7 Adolfson\n      \u2022 4.6.8 Oakes\n      \u2022 4.6.9 Ivory\n      \u2022 4.6.10 Firuz\n    \u2022 4.7 Furious 7\n      \u2022 4.7.1 Deckard Shaw\n      \u2022 4.7.2 Mose Jakande\n      \u2022 4.7.3 Kiet\n      \u2022 4.7.4 Kara\n    \u2022 4.8 The Fate of the Furious\n      \u2022 4.8.1 Cipher\n      \u2022 4.8.2 Connor Rhodes\n  \u2022 5 Law enforcement officials and federal agents\n    \u2022 5.1 The Fast and the Furious\n      \u2022 5.1.1 Agent Bilkins\n      \u2022 5.1.2 Sergeant Tanner\n    \u2022 5.2 2 Fast 2 Furious\n      \u2022 5.2.1 Agent Markham\n      \u2022 5.2.2 Monica Fuentes\n    \u2022 5.3 Fast & Furious\n      \u2022 5.3.1 Agent Penning\n      \u2022 5.3.2 Agent Sophie Trinh\n      \u2022 5.3.3 Agent Michael Stasiak\n    \u2022 5.4 Fast Five\n      \u2022 5.4.1 Agent Wilkes\n      \u2022 5.4.2 Macroy\n      \u2022 5.4.3 Fusco\n      \u2022 5.4.4 Chato\n    \u2022 5.5 Furious 7\n      \u2022 5.5.1 Mr. Nobody\n      \u2022 5.5.2 Agent Sheppard\n    \u2022 5.6 The Fate of the Furious\n      \u2022 5.6.1 Little Nobody\n  \u2022 6 References\n\nCharacters table[edit]\n\nKey\nMain Indicates character had a main role in the film\nArchive Indicates the character only appears in archive footage\nCameo Indicates the character had a minor or cameo appearance\nPhoto Indicates that the character had a non-physical picture appearance\nCharacter Portrayed by Film\nThe Fast and the Furious\n(2001)\nThe Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n(2003)\n2 Fast 2 Furious\n(2003)\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n(2006)\nLos Bandoleros\n(2009)\nFast & Furious\n(2009)\nFast Five\n(2011)\nFast & Furious 6\n(2013)\nFurious 7\n(2015)\nThe Fate of the Furious\n(2017)\nPrincipal characters\nDominic Toretto Vin Diesel Main Archive Cameo Main\nBrian O'Conner Paul Walker \u2020 Main Main\nLetty Ortiz Michelle Rodriguez Main Main Photo Main\nMia Toretto Jordana Brewster Main Main\nRoman Pearce Tyrese Gibson Main Main\nTej Parker Ludacris Main Main\nSean Boswell Lucas Black Main Archive Cameo\nHan Lue Sung Kang Main Archive\nGisele Yashar Gal Gadot Main Archive\nLuke Hobbs Dwayne Johnson Main\nPrimary supporting characters\nVince Matt Schulze Main Main Archive\nJesse Chad Lindberg Main\nLeon Johnny Strong Main\nMonica Fuentes Eva Mendes Main Cameo\nSuki Devon Aoki Main Archive\nNeela Nathalie Kelley Main Archive\nTwinkie Bow Wow Main Archive\nTego Leo Tego Calder\u00f3n Main Archive Cameo\nRico Santos Don Omar Main Archive Cameo\nElena Neves Elsa Pataky Main\nMr. Nobody Kurt Russell Main\nRamsey Nathalie Emmanuel Main\nLittle Nobody Scott Eastwood Main\nSecondary supporting characters\nHector Noel Gugliemi Main Cameo\nEdwin Ja Rule Main\nAgent Bilkins Thom Barry Main Main\nSergeant Tanner Ted Levine Main\nGirl Minka Kelly Main\nAgent Markham James Remar Main\nOrange Julius Amaury Nolasco Main Archive\nSlap Jack Michael Ealy Main Archive\nJimmy MC Jin Main\nMajor Boswell Brian Goodman Main\nMrs. Boswell Lynda Boyd Main\nEarl Jason Tobin Main\nReiko Keiko Kitagawa Main\nElvis Juan Fern\u00e1ndez Main\nCara Mirtha Michelle Main\nAgent Michael Stasiak Shea Whigham Main Cameo\nAgent Penning Jack Conley Main\nAgent Sophie Trinh Liza Lapira Main\nAgent Wilkes Fernando Chien Main\nAgent Fusco Alimi Ballard Main\nAgent Chato Yorgo Constantine Main\nAgent Macroy Geoff Meed Main\nRosa Jeimy Osorio Main\nJack O'Conner Max William Crane,\nCharlie & Miller Kimsey\nMain\nSamantha Hobbs Eden Estrella Main\nMando Romeo Santos Main\nAgent Sheppard John Brotherton Main\nMagdalene Shaw Helen Mirren Main\nRaldo Celestino Cornielle Main\nFernando Janmarco Santiago Main\nBrian Marcos Toretto Carlos De La Hoz,\nJames Ayoub\nMain\nPrimary antagonists\nJohnny Tran Rick Yune Main\nCarter Verone Cole Hauser Main\nD.K. \/ Takashi Brian Tee Main\nArturo Braga John Ortiz Main Cameo\nHernan Reyes Joaquim de Almeida Main\nOwen Shaw Luke Evans Main Cameo\nDeckard Shaw Jason Statham Cameo Main\nCipher Charlize Theron Main\nSecondary antagonists\nLance Nguyen Reggie Lee Main\nEnrique Mo Gallini Main\nRoberto Roberto Sanchez Main\nMorimoto Leonardo Nam Main\nKamata Sonny Chiba Main\nFenix Calderon Laz Alonso Main Archive\nZizi Michael Irby Main\nAgent Riley Hicks Gina Carano Main\nVegh Clara Paget Main\nKlaus Kim Kold Main\nJah Joe Taslim Main\nAdolfson Benjamin Davies Main\nDenlinger Samuel M. Stewart Main\nMose Jakande Djimon Hounsou Main Photo\nKiet Tony Jaa Main\nKara Ronda Rousey Main\nConnor Rhodes Kristofer Hivju Main\n\n\u2020During the production of Furious 7, Paul Walker died in a single-vehicle accident on November 30, 2013.[1] As a result, his character Brian O'Conner was written out as retired. Walker's brothers, Caleb and Cody, were used among others as stand-ins to complete his remaining scenes, and the film is dedicated to him.[2]\n\nMain characters[edit]\n\nDominic Toretto[edit]\n\nMain article: Dominic Toretto\n\nDominic \"Dom\" Toretto appears in all of the films in the series but 2 Fast 2 Furious, in which he is only mentioned. An elite street racer, auto mechanic, and ex-convict, Dominic is the brother of Mia, husband of Letty Ortiz, brother-in-law of Brian O'Conner, and father of Brian Toretto.\n\nIn the first film The Fast and the Furious, Dom leads a double-life in Los Angeles with his sister Mia, his girlfriend Letty, best friend Vince, and teammates Leon and Jesse. During the day, he tunes performance vehicles out of the auto shop behind his family's grocery store (which is run by Mia). At night, Dom and his team participate in illegal street racing in and around downtown LA. When they're not racing or working in the garage, the team performs precision hijackings out of three black high-performance Honda Civics, targeting semi-trucks on LA freeways transporting electronic merchandise valued at hundreds of thousands or millions of dollars. LAPD police officer Brian O'Connor infiltrates the group while working undercover, using the alias of Brian Spilner and the guise of a new racer eager to participate in high-stakes matches. On his first night, he challenges Dom by buying into a race using the pink slip for his Mitsubishi Eclipse (later said to be valued at $80,000). Brian ultimately loses the race, and a subsequent run-in with Dom's rival Johnny Tran leads to the Eclipse's destruction. The result places Brian in debt to Dom for an equally capable vehicle that can run a quarter-mile in ten seconds. Over the following weeks and months, and much to the chagrin of Vince, Brian works closely with Dom and his team to restore a Toyota Supra in time to participate in Race Wars, a legal racing event held in the desert outside of LA that attracts hundreds of participants. Dom ultimately discovers Brian's identity when Brian is forced to expose himself to save Vince after their final daytime hijacking goes awry. Vince, having sustained physical trauma from the endeavor, is bleeding out, forcing Brian to call for medevac and announce himself as an LAPD officer. This deception infuriates Dom, who immediately departs with Mia, Leon and Letty. By the time Vince is loaded onto the medevac, Dom is speeding away in the last remaining Civic with the remnants of Dom's team. Brian catches up to Dom at his home in LA, Leon and Letty having already fled to avoid arrest. When Tran and his cousin Lance attempt a drive-by shooting on dirt bikes as revenge for an earlier dispute, Brian and Dom pursue them in separate cars. Dom, in his late father's 1970 Dodge Charger, manages to incapacitate Lance while Brian pursues Tran in his Supra and kills him after shooting him in the side, causing him to crash at high speed on his motorcycle. Dom then challenges Brian to a race, pitting the Charger vs. the Supra on a quarter-mile strip with a railroad crossing as the finish line. The two engage in the high-speed drag race ultimately against an oncoming train. Barely surviving the train, Dom immediately collides with a semi-truck pulling out of a side street causing the Charger to flip multiple times. Brian, rushing to his aid, understands Dom's plight and fulfilling his commitment to give Dom a ten-second car, hands over the keys to his Supra. Dom departs as the sound of police sirens approaches, leaving Brian to answer for his failure. In a post-credits scene, Dom is seen driving a Chevrolet Chevelle in Baja California, having eluded capture.\n\nIn The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift he makes a cameo appearance at the end of the film as an old friend of the now deceased Han.\n\nIn Fast & Furious, Dominic and Brian reunite in the wake of Letty's death to stop drug lord Arturo Braga.\n\nIn Fast Five, Dominic and Brian make a plot to steal all of Hernan Reyes' money in an attempt to buy their freedom. During a talk with Brian, Dominic recalls his happy childhood with his father and Mia. Dominic, Brian, and Mia recruit many of their allies for the heist, while at the same time trying to evade capture by the DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Rio police officer Elena Neves. Hobbs and Elena become allies to Dominic after his team saves them from Reyes's men. With the help of his team, Dominic's heist is successful, and goes into hiding with Mia and Brian and starts a relationship with Elena.\n\nIn Fast & Furious 6, Dominic lives with Elena. He is approached by Hobbs, who asks him to help take down Owen Shaw, whose second-in-command is revealed to be an amnesiac but still-alive Letty. With Elena's support, Dominic regroups with his team and tries to talk to Letty to remember him and her former friends. Through numerous actions, he eventually gains Letty's trust, and defeats Shaw. His group is given full pardons from their crimes, and they return to the United States. Elena becomes Hobbs's new partner so that Dominic can be with Letty and start anew. In a post credit scene, he would later get a call with a threatening message from a man related to Owen Shaw.\n\nIn Furious 7 he is seeking revenge on Owen Shaw's brother Deckard, who is revealed to have deliberately caused the crash that had killed Han in Tokyo Drift (thus leading to Dom's cameo in the third film) and also destroyed Dom's home. While he pursues Shaw he is recruited by mysterious government agent 'Mr Nobody' to rescue Ramsey, a hacker with a device known as 'God's Eye' able to locate anyone on Earth, who has been captured by Mose Jakande with the promise of help in finding Shaw after Ramsey is safe. Dom and his crew save Ramsey - who is revealed to be female much to the surprise of her rescuers. Shaw and Jakande ultimately team up to kill Dom and the crew but they are defeated after a lengthy and violent battle. After this Dom bids an emotional farewell to Brian, who is retiring from the fast-paced, dangerous life to be with his son and the pregnant again Mia.\n\nIn The Fate of the Furious, Dominic is on his honeymoon with Letty, when Cipher forces him to work for her and betray his friends and family by holding Elena hostage. He helps her steal the \"God Eye\" and all the equipment for her plan to start a war. On Cipher's plan he learns he and Elena had a son while they were in a relationship. After nearly losing the nuclear warheads to Letty and the team. He watches in horror as Cipher's henchman Connor Rhodes kills Elena on Cipher's orders. In the film it is later revealed that throughout he made a deal with Deckard Shaw's mother to have Deckard and Owen rescue his son from Cipher by helping Deckard fake his death. Once Deckard rescues his son, he turns on Cipher and helps his team stop her plans. He makes peace with Deckard and names his son Brian after his friend and \u201cbrother\u201d Brian O\u2019Connor.\n\nDominic is tough and street smart. Although he owned a red Mazda RX-7 and a fleet of black Honda Civic (fifth generation) for his heists in the first film, he is more interested in the American muscle cars, owning a 900\u00a0hp Dodge Charger R\/T he built with his father, on which he is especially proud of. He also owned a Buick GNX, Pontiac Bonneville Convertible, Plymouth Road Runner, Dodge Challenger SRT8 and a Chevrolet Chevelle SS. Dominic Toretto is portrayed by Vin Diesel.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (flashbacks)\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (cameo)\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1993 Mazda RX-7, first film\n  \u2022 1995 Honda Civic, first film\n  \u2022 1970 Dodge Charger R\/T, first, fourth, fifth and seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 1994 Toyota Supra, with Bomex body kit first film[4]\n  \u2022 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle, first and fourth film\n  \u2022 1970 Plymouth Road Runner, third and seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 1966 Pontiac Bonneville Convertible, Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 1987 Buick Grand National, fourth film\n  \u2022 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STI, fourth film\n  \u2022 1973 Chevrolet Camaro F-Bomb, fourth film\n  \u2022 1963 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray Grand Sport, fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Dodge Charger R\/T Police Car, fifth film\n  \u2022 2010, 2012 Dodge Charger SRT8, fifth and sixth film\n  \u2022 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT8, fifth and sixth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n  \u2022 1969 Dodge Charger Daytona, sixth film[5]\n  \u2022 1974 Plymouth Barracuda, seventh film\n  \u2022 2015 Dodge Charger R\/T, seventh film[6]\n  \u2022 2014 Lykan HyperSport, seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 1968 Dodge Charger R\/T, seventh[6] & Ice Charger eighth films\n  \u2022 1961 Chevrolet Impala Sport Coupe, eighth film\n  \u2022 1950 Chevrolet Fleetline, eighth film\n  \u2022 2018 Dodge Challenger SRT Demon, eighth film\n  \u2022 1972 Plymouth Road Runner GTX, eighth film\n\nBrian O'Conner[edit]\n\nMain article: Brian O'Conner\n\nBrian O'Conner appears in all of the films in the series except for The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift and The Fate of the Furious.\n\nDuring the events of The Fast and the Furious, Brian is undercover for an LAPD-FBI task force under the alias Brian Spilner. As part of his investigation into a string of hijackings that have resulted in millions of dollars in electronic merchandise being stolen, Brian is charged with infiltrating the Los Angeles street racing scene, as the evidence suggests the culprits are talented racers. His initial contact with Dom and his team goes poorly as Dom's best friend Vince antagonizes Brian into a fight, which leads to Dom banishing him from the store and garnering Brian the nickname \"the buster\" from the team. However, Brian re-engages them later that night when he lays the pink slip for his Mitsubishi Eclipse down as a wager in a high-stakes race near downtown LA. Dom accepts, but is unable to collect when an LAPD raid leads to the frantic dispersal of all the racers. Dom abandons his car in a parking garage, and is rescued by Brian from being captured by an LAPD patrol officer. Fleeing the police, the duo accidentally enter into the territory of Dom's rival, Johnny Tran, resulting in the destruction of Brian's Eclipse. Due to the earlier terms of the race, Dom holds Brian to his debt, but lets him into his inner-circle. Brian presents a totaled Toyota Supra as payment, proposing that if they restore it that it will meet Dom's demands. As they restore the car Brian becomes closer to both Dom and his sister Mia, whom he begins to date. Both his friendship to Dom and romance with Mia upset Dom's best friend Vince. Under pressure from his superiors with the LAPD and FBI, Brian presses Dom harder to understand where he gets the money to pay for such high-end upgrades to their vehicles. Dom implies that if Brian proves himself at a big upcoming racing event called Race Wars, then he'll reveal his secret. During the event, Dom and his crew depart in the middle of the night to hijack a semi truck. Brian reveals his identity to Mia and coerces information out of her to help Dom. The two of them subsequently pursue the crew near Thermal, and find them in the middle of a hijacking gone wrong. Vince, stuck on the truck and wounded by the armed truck driver, is rescued by Brian after Letty is incapacitated. Brian is then forced to reveal his identity to Dom as he calls for an emergency medevac to airlift Vince to safety. Infuriated, Dom leaves with Mia, Leon and Letty. Brian pursues them to the Toretto household, but Leon and Letty have already fled to avoid arrest. At that same time, Johnny Tran and his cousin Lance perform a drive-by shooting over an earlier dispute, prompting Brian and Dom to pursue them in separate cars. Dom disables Lance in his Dodge Charger while Brian kills Tran by shooting him in the side, causing him to fall off of his dirt bike at high speed. Dom then challenges Brian to a quarter-mile drag race on a stretch of road that has a railroad crossing as the finish line. The two finish in a tie, narrowly beating an oncoming train, but Dom immediately collides with a semi truck advancing from a side street, causing his vehicle to flip multiple times. Running to Dom's aid, Brian understands Dom's dilemma, and not wanting to send him back to prison, hands over the keys to his Supra so that Dom can escape capture by the police.\n\nIn a short film to bridge the events of The Fast and the Furious and 2 Fast 2 Furious, Brian is shown to have surrendered his gun and badge at his home in LA, escaping as a SWAT team raids his house. He goes on the run in a red Dodge Stealth, earning money via street racing. Losing the Dodge when he's forced to abandon it after police officers recognize the vehicle, he replaces it with a used Nissan Skyline that he repairs and restores with money he earns from subsequent races. He ultimately ends up in Miami, setting the stage for the second film.\n\nIn the second film, he is living in Miami as a street racer, but gets caught by U.S. Customs agents. He is offered a deal to take part in a joint Customs\/FBI operation in exchange for the cleansing of his criminal record. He and childhood friend Roman Pearce go undercover as street racers to track down the apprehend the ruthless drug lord, Carter Verone.\n\nIn the fourth film, after having his crimes pardoned, O'Conner becomes an FBI agent and is given the task of bringing down Arturo Braga (Ramon Campos), a known drug trafficker. O'Conner, as well as Toretto, both infiltrate Braga's crew. While Braga is eventually apprehended, Toretto is arrested and sentenced to prison as well, resulting in O'Conner, Mia, and members of Toretto's crew intercepting the prison bus to free Dominic from custody.\n\nIn the fifth film, O'Conner and Toretto get caught in a crossfire with corrupt businessman and ruthless drug lord Hernan Reyes in Rio de Janeiro and plot to steal all of Reyes' money to buy their freedom. It is revealed in Fast Five that O'Conner's father was not there for him and O'Conner does not know anything about him, unlike the close bond that Toretto's father had with both his children. He is often worried that he will behave in the manner that his father did, but Toretto reassured him that he won't because he will keep an eye on him if he does. O'Conner had been in juvenile detention with Roman before he became a cop. O'Conner has also rekindled his relationship with Mia, and she becomes pregnant with his child.\n\nIn the sixth film, O'Conner, Toretto, and Mia live peacefully in the Canary Islands in Spain, where Mia gives birth to their son. O'Conner joins Toretto's team in complying with the request of Agent Hobbs to take down rival gang leader Owen Shaw. When the team realizes that Braga worked for Shaw, O'Conner decides to enter the United States to interrogate him about Shaw. After successfully questioning Braga and returning to London, O'Conner starts to feel guilty for letting Letty go undercover, which led to her amnesia and subsequent work for Shaw. The group captures Shaw and convinces Letty to side with them. O'Conner apologizes to Letty, who says that she might not remember him, but if she did work for him, she would have done of her own free will. Shaw reveals that he had captured Mia, leading to a high-speed chase after Shaw's airplane, where Mia is rescued and Shaw is crippled and put into a coma. Hobbs then grants the group's amnesty, and the entire crew move back to America, where Mia, Toretto and O'Conner have decided to reside in the old Toretto home.\n\nIn the seventh and final film as a main character, O'Conner is in Los Angeles, where he is getting accustomed to life as a father. When Dom's house is destroyed, he joins Dom's crew in a series of missions to find and capture the bomber Deckard Shaw. The missions include an airdrop over the Caucasus Mountains to ambush Jakande's convoy; he jumps onto the bus to rescue the hacktivist Ramsey. At Abu Dhabi, he and Dominic break into a billionaire's apartment room to recover the flash drive containing the God's Eye program. He joins Dom and Mr. Nobody, along with a covert ops unit, to try to capture Shaw but is ambushed by Jakande and his militants, who have allied with Deckard. When Jakande goes after Dom's crew in Los Angeles, he is part of the driving team carrying Ramsay, but after his car is destroyed, goes on foot to restore the cell tower connection so that God's Eye can be hacked. Following the defeat of Jakande and Shaw, he and Mia return to normal family life by playing with their son at the beach. When Dom leaves, he notices and pulls up beside Dom's car in his white Toyota Supra, asking Dom \"You thought you could leave without saying goodbye?\" They look at each other and smile, then drive together for a bit and then branch off in separate directions.\n\nIn the eighth film, O'Conner is mentioned by Letty and Roman as when Dom betrays the team due to Cipher's actions. Roman suggests Brian be called in to help. But Letty refuses reminding him that team agreed to keep Brian and Mia out any conflict they are a part of. Dom later names his son after O'Connor.\n\nO'Conner was first unknown with the car tuning (he owned a tuned Mitsubishi Eclipse in the first film, but its hinted this was paid for by the LAPD-FBI task force he had gone undercover for), but after with meeting Toretto, he became more positive, active in racing scene, becoming a skilled mechanic. He is very interested in tuners, especially Nissan Skyline models. He owned two Nissan Skyline GT-R R34's (one in the second movie and one in the fourth), Nissan C10 Skyline and finally a Nissan GT-R.\n\nPaul Walker's death\n\nBrian was portrayed by actor Paul Walker. Due to Walker's death in a single-vehicle accident on November 30, 2013\u2014with Furious 7 being incomplete, filming was put on hold to allow the cast and crew of the film to grieve.[7] The writers took this time to determine how to handle the fate of O'Conner in the film and decided that Walker's character will be retired from the franchise rather than killed. The film used some voice clips and cut scenes from previous installments, his look-alike brothers Caleb and Cody plus his CGI-generated face to complete filming. The film ends with a tribute to Walker including highlights of Walker's time in the Fast and Furious franchise and Walker's co-star and close friend Vin Diesel giving an in-character voice over of how he will always be his brother, before the words \"For Paul\" are displayed on screen. The song \"See You Again\" by American rapper Wiz Khalifa and American singer Charlie Puth was dedicated to Walker.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1995 Mitsubishi Eclipse RS, first film\n  \u2022 2000 Ford Lightning, first film\n  \u2022 1994 Toyota Supra, Targa with a 2JZ-GE Engine when it was a salvage car, later the engine changed to a 2JZ-GTE with Bomex body kit[4] first filmurbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 1999 Nissan Skyline GT-R R34, The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious and second film\n  \u2022 2002 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VII, with Mitsubishi Lancer O-Z Rally Edition, taillights and DAMD body kit[8] second film\n  \u2022 1969 Chevrolet Yenko Camaro S\/T, second film\n  \u2022 1998 Ford Crown Victoria Undercover Police Car, fourth film\n  \u2022 1998 Nissan Skyline GT-T R34, with GT-R parts and engine for better drifts with RWD, fourth film\n  \u2022 2002 Hummer H1, fourth film\n  \u2022 1970 Dodge Charger R\/T, fourth and fifth film\n  \u2022 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STI, fourth and seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 1969 Nissan C10 Skyline 2000 GT-R, fifth film\n  \u2022 2001 Porsche 911, with 911 GT3 RS, logos, stickers, and body parts fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Dodge Charger R\/T Police Car, fifth film\n  \u2022 2010 Dodge Charger SRT8, fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Nissan GT-R, fifth and sixth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n  \u2022 1970 Ford Escort Mark I Mexico,[5] sixth film\n  \u2022 2012 Alfa Romeo Giulietta Quadrifoglio Verde, sixth film\n  \u2022 2013 Chrysler Town & Country, seventh film\n  \u2022 1989 Nissan Skyline GT-R R32, seventh film\n  \u2022 2012 Nissan GT-R (R35) Black Edition, seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 2011 McLaren 12C, seventh film\n  \u2022 2008 Chevrolet Suburban, seventh film\n  \u2022 1998 Toyota Supra turbo, seventh film\n  \u2022 2015 Lykan Hypersport, seventh film\n\nLetty Ortiz[edit]\n\nMain article: Letty Ortiz\n\nLeticia \"Letty\" Ortiz is Dominic's girlfriend and later his wife. She is also a highly skilled street racer and mechanic.\n\nIn The Fast and the Furious, Letty expresses some concern about Dominic's carjacking scheme, but goes along to back him up despite her concerns. In the end, during a botched highway robbery, she rolls her car and is injured, but survives.\n\nDuring the events of Fast & Furious, she is on Dominic's crew in his heists of fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic, but when the local law enforcement starts closing in, he leaves her behind to protect her from harm. Several weeks later, Mia calls Dominic to tell him Letty has been apparently murdered by Fenix. It is later revealed that after she could not find Dominic, Letty contacted FBI agent Brian O'Conner and became a double agent for Braga's crime ring in order to clear Dominic's charges and allow him to come home.\n\nIn the post-credits scene of Fast Five, Luke Hobbs receives a file regarding a robbery, in which Letty's photograph is attached, revealing that she is still alive; Fenix did not, in fact, kill her, and instead involved her in the robbery of a German military convoy.\n\nIn the sixth film, it is revealed that she has amnesia, and is part of a lethally skilled mercenary organization led by Owen Shaw, a criminal mastermind. Dominic makes several attempts to try and reach out to her. It was revealed that Brian felt guilty for having Letty be an informant for the FBI to help him to take down Arturo Braga and having this led to her being presumed dead. She is also described as a tough street woman by Riley, which is true during their first encounter. Shaw orders Letty to detach a cable line to Roman's car that was holding the tank from escaping. While attempting to do so, she is rescued by Dominic, gaining her full trust in him. Brian attempts to apologize to her, but Letty tells him that she doesn't remember much for being an informant and if she did, no one forces her to do something she doesn't want to do. She assists Hobbs, Dom and the others in stopping both Owen and Riley. Despite not being able to remember her previous life with Dom, she returns home with him stating that \"it feels like home\".\n\nIn the seventh film, Letty temporarily leaves Dom to sort through her amnesia and find out who she is on her own. However, after Deckard Shaw kills Han and blows up Dom's house, Letty rejoins the team. During the course of the mission, Letty's memories come back after hitting her head in a fight with Kara, including that she and Dom were married some point before Fast & Furious. Letty is last seen with her husband and friends on the beach, commenting on how different things will be now that Brian O'Conner is retiring.\n\nIn The Fate of the Furious, Letty and Dom are enjoying their honeymoon in Havana. Everyone is taken by surprise when Dom seemingly betrays them in Berlin. While the others are convinced of his betrayal, only Letty knew something was wrong and suspected someone was blackmailing him. Her suspicion proved true when Cipher and Dom attacked Mr. Nobody's secret base. She is last seen meeting Dom's son with Elena, Brian. Letty is portrayed by Michelle Rodriguez.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five (cameo\/photo)\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1997 Nissan 240SX, first film\n  \u2022 1995 Honda Civic, first film\n  \u2022 1973 Plymouth Road Runner, fourth film\n  \u2022 1973 Jensen Interceptor, sixth film[5]\n  \u2022 1974 Plymouth Barracuda, seventh film[3][6]\n  \u2022 2015 Dodge Challenger, seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 2010 Dodge Viper, seventh film[6]\n  \u2022 2018 Dodge Challenger SRT Demon, eighth film\n  \u2022 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle, eighth film\n  \u2022 1966 Chevrolet Corvette C2, eighth film\n  \u2022 Local Motors Rally Fighter, eighth film\n\nMia Toretto[edit]\n\nMia Toretto is Dominic's sister and Brian's love interest. Mia knows of her brother's crimes, but disapproves and does not involve herself in them. Dominic's friend, Vince, is shown to be attracted to her. Mia is also shown to be a proficient driver as she also grew up with Dominic under their race car driver father. In Fast & Furious, Mia is under surveillance by the FBI. She is seen at Letty's funeral and is mostly seen afterwards either persuading Dominic not to get in danger, or talking to Brian about their past together. When Dominic gets injured, Brian calls her to help him. In Fast Five, she is happily living with Brian and reveals that she is pregnant with his baby. Throughout the film, she assists Dominic's crew in the heist by driving and staying back at base with surveillance. In Fast & Furious 6, she and Brian now have a son named Jack. After Elena helps rescue Jack, Mia is kidnapped by Shaw's henchmen Vegh and Klaus. She is rescued by Brian and returns to the US with Dom and the others. In Furious 7, Mia does not get involved in the team's mission for revenge on Deckard Shaw, who has murdered their close friend Han and blown up the family home, as she stays to look after Jack and is pregnant with her second child. Mia is extremely worried that Brian will be killed but also confesses to her brother she fears the quiet life may not be for Brian due to him telling her he 'misses the bullets'. She is last seen on the beach playing with her family as the rest of the team look on. In The Fate of the Furious, Mia is mentioned by Letty as she reminds Roman that the team all agreed to keep Brian and her out of any conflict they are a part of. Mia Toretto is portrayed by Jordana Brewster.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1994 Acura Integra Type R, first film\n  \u2022 1994 Toyota Supra, first film\n  \u2022 2002 Acura NSX-T, with Honda NSX Type R Badges and parts fourth and fifth film\n  \u2022 1966 Ford GT40, fifth film\n  \u2022 2012 Alfa Romeo Giulietta Quadrifoglio Verde, sixth film\n\nRoman Pearce[edit]\n\nRoman \"Rome\" Pearce is a childhood friend of Brian O'Conner. Originating from Barstow, California, Roman grew up alongside O'Conner. In 2 Fast 2 Furious, Brian says that he and Roman had met in juvenile detention. Two months after Brian finished Police Academy, Roman was arrested when he was found in a garage with eight stolen cars and sent to prison for three years, and after release, was prohibited to go more than a hundred yards from his home. Although Brian had no prior information for Roman's arrest, Roman overall blamed Brian for the simple fact that he was a cop. Roman and Brian later mended their ways when Roman agreed to participate in a sting operation on Miami drug lord Carter Verone and later talked about opening their own high performance garage using pocketed amounts of Verone's drug money. However, when Brian became an FBI agent, Roman started spending time and money gambling in Las Vegas, according to his Fast Five profile. Roman appears again in Fast Five as part of Dominic and Brian's team as a \"fast-talker\" (someone who can talk their way through anything, or as Dom puts it, \"bullshit his way through anything\") in their attempt to steal a vault from a corrupt Brazilian businessman. He is reluctant at first, thinking the mission is personal and not being good business until Dominic utters the vault is filled with one hundred million dollars in cash which is enough to change his mind. With his cut of the money, he buys a Koenigsegg CCXR Edition sports car and travels around the world in his own private jet. He helps Dominic take down Owen Shaw and returns to the U.S in the sixth film, helps Dom take down Owen's brother Deckard Shaw in the seventh film and helps the team get Dom back and take down Cipher in the eighth film. He is portrayed by Tyrese Gibson.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nUpcoming film appearances\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1971 Chevrolet Monte Carlo, second film\n  \u2022 2003 Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder GTS, second film\n  \u2022 1970 Dodge Challenger R\/T, second film\n  \u2022 1995 Toyota Supra, fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Dodge Charger R\/T Police Car, fifth film\n  \u2022 2007 Koenigsegg CCXR, fifth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n  \u2022 1969 Ford Anvil Mustang, sixth film[5]\n  \u2022 1968 Chevrolet Camaro Z28, seventh film\n  \u2022 2012 Bugatti Veyron, seventh film[6]\n  \u2022 1985 Chevrolet Caprice Classic, seventh film\n  \u2022 2018 Dodge Challenger SRT Demon, eighth film\n  \u2022 Bentley Continental GT, eighth film\n  \u2022 Lamborghini Murcielago LP640, eighth film\n\nTej Parker[edit]\n\nTej Parker is an old friend of Brian who allows him to participate in races hosted by him near his garage in Miami. Tej does not race anymore, preferring to referee and make money off selling parts out of his garage and also due to what he claims to have stopped him from racing, an injured leg. He has an off-on relationship with Suki. When Brian needs a place to stay, he allows Brian and Roman to stay in his garage rooms for a while. Later, when Brian needs to orchestrate a \"scramble\" to escape detection by the FBI, Tej shows him another large car garage owned by him, which they use for the scramble. Tej and Suki drive Brian and Roman's Mitsubishis out to be intercepted by the FBI, allowing them to continue their mission which shows that he still can drive as well. Tej also appeared in Fast Five, Fast & Furious 6, Furious 7 and The Fate of the Furious as part of Dominic and Brian's crew, brought on as their technician expert.Tej Parker is portrayed by Ludacris.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nUpcoming film appearances\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2002 Acura NSX, second film\n  \u2022 2001 Dodge Ram, second film\n  \u2022 2002 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VII, with Mitsubishi Lancer O-Z Rally Edition taillights and DAMD body kit second film[8]\n  \u2022 1963 Ford Galaxie 500, fifth film\n  \u2022 1994 Toyota Supra, fifth film\n  \u2022 2003 Ferrari Enzo\/FXX, sixth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n  \u2022 2012 Lucra LC470, sixth film\n  \u2022 2015 Jeep Wrangler Unlimited, seventh film[3]\n  \u2022 2010 Ferrari 458, seventh film[6]\n  \u2022 2016 Mercedes-AMG GT S, eighth film\n  \u2022 Howe & Howe Technologies Ripsaw, eighth film\n\nSean Boswell[edit]\n\nSean Boswell appears in The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift. He is a 17-year-old loner in school during the events of the film. After having three strikes of street racing in the United States, Sean's mother sent him to Tokyo, Japan, to live with his father and avoid jail time. In Japan he was introduced to the drift racing scene and made good friends with Han, a former member of Dominic Toretto's crew and Sean's supporter throughout the film. He eventually met Dominic at the end of the film and raced him through a parking garage. Aside from Han and Dominic, Sean has no connection to any other major characters in the series. He appears in Furious 7 when he talks with Dominic after their unseen race (from Tokyo Drift) and gives him some of Han's things that were found after the crash. Sean Boswell is portrayed by Lucas Black.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (cameo)\nUpcoming film appearances\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1971 Chevrolet Monte Carlo, third film\n  \u2022 2003 Volkswagen Touran, with The Incredible Hulk paint and body scheme third film\n  \u2022 1999 Nissan Silvia S15 with a Nissan RB Engine, third film\n  \u2022 1994 Mazda RX-7, with Veilside body kit third film (Han Instructed to drive)\n  \u2022 2006 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VIII, with an APR wide-body aero kit and RWD conversion, third and sixth (post-credits) film\n  \u2022 1967 Ford Mustang GT with a Nissan RB Engine, third film\n  \u2022 2001 Nissan Silvia S15, third and seventh film\n\nHan Lue[edit]\n\nMain article: Han Lue\n\nHan Lue (Chinese: \u97d3\u54e5 H\u00e1n G\u0113), also known by the alias Han Seoul-Oh[9] is an aloof former gang member and street racer, a member of Dominic's crew in Fast & Furious, Fast Five and Fast & Furious 6, and Sean Boswell's mentor and friend in The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift.\n\nChronologically, in Fast & Furious he steals fuel tankers with Dominic, while in Fast Five he joins Dom and Brian's heist team as a precision driver and a \"chameleon\". While planning the heist in Fast Five, Gisele attributes Han's constant need to occupy his hands to him being a former smoker. After the heist, Han and Gisele start a relationship and travel together through Europe, starting with Berlin. They assist Dom and his crew in taking down Owen Shaw.\n\nIn Tokyo Drift, Han hires Sean Boswell as a delivery driver and teaches him how to race against Takashi. During a climatic getaway, a silver Mercedes crashes into his car, causing it to flip over and then explode. In the post-credits scene of Fast & Furious 6, Deckard Shaw (portrayed by Jason Statham) is revealed to have driven the Mercedes after tracking the street racers on a police radio. Dominic goes to Japan to retrieve his body, he and his crew have a funeral for him in Furious 7.\n\nHan is portrayed by Sung Kang. In the Fast & Furious 6 production notes, his last name is listed as Lue,[10] while in Furious 7, his name appears in the DSS files as Han Seoul-Oh, a nod to Han Solo from Star Wars.[11] Director Justin Lin has stated that Seoul-Oh is a fake ID.[12]\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (archive footage\/photo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1994 Mazda RX-7, with Veilside, body kit third film, and sixth (post-credits) film\n  \u2022 1967 Chevrolet C-Series, with a custom tail trailer and truck tires, fourth film\n  \u2022 1970 Ford Maverick, fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Subaru Impreza WRX STI, Sedan fifth film\n  \u2022 2011 Dodge Charger R\/T Police Car, fifth film\n  \u2022 2012 Lexus LFA, fifth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n  \u2022 2012 Dodge Charger SRT8, sixth film\n\nGisele Yashar[edit]\n\nMain article: Gisele Yashar\n\nGisele was the liaison for Braga who developed feelings for Dominic, who does not reciprocate. She warns him of potential danger that awaits him after delivering Braga's heroin across the border. Dominic saves her life in the chaos surrounding the heroin exchange meant as a trap for Braga. She returns the favor by giving the location of Braga's hideout in Mexico. Gisele re-appears alongside Dominic's crew assisting him and Brian in their heist as their weapons expert, where it is revealed that she is a former Mossad agent. She and Han eventually start a relationship and take off to Europe together after the heist in Rio de Janeiro.\n\nGisele reappears in Fast & Furious 6, along with Han, and helps Dom and the gang take on a rival gang of hijacking, car criminals. In a running gag, she takes pride in her ability to accomplish objectives on her own where men would fail, that is, using her attractiveness to infiltrate Herman Reyes's bodyguards and Owen Shaw's security. She falls from the roof of an airborne car to her death while shooting the man who would have shot Han. Her last name in the sixth film's production notes is Harabo,[10] while her file in the fifth film presents it as Yashar. However, Lin has said that, like Han, she was not given a last name.[12] She is portrayed by Gal Gadot.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (flashbacks\/photo\/archive footage)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2007 Porsche Cayman, TECHART GTsport, fourth film\n  \u2022 2009 Nissan 370Z, fifth film\n  \u2022 1993 Ford Club Wagon, fifth film\n  \u2022 2010 BMW E60 M5, sixth film\n\nLuke Hobbs[edit]\n\nAgent Luke Hobbs is a United States Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent and bounty hunter.\n\nIn Fast Five, he is trying to bring down Toretto's crew which is his number one priority when he believes that Toretto's crew killed the DEA agents in the train. After outsmarting Toretto and ambushing him, Mia, Brian, and Vince in their base, he takes them into custody to take back to the United States for prosecution. When his team is killed in an ambush by Hernan Reyes en route to the airport to take the fugitives home, he joins Toretto's team to steal Reyes' money, and personally kills a badly-injured Reyes, avenging his team. Faced with the chance to arrest the team after Reyes' death, he instead offers them a 24-hour head start to get to safety before he will start the search again.\n\nIn Fast & Furious 6, he comes to Toretto for help to bring down Owen Shaw, the leader of an international crime syndicate, recognizing that Toretto's team are the best candidates to match Shaw's own skills. He partners up with DSS Agent, Riley Hicks, who turns out to be a double agent who double crossed Hobbs and Toretto's team. While Riley and Letty are fighting with each other in the airplane, Hobbs tosses a harpoon to Letty, who in return uses it to impale Riley off the airplane, killing her on impact. After the mission is completed, Hobbs grants amnesty to Toretto and his team, the two men publicly disagreeing on which of them was in charge during that mission but privately acknowledging that they trust each other.\n\nIn Furious 7, Shaw's older brother, Deckard, breaks into Hobbs' DSS office to extract profiles of Dom's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight and later escapes by detonating a bomb that sends Hobbs and his partner Elena, flying out of a window and onto a car parked below. He is injured by the fall, and rushed to the hospital by Elena. Dom later visits Hobbs in the hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue British Special Forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother, Owen. During the final climactic scene, Hobbs, seeing that the team is being hunted by a Predator UAV drone, leaves the hospital- even breaking his own cast- and destroys the UAV drone by ramming it with an ambulance. Later, Hobbs plays a part in taking down Jakande when he shoots a belt of grenades that was slung onto Jakande's chopper by Toretto destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. He later imprisons Shaw in a maximum security prison.\n\nIn The Fate of the Furious, Hobbs initially appears coaching his daughter Samantha's sports team, before being approached by a government contact to conduct an off-the-books mission to retrieve an EMP device from a facility in Berlin, and warned that he will be acting unofficially and will face arrest if captured. Although he claims the device with the aid of Dom's team, he is captured after Dom steals the device himself due to the blackmail of cyber-terrorist Cipher, resulting in Hobbs being sent to the same prison as Shaw. However, he is swiftly 'released' by Mr. Nobody to help Dom's team track down Dom and Cipher, learning that she is seeking to gain control of nuclear launch codes to appoint herself to a position of power over the world. Despite the odds against them, Hobbs and Dom's team manage to track Cipher while Dom sets plans in motion to escape her blackmail himself, culminating in the destruction of the converted Russian nuclear submarine Cipher was planning to use to launch her stolen missiles. Although offered reinstatement after the threat is over, Hobbs decides to remain officially retired to spend more time with his daughter and his new \"family\", being Dom's team.\n\nLuke Hobbs is portrayed by Dwayne Johnson.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 GURKHA Armored Vehicle, fifth film\n  \u2022 Navistar MXT, sixth film[5]\n  \u2022 International 4000 ambulance, seventh film\n  \u2022 Land Rover Defender, eighth film\n  \u2022 International MXT, eighth film\n  \u2022 Dodge Ram modified for ice, eighth film\n\nSupporting characters[edit]\n\nThe Fast and the Furious[edit]\n\nVince[edit]\n\nVince is a childhood friend and street racer under Dominic Toretto. He opposed O'Conner's inclusion into Dominic's crew especially since his sister favored O'Conner over him. During Race Wars, Johnny Tran blames Dominic for the SWAT forces that came into his house, disrespecting his whole family for being narced out by someone and they get into a fight. Vince then leads Dominic away telling him to chill out. Near the end of the first film, Vince is seriously injured when he is shot by a trucker whose shipments he attempted to hijack. He recovers from his injuries, escapes from the hospital, and goes to Rio de Janeiro. He is not present or mentioned in Fast & Furious, but can be seen in a picture with Letty and Dominic at Letty's funeral, although his face is not clear. Vince re-appears in Fast Five living in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro with his wife, Rosa and infant son, Nico (who is named after Dominic). He tries to steal one of three cars on a train he attempted to hijack in an earlier mission, but it goes awry. Dominic's trust in his longtime friend is strained for a time when he was caught hiding information from the team, but ultimately regains that trust after saving Mia from being killed and joins Dominic's heist team. Before the crew could perform their heist on Reyes, he is later captured by Hobbs along with Dominic, Brian and Mia, but is fatally wounded while saving the cop from Zizi's ambush on the convoy. Before he dies, Dominic promises Vince that he will watch over Rosa and Nico. After the successful heist on Reyes, Dominic gives Vince's share to Rosa and Nico, promising to visit soon. Vince is portrayed by Matt Schulze.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Fast and Furious (photo)\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast and Furious 6 (archive footage\/photo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1998 Nissan Maxima with Dodge Viper GTS Blue Paint, first film\n  \u2022 1995 Honda Civic, first film\n  \u2022 1971 DeTomaso Pantera GT5-S, fifth film\n\nLeon[edit]\n\nLeon is a friend and street racer under Dominic Toretto. Leon acts as a dispatcher during the street race at the beginning of the film alerting everyone of police presence, and is a participant in the truck heist gone bad. His whereabouts after the first film are unknown and is presumed to be devastated over the death of Jesse by Johnny Tran and Lance and as well as Vince by Hernan Reyes and his men. Leon is portrayed by Johnny Strong.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Fast and Furious (photo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1996 Nissan Skyline R33 GT-R\n  \u2022 1995 Volkswagen Jetta GLX\n  \u2022 1995 Honda Civic\n\nJesse[edit]\n\nJesse is a street racer and the brains of Dominic's operations, and he is a wheelman in the heists. Jesse admits to having ADD and is shown often stuttering in his speeches and acting very nervous. Despite this setback, he is the computer nerd of the group as he is responsible for creating the designs, doing background checks on people, and hacking the engine characteristics of Toretto's race vehicles with precise calculations (a potential characteristic of those with ADD as they may at times have high IQs). He is somewhat reckless and irresponsible as he later raced Johnny Tran for pink slips against the wishes of both Brian and Toretto who warned him that Tran had over $100,000 under the hood of his vehicle. This proved to be true as Jesse lost to Tran, later driving off and escaping his loss. An enraged Tran and an accomplice later pull a drive-by shooting at Toretto's house missing everyone but Jesse, who gets hit, killing him instantly. Brian and Dominic chase after Tran, shooting him dead and avenging Jesse's death. Jesse is portrayed by Chad Lindberg.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1995 Volkswagen Jetta\n  \u2022 1995 Honda Civic\n\nHector[edit]\n\nHector is a former street racer and organizer. He is a friend to both Dominic and Brian. In the first movie, Hector organizes and attends the original race in which Dominic and Brian participate, which is later interrupted by the police; he has a last name, but claims he \"can't pronounce it\". Brian begins investigating Hector and Tran's activities and is convinced that Tran is behind the hijackings, believing his suspicions are founded when he discovers an unusual purchase made by Hector in The Racer's Edge (the parts shop where Brian works). Hector later throws a party at El Gato Negro, but his whereabouts after this party are unknown. Hector returns in Furious 7, where he takes an accidental punch from Letty at the Race Wars after she has a traumatic flashback when the girl fans from the race wars pick on her, but Hector is not angry; Dominic jokes that he \"never could take a punch\". Hector is portrayed by Noel Gugliemi.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\n2 Fast 2 Furious[edit]\n\nSuki[edit]\n\nSuki is a friend of Brian and sometimes girlfriend of Tej Parker. She is shown to have a highly competitive nature but she is also an excellent driver by handling losses easily. Despite that Brian has won against her numerous times, they remain good friends, and she later helps Brian and Pearce out by driving Pearce's Mitsubishi along with Tej to allow the pair to escape custody. Suki is portrayed by Devon Aoki. Suki's car had appeared in the music videos Ludacris' \"Act a Fool\" and Lindsay Lohan's \"First\".\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2000 Honda S2000\n  \u2022 2003 Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder GTS\n\nJimmy[edit]\n\nJimmy is a mechanic who works for Tej and is a close friend of Brian. He makes a few appearances in 2 Fast 2 Furious, including one which he freestyle raps during a poker game at Tej's garage. He is portrayed by MC Jin.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n\nSlap Jack[edit]\n\nSlap Jack is one of the street racers in the first race of the movie. While trying to beat Brian O'Conner's Skyline using nitrous, Brian outsmarts him also using the nitrous and jumping first off the bridge. After jumping the draw bridge, his Supra gets severely damaged, crash lands and crashes into a Pepsi billboard while Brian wins the race. Although his Supra is rebuilt during the scramble scene. He is portrayed by Michael Ealy. Slap Jack's car Toyota Supra made appearances in the short film The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious, as well as music videos Ludacris' \"Act a Fool\" and Lindsay Lohan's \"First\".\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1993 Toyota Supra Mark IV\n\nOrange Julius[edit]\n\nOrange Julius is another street racer during the first race of the film. He wears an orange cap and an orange suit to hint his name. During the race, he tries to reach the bridge jump, but just stopped instead, refusing to finish the race. It is unknown if he finished the race or not if the bridge closed or opened. He is also seen during the scramble sequence in the end of the movie. His name has nothing to do with the Dairy Queen's joint bevarage drink restaurant. His RX-7 is similar to Dominic Torreto's RX-7 from the first film minus the spoiler. He is portrayed by Amaury Nolasco. Orange Julius' car made appearances in the television film The Last Ride, and the short film The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious, as well as music videos Ludacris' \"Act a Fool\" and Lindsay Lohan's \"First\".\n\nFilm appearances;\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1992 FD Mazda RX-7\n\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift[edit]\n\nTwinkie[edit]\n\nTwinkie is Sean's first friend he meets in Tokyo. He takes and introduces him to the world of drifting where Sean wrecks Han's favorite car. He is one of Han's crew who helps Sean in the movie. He is a mechanic more than a street racer and also sells pre-owned goods. Twinkie is portrayed by Bow Wow.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (archive footage)\n\nCars driven\n\n  \u2022 2003 Volkswagen Touran with The Incredible Hulk paint and body scheme, third film\n  \u2022 2005 Volkswagen Golf R32 (deleted scene)\n\nNeela[edit]\n\nNeela is the love interest of Sean Boswell. When Sean arrives in Japan and goes to school, he meets Neela in class. When Sean goes to the drifting world with Twinkie, he sees Neela and begins talking to her then he realizes that she is with Takashi when confronted by him. Later, Neela claims that she grew up with Takashi after her mother died. As the movie goes on, she starts to like Sean even more. When Han is killed by Deckard Shaw, she was taken by Takashi. Eventually in the end, she ends up with Sean after he defeats Takashi on a final race down a mountain. She soon discovered it was Deckard Shaw who caused Han to crash and killed. Neela is portrayed by Nathalie Kelley.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (archive footage)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2004 Mazda RX-8, third film\n\nEarl[edit]\n\nEarl is one of Han's friends and crew member who tunes for racers, using stand-alone fuel management systems to control fuel and timing. Earl is portrayed by Jason Tobin.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n\nReiko[edit]\n\nReiko is the other friend and crew member of Han's. She is a data-log analyzer that helps Earl tune by checking the driving habits and various engine telemetry stored in data-logs. Reiko is portrayed by Keiko Kitagawa.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2005 Volkswagen Golf R32 (deleted scenes)\n\nFast & Furious[edit]\n\nRico Santos[edit]\n\nRico Santos was a member of Toretto's crew in the beginning of the film and then in the end when they are busting Dominic out of the prison bus. He is in Dominic's crew assisting with the heist in Rio de Janeiro. Rico does not join Dom and his crew in capturing Owen Shaw in Fast & Furious 6, his absence explained as him having been last seen at a casino with Tego in Monte Carlo. In The Fate of the Furious, he is seen with Tego on the ambulance taking Deckard Shaw to hospital. Rico Santos is portrayed by Don Omar.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6 (Archive footage)\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (Archive footage)\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious (cameo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1993 Ford Club Wagon, fifth film\n  \u2022 1994 Toyota Supra, fifth film\n\nTego Leo[edit]\n\nTego Leo is a member of Toretto's crew in the beginning of the film. Drives the car at the end of the film with Santos when they go with Brian and Mia to get Dominic out of the prison bus. He is in Dominic's crew assisting with the heist in Rio de Janeiro. Afterwards, Tego and his friend Rico were last seen in a casino in Monte Carlo and do not join Dom and his crew in their mission to capture Owen Shaw. In The Fate of the Furious, Tego is seen with Rico on the ambulance taking Deckard Shaw to hospital. Leo Tego is portrayed by Tego Calder\u00f3n.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6 (Archive footage)\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (Archive footage)\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious (cameo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1989 Chevrolet R3500 Crew Cab, fourth film\n  \u2022 1978 Pontiac Trans Am, fourth and fifth film\n  \u2022 2009 Nissan 370Z, fifth film\n\nCara[edit]\n\nCara is Han's girlfriend and member of Toretto's crew in the beginning of the film and she stays with Han during the heist. She presumably breaks up with Han afterward, since Han is single in Fast Five and begins a relationship with Gisele at the end of the film. Cara Mirtha is portrayed by Mirtha Michelle.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n\nFast Five[edit]\n\nElena Neves[edit]\n\nOfficer Elena Neves was a member of the Rio military police (PMERJ) assigned to Hobbs' DSS team to track down Dom and Brian for killing three DEA agents. She was chosen because of her knowledge of the favelas and the fact that she was the only incorruptible officer. Her police officer husband's death had motivated her to join the force, preventing her from being bribed by Reyes like the rest of the police.\n\nWhen Dom saved her from a shootout in the favelas orchestrated by Reyes to prevent the theft of his drug money, she starts to believe they are innocent of killing the DEA agents. Elena later assisted Hobbs in aiding Dom and Brian in stealing Hernan Reyes cash supply and started a relationship with Dom after the job is done. Upon discovering that Dom's wife, Letty, was still alive and currently working for Owen Shaw, Elena encouraged Dom to find her by joining Hobbs. She assisted Mia when Shaw's crew attacks them and takes care of Jack during Mia's kidnapping.\n\nAfter Letty was successfully convinced to rejoin Dom, Elena joined the DSS as Hobbs' new partner to let the couple live together. Elena was present at the DSS HQ to check on Hobbs, and as she headed home, Hobbs gave her a letter of recommendation for her request to join Interpol. When Deckard Shaw breaks into the HQ to hack Hobbs computer to find out who crippled his brother, she assist Hobbs in attempt to bring him. Hobbs is left injured, so Elena informs Dom to visit him as she takes care of Hobbs's daughter, Samantha.\n\nShe was later kidnapped by Cipher in order to blackmail Dom into abandoning his family and retrieve nuclear launch codes, after it was revealed that Dom had fathered a child with Elena in Letty's absence. After failing to retrieve the launch codes from Letty after an encounter in New York City, Dom returned to the base of operations to find Elena tied to a chair, with Cipher holding Dom's son. As punishment for Dom being unable to shoot Letty to retrieve the launch codes, Cipher ordered one of her henchmen, Rhodes, to execute Elena by shooting her head and body in cold blood. Dom later avenges Elena's death by killing Rhodes and promises to her that their son will always be safe. She is a main character in Fast Five and a supporting character in Fast & Furious 6, Furious 7 and The Fate of the Furious.\n\nDespite the fact she was a Rio police officer, she didn't work for the regular Rio de Janeiro police department because they were owned by the corrupt Hernan Reyes, shown by the fact that she takes out one of the officers in the climax of the movie. Elena is portrayed by Elsa Pataky.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 GURKHA Armored Vehicle, fifth film\n  \u2022 Ford Escape, seventh film\n\nFurious 7[edit]\n\nRamsey[edit]\n\nRamsey is a British computer hacker and the creator of God's Eye, a program capable of tracking a specific person through digital services and coveted by mercenary Mose Jakande. Ramsey was a prisoner of Jakande, until Dom and his crew rescue her. Subsequently, she assists Dom and his crew in collecting the God's Eye, stating that she trusts them more than her previous captors as the team is clearly brought together by respect and trust rather than the fear that kept her captors loyal. When she makes contact with her associate Safar, she learns that the hard drive has been sold away to a Jordanian prince despite her previous warning to keep it safe. When they lose the program to Jakande, Ramsey helps the crew to hack and regain control of it, then shuts it down.\n\nRamsey returns in The Fate of the Furious, having joined Dom's team as secondary technical advisor to Tej. Due to being the newest member, she was the one who doubted Dom the most after his betrayal. Throughout the film, she is constantly in the middle of Roman and Tej's respective advances towards her: after Cipher is defeated, she admits she likes both of them but would only choose one of them if they figured out what her last name is. Ramsey is portrayed by Nathalie Emmanuel.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\n\nSafar[edit]\n\nSafar is an Emirati mechanic and Ramsey's associate in Abu Dhabi. He was given by Ramsey a flash drive containing the God's Eye program, but, not knowing its importance, sold it to a Jordanian prince. To make amends, Safar tips Dom and his crew on where the drive is located. Safar is portrayed by Ali Fazal.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\nMando[edit]\n\nMando is Dom's friend who lives in the Dominican Republic. He invites Brian, Mia and Jack to his place to hide from Deckard Shaw. While Dom, Brian and their crew are going after Shaw, he watches over Mia. While Brian and Mia were staying at his place, Brian built a surveillance hub in Mando's garage. Mando is portrayed by Romeo Santos.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\nThe Fate of the Furious[edit]\n\nMagdalene Shaw[edit]\n\nMagdalene Shaw is the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw. Dominic arranges a private meeting with her to make a deal that he'll arrange her sons' freedom from government custody if she has them rescue his son from Cipher's plane. Magdalene Shaw is portrayed by Helen Mirren.\n\nAntagonists[edit]\n\nThe Fast and the Furious[edit]\n\nJohnny Tran[edit]\n\nJohnny Tran is the head of an opposing race crew to Dominic Toretto's, and implied to be involved in some form of organized crime. He is first seen blowing up Brian O'Conner's car, originally owned by Sgt. Tanner, with his gang's machine guns near the beginning of the film. It is soon revealed that their business deal went sour when Johnny found his sister sleeping with Dominic. Later, as O'Conner and Dominic spy on Tran at his garage, he is seen with his accomplice (and cousin) Lance interrogating a man named Ted Gassner regarding engines in his vehicles, which is also where they spot several boxes of merchandise in his garage (the kind being robbed in the film from truckers). This leads Brian O'Conner to organize a large SWAT assault team to invade Tran's house, only to find a few minor weapons charges and other minor issues. Tran gets slapped by his father for this and learned he destroyed Sgt. Tanner's car and pays $80,000 of the car. After being bailed out, Tran is later seen at the Race Wars, racing Jesse for pink slips. Both Dominic and Brian warn Jesse about Tran's vehicle having over $100,000 worth of upgrades, but Jesse ignores them and races Tran anyway. After Tran wins, he then confronts Dominic, accusing him of the SWAT team invasion of his home, which disrespected him in front of his entire family (unaware that the man responsible, Brian O'Conner, is right there in front of him; he soon becomes aware of this near the end). Dominic then delivers a right hook to Tran's face, and the two men scuffle on the ground before being broken up by the crowd. After Tran and Lance kill Jesse in a drive-by shooting while driving motorcycles, Brian and Dominic chase after the two, ending with Brian shooting Tran in the side while Tran is fleeing on his motorcycle, sending Tran head-first into a curbside, breaking his neck. Johnny Tran is portrayed by Rick Yune.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2000 Honda S2000\n\nLance Nguyen[edit]\n\nLance Nguyen is Johnny's cousin and henchman, who is known for his love of Snakeskin pants. He also destroyed Brian O'Conner's car owned by Sgt Tanner. He is arrested by Sgt. Tanner the owner of the car he and his cousin destroyed and later released from jail and Tran's father pays $80,000 of the vehicle that Lance and Tran destroyed. Tran and his accomplice Lance later pull a drive by at Dominic's house narrowly missing everyone except Jesse who was killed in the process. Dominic drives his 70 Dodge Charger into his dirt bike. Lance was injured in a motorcycle accident. Lance is portrayed by Reggie Lee.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n\n2 Fast 2 Furious[edit]\n\nCarter Verone[edit]\n\nCarter Verone is a drug dealer in Miami in 2 Fast 2 Furious who puts out the word that he needs drivers to deliver a \"package\", leading Customs and the FBI to place Brian O'Conner and Roman Pearce undercover as drivers in order to land charges on him. When O'Conner and Pearce learn that Verone plans to execute the two of them after his package is delivered, they hatch a plot to thwart him. O'Conner and Pearce successfully capture Verone at the end of the film. Carter Verone is portrayed by Cole Hauser.\n\nEnrique[edit]\n\nEnrique is Verone's henchman. He is beaten up by Brian and Roman after trying to kill Brian. Enrique is portrayed by Matt Gallini.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n\nRoberto[edit]\n\nRoberto is Verone's other henchman. He is thrown out of Roman's car by an ejector seat. Roberto is portrayed by Roberto Sanchez.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1968 Cadillac DeVille convertible\n  \u2022 1998 Dodge Durango\n\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift[edit]\n\nTakashi[edit]\n\nTakashi is a street racer who was acknowledged as the best drift racer in Tokyo given the title \"DK\" (Drift King). He first confronts Sean at the drift race when Sean is talking to Neela. In the first race between them he easily beats Sean while Sean demolishes Han's favorite car. Then when Takashi's uncle Kamata comes to town he realizes that Han has been skimming money from their business. He goes to confront and chase Han and Sean down. During the chase, Han is killed by an unseen figure and he takes Neela back. At the end he is beaten by Sean going down the mountain but still survives the crash. It is unknown what happened to him after the race, but in a deleted scene, he was apprehended by his uncle's henchmen. Takashi is portrayed by Brian Tee.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2002 Nissan Fairlady 350Z w\/ Veilside Mk. III Wide-body kit.\n\nMorimoto[edit]\n\nMorimoto was Takashi's close friend. Morimoto confronts Sean with Han and Takashi when Sean is talking to Neela at the drifting site. He also confronts and beats up Twinkie when he believes Twinkie sold him a broken iPod until Sean breaks up the fight who gives Morimoto his own iPod to replace the broken one. When Takashi goes to confront Han about skimming money from Takashi's business, Morimito accompanies him. While chasing Han and Sean he crashes into another car and presumably dies instantly on impact. Morimoto is portrayed by Leonardo Nam.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2002 Nissan Fairlady 350Z with Top Secret wide-body kit\n\nClay[edit]\n\nClay is a high school student. He appears at the beginning of the film when he agrees to race Sean after witnessing Sean talking to his girlfriend which caused a fight to occur at the school. He crashes during the race but manages to escape punishment with the help of his parents due to their wealth, leading Sean to go to Tokyo. Clay is portrayed by Zachery Ty Bryan.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\nCars Driven\n  \u2022 2006 Dodge Viper\n\nFast & Furious[edit]\n\nArturo Braga[edit]\n\nArturo Braga is a drug trafficker who first appears as \"Ramon Campos\" in Fast & Furious. During a botched sting operation, it is revealed that \"Campos\" is Arturo Braga himself and he escapes to Mexico. Brian and Dominic capture him and bring him back to the USA. Arturo Braga is portrayed by John Ortiz. He returns making a cameo appearance in the sixth film being in jail having a connection with Shaw and O'Conner returns in the U.S. as a prisoner to gain access to Braga, who discloses how Letty survived the explosion that was thought to have killed her.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nFenix Calderon[edit]\n\nFenix Calderon was Braga's right-hand man who was responsible for murdering Letty in Fast & Furious. However Letty is shown alive in Fast & Furious 6 it means Fenix failed to kill her. In the climatic chase through the tunnels, he T-bones Brian's car, causing him to crash. When Brian crawls out of the car, Fenix kicks him a few times and is about to shoot when Dominic comes out of the tunnel and impales him with a car, killing him. Fenix Calderon is portrayed by Laz Alonso.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6 (Flashbacks)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1972 Ford Gran Torino\n\nRamon Campos[edit]\n\nRamon Campos was Braga's double and a recruiter for drivers in the shipment of drugs in and out of Los Angeles. Ramon Campos is portrayed by Robert Miano.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n\nFast Five[edit]\n\nHernan Reyes[edit]\n\nHernan Reyes is a corrupt businessman and ruthless Brazilian drug lord who provides resources to the favelas in Rio de Janeiro to gain control over them. He also has most of the Rio civil and military police and local division of the Brazilian federal highway police (PRF) on his payroll, which allows him to hide his money inside a vault in their evidence room. He wants Toretto and O'Conner dead when they plot to steal his money. He has Hobbs' team and Vince killed on his orders, forcing a vengeful Hobbs to join Toretto. After, Dom crashed the vault to Reyes in a car accident, leaving Hernan badly injured. Reyes was subsequently shot and killed by Hobbs in revenge for murdering Hobbs' team and Vince, ending his reign of terror. Hernan Reyes is portrayed by Joaquim de Almeida.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n\nZizi[edit]\n\nZizi is a lead henchman for Hernan Reyes. He enlists Vince, who brings Brian, Mia, and Dominic, to help him steal three confiscated cars off a moving train. However, when Mia drives the GT40 away from the intended destination, he turns on Dominic and Brian, shooting the DEA agents in the process. He also leads the ambush on Hobbs' convoy, killing most of Hobbs' team before his hit squad is wiped out by Toretto, Brian, and Vince, allowing them, Hobbs, Mia, and Elena to escape. Towards the end of the film, he is shot and killed by Brian when he tries to kill Dominic after surviving having Reyes' money vault slammed into the vehicle he was driving with Reyes in the back. Zizi is portrayed by Michael Irby.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2002 Volkswagen Touareg\n\nFast & Furious 6[edit]\n\nOwen Shaw[edit]\n\nOwen Shaw is a paramilitary-trained criminal mastermind.[13] Formerly with the Special Air Service, (the special ops of the British Army), Shaw has assembled a team of mercenaries to rob high-tech devices worth billions in the black market. While trying to escape the plane with the chip, Dom stops him and Shaw is thrown out of the car and plane falling to the ground. Lin describes him as \"an antagonist that's worthy of Dominic Toretto\" and \"that had the opposite philosophy to Dom. Dom often goes with trusting his gut, whereas Shaw is more about the analytics where there is no room for weakness.\"[14]\n\nIn Furious 7, it is revealed that Shaw survived his injuries from Fast & Furious 6 but is still in a coma. In The Fate of the Furious, Shaw is shown to have fully recovered, and is shown aiding his older brother in saving Dominic's baby son from the terrorist Cipher. Shaw is portrayed by Luke Evans. Originally the role was earmarked for Jason Statham,[15] who would later join the franchise in the sequel as Owen's older brother Deckard Shaw.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (cameo)\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious (cameo)\nCars driven\n  \u2022 Flip Car (One-seated, open-wheeled sports car similar to a cross of a dune buggy and a Formula car)[5]\n  \u2022 2005 Aston Martin DB9\n  \u2022 2013 Mercedes-Benz G-Class\n\nAgent Riley Hicks[edit]\n\nRiley Hicks was a member of Hobbs' team, presumably helping him and Dom's team try to take down Shaw and his team of mercenaries. However unbeknownst to them, she is actually a double agent that secretly helps Shaw and the others escape custody. Near the end of the film, Dominic's team and Hobbs discover Riley's true allegiance to Shaw as his second-in-command and lover. She engages in a second fight with Letty aboard the cargo plane and is eventually killed after Letty shoots her out of the plane using a harpoon gun given to her by Hobbs himself. Riley is portrayed by Gina Carano.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nVegh[edit]\n\nVegh is a female assassin in Shaw's team. She is his right-hand woman and one of the two drivers for the flip cars. She and Klaus both play an important role in kidnapping Mia. Vegh is killed by Brian by having her crash her car into an airline bumper. She is portrayed by Clara Paget.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\nCars driven\n  \u2022 Flip Car (Three-seated, open-wheeled sports car similar to a dune buggy)[5]\n\nKlaus[edit]\n\nKlaus is a body builder and the strongman in Shaw's team, but also a hacker with ease. He is the one who kidnapped Mia as leverage so Shaw could be freed. He is knocked out by Dom and Hobbs during a fight aboard the cargo plane and is killed in the plane's fiery crash. Klaus is portrayed by Kim Kold.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nJah[edit]\n\nJah is a cold blooded killer in Shaw's team who uses his martial arts and parkour to battle both Han and Roman, beating them up with ease. He is killed along with Denlinger when their vehicle is caught by the cargo plane's crosswind. Jah is portrayed by Joe Taslim.[16]\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2007 Range Rover\n\nDenlinger[edit]\n\nDenlinger is a member of Shaw's crew, acting mainly as driver and he is a jeep support during the tank heist. He is killed along with Jah when their vehicle is caught by the cargo plane's crosswind. Denlinger is portrayed by Samuel M. Stewart.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nAdolfson[edit]\n\nAdolfson is a member of Shaw's team, acting as sniper and infiltrator. He dies after Han throws him into one of the cargo plane's jet engines, after Giselle sacrifices herself to stop him from hurting Han. Adolfson is portrayed by Benjamin Davies.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2007 Range Rover\n\nOakes[edit]\n\nOakes is a former member of Shaw's team, who is captured by Interpol. Hobbs came to confront him in the Interpol interrogation room. Oakes defiantly refuses to cooperate, which results in him getting badly beaten up and left in a trashed out interrogation room by Hobbs. He is killed by Shaw in London for betraying him, giving him a bag with a bomb inside it. Oakes is portrayed by Matthew Stirling.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nIvory[edit]\n\nIvory is a member of Shaw's team. During a shootout at one of Shaw's hideouts, Ivory attempts to flee on motorcycle, but is shot dead by Gisele. Ivory is portrayed by David Ajala.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nFiruz[edit]\n\nFiruz is a mechanic in London, who provides Shaw's team with the flips cars and the harpoon guns. He is killed when Ivory and Jah shoot up his garage in an attempt to kill Gisele and Riley. Firuz is portrayed by Thure Lindhardt.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n\nFurious 7[edit]\n\nDeckard Shaw[edit]\n\nDeckard Shaw is a UKSF assassin and the older brother of Owen Shaw, who was injured and put into a critical condition by Dominic in Fast & Furious 6. Seeking to avenge his comatose brother, he meets him in London, in a secure hospital. Shaw sends a message to Dominic by killing Han during Tokyo Drift in a car chase in Tokyo, Japan and blowing up Dominic's old house in Los Angeles in the seventh film. By the climactic ending, Deckard is captured and put into a CIA Detention Black Site prison, promising to escape and continue his revenge though Hobbs expresses doubts about it. In The Fate of the Furious, Shaw is recruited into the crew by Mr. Nobody as an ally, as part of the quest to figure out why Dominic has betrayed them. Shaw has his own motives to destroy Cipher who has blackmailed Dom and admitted his past conflict with her when the former tried to recruit him in her plans, which started the chain of events that led to the Shaw brothers' feud with Dom and his crew. He is seemingly shot by Dom before Letty grabs the briefcase and tries to escape. As the film goes on, Shaw ultimately redeems himself, and in the climax, along with the recovered Owen, he saves Dominic's baby son from Cipher, although Cipher manages to escape to parts unknown. Shaw is last seen attending the crew's celebratory lunch in the end, where he makes peace with Dominic by presenting to him his son and joins the team. Shaw is portrayed by Jason Statham.[17]\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6 (cameo)\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1994 Mercedes-Benz W140 , sixth film[citation needed]\n  \u2022 2008 Aston Martin DB9,[3][18][6] seventh film\n  \u2022 2011 Lamborghini Aventador ,[6] seventh film\n  \u2022 2014 Maserati Ghibli,[3][18][6] seventh film\n  \u2022 2014 Jaguar F-Type R Coupe,[18][6] seventh film\n  \u2022 Fast Attack Vehicle,[6] seventh film\n  \u2022 2016 Jaguar F-Type R Coupe, eighth film\n\nMose Jakande[edit]\n\nMose Jakande was a Somalian terrorist who led a Private Military Base that allies to Shaw. He is powerful and violent with no allegiance to anyone. He wants the hacker known as \"Ramsey\", who has created a device called God's Eye, which can find anyone on Earth, for use as a personal toy. He teams up with Deckard Shaw in order to take on Dominic and his team after they rescue Ramsey from his henchmen, but soon turns on Shaw when faced with a chance to take out Toretto during a fight between the two men on top of a car park. He is killed in the ending climactic scene after Dom plants Deckard Shaw's bag of grenades on his helicopter, which Hobbs shoots, destroying the helicopter with Jakande still inside. In the Fate of the Furious, it was revealed Jakande was working for Cipher for information on Toretto. Mose Jakande is portrayed by Djimon Hounsou.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious (photo)\n\nKiet[edit]\n\nKiet is Jakande's henchman. A powerful martial artist, he fights Brian when the latter's team tries to hijack the convoy in the mountains, and defeats him, leaving him and the bus to fall over a steep cliff. He later encounters Brian, but is killed when Brian knocks a reeling piece attached to a rope wrapped on his feet, which pulls him down a shaft to his death. Kiet is portrayed by martial artist and stunt coordinator Tony Jaa.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\nKara[edit]\n\nKara is the leader of an all-female bodyguard team protecting a billionaire Jordanian prince. During a party at Abu Dhabi, she fights Letty one-on-one, but is knocked out long enough for Letty to escape with Roman. Kara is portrayed by UFC Fighter Ronda Rousey.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\nThe Fate of the Furious[edit]\n\nCipher[edit]\n\nCipher is a criminal mastermind and cyberterrorist who blackmails Dom into working against his allies by kidnapping Dom's son and Elena. It is revealed that she was the one who hired Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device after his brother Deckard Shaw refused to do the work himself and she also hired Mose Jakande to steal the God's Eye. She plans to hijack a Russian nuclear submarine and then fire one of its missiles into the air, claiming that by doing this, she will let the world's superpowers that she'll hold them \"accountable\" should any one of them \"cross the line.\" She survives by jumping out of a flying plane before Deckard can kill her, though her plans are foiled by Dom and his crew, and Dom's son is saved by Deckard. It is mentioned at the end by Mr. Nobody that Cipher is still at large and is rumored to be hiding in Athens, though thanks to Dom and his crew, she won't have the power to nuke any cities anytime soon. She is portrayed by Charlize Theron.\n\nConnor Rhodes[edit]\n\nConnor Rhodes is the ruthless henchmen of Cipher and a former teammate of Owen Shaw. He kills Elena under Cipher's orders after Dom disobeyed her during the heist in New York. When he tries to shoot Letty from afar, Dom rebels against Cipher and kills Rhodes by breaking his neck, stating this was for Elena. He is portrayed by Kristofer Hivju.\n\nCars driven\n\n  \u2022 2011 Toyota FJ Cruiser\n\nLaw enforcement officials and federal agents[edit]\n\nThe Fast and the Furious[edit]\n\nAgent Bilkins[edit]\n\nBilkins is an FBI agent who was seen in The Fast and the Furious and 2 Fast 2 Furious. He is Brian's former boss while he was in the LAPD. Bilkins is shown to have doubts about Brian in The Fast and the Furious. He also complained at Brian's car being destroyed at the hands of Johnny Tran and Lance Nguyen. In 2 Fast 2 Furious, Bilkins showed more sympathy towards Brian than Markham. When he came to Barstow with Brian, Bilkins manages to convince Roman to help Customs catch Verone in exchange of their criminal record being cleaned. He is portrayed by Thom Barry.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1998 Mercury Grand Marquis second film\n\nSergeant Tanner[edit]\n\nTanner is an LAPD officer in charge of the undercover operation in The Fast and the Furious, which Brian is assigned to solve. He serves as a father figure to Brian during the operation. He also financed $80,000 to buy Brian's car, which was destroyed by Johnny Tran and Lance Nguyen. Tanner is portrayed by Ted Levine.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n\n2 Fast 2 Furious[edit]\n\nAgent Markham[edit]\n\nMarkham is a U.S. Customs agent responsible for taking down drug kingpin Carter Verone in 2 Fast 2 Furious. Markham initially opposes the inclusion of Brian and his partner Roman Pearce in the undercover sting operation. During the film, Markham shows no trust in Brian and Roman to the point of nearly blowing their cover during the first part of their mission. However, the duo gain his trust after stopping Verone from fleeing the country. Markham is portrayed by James Remar.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1995 Ford Crown Victoria Undercover Police Car\n\nMonica Fuentes[edit]\n\nAgent Monica Fuentes is a U.S. Customs (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement or ICE in Fast Five) federal agent. Monica has been working undercover as an assistant for drug kingpin Carter Verone for nearly a year when Brian and Roman are brought in. She falls in love with Brian, but earns Roman's mistrust. Monica later warns Brian that after the mission Verone has assigned them, he intends to kill them. She blows her cover by telling Brian about the airstrip, being the only person Verone notified about it. She is then taken captive aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman jump their Camaro onto the boat, saving Monica and capturing Verone. In the mid-credits scene of Fast Five, Hobbs receives a file from Monica regarding a robbery, in which Letty's photograph is attached, revealing that she is still alive, and is involved with the military convoy robbery in Berlin. Monica is portrayed by Eva Mendes.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Fast Five (cameo)\n\nFast & Furious[edit]\n\nAgent Penning[edit]\n\nPenning is a Supervisory Special Agent (SSA) for the FBI field office in Los Angeles, California. He is Brian's supervisor and one of the leaders of the team of federal agents looking to take down drug lord Arturo Braga. Penning is portrayed Jack Conley.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n\nAgent Sophie Trinh[edit]\n\nSophie Trinh is an FBI agent who assists Brian in tracking down Braga. She also helps him acquire a Nissan Skyline GT-R R34 SpecV from a local impound for his mission. Sophie is portrayed by Liza Lapira.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n\nAgent Michael Stasiak[edit]\n\nMichael Stasiak is an FBI agent who is at odds with Brian. During an altercation over Brian interrupting Stasiak's interrogation of Mia, Brian shoves Stasiak's face against the wall, breaking his nose. He returns in Fast & Furious 6, where he covertly helps Brian enter a prison to obtain information from convicted drug lord Arturo Braga. As a means to get himself locked in solitary to get closer to Braga, Brian once again breaks Stasiak's nose. Stasiak is portrayed by Shea Whigham.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\nCars driven\n  \u2022 1998 Ford Crown Victoria Undercover Police Car sixth film\n\nFast Five[edit]\n\nAgent Wilkes[edit]\n\nWilkes was a DSS federal agent. He was on Luke Hobbs' team whose job was to capture Dominic Toretto and Brian O'Conner in Fast Five. After apprehending Dom, Brian, Mia and Vince, the convoy is ambushed by Hernan Reyes' henchmen, led by Zizi. One of them fires a rocket at Wilkes' vehicle, killing him and Macroy; every DSS agent is taken out with the exception of Hobbs. Agent Wilkes is portrayed by Fernando Chien.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\nCars driven\n  \u2022 GURKHA Armored Vehicle, fifth film\n\nMacroy[edit]\n\nMacroy was a DSS federal agent and a part of Luke Hobbs' team tasked with apprehending Dominic Toretto and Brian O'Conner. He was also tasked with reassembling a Ford GT40. He met his end when Zizi along with Reyes' other henchmen killed him in an ambush by blowing up Wilkes' vehicle. The other agents were gunned down as well, Hobbs being the only DSS agent to survive. Agent Macroy is portrayed by Geoff Meed.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n\nFusco[edit]\n\nFusco is a member of Hobbs team and helps disassemble and consequently reassemble the stolen car in the hope of finding what is missing and finding a lead on the whereabouts of Dominic and his team. Fusco is present during the subsequent chase and kills Reyes' hit men alongside his fellow agents. He accompanies Hobbs to the 'meeting' with Toretto and after being threatened by Dom's fellow Brazilian street racers he and the team leave, but not before Tej places a tracking device on the agents' truck. After the tracking signal is reversed Fusco and the rest of Hobbs team turn up at the garage to arrest Dom, Mia, Brian and Vince.\n\nOn their way to the airport, however, they were suddenly ambushed by Reyes men, led by Zizi. One of them fires a rocket-propelled projectile at Fusco's vehicle, sending it hurling off the road. As he lies injured, three grenades are suddenly thrown aside him as Hobbs watches on helplessly. He casts a final glare at his boss before they explode, killing him in the blasts. Agent Fusco is portrayed by Alimi Ballard.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\nCars driven\n  \u2022 GURKHA Armored Vehicle, fifth film\n\nChato[edit]\n\nChato was a DSS federal agent. He was a member of Luke Hobbs' team, tasked with capturing Dominic Toretto and his crew. He was killed during an ambush by Zizi and his men when he was rushing to help a wounded Hobbs. Agent Chato is portrayed by Yorgo Constantine.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Fast Five\nCars driven\n  \u2022 GURKHA Armored Vehicle, fifth film\n\nFurious 7[edit]\n\nMr. Nobody[edit]\n\nMr. Nobody is a government agent and the leader of an unknown covert ops team wanting to capture Mose Jakande, a mercenary coveting the God's Eye, a program capable of tracking a specific individual using anything on a digital network. He approaches and convinces Dom to assist him in collecting the God's Eye and rescuing its creator, Ramsey, in return for using the program to locate Deckard Shaw. He assembles Dom's crew upon the latter's agreement on the deal. While fighting Deckard and Jakande along with his mercenaries, he is shot by Kiet but tells Dom to move on without him and stop Jakande and Deckard while he is evacuated for medical treatment. Mr. Nobody is portrayed by Kurt Russell. Originally referred to as Frank Petty several weeks before the premiere,[19] he was later noted to just be Mr. Nobody when Russell interviewed on Jimmy Kimmel Live. His real name is unknown.[20]\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\n\nAgent Sheppard[edit]\n\nSheppard is Mr. Nobody's assistant and a tactical leader and member of his ops team. He was first seen when they attempt to attack Deckard causing him to flee and believe Dom is actually a criminal causing Dom to put him on chokehold, but Mr. Nobody stops him when they see Dom as an ally, leaving him passed out and later helps plan out Dom and his crew for their rescue of Ramsey and also participates in the infiltration to capture Deckard Shaw. Sheppard is killed by Mose Jakande during a shootout, leaving the God's Eye to be taken by Jakande. Mr. Nobody avenges his death by killing several of Jakande's men, although Hobbs would be the one who truly avenges Sheppard's death by killing Jakande himself in the film's climax. Sheppard is portrayed by John Brotherton.\n\nFilm appearances\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n\nThe Fate of the Furious[edit]\n\nLittle Nobody [edit]\n\nEric Reisner is a law enforcement agent working under Mr. Nobody. In the film he is referred to as \"Little Nobody\". He is portrayed by Scott Eastwood\n\nCars driven\n  \u2022 2013 Subaru BRZ, eighth film\n  \u2022 2016 Subaru WRX STI, eighth film\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Paul Walker died due to road accident\". Daily Mail. London: Hazel Jones. April 1, 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Paul Walker's Surprising Replacement in Fast & Furious 7\". Time.com. Nolan Feeney. April 15, 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2015.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"A guide to the cars of Fast and Furious 7\". Telegraph.co.uk. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fast and the Furious Hollywood Supra\". Supra Store.coDodge Stealthm. Retrieved 2013-05-28.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"The Cars of Fast & Furious 6\". Los Angeles Times,. Retrieved 2013-05-27.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Production 2015.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Paul Walker's co-stars 'too distraught' to film\".\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Jitchotvisut, Janaki (2013-05-23). \"2002 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VII\". Complex Cars. Retrieved 2013-05-28.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Han Seoul-Oh Is The Greatest \"Fast And Furious\" Character\". buzzfeed.com.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fast & Furious 6 production notes\" (PDF). Universal Pictures. 2013. Retrieved 2015-05-29 \u2013 via Visual Hollywood.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Willmore, Alison (April 8, 2015). \"Han Seoul-Oh Is The Greatest \"Fast And Furious\" Character\". BuzzFeed. Retrieved 29 May 2015.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Lin, Justin (May 30, 2013). \"hanseoulo\". You Offend Me, You Offend My Family. Archived from the original on June 29, 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2015. [Q]: What is Gisele's last name? I've seen two different ones. Yashar and Harabo. It's driving me crazy\n    [A]: We don't give up Gisele and Han's name. By the way, Han Seoul-Oh is a fake ID.\n    \u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"FAST & FURIOUS 6 - Movie Production Notes...CinemaReview.com\". cinemareview.com.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"FAST & FURIOUS 6 - Movie Production Notes...CinemaReview.com\". cinemareview.com.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Breaking: Luke Evans Offered Villain Role in Fast Six\". Twitch. Archived from the original on 2012-05-02. Retrieved 2013-05-27.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Foundas, Scott (2012-07-27). \"'Raid' actor joins 'Fast and Furious 6\u2032\". Variety. Retrieved 2013-07-29.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Frappier, Rob (June 2013). \"Jason Statham Talks Fast & Furious 7\". Screen Rant. Retrieved 2013-08-26.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"'Fast and Furious': 'Furious 7' villain Jason Statham drives a Jaguar F-Type - Business Insider\". Business Insider. 4 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Taylor, Drew (March 18, 2015). \"This Exclusive 'Furious 7' Scene Will Really Rev Your Engine (VIDEO)\". The Moviefone Blog. Retrieved May 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ McCarthy, Tyler (April 1, 2015). \"'Furious 7' Cast Member Kurt Russell Reveals Plot Details, Teases Eighth Movie [VIDEO]\". International Business Times. Retrieved May 25, 2015.\u00a0\nDocuments\n  \u2022 \"Fast Five\" (PDF). Official Fast Five website. Universal Pictures. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 8, 2011. Retrieved March 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Universal Pictures. \"Universal Pictures 'Furious 7' Starring Vin Diesel, Paul Walker, & Dwayne Johnson In Theaters April 3, 2015\". Retrieved June 2, 2015 \u2013 via The Videography Blog.\u00a0\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Fast and the Furious\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Dominic Toretto\n  \u2022 Brian O'Conner\n  \u2022 Letty Ortiz\n  \u2022 Han Lue\n  \u2022 Gisele Yashar\nFilms\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 2nd album\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n    \u2022 album\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n    \u2022 album\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\nTelevision series\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\nShort films\n  \u2022 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\nVideo games\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious: Showdown\nAttractions\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious: Supercharged\nRelated\n  \u2022 \"Act a Fool\"\n  \u2022 \"Conteo\"\n  \u2022 \"See You Again\"\n    \u2022 video\n  \u2022 \"Gang Up\"\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_The_Fast_and_the_Furious_characters&oldid=842455387\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious characters\n  \u2022 Fictional government agents\n  \u2022 Fictional mechanics\n  \u2022 Fictional outlaws\n  \u2022 Fictional racing drivers\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from May 2015\n  \u2022 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 Articles containing Chinese-language text\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 22 May 2018, at 15:37.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7429105113239769690","title":"Tom Paris","text":"Tom Paris\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)\nThis Star Trek-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n(Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nTom Paris\nStar Trek character\nTomParis.jpg\nPortrayed by Robert Duncan McNeill\nInformation\nFamily\n\nOwen Paris (father)\n\nJulia Paris (mother)\nChildren Miral Paris\nSpecies Human\nAffiliation\n  \u2022 United Federation of Planets\n  \u2022 Starfleet\n  \u2022 Maquis\nPosting\n  \u2022 Helmsman and medic,\n  \u2022 USS Voyager\nRank\n  \u2022 Field commissioned\n  \u2022 lieutenant, junior grade,\n  \u2022 briefly demoted to ensign\n\nThomas Eugene \"Tom\" Paris, played by Robert Duncan McNeill, is a character in the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager. Paris serves as the chief helmsman and an auxiliary medic aboard the USS Voyager. The character's middle name, \"Eugene\", is a tribute to Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Biography\n  \u2022 2 Personality\n  \u2022 3 Character background\n  \u2022 4 Voyager relaunch novels\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nBiography[edit]\n\nTom Paris is the son of Starfleet Admiral Owen Paris and a scion of a family with a long history of illustrious service in Starfleet. Following in his family's tradition, Paris attended Starfleet Academy sometime in the 2350s and majored in astrophysics. A gifted pilot, Paris earned an assignment to the Academy's honor squadron.\n\nHis relationship with his father was not a good one; while Tom wanted to join the Federation Naval Patrol, Owen wanted him to enlist at Starfleet Academy. Admiral Paris often disapproved of his son's tendency to get into fights and his resulting punishments.\n\nSoon after his graduation from Starfleet Academy, Tom crashed a shuttle he was piloting near Caldik Prime, killing three other Starfleet officers. Afraid he would lose his commission, Paris falsified records that would later reveal the cause of the accident as pilot error. His efforts to cover up the error succeeded, yet still, overwhelmed by guilt and regret, he confessed. He was court martialed for his actions and was dishonorably discharged from Starfleet. This caused a major rift between Paris and his father.\n\nFollowing his discharge, Paris left San Francisco for Marseille, where he started spending his time drinking and playing pool in Sandrine's, a waterfront bar. There, Chakotay, a former Starfleet officer now serving with the Maquis, recruited him to serve as a mercenary pilot for the Maquis Rebellion against the Federation. This adventure went no better than his earlier stint in Starfleet as Paris was captured by Starfleet while piloting his first mission for the Maquis.\n\nTried and convicted of treason for aiding the Maquis Rebellion, Paris was sentenced to serve time in the Federation penal settlement near Auckland, New Zealand. Kathryn Janeway, captain of the starship USS Voyager, obtained Paris' temporary release from the penal colony. Janeway, charged with finding and capturing the Maquis ship commanded by Chakotay, offered Paris early parole in exchange for serving as her informant on Chakotay and the Maquis.\n\nJaneway and the crew of Voyager, while searching for the Maquis ship, were thrown into the Delta Quadrant by a massive energy wave created by an alien known as the Caretaker. Once there, they successfully located the Maquis ship docked at the Caretaker's array. The survivors of the incident became stranded about 70,000 light-years away from Earth. The Maquis ship was destroyed and its crew joined the Federation crew on Voyager.\n\nThe marooning of Voyager in the Delta Quadrant provided Paris with a new beginning. Janeway gave Paris a field commission as a Starfleet lieutenant and made him chief helmsman of Voyager. He had a rough start, however, as Starfleet and Maquis alike viewed Paris with suspicion. Paris worked hard to earn his crewmates' respect. During this time, he became best friends with Ensign Harry Kim, a young officer on his first mission who defied his crewmates to befriend Paris. Eventually, Paris was accepted by the crew and became one of Janeway's valued officers.\n\nParis' duties were not limited to piloting Voyager. On Janeway's orders, he trained as a field medic and assisted The Doctor until the Doctor recruited Kes as his primary assistant. Following Kes's departure (\"The Gift\") Paris once again served regular duty shifts in sickbay.\n\nIn the episode \"Thirty Days\", while disobeying direct orders in order to do what he felt was morally right, he was reduced to ensign and thrown in Voyager's brig for a period of 30 days. About a year later, after working diligently at his duties, he regained his former rank. This occurred just before the events of \"Unimatrix Zero\", during which it is revealed that he is fourth in the chain of command.\n\nWhile serving on Voyager, Paris nurtured a long-hidden talent for holo-programming, devising several programs for the entertainment of his fellow crewmembers. His most popular programs included a re-creation of Sandrine's bar, an Irish town called Fair Haven, and a 1930s-era sci-fi movie serial entitled Captain Proton.\n\nParis married Lieutenant B'Elanna Torres, Voyager's half-Klingon chief engineer, in 2377. Torres gave birth to their daughter Miral Paris during the events that led to Voyager's return to the Alpha Quadrant and Earth.\n\nPersonality[edit]\n\nTom Paris at times displayed resentment toward his father, Owen Paris. This situation improved substantially over the course of the journey, due to Janeway's willingness to offer him redemption, and later to his relationship with B'Elanna Torres.\n\nParis also has a deep interest in 20th-century Earth pop-culture, often utilizing such in his holo-programs. The knowledge helped the crew during time-travel incidents.\n\nHe became good friends with Harry Kim from the start and at times displayed protectiveness in the face of Harry's customary naivet\u00e9. In the first episode he rescues the ensign from Quark, a manipulative Ferengi. The only member of the crew with whom Paris initially had a somewhat difficult relationship was Chakotay because of their history in the Maquis. However, throughout Voyager's seven-year journey home, Paris and Chakotay reconciled (in part due to Paris having earned Chakotay's trust) and became good friends.\n\nTom was a full lieutenant at the very beginning of the series, then a lieutenant junior grade in the first-season episode \"Faces\".\n\nCharacter background[edit]\n\nThe writers planned to use the character of Nicolas Locarno as a template for Tom Paris, who was played by McNeill in the Next Generation episode \"The First Duty\". As a result, Voyager's writers created an entirely new character sharing many of Locarno's attributes. [2]\n\nThe Tom Paris character has two backstories. The original backstory, and the only one acknowledged onscreen, cast Paris as a disgraced officer dishonorably discharged from Starfleet for covering up pilot error following a shuttle accident on Caldik Prime. In her published novel, Pathways, Voyager producer Jeri Taylor provided an alternative story much more similar to Locarno's, moving the accident to Paris' Starfleet Academy years and making his fellow cadets the victims of his recklessness.\n\nAn unproduced Voyager script was to have had a flashback to his time attending Starfleet Academy, and shown that Ro Laren, the Bajoran character from Star Trek: The Next Generation was among his classmates.\n\nVoyager relaunch novels[edit]\n\nIn the non-canonical Voyager relaunch novels, written by Christie Golden, Paris was promoted two steps in rank, like many of the Voyager crew, and is now a lieutenant commander. He serves as First Officer of Voyager, under the command of now-Captain Chakotay.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Star Trek portal\n  \u2022 Fictional characters portal\n  \u2022 Star Trek: Voyager\n  \u2022 List of Star Trek: Voyager episodes\n  \u2022 Star Trek\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1997). The star trek encyclopedia: A reference guide to the future (Updat and expand ed.). New York: Pocket Books. P.374\n  2. Jump up ^ Star Trek The Next Generation DVD set Season 5, Disk 7, \"Memorable Missions\" featurette\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Tom Paris at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)\n  \u2022 \"Tom Paris\" at STARTREK.COM\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nStar Trek: Voyager\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Reginald Barclay\n  \u2022 Chakotay\n  \u2022 The Doctor\n  \u2022 Kathryn Janeway\n  \u2022 Kes\n  \u2022 Harry Kim\n  \u2022 Neelix\n  \u2022 Tom Paris\n  \u2022 Seven of Nine\n  \u2022 B'Elanna Torres\n  \u2022 Tuvok\nOther topics\n  \u2022 Episodes\n    \u2022 season 4\n  \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 Cast\n  \u2022 Novels\n    \u2022 String Theory: Cohesion\n  \u2022 Kazon\n  \u2022 Vidiians\n  \u2022 The Maquis\n  \u2022 The Borg\n  \u2022 Species 8472\n  \u2022 USS Voyager\n  \u2022 Janeway Lambda one\n  \u2022 Video games\n    \u2022 Voyager\n    \u2022 Elite Force\n    \u2022 The Arcade Game\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Tom_Paris&oldid=808470504\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Fictional aviators\n  \u2022 Fictional ensigns\n  \u2022 Fictional lieutenants\n  \u2022 Star Trek: Voyager characters\n  \u2022 Fictional mechanics\n  \u2022 Fictional medical personnel\n  \u2022 Fictional nurses\n  \u2022 Starfleet officers\n  \u2022 Starfleet nurses\n  \u2022 Starfleet ensigns\n  \u2022 Starfleet lieutenants\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 1995\n  \u2022 Fictional military brats\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from December 2013\n  \u2022 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 Star Trek articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2012\n  \u2022 All articles lacking in-text citations\n  \u2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues\n  \u2022 Pages using deprecated image syntax\n  \u2022 Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 3 November 2017, at 01:49.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-105753652159334321","title":"Roger Miller","text":"This is a good article. Follow the link for more information.\n\nRoger Miller\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other people named Roger Miller, see Roger Miller (disambiguation).\nRoger Miller\nRoger Miller 1975.jpg\nRoger Miller in 1975\nBorn Roger Dean Miller, Sr.\n(1936-01-02)January 2, 1936\nFort Worth, Texas, U.S.\nDied October 25, 1992(1992-10-25) (aged\u00a056)\nLos Angeles, California, U.S.\nNationality American\nOther\u00a0names Roger Miller, Sr.\nRoger D. Miller, Sr.\n\"The Wild Child\"\nOccupation Singer, songwriter, musician, actor\nYears\u00a0active 1957\u20131992\nSpouse(s) Barbara (m. 19??; div. 19??)\nLeah Kendrick (m.\u00a01964; div.\u00a01976)\nMary Arnold (m.\u00a01977)\nChildren 7\nWebsite www.rogermiller.com\nMusical career\nOrigin Erick, Oklahoma\nGenres Country\nInstruments Vocals, guitar, fiddle, drums\nAssociated acts Bill Anderson, George Jones, Dean Miller, Willie Nelson, Johnny Paycheck, Minnie Pearl, Ray Price, Jim Reeves, Sheb Wooley, Dwight Yoakam, Faron Young, Thumbs Carllile, John Denver, Mel Tillis, Glen Campbell, Dean Martin\n\nRoger Dean Miller, Sr. (January 2, 1936\u00a0\u2013 October 25, 1992) was an American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor, best known for his honky-tonk-influenced novelty songs. His most recognized tunes included the chart-topping country and pop hits \"King of the Road\", \"Dang Me\", and \"England Swings\", all from the mid-1960s Nashville sound era.\n\nAfter growing up in Oklahoma and serving in the United States Army, Miller began his musical career as a songwriter in the late 1950s, writing such hits as \"Billy Bayou\" and \"Home\" for Jim Reeves and \"Invitation to the Blues\" for Ray Price. He later began a recording career and reached the peak of his fame in the mid-1960s, continuing to record and tour into the 1990s, charting his final top 20 country hit \"Old Friends\" with Willie Nelson in 1982. He also wrote and performed several of the songs for the 1973 Disney animated film Robin Hood. Later in his life, he wrote the music and lyrics for the 1985 Tony-award winning Broadway musical Big River, in which he acted.\n\nMiller died from lung cancer in 1992 and was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame three years later. His songs continued to be recorded by other singers, with covers of \"Tall, Tall Trees\" by Alan Jackson and \"Husbands and Wives\" by Brooks & Dunn; both reached the number one spot on country charts in the 1990s. The Roger Miller Museum in his home town of Erick, Oklahoma, was a tribute to Miller.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 Career\n    \u2022 2.1 Nashville songwriter\n    \u2022 2.2 Recording career\n    \u2022 2.3 Late career\n  \u2022 3 Style\n  \u2022 4 Personal life and death\n  \u2022 5 In popular culture\n  \u2022 6 Filmography\n  \u2022 7 Discography\n    \u2022 7.1 Main albums\n    \u2022 7.2 #1 singles\n  \u2022 8 Awards\n  \u2022 9 References\n  \u2022 10 Sources\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nRoger Miller was born in Fort Worth, Texas, the third son of Jean and Laudene (Holt) Miller. Jean Miller died from spinal meningitis when Miller was a year old. Unable to support the family during the Great Depression,[1] Laudene sent her three sons to live with three of Jean's brothers. Thus, Miller grew up on a farm outside Erick, Oklahoma, with Elmer and Armelia Miller.[2]\n\nAs a boy, Miller did farm work, such as picking cotton and plowing. He would later say he was \"dirt poor\" and that as late as 1951 the family did not own a telephone.[3] He received his primary education at a one-room schoolhouse. Miller was an introverted child, and would often daydream or compose songs. One of his earliest compositions went: \"There's a picture on the wall. It's the dearest of them all, Mother.\"[1]\n\nMiller was a member of the National FFA Organization in high school.[3] He listened to the Grand Ole Opry and Light Crust Doughboys on a Fort Worth station with his cousin's husband, Sheb Wooley. Wooley taught Miller his first guitar chords and bought him a fiddle. Wooley, Hank Williams, and Bob Wills were the influences that led to Miller's desire to be a singer-songwriter. He began to run away and perform in Oklahoma and Texas. At 17, he stole a guitar out of desperation to write songs; however, he turned himself in the next day. He chose to enlist in the United States Army to avoid jail. He later quipped, \"My education was Korea, Clash of '52.\" Near the end of his military service, while stationed in Atlanta, Georgia, Miller played fiddle in the \"Circle A Wranglers,\" a military musical group started by Faron Young.[1] While Miller was stationed in South Carolina, an army sergeant whose brother was Kenneth C. \"Jethro\" Burns, from the musical duo Homer and Jethro, persuaded him to head to Nashville after his discharge.[2]\n\nCareer[edit]\n\nNashville songwriter[edit]\n\nOn leaving the Army, Miller traveled to Nashville to begin his musical career. He met with Chet Atkins, who asked to hear him sing, loaning him a guitar since Miller did not own one. Out of nervousness, Miller played the guitar and sang a song in two different keys. Atkins advised him to come back later, when he had more experience. Miller found work as a bellhop at Nashville's Andrew Jackson Hotel, and he was soon known as the \"singing bellhop.\" He was finally hired by Minnie Pearl to play the fiddle in her band.[4] He then met George Jones, who introduced him to music executives from the Starday Records label who scheduled an audition. Impressed, the executives set up a recording session with Jones in Houston. Jones and Miller collaborated to write \"Tall, Tall Trees\" and \"Happy Child.\"[1]\n\nThe human mind is a wonderful thing. It starts working before you're even born and doesn't stop again until you sit down to write a song.\n\nRoger Miller[5]\n\nAfter marrying and becoming a father, Miller put aside his music career to be a fireman in Amarillo, Texas.[1] A fireman by day, he performed at night. Miller said that as a fireman he saw only two fires, one in a \"chicken coop\" and another he \"slept through,\" after which the department \"suggested that...[he] seek other employment.\" Miller met Ray Price, and became a member of his Cherokee Cowboys. He returned to Nashville and wrote \"Invitation to the Blues,\" which was covered by Rex Allen and later by Ray Price, whose recording was a number three hit on country charts.[6] Miller then signed with Tree Publishing on a salary of $50 a week. He wrote: \"Half a Mind\" for Ernest Tubb, \"That's the Way I Feel\" for Faron Young; and his first number one, \"Billy Bayou,\" which along with \"Home\" was recorded by Jim Reeves. Miller became one of the biggest songwriters of the 1950s; however, Bill Anderson would later remark that \"Roger was the most talented, and least disciplined, person that you could imagine,\" citing the attempts of Miller's Tree Publishing boss, Buddy Killen to force him to finish a piece. He was known to give away lines, inciting many Nashville songwriters to follow him around since, according to Killen, \"everything he said was a potential song.\"[1]\n\nRecording career[edit]\n\nMiller signed a recording deal with Decca Records in 1958. He was paired with singer Donny Lytle, who later gained fame under the name Johnny Paycheck, to perform the Miller-written \"A Man Like Me,\" and later \"The Wrong Kind of Girl.\" Neither of these honky-tonk-style songs charted. His second single with the label, featuring the B-side \"Jason Fleming,\" foreshadowed Miller's future style. To make money, Miller went on tour with Faron Young's band as a drummer, although he had never drummed. During this period, he signed a record deal with Chet Atkins at RCA Victor, for whom Miller recorded \"You Don't Want My Love\" (also known as \"In the Summertime\") in 1960, which marked his first appearance on country charts, peaking at No.\u00a014. The next year he made an even bigger impact, breaking through the top 10 with his single \"When Two Worlds Collide\", co-written with Bill Anderson.[7] But Miller soon tired of writing songs, divorced his wife, and began a party lifestyle that earned him the moniker \"wild child.\" He was dropped from his record label and began to pursue other interests.[1]\n\nMiller performing \"Husbands and Wives\" on the set of his television show in 1966\n\nAfter numerous appearances on late night comedy shows, Miller decided that he might have a chance in Hollywood as an actor. Short of money, he signed with the up-and-coming label Smash Records, asked the label for $1,600 in cash in exchange for recording 16 sides. Smash agreed to the proposal, and Miller performed his first session for the company early in 1964, when he recorded the hits \"Dang Me\" and \"Chug-a-Lug\". Both were released as singles, peaking at No.\u00a01 and No.\u00a03 respectively on country charts; both fared well on the Billboard Hot 100 reaching No.\u00a07 and No.\u00a09.[8] The songs transformed Miller's career, although the former was penned by Miller in just four minutes. Later that year, he recorded the No.\u00a015 hit \"Do-Wacka-Do,\" and soon after, the biggest hit of his career \"King of the Road\", which topped Country and Adult Contemporary charts while peaking at No.\u00a04 on the Billboard 100. It also reached No.\u00a01 in the UK Singles Chart for one week in May 1965. The song was inspired by a sign in Chicago that read \"Trailers for Sale or Rent\" and a hobo who happened upon Miller at an airport in Boise, but Miller needed months to write the song, which was certified gold in May 1965 after selling a million copies. It won numerous awards and earned a royalty check of $160,000 that summer.[1] Later in the year Miller scored hits with \"Engine Engine No.\u00a09\", \"Kansas City Star\" (a Top Ten country hit in 1965 about a local television children's show personality who would rather stay in the safety and security of his success in Kansas City than become a bigger star \u2013 or risk failure \u2013 in Omaha), and \"England Swings\" (an adult contemporary No.\u00a01). He began 1966 with the hit \"Husbands and Wives.\"[8]\n\nMiller was given his own TV show on NBC in September 1966 but it was canceled after 13 weeks in January 1967. During this period Miller recorded songs written by other songwriters. The final hit of his own composition was \"Walkin in the Sunshine,\" which reached No.\u00a07 and No.\u00a06 on the country and adult contemporary charts in 1967.[8] Later in the year he scored his final top 10 hit with a lowkey cover of Bobby Russell's \"Little Green Apples\".[1] The next year, he was first to cover Kris Kristofferson's \"Me and Bobby McGee,\"[6] taking the song to No.\u00a012 on country charts.[8] In 1970, Miller recorded the album A Trip in the Country, honky-tonk-style standards penned by Miller, including \"Tall, Tall Trees.\" Later that year, after Smash Records folded, Miller was signed by Columbia Records, for whom he released Dear Folks: Sorry I Haven't Written Lately in 1973. Later that year, Miller wrote and performed three songs in the Walt Disney animated feature Robin Hood as the rooster and minstrel Allan-a-Dale, including \"Whistle-Stop\" which was sampled for use in the popular Hampster Dance web site.[1] The other songs are Oo-De-Lally and Not In Nottingham. He provided the voice of Speiltoe, the equine narrator of the Rankin\/Bass holiday special Nestor the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey in 1977. Miller collaborated with Willie Nelson on an album titled Old Friends. The title track was based on a song he had previously penned for his family in Oklahoma. The song, with guest vocals from Ray Price, was the last hit of Miller's career,[1] peaking at No.\u00a019 on country charts in 1982.[8]\n\nLate career[edit]\n\nHe continued to record for different record labels and charted a few songs, but stopped writing in 1978, feeling that his more \"artistic\" works were not appreciated.[2] This was the time when his only visit to England led him to Kippax. He played the social club there but was outdone by 17 Elvis performers. He was absent from the entertainment business following the release of Old Friends in 1981, but returned after receiving an offer to write a Broadway score for a musical based upon Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Although he had not read the novel, Miller accepted the offer after discovering how the story brought him back to his childhood in rural Oklahoma.[9] It took a year and a half to write the opening, but he eventually finished it. The work, entitled Big River premiered at Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York on April 25, 1985. The musical received glowing reviews, earning seven Tony Awards including \"Best Score\" for Miller. He acted the part of Huck Finn's father Pap for three months after the exit of actor John Goodman, who left for Hollywood. In 1983, Miller played a dramatic role on an episode of Quincy, M.E. He played a country and western singer who is severely burned while freebasing cocaine.[1]\n\nMiller left for Santa Fe to live with his family following the success of Big River. He co-wrote Dwight Yoakam's hit \"It Only Hurts When I Cry\" from his 1990 album If There Was a Way, and supplied background vocals.[10] The song was released as a single in 1991, peaking at No.\u00a07 on country charts.[11] He began a solo guitar tour in 1990,[1] ending the following year after being diagnosed with lung cancer.[1] His last performance on television occurred on a special tribute to Minnie Pearl[2] which aired on TNN on October 26, 1992, the day after Miller's death.[12]\n\nStyle[edit]\n\nAlthough he is usually grouped with country music singers, Miller's unique style defies easy classification. Many of his recordings were humorous novelty songs with whimsical lyrics, coupled with scat singing or vocalese riffs filled with nonsense syllables.[13] Others were sincere ballads which caught the public's fancy, like his signature song, \"King of the Road.\"[14] The biographical book Ain't Got No Cigarettes described Miller as an \"uncategorizable talent\" and stated that many regarded him as a genius.[15]\n\nMiller's whimsical lyrics and nonsense sounding style led to him writing and performing songs for childrens' films such as \"Oo-de-Lally\" for the Disney animated film Robin Hood.[16] During his most successful years as a songwriter and singer, Miller's music was placed in the country genre due to his somewhat country or folk sounding voice and the use of an acoustic guitar,[17] although his lyrics were found to be sporadic and random at times. Yet even Miller's lyrics pointed his music toward country because of their having a \"bluegrass\" ring to them, most commonly found in his most recognizable song, \"King of the Road\".[citation needed]\n\nOn his own style, Miller remarked that he \"tried to do\" things like other artists but that it \"always came out different\" so he got \"frustrated\" until realizing \"I'm the only one that knows what I'm thinking.\" He commented that the favorite song that he wrote was \"You Can't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd.\"[14] Johnny Cash discussed Miller's bass vocal range in his 1997 autobiography. He stated that it was the closest to his own that he had heard.\n\nPersonal life and death[edit]\n\nMiller was married three times and fathered seven children. Miller married Barbara Crow, from Shamrock, Texas, when she was 17. Together the couple had four children, the first of whom died shortly after birth. As Miller\u2019s young family grew, his desire for fame and success continued to grow, as well. After moving the family to California for a short time, Miller and Barbara divorced. Subsequent public interest in Miller led to the success he had long hoped for but brought with it struggles for the performer that are often associated with life in the entertainment business: depression, insomnia and drug addiction.[citation needed]\n\nMiller married Leah Kendrick of San Antonio in 1964. Together the couple had two children, Roger Dean Miller, Jr. and Shannon Elizabeth.[18] The Christmas song \"Old Toy Trains\" was written by Miller, Sr. about his son, who was two years old when it was released in 1967. \u201cShannon\u2019s Song\u201d was written for his youngest biological child and was included as a track on Miller\u2019s album, \u201cDear Folks, Sorry I Haven\u2019t Written Lately\u201d.\n\nAfter 14 years, Miller\u2019s personal struggles finally took their toll on Miller's marriage to Leah and they divorced in the mid-seventies. Miller eventually married Mary Arnold, whom he met through Kenny Rogers.[19] Arnold was a replacement member in The First Edition, a band that included Rogers.[18] They adopted two children. After the break-up of The First Edition, she performed with her husband Miller on tours as a back up singer. In 2009, she was inducted into the Iowa Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame. She currently manages Roger Miller's estate. She sued Sony for copyright infringement in the 2007 case Roger Miller Music, Inc. v. Sony\/ATV Publishing, LLC, which went to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit.[20] Arnold was ultimately awarded nearly $1\u00a0million in royalties and rights to the songs Miller wrote in 1964.[21]\n\nMiller was a lifelong cigarette smoker. During a television interview, Miller explained that he composed his songs from \"bits and pieces\" of ideas he wrote on scraps of paper. When asked what he did with the unused bits and pieces, he half-joked, \"I smoke 'em!\" He also wrote a song about his habit, titled \"Dad Blame Anything A Man Can't Quit\". Miller died of lung and throat cancer in 1992, at age 56, shortly after the discovery of a malignant tumor under his vocal cords.[2] His remains were cremated.\n\nA main street in Erick, Oklahoma was named Roger Miller Boulevard in his memory.\n\nHe was posthumously inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1995.\n\nIn popular culture[edit]\n\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n  \u2022 In 1969, Miller appeared on the television show Daniel Boone as American folk hero Johnny Appleseed. In Miller's version of Appleseed, singing was quite common.[22]\n  \u2022 In 2007, music of \"King of the Road\" was used in a scene in the film Into The Wild, where a character in the film makes a mention of the song in writing a letter.\n  \u2022 He composed and performed a number of songs in the Disney animated film Robin Hood (1973). The Roger Miller song \"Whistle-Stop\" was whistled by the rooster character Alan-a-Dale. Other Miller songs sung by him included \"Oo-De-Lally\" in two versions and \"Not In Nottingham\".\n  \u2022 The \"Hampster Dance\" single in 2000 was based on the melody of \"Whistle Stop\". The Internet meme on which \"Hampster Dance\" was based used a sped-up version of Roger Miller's recording. The commercial song for Hampton the Hamster was altered to a sound-alike sample when the producers failed to obtain the rights to the original song.\n  \u2022 A bluegrass version of \"Boeing Boeing 707\" written by Roger Miller was released by Chris Roberts in January 2018. The song features Chris Roberts as vocalist. Musicians Ronnie McCoury (Mandolin), Cody Kilby (Acoustic Guitar), Dennis Crouch (Bass), Aubrey Haynie (Fiddle), Scott Vestal (Banjo) and Wes Hightower (Harmonies) are also featured on the recording. Produced by Adam Engelhardt and Glen Duncan. Mastered by Eric Conn.\n\nFilmography[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Waterhole No. 3 (1967) - Balladeer (voice)\n  \u2022 Daniel Boone (1969) - Johnny Appleseed\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1973) - Alan-a-Dale - The Rooster (voice)\n  \u2022 Nestor, the Long\u2013Eared Christmas Donkey (1977) - Steel Toe\n  \u2022 The Muppet Show Season 3, Episode 21 (Airdate: May 10, 1979) - Himself\n  \u2022 Murder, She Wrote Season 1, Episode 5, It's A Dog's Life (Airdate: Nov. 4, 1984) the Sheriff\n  \u2022 Lucky Luke (1991) - Jolly Jumper (voice).\n  \u2022 Quincy, M.E. (1983) On Dying High S8\/Ep16 (undated CF 2825 well)\n\nDiscography[edit]\n\nMain article: Roger Miller discography\nRoger Miller discography\nStudio albums 19\nLive albums 3\nCompilation albums 69\nSingles 37\nNo.1 Single 3\n\nMain albums[edit]\n\n[23]\n\n  \u2022 Roger and Out (1964)\n  \u2022 The Return of Roger Miller (1965)\n  \u2022 The 3rd Time Around (1965)\n  \u2022 Words and Music (1966)\n  \u2022 Walkin' in the Sunshine (1967)\n  \u2022 A Tender Look at Love (1968)\n  \u2022 Roger Miller (1969)\n  \u2022 Roger Miller Featuring Dang Me! (1969)\n  \u2022 A Trip in the Country (1970)\n  \u2022 Roger Miller 1970 (1970)\n  \u2022 Dear Folks, Sorry I Haven't Written Lately (1973)\n  \u2022 Celebration (1976)\n  \u2022 Painted Poetry (1977)\n  \u2022 Off the Wall (1978)\n  \u2022 Waterhole No.\u00a03 (1978)\n  \u2022 Making a Name for Myself (1979)\n  \u2022 Old Friends (with Willie Nelson) (1982)\n  \u2022 The Country Side of Roger Miller (1986)\n  \u2022 Green Green Grass of Home (1994)\n  \u2022 King of the Road: The Genius of Roger Miller (1995)\n\n#1 singles[edit]\n\nReleased and recorded by Miller[8]\n  \u2022 \"Dang Me\" (1964)\n  \u2022 \"King of the Road\" (1965)\n  \u2022 \"England Swings\" (1966)\nRecorded and released by other artists\n  \u2022 \"Billy Bayou\"\u00a0\u2013 Jim Reeves (1958)\n  \u2022 \"Don't We All Have the Right\"\u00a0\u2013 Ricky Van Shelton (1988)\n  \u2022 \"Tall, Tall Trees\"\u00a0\u2013 Alan Jackson (1995)\n  \u2022 \"Husbands and Wives\"\u00a0\u2013 Brooks & Dunn (1998)\n\nAwards[edit]\n\nIn addition to 11 Grammy Awards, Roger Miller won Broadway's Tony Award for writing the music and lyrics for Big River, which won a total of 7 Tony's including best musical in 1985. He was voted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1973 and the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1995. Miller's 11 Grammy Awards held the record as the most won by a single artist until Michael Jackson's 1982 album Thriller.[18] In Erick, Oklahoma where he grew up, a thoroughfare was renamed \"Roger Miller Boulevard\" and a museum dedicated to Miller was built on the road in 2004.[24]\n\nBelow is a list of awards won by Miller:[25]\n\n  \u2022 1964\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country Song: \"Dang Me\"\n  \u2022 1964\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best New Country and Western Artist\n  \u2022 1964\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country and Western Recording, Single: \"Dang Me\"\n  \u2022 1964\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country and Western Performance, Male: \"Dang Me\"\n  \u2022 1964\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country and Western Album: \"Dang Me\"\/\"Chug-a-Lug\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Jukebox Artist of the Year\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country Song: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country Vocal Performance, Male: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country and Western Recording, Single: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Contemporary Vocal Performance, Male: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Contemporary (Rock 'N Roll), Single: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Award: Best Country and Western Album: \"The Return of Roger Miller\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Academy of Country and Western Music: \"Best Songwriter\"\n  \u2022 1965\u00a0\u2014 Academy of Country and Western Music: \"Man of the Year\"\n  \u2022 1973\u00a0\u2014 Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 1985\u00a0\u2014 Tony Award for Best Score and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics for Big River\n  \u2022 1988\u00a0\u2014 Academy of Country Music: Pioneer Award\n  \u2022 1995\u00a0\u2014 Country Music Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 1997\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Hall of Fame Song\u00a0: \"Dang Me\"\n  \u2022 1998\u00a0\u2014 Grammy Hall of Fame Song\u00a0: \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 2003\u00a0\u2014 CMT's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music: Ranked No.\u00a023.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n \"Biography\". rogermiller.com. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Landon, Grelun; Stambler, Irwin; Stambler, Lyndon (2000), \"Roger Miller\", The Encyclopedia of Country Music, Macmillan, pp.\u00a0311\u2013314\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b \"High School Papers\". rogermiller.com. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller Biography\". CMT. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Simpson, Paul (2003). The Rough Guide to Cult Pop. London: Rough Guides Ltd. p.\u00a0218. ISBN\u00a01-84353-229-8.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Cooper, Daniel. \"The Roger Miller Story\". Country Music Hall of Fame.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Country Music News - Nash Country Daily\".\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Roger Miller > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Holden, Stephen (October 27, 1992). \"Roger Miller, Quirky Country Singer and Songwriter, Is Dead at 56\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Jurek, Thom. \"If There Was a Way\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"If There Was a Way > Chart & Awards > Billboard Singles\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"In brief:\". New York Magazine: 85. October 26, 1992.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Malone, Bill C. (1969). Country music U.S.A: a fifty-year history. University of Texas Press. p.\u00a0261. ISBN\u00a0978-0-292-71029-0.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Unhokey Okie\". Time. May 5, 1965.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Style, Lyle, Ain't Got No Cigarettes, Great Plains Publications, p.\u00a065, ISBN\u00a0978-1-894283-60-1\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Roger miller agrees 'words are his toys'. (1966, Sep 11). Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File)\n  17. Jump up ^ By, JON P. \"Music: Roger Miller.\" New York Times (1923-Current file), New York, N.Y., 1987.\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b c Van Ostrand, Maggie (October 26, 2006). \"Thirty or More Things You Should Know About Roger Miller\". texasescapes.com.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Iowa Rock'n Roll Music Association 2009 Hall of Fame Inductee...\" Iowa Rock'n Roll Music Association. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller Music, Inc., and Mary A. Miller v. Sont\/ATV Publishing, LLC\" (PDF). United States Court of Appeals. February 13, 2007.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller's Widow Wins\u00a0\u2013 Court Victory Equals $900,000 in Royalties\". National Ledger. March 23, 2010. Retrieved Mar 24, 2010.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Daniel Boone TV series season 6 episode 140, \"A Very Small Rifle.\"\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller > Discography > Main Albums\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2010-07-11.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Flippo, Chet (June 3, 2004). \"Nashville Skyline: Roger Miller Gets a Museum\". CMT.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Roger Miller\". Nashville Songwriter's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2010.\u00a0\n\nSources[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cooper, Daniel. (1998). \"Roger Miller.\" In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Ed. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.\u00a0347\u20138.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 All Roger Miller Songs Written and Released\n  \u2022 Episode of Quincy ME starring Roger Miller\n  \u2022 Roger Miller on IMDb\n  \u2022 Roger Miller at the Internet Broadway Database Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 Roger Miller Museum in Erick, Oklahoma\n  \u2022 Roger Miller interview on the Pop Chronicles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRoger Miller\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Roger and Out\n  \u2022 The Return of Roger Miller\n  \u2022 The 3rd Time Around\n  \u2022 Words and Music\n  \u2022 Walkin' in the Sunshine\n  \u2022 Waterhole #3 (Code of the West)\n  \u2022 A Tender Look at Love\n  \u2022 Roger Miller\n  \u2022 Roger Miller Featuring Dang Me!\n  \u2022 Roger Miller 1970\n  \u2022 A Trip in the Country\n  \u2022 Dear Folks, Sorry I Haven't Written Lately\n  \u2022 Celebration\n  \u2022 Painted Poetry\n  \u2022 Off the Wall\n  \u2022 Making a Name for Myself\n  \u2022 Old Friends with Willie Nelson\n  \u2022 Roger Miller\n  \u2022 The Country Side of Roger Miller\n  \u2022 Green Green Grass of Home\nLive albums\n  \u2022 Roger Miller Live!\n  \u2022 Live\n  \u2022 Hits You Remember: Live\nSingles\n1950s \u2013 1960s\n  \u2022 \"Poor Little John\"\n  \u2022 \"You're Forgettin' Me\"\n  \u2022 \"On This Mountain Top\"\n  \u2022 \"Mine is a Lonely Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Wrong Kind of Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"Jason Fleming\"\n  \u2022 \"You Don't Want My Love\"\n  \u2022 \"When Two Worlds Collide\"\n  \u2022 \"Fair Swiss Maiden\"\n  \u2022 \"Sorry Willie\"\n  \u2022 \"Hey Little Star\"\n  \u2022 \"Lock, Stock and Teardrops\"\n  \u2022 \"Dang Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Chug-a-Lug\"\n  \u2022 \"Do-Wacka-Do\"\n  \u2022 \"King of the Road\"\n  \u2022 \"Engine Engine #9\"\n  \u2022 \"One Dyin' and a-Buryin'\"\n  \u2022 \"It Happened Just That Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Kansas City Star\"\n  \u2022 \"England Swings\"\n  \u2022 \"Husbands and Wives\"\n  \u2022 \"I've Been a Long Time Leaving (But I'll Be a Long Time Gone)\"\n  \u2022 \"You Can't Rollerskate in a Buffalo Herd\"\n  \u2022 \"My Uncle Used to Love Me But She Died\"\n  \u2022 \"Heartbreak Hotel\"\n  \u2022 \"Walkin' in the Sunshine\"\n  \u2022 \"The Ballad of Waterhole #3 (Code of the West)\"\n  \u2022 \"Old Toy Trains\"\n  \u2022 \"Little Green Apples\"\n  \u2022 \"Tolivar\"\n  \u2022 \"Vance\"\n  \u2022 \"Me and Bobby McGee\"\n  \u2022 \"Where Have All the Average People Gone\"\n1970s \u2013 1980s\n  \u2022 \"The Tom Green County Fair\"\n  \u2022 \"South\"\n  \u2022 \"Tomorrow Night in Baltimore\"\n  \u2022 \"Lovin' Her Was Easier (Than Anything I'll Ever Do Again)\"\n  \u2022 \"We Found It in Each Other's Arms\"\n  \u2022 \"Sunny Side of My Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Rings for Sale\"\n  \u2022 \"Hoppy's Gone\"\n  \u2022 \"Open Up Your Heart\"\n  \u2022 \"I Believe in the Sunshine\"\n  \u2022 \"Whistle Stop\"\n  \u2022 \"Our Love\"\n  \u2022 \"I Love a Rodeo\"\n  \u2022 \"Baby Me Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"Oklahoma Woman\"\n  \u2022 \"The Hat\"\n  \u2022 \"Everyone Gets Crazy Now and Then\"\n  \u2022 \"Old Friends\" with Willie Nelson and Ray Price\n  \u2022 \"River in the Rain\"\n  \u2022 \"Some Hearts Get All the Breaks\"\nCompilations\n  \u2022 Golden Hits\n  \u2022 The Best of Roger Miller, Volume One: Country Tunesmith\n  \u2022 The Best of Roger Miller, Volume Two: King of the Road\n  \u2022 King of the Road\n  \u2022 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection\n  \u2022 All Time Greatest Hits\n  \u2022 A Man Like Me\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Robin Hood\n  \u2022 Dean Miller\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCountry Music Hall of Fame 1990s\n  \u2022 Tennessee Ernie Ford (1990)\n  \u2022 Felice and Boudleaux Bryant (1991)\n  \u2022 George Jones (1992)\n  \u2022 Frances Preston (1992)\n  \u2022 Willie Nelson (1993)\n  \u2022 Merle Haggard (1994)\n  \u2022 Roger Miller (1995)\n  \u2022 Jo Walker-Meador (1995)\n  \u2022 Patsy Montana (1996)\n  \u2022 Buck Owens (1996)\n  \u2022 Ray Price (1996)\n  \u2022 Harlan Howard (1997)\n  \u2022 Brenda Lee (1997)\n  \u2022 Cindy Walker (1997)\n  \u2022 George Morgan (1998)\n  \u2022 Elvis Presley (1998)\n  \u2022 E.W. \"Bud\" Wendell (1998)\n  \u2022 Tammy Wynette (1998)\n  \u2022 Johnny Bond (1999)\n  \u2022 Dolly Parton (1999)\n  \u2022 Conway Twitty (1999)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics\n  \u2022 Fred Ebb (1969)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim\/Bertolt Brecht (1970)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1971)\n  \u2022 John Guare (1972)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1973)\n  \u2022 Al Carmines (1974)\n  \u2022 Charlie Smalls (1975)\n  \u2022 Edward Kleban (1976)\n  \u2022 Martin Charnin (1977)\n  \u2022 Carol Hall (1978)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1979)\n  \u2022 Tim Rice (1980)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim\/Maury Yeston (1982)\n  \u2022 Howard Ashman (1983)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1984)\n  \u2022 Roger Miller (1985)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1988)\n  \u2022 David Zippel (1990)\n  \u2022 William Finn (1991)\n  \u2022 Susan Birkenhead (1992)\n  \u2022 Denis Markell and Douglas Bernstein (1993)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (1994)\n  \u2022 Jonathan Larson (1996)\n  \u2022 Gerard Alessandrini (1997)\n  \u2022 Lynn Ahrens (1998)\n  \u2022 Gerard Alessandrini (1999)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (2000)\n  \u2022 Mel Brooks (2001)\n  \u2022 Jason Robert Brown (2002)\n  \u2022 Scott Wittman and Marc Shaiman (2003)\n  \u2022 Stephen Schwartz (2004)\n  \u2022 Eric Idle (2005)\n  \u2022 Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison (2006)\n  \u2022 Steven Sater (2007)\n  \u2022 Stew (2008)\n  \u2022 Stephen Sondheim (2009)\n  \u2022 John Kander and Fred Ebb (2010)\n  \u2022 Trey Parker, Robert Lopez and Matt Stone (2011)\n  \u2022 Glen Hansard and Mark\u00e9ta Irglov\u00e1 (2012)\n  \u2022 Tim Minchin (2013)\n  \u2022 Robert L. Freedman and Steven Lutvak (2014)\n  \u2022 Lin-Manuel Miranda (2015)\n  \u2022 Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2016)\n  \u2022 David Yazbek (2017)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nTony Award for Best Original Score\n1947-1975\n  \u2022 Street Scene by Kurt Weill (1947)\n  \u2022 Kiss Me, Kate by Cole Porter (1949)\n  \u2022 South Pacific by Richard Rodgers (1950)\n  \u2022 Call Me Madam by Irving Berlin (1951)\n  \u2022 No Strings by Richard Rodgers (1962)\n  \u2022 Oliver! by Lionel Bart (1963)\n  \u2022 Hello, Dolly! by Jerry Herman (1964)\n  \u2022 Fiddler on the Roof by Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick (1965)\n  \u2022 Man of La Mancha by Mitch Leigh and Joe Darion (1966)\n  \u2022 Cabaret by John Kander and Fred Ebb (1967)\n  \u2022 Hallelujah, Baby! by Jule Styne, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green (1968)\n  \u2022 Company by Stephen Sondheim (1971)\n  \u2022 Follies by Stephen Sondheim (1972)\n  \u2022 A Little Night Music by Stephen Sondheim (1973)\n  \u2022 Gigi by Frederick Loewe and Alan Jay Lerner (1974)\n  \u2022 The Wiz by Charlie Smalls (1975)\n1976-2000\n  \u2022 A Chorus Line by Marvin Hamlisch and Edward Kleban (1976)\n  \u2022 Annie by Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin (1977)\n  \u2022 On the Twentieth Century by Cy Coleman, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green (1978)\n  \u2022 Sweeney Todd by Stephen Sondheim (1979)\n  \u2022 Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice (1980)\n  \u2022 Woman of the Year by John Kander and Fred Ebb (1981)\n  \u2022 Nine by Maury Yeston (1982)\n  \u2022 Cats by Andrew Lloyd Webber and T. S. Eliot (1983)\n  \u2022 La Cage aux Folles by Jerry Herman (1984)\n  \u2022 Big River by Roger Miller (1985)\n  \u2022 Drood by Rupert Holmes (1986)\n  \u2022 Les Mis\u00e9rables by Claude-Michel Sch\u00f6nberg, Herbert Kretzmer, and Alain Boublil (1987)\n  \u2022 Into the Woods by Stephen Sondheim (1988)\n  \u2022 City of Angels by Cy Coleman and David Zippel (1990)\n  \u2022 The Will Rogers Follies by Cy Coleman, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green (1991)\n  \u2022 Falsettos by William Finn (1992)\n  \u2022 Kiss of the Spider Woman by John Kander and Fred Ebb \/ The Who's Tommy by Pete Townshend (1993)\n  \u2022 Passion by Stephen Sondheim (1994)\n  \u2022 Sunset Boulevard by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Don Black, and Christopher Hampton (1995)\n  \u2022 Rent by Jonathan Larson (1996)\n  \u2022 Titanic by Maury Yeston (1997)\n  \u2022 Ragtime by Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens (1998)\n  \u2022 Parade by Jason Robert Brown (1999)\n  \u2022 Aida by Elton John and Tim Rice (2000)\n2001-present\n  \u2022 The Producers by Mel Brooks (2001)\n  \u2022 Urinetown by Mark Hollmann and Greg Kotis (2002)\n  \u2022 Hairspray by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman (2003)\n  \u2022 Avenue Q by Robert Lopez and Jeff Marx (2004)\n  \u2022 The Light in the Piazza by Adam Guettel (2005)\n  \u2022 The Drowsy Chaperone by Lisa Lambert and Greg Morrison (2006)\n  \u2022 Spring Awakening by Duncan Sheik and Steven Sater (2007)\n  \u2022 In the Heights by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2008)\n  \u2022 Next to Normal by Tom Kitt and Brian Yorkey (2009)\n  \u2022 Memphis by David Bryan and Joe DiPietro (2010)\n  \u2022 The Book of Mormon by Trey Parker, Robert Lopez and Matt Stone (2011)\n  \u2022 Newsies by Alan Menken and Jack Feldman (2012)\n  \u2022 Kinky Boots by Cyndi Lauper (2013)\n  \u2022 The Bridges of Madison County by Jason Robert Brown (2014)\n  \u2022 Fun Home by Jeanine Tesori and Lisa Kron (2015)\n  \u2022 Hamilton by Lin-Manuel Miranda (2016)\n  \u2022 Dear Evan Hansen by Benj Pasek and Justin Paul (2017)\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 112431543\n  \u2022 LCCN: n85173065\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0001 1580 4202\n  \u2022 GND: 131518941\n  \u2022 SUDOC: 092151752\n  \u2022 BNF: cb13897530t (data)\n  \u2022 BIBSYS: 7026997\n  \u2022 MusicBrainz: 102045e3-577c-4b10-b01b-424b7e461094\n  \u2022 BNE: XX1225160\n  \u2022 SNAC: w64b40ts\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Roger_Miller&oldid=832977994\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1936 births\n  \u2022 1992 deaths\n  \u2022 People from Fort Worth, Texas\n  \u2022 American country singers\n  \u2022 American country singer-songwriters\n  \u2022 American male singers\n  \u2022 American army personnel of the Korean War\n  \u2022 American novelty song performers\n  \u2022 Singers from Oklahoma\n  \u2022 Deaths from cancer in California\n  \u2022 Country Music Hall of Fame inductees\n  \u2022 Deaths from lung cancer\n  \u2022 Deaths from esophageal cancer\n  \u2022 Grammy Award winners\n  \u2022 Mercury Records artists\n  \u2022 People from Beckham County, Oklahoma\n  \u2022 RCA Victor artists\n  \u2022 Smash Records artists\n  \u2022 Starday Records artists\n  \u2022 Tony Award winners\n  \u2022 United States Army soldiers\n  \u2022 American male composers\n  \u2022 American composers\n  \u2022 20th-century American singers\n  \u2022 American country guitarists\n  \u2022 Columbia Records artists\n  \u2022 American acoustic guitarists\n  \u2022 American male guitarists\n  \u2022 American country fiddlers\n  \u2022 American country drummers\n  \u2022 20th-century American guitarists\n  \u2022 20th-century American drummers\n  \u2022 Songwriters from Texas\n  \u2022 Songwriters from Oklahoma\n  \u2022 Guitarists from Oklahoma\n  \u2022 Guitarists from Texas\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from July 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from March 2018\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox artist discography with unknown parameters\n  \u2022 Articles with IBDb links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers\n  \u2022 Good articles\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 29 March 2018, at 00:34.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5235423955634533955","title":"I Love It (Icona Pop song)","text":"I Love It (Icona Pop song)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\n\"I Love It\"\nIcona Pop - I Love It.png\nSingle by Icona Pop featuring Charli XCX\nfrom the album Icona Pop and This Is... Icona Pop\nReleased 9\u00a0May\u00a02012\u00a0(2012-05-09)\nFormat Digital download\nRecorded 2012\nGenre\n  \u2022 Electropop\n  \u2022 dance-pop\nLength 2:37\nLabel Ten\nSongwriter(s)\n  \u2022 Charlotte Aitchison\n  \u2022 Patrik Berger\n  \u2022 Linus Ekl\u00f6w\nProducer(s)\n  \u2022 Patrik Berger\n  \u2022 Style of Eye\nIcona Pop singles chronology\n\"Mind Your Manners\"\n(2012)\n\"I Love It\"\n(2012)\n\"We Got the World\"\n(2012)\n\n\"Mind Your Manners\"\n(2012)\n\"I Love It\"\n(2012)\n\"We Got the World\"\n(2012)\nCharli XCX singles chronology\n\"Nuclear Seasons\"\n(2011) Nuclear Seasons2011\n\"I Love It\"\n(2012) I Love It2012\n\"You're the One\"\n(2012) You're the One2012\n\n\"I Love It\" is a song by Swedish DJ duo Icona Pop featuring vocals from British recording artist Charli XCX. It was released in May 2012 as a digital download in Sweden, where it peaked at number two on the singles chart. The song was added to their debut studio album, Icona Pop, as well as their EP Iconic and their debut international album, This Is... Icona Pop.[1]\n\nThe song received positive reviews from music critics, and publications Rolling Stone and Pitchfork included it on their year-end lists for 2012. The song went on to become Icona Pop and Charli XCX's first US hit, peaking at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100[2] and was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting over 2 million copies sold in the United States. In June 2013, over a year after it was released elsewhere, the song charted at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart. It has gone on to sell 4.3 million certified downloads.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Background\n  \u2022 2 Composition\n  \u2022 3 Release and promotion\n  \u2022 4 Critical reception\n  \u2022 5 Music video\n  \u2022 6 Track listing\n  \u2022 7 Charts\n    \u2022 7.1 Weekly charts\n    \u2022 7.2 Year-end charts\n    \u2022 7.3 All-time chart\n  \u2022 8 Sales and certifications\n  \u2022 9 Cover versions\n  \u2022 10 Release history\n  \u2022 11 References\n  \u2022 12 External links\n\nBackground[edit]\n\nSinger Charli XCX co-wrote and recorded an earlier version of \"I Love It\".\n\nThe song was originally written by Charli XCX, whom Icona Pop met several times in London.[3] Swedish producer Patrik Berger sent Charli two beats, and she quickly wrote songs for each of them, one of which became \"I Love It\" and the other of which became her following single \"You're the One\".[4] However, she later stated that she knew she would not end up releasing it herself because she could not reconcile it with her sound.[5]\n\nWhile recording \"Good for You\" with Icona Pop, Berger presented them with Charli's work on \"I Love It\".[6] Band member Aino Jawo said she felt a connection to the song because it mirrored her own experiences, and the line \"You're from the 70s but I'm a 90s bitch\" reminded her of an older man she had known.[7] Member Caroline Hjelt described Charli XCX's original demo as \"more cute, in a way\u2026really cool and cocky\".[8] Icona Pop approached Swedish producer Style of Eye to make a rougher version of the track, telling him, \"We want the punkiness. We want the 'fuck it' feeling.\"[6]\n\nComposition[edit]\n\n\"I Love It\"\nThe song's chorus features all three singers shouting \"I don't care \/ I love it\" in unison.\n\nProblems playing this file? See media help.\n\"I Love It (Original Demo)\"\nThe original version of the song before its composition was reworked.\n\nProblems playing this file? See media help.\n\n\"I Love It\" is set in common time with a tempo of 126 beats per minute (Allegro), and is described as an electropop[9] and dance-pop[10][11] song. It is written in A\u266d major, with an authentic cadence for the main chord progression.[12] Billboard critic Jessica Hopper defined the instrumental by its \"swells of revving synths\" and prominent sub-bass sounds.[13] Pitchfork writer Lindsay Zoladz commented that the song was \"basically just two-and-a-half minutes of drop\";[14] colleague Larry Fitzmaurice noted the track's maximalist approach fit the contemporary trends in electronic and pop music.[15]\n\nThe song's lyrics describe breaking up with an older boyfriend. In its chorus, Icona Pop and Charli XCX shout in unison \"I don't care \/ I love it\".[16] Critics compared the song's breakup narrative to Kelly Clarkson's 2004 single \"Since U Been Gone\",[14][17] and journalist Chuck Eddy wrote in a piece for Spin that the track's brattiness was similar to British band Shampoo.[18]\n\nRelease and promotion[edit]\n\n\"I Love It\" was released in Sweden in May 2012. It entered the Swedish Singles Chart the following month at number 48, and after two months on the chart, the song peaked at number two for three consecutive weeks.[19] After its January 2013 appearance on an episode of Girls, the song performed better in digital downloads than it had upon initial release.[20] Ten days later it entered the Billboard Hot 100,[3] eventually climbing to number seven on the chart.[2] Jawo and Hjelt's first performance with Charli XCX happened in April 2013, after seeing her back stage at a South by Southwest showcase where both acts were playing.[21]\n\nIn June 2013, several cover versions of the song entered the UK Singles Chart, including one by vlogger Venus Angelic.[22] When Icona Pop released their version, it entered at the top of the chart, overtaking Robin Thicke's \"Blurred Lines\" featuring T.I. and Pharrell Williams.[23]\n\nCritical reception[edit]\n\n\"I Love It\" was met with positive reviews from music critics. The song placed 15th on The Village Voice's 2012 Pazz & Jop list,[24] and it rose to eighth place the following year.[25] Pitchfork Media labeled it \"Best New Music\", calling the song \"delectable, empowering, infinitely repeatable\".[15] Pitchfork later listed the song number 50 on its \"Top 100 Tracks of 2012\" list.[17] Rolling Stone placed \"I Love It\" at number 35 on its year-end list, naming it \"the Euro-slut club jam of the summer\".[26] Amrit Singh for Stereogum described it as \"fun\",[9] Heather Phares commented Jawo and Hjelt \"half-sung, half-shouted vocals and revved-up synths make the song inescapably catchy\".[27] Kat Bein of the Miami New Times called the song a \"feminist pop anthem\".[28]\n\nMusic video[edit]\n\nThe music video for \"I Love It\" was directed by Fredrik Etoall. The video was shot in a day by friends of the band while they were in Paris.[7] It shows Jawo and Hjelt playing a show for a crowd shouting the lyrics and dancing, with additional shots from backstage and an after-party.[29] It also includes outdoor shots of them wearing fringed jackets that they made. Charli XCX does not appear in the video. [7]\n\nTrack listing[edit]\n\nDigital download\nNo.TitleLength\n1.\"I Love It\" (featuring Charli XCX)2:37\nRemixes\nNo.TitleLength\n1.\"I Love It\" (Cobra Starship Remix) (Radio Edit)3:33\n2.\"I Love It\" (Nari & Milani Remix) (Radio Edit)3:20\n3.\"I Love It\" (Style of Eye Remix)4:40\n4.\"I Love It\" (Sick Individuals Club Edit)5:57\n5.\"I Love It\" (Sazon Booya Moombahton Remix)4:22\n6.\"I Love It\" (Volta Bureau Remix)5:25\n7.\"I Love It\" (Wayne G & LFB Remix) (Radio Edit)3:44\n8.\"I Love It\" (Steven Redant '90s Bitch Club Mix)6:53\n9.\"I Love It\" (Ti\u00ebsto's Club Life Remix)4:30\nRemixes (Part 2)\nNo.TitleLength\n1.\"I Love It\" (Nari & Milani Remix)7:00\n2.\"I Love It\" (Sick Individuals Remix)6:45\n3.\"I Love It\" (Skitzofrenix Remix)6:03\n4.\"I Love It\" (Hot Mouth Remix)5:41\n5.\"I Love It\" (Style of Eye Dub)4:41\n6.\"I Love It\" (Fukkk Offf Remix)4:48\n7.\"I Love It\" (Apocalypto Remix)6:13\n8.\"I Love It\" (Cobra Starship Remix)5:08\n9.\"I Love It\" (Wayne G & LFB Club Mix)6:27\n10.\"I Love It\" (Steven Redant '90s Bitch Club Mix)6:52\n11.\"I Love It\" (Solidisco Mix)5:18\n\nCD single\nNo.TitleLength\n1.\"I Love It\" (Original Version)2:37\n2.\"I Love It\" (Fukkk Offf Remix)4:48\nBeatport Remixes\nNo.TitleLength\n1.\"I Love It\" (Nari & Milani Remix)7:00\n2.\"I Love It\" (Sick Individuals Remix)6:45\n3.\"I Love It\" (Skitzofrenix Remix)6:03\n4.\"I Love It\" (Hot Mouth Remix)5:41\n5.\"I Love It\" (Sazon Booya Moombahton Remix)4:22\n6.\"I Love It\" (Volta Bureau Remix)5:24\n7.\"I Love It\" (Style of Eye Remix)4:39\n8.\"I Love It\" (Style of Eye Dub)4:41\n9.\"I Love It\" (Fukkk Offf Remix)4:48\n10.\"I Love It\" (Apocalypto Remix)6:13\n11.\"I Love It\" (Cobra Starship Remix)5:08\n\nCharts[edit]\n\nWeekly charts[edit]\n\nChart (2012\u201314) Peak\nposition\nAustralia (ARIA)[30] 3\nAustria (\u00d63 Austria Top 40)[31] 3\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[32] 6\nBelgium (Ultratop Flanders Dance)[32] 2\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[33] 20\nBelgium (Ultratop Wallonia Dance)[33] 3\nBrazil (Billboard Brasil Hot 100)[34] 63\nBrazil Hot Pop Songs[34] 22\nCanada (Canadian Hot 100)[35] 9\nCzech Republic (R\u00e1dio Top 100)[36] 15\nCzech Republic (Singles Digit\u00e1l Top 100)[37] 92\nEurope (Euro Digital Songs)[38] 2\nFrance (SNEP)[39] 18\nGermany (Official German Charts)[40] 3\nHungary (Dance Top 40)[41] 10\nHungary (R\u00e1di\u00f3s Top 40)[42] 3\nIreland (IRMA)[43] 8\nIsrael (Media Forest)[44] 2\nItaly (FIMI)[45] 3\nJapan (Japan Hot 100)[46] 12\nMexico Top Anglo (Monitor Latino)[47] 3\nNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)[48] 13\nNetherlands (Mega Dance Top 30)[49] 4\nNetherlands (Single Top 100)[50] 16\nNetherlands (Mega Top 50)[51] 10\nNew Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[52] 9\nPortugal (Billboard)[53] 3\nScotland (Official Charts Company)[54] 1\nSlovakia (R\u00e1dio Top 100)[55] 15\nSlovenia (SloTop50)[56] 8\nSpain (PROMUSICAE)[57] 4\nSweden (Sverigetopplistan)[19] 2\nSwitzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[58] 10\nUK Singles (Official Charts Company)[23] 1\nUS Billboard Hot 100[59] 7\nUS Hot Dance\/Electronic Songs (Billboard)[60] 1\nUS Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[61] 11\nUS Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[62] 25\nUS Dance\/Mix Show Airplay (Billboard)[63] 1\nUS Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[64] 3\nUS Rhythmic (Billboard)[65] 24\nVenezuela Pop Rock General (Record Report)[66] 7\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\nChart (2013) Position\nAustralia (ARIA)[67] 41\nCanada (Canadian Hot 100)[68] 29\nGermany (Media Control AG)[69] 19\nHungary (R\u00e1di\u00f3s Top 40)[70] 12\nSlovenia (SloTop50)[71] 25\nSpain (PROMUSICAE)[72] 28\nUK Singles (Official Charts Company)[73] 19\nUS Billboard Hot 100[74] 28\n\nAll-time chart[edit]\n\nChart Position\nSweden (Sverigetopplistan)[75] 93\nAustralia (ARIA)[76] 400\n\nSales and certifications[edit]\n\nRegion Certification Certified units\/Sales\nAustralia (ARIA)[77] 6\u00d7 Platinum 420,000^\nAustria (IFPI Austria)[78] Gold 15,000*\nBelgium (BEA)[79] Gold 15,000*\nCanada (Music Canada)[80] 4\u00d7 Platinum 320,000^\nGermany (BVMI)[81] 3\u00d7 Gold 450,000^\nItaly (FIMI)[82] 2\u00d7 Platinum 60,000*\nMexico (AMPROFON)[83] Gold 30,000*\nNew Zealand (RMNZ)[84] Gold 0*\nSouth Korea (Gaon Chart)[85]\nIconic EP version\n87,650[86][87]\nSouth Korea (Gaon Chart)[88]\nSingle version\n95,498[86][87]\nSweden (GLF)[89] Platinum 40,000^\nSwitzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[90] Platinum 30,000^\nUnited Kingdom (BPI)[91] Platinum 600,000^\nUnited States (RIAA)[92] 4\u00d7 Platinum 2,127,000[93]\nVenezuela (APFV)[94] 2x Platinum 20,000^\n\n*sales figures based on certification alone\n^shipments figures based on certification alone\n\nCover versions[edit]\n\nSeveral cover versions have charted in the UK.\n\nArtist Peak position Reference\nLoreen Harris 74 [95]\nVenus Angelic 71 [22]\nRemix Junkies 49 [96]\nRemix Chix 61 [97]\nNew Music Masters 51 [98]\n\nIn 2017, Swedish singer Moneybrother released a punk rock inspired cover version of the song as a part of the eighth season of S\u00e5 mycket b\u00e4ttre. The track received mixed to positive reviews, ultimately failing to chart.[99][100]\n\nRelease history[edit]\n\nRegion Date Format Label\nSweden 9 May 2012[101] Record Company TEN\nUnited States 5 February 2013[101][not in citation given] Mainstream Airplay Atlantic\/Big Beat Records\nUnited Kingdom 21 June 2013[102] Digital EP Warner Records\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Icona Pop's 'All Night' is now on the internet, as is the cover of their new album - Popjustice\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Trust, Gary. \"Pink Holds at No. 1 on Hot 100 While Rihanna Rules at Radio\". Retrieved 2 May 2013.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Lipshutz, Jason (16 February 2013). \"Icona Pop Makes Hot 100 Debut, Discusses The Anger Behind 'I Love It'\". Billboard. 125 (6): 69. Retrieved 27 December 2013.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Nostro, Lauren (6 March 2013). \"Interview: Charli XCX Talks Debut Album, Internet Haters, and Writing Icona Pop's 'I Love It'\". Complex. Retrieved 27 December 2013.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Savage, Mark (11 December 2013). \"Charli XCX: Pop, punk and synaesthesia\". BBC News. Retrieved 28 December 2013.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Werthman, Christine (19 December 2012). \"Q&A: Icona Pop\". CMJ. Retrieved 27 December 2013.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Grisham, Tyler (25 May 2012). \"Rising: Icona Pop\". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 27 December 2013.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Charli XCX: 'I don't regret giving 'I Love It' to Icona Pop'\". NME. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2013.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Amrit (3 May 2013). \"Watch Icona Pop Play Fallon\". Stereogum. Spin Media. Retrieved 19 May 2013.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Ferreiro, Laura (16 July 2013). \"Robin Thicke Covers Icona Pop's Summer Hit \"I Love It\"\". Yahoo Music. Yahoo!. Retrieved 16 July 2013.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Walters, Barry (19 September 2013). \"Icona Pop (We Love It) and Krewella (We Don't): Two Heroic, Sis-Centric Punk-Pop LPs\". Spin. Retrieved 19 May 2015.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Ekl\u00f6w, Linus; Berger, Patrik; Aitchison, Charlotte (2012). \"I Love It\" (sheet music). Musicnotes.com. Universal Music Publishing Group. Retrieved 29 December 2013.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Hopper, Jessica (31 August 2013). \"Pop's New Icons\". 125 (33). Billboard: 35.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Zoladz, Lindsay (17 October 2012). \"Icona Pop: The Iconic EP\". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 12 January 2014.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Fitzmaurice, Larry (9 May 2012). \"Icona Pop: \"I Love It\"\". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 27 December 2013.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Trageser, Stephen (8 August 2013). \"Icona Pop prepares to rule the global market in dance pop\". Nashville Scene. Retrieved 12 January 2014.\u00a0\n  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Phillips, Amy (17 December 2012). \"Staff Lists: The Top 100 Tracks of 2012\". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 25 April 2013.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Eddy, Chuck (27 September 2013). \"Icona Pop's Nightclubbing Catharsis Originated With '90s British Dance-Pop Duo Crush\". Spin. Retrieved 12 January 2014.\u00a0\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Swedishcharts.com \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 13 January 2014.\n  20. Jump up ^ Unterberger, Andrew (28 January 2013). \"Is \"Girls\" Finally Gonna Make a Hit Out of Icona Pop's \"I Love It\"?\". Popdust Inc.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Cubarrubia, RJ (23 April 2013). \"Icona Pop, Charli XCX Party Through 'I Love It' at SXSW\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 28 December 2013.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Venus Angelic\". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 24 June 2013.\u00a0\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Official Singles Chart Top 100\". Official Charts Company.\n  24. Jump up ^ \"New York Pazz and Jop Singles\". The Village Voice. Retrieved 28 December 2013.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"2013 Pazz & Jop Singles Winners\". The Village Voice. 15 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"50 Best Songs of 2012: Icona Pop, 'I Love It'\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 28 December 2013.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Phares, Heather. \"Icona Pop: Iconic\". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Retrieved 19 May 2013.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Bein, Kat (6 August 2013). \"Icona Pop's Aino Jawo: \"We Are Feminists\"\". Miami New Times. Retrieved 5 June 2015.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Robertson, Derek (27 September 2012). \"Icona Pop: A New Kind Of 90s Bitch\". DIY. Retrieved 29 December 2013.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Australian-charts.com \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 6 January 2013.\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Austriancharts.at \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in German). \u00d63 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 16 January 2013.\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ultratop.be \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 16 January 2013.\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ultratop.be \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in French). Ultratop 50.\n  34. ^ Jump up to: a b BPP, ed. (February\u2013March 2014). \"Billboard Brasil Hot 100 Airplay\". Billboard Brasil (47).\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)\". Billboard.\n  36. Jump up ^ \"\u010cNS IFPI\" (in Czech). Hitpar\u00e1da \u2013 Radio Top 100 Ofici\u00e1ln\u00ed. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201329 into search.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"\u010cNS IFPI\" (in Czech). Hitpar\u00e1da \u2013 Digital Top 100 Ofici\u00e1ln\u00ed. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201432 into search.\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop \u2013 Chart history\" Billboard Euro Digital Songs for Icona Pop.\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Lescharts.com \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in French). Les classement single.\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Offiziellecharts.de \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 5 December 2012.\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Arch\u00edvum \u2013 Sl\u00e1gerlist\u00e1k \u2013 MAHASZ\" (in Hungarian). Dance Top 40 lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiad\u00f3k Sz\u00f6vets\u00e9ge.\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Arch\u00edvum \u2013 Sl\u00e1gerlist\u00e1k \u2013 MAHASZ\" (in Hungarian). R\u00e1di\u00f3s Top 40 j\u00e1tsz\u00e1si lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiad\u00f3k Sz\u00f6vets\u00e9ge.\n  43. Jump up ^ \"Chart Track: Week 08, 2013\". Irish Singles Chart.\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It Media Forest\". Israeli Airplay Chart. Media Forest.\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Italiancharts.com \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". Top Digital Download.\n  46. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Japan Hot 100)\". Billboard.\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Top 20 Ingles\". Monitor Latino (in Spanish). RadioNotas. Archived from the original on 26 April 2013.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Nederlandse Top 40 \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX\" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 5 December 2012.\n  49. Jump up ^ Dance Top 30\u00a0: 02\/02\/2013 (in Dutch). dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 22 December 2013.\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Dutchcharts.nl \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 22 December 2013.\n  51. Jump up ^ 3fm Mega Top 50: 30\/03\/2013 (in Dutch). dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 22 December 2013.\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Charts.nz \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 29 November 2012.\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Portugal Digital Songs - September 14, 2013\". Billboard.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100\". Official Charts Company.\n  55. Jump up ^ \"SNS IFPI\" (in Slovak). Hitpar\u00e1da \u2013 Radio Top 100 Ofici\u00e1lna. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 201327 into search.\n  56. Jump up ^ \"SloTop50: Slovenian official singles weekly chart\" (in Slovenian). SloTop50. Retrieved 4 August 2013.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Spanishcharts.com \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" Canciones Top 50.\n  58. Jump up ^ \"Swisscharts.com \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 24 February 2013.\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Hot 100)\". Billboard.\n  60. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Hot Dance\/Electronic Songs)\". Billboard.\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Adult Pop Songs)\". Billboard.\n  62. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Dance Club Songs)\". Billboard.\n  63. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Dance Mix\/Show Airplay)\". Billboard.\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Pop Songs)\". Billboard.\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Icona Pop Chart History (Rhythmic)\". Billboard.\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Pop Rock General\". Record Report (in Spanish). R.R. Digital C.A. 28 September 2013. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2013.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ \"2013 Year End Singles Chart\". ARIA. Retrieved 7 February 2014.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ \"Best of 2013: Canadian Hot 100\". Prometheus Gobal Media. Retrieved 13 December 2013.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"Top 100 Singles Jahrescharts 2013\" (in German). VIVA. Viacom International Media Networks. Retrieved 12 January 2014.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ \"MAHASZ R\u00e1di\u00f3s TOP 100 - radios 2013\" (in Hungarian). MAHASZ. Retrieved 22 January 2014.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ \"SloTop50: Slovenian official singles year end chart\" (in Slovenian). SloTop50. Retrieved 29 December 2013.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ \"Top 50 Canciones Anual 2013\". Promuiscae.es. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ Lane, Daniel (1 January 2014). \"The Official Top 40 Biggest Selling Singles Of 2013\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 1 January 2014.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ \"Best of 2013 \u2013 Hot 100 Songs\". Billboard.com. Retrieved 13 December 2013.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ \"Best of All Time \u2013 Singles\". Charts.org.sw. Hung Medien. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts \u2013 Best of all time chart \u2013 Top 1000 Singles\". Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts \u2013 Accreditations \u2013 2018 Singles\". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 21 April 2018.\u00a0\n  78. Jump up ^ \"Austrian single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\" (in German). IFPI Austria.\u00a0 Enter Icona Pop in the field Interpret. Enter I Love It in the field Titel. Select single in the field Format. Click Suchen\n  79. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop \u2212 Goud en Platina \u2013 singles\u00a02013\". Ultratop. Hung Medien.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ \"Canadian single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". Music Canada.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ \"Gold-\/Platin-Datenbank (Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX;\u00a0'I Love It')\" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ \"Italian single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX \u2013 I Love It\" (in Italian). Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ \"..:Certificaciones Mensuales 2015:.\" Asociaci\u00f3n Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas. Facebook. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ \"New Zealand single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". Recorded Music NZ.\u00a0\n  85. Jump up ^ UNSUPPORTED OR EMPTY REGION: South Korea (Gaon Chart).\n  86. ^ Jump up to: a b \"GAON DOWNLOAD CHART \u2013 2013\ub144 5\uc6d4\". Gaon Chart (in Korean). Korea Music Content Industry Association. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 31 July 2013.\u00a0\n  87. ^ Jump up to: a b \"GAON DOWNLOAD CHART \u2013 2013\ub144 6\uc6d4\". Gaon Chart (in Korean). Korea Music Content Industry Association. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2013.\u00a0\n  88. Jump up ^ UNSUPPORTED OR EMPTY REGION: South Korea (Gaon Chart).\n  89. Jump up ^ \"Veckolista Singlar - Vecka 10, 10 maj 2013\" (in Swedish). Swedish Recording Industry Association. 1 May 2013. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 28 May 2013.\u00a0\n  90. Jump up ^ \"The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards (Icona Pop feat. Charli XCX;\u00a0'I Love It')\". IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien.\u00a0\n  91. Jump up ^ \"British single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". British Phonographic Industry.\u00a0 Select singles in the Format field.\u00a0Select Platinum in the Certification field.\u00a0Enter I Love It in the search field and then press Enter.\n  92. Jump up ^ \"American single certifications \u2013 Icona Pop \u2013 I Love It\". Recording Industry Association of America.\u00a0 If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH\n  93. Jump up ^ Jason Lipshutz (11 December 2013). \"Icona Pop Looking Forward To Miley Cyrus & Katy Perry Tours In 2014\". Billboard.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ APFV (30 November 2013). \"Certificaciones De Venezuela Del 2013\" (PDF) (in Spanish). APFV. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ \"LOREEN HARRIS\". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 24 June 2013.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ \"REMIX JUNKIES\". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 24 June 2013.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ \"REMIX CHIX\". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 24 June 2013.\u00a0\n  98. Jump up ^ \"NEW MUSIC MASTERS\". The Official Charts Company. Retrieved 7 June 2013.\u00a0\n  99. Jump up ^ \"Som en lagom och uppsluppen personalfest\". Aftonbladet. Retrieved 30 March 2018.\u00a0\n  100. Jump up ^ \"Betyg: S\u00e5 bra var tolkningar i \"S\u00e5 mycket b\u00e4ttre\"\". Expressen. Retrieved 30 March 2018.\u00a0\n  101. ^ Jump up to: a b \"I Love It \u2013 Single\". iTunes Store (SE). Apple Inc. Retrieved 29 November 2012.\u00a0\n  102. Jump up ^ \"I Love It \u2013 EP\". iTunes Store (GB). Apple Inc. Retrieved 20 May 2013.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\n  \u2022 \"I Love It\" on YouTube\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nIcona Pop\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Icona Pop (2012)\n  \u2022 This Is... Icona Pop (2013)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"I Love It\"\n  \u2022 \"We Got the World\"\n  \u2022 \"Girlfriend\"\n  \u2022 \"All Night\"\n  \u2022 \"Just Another Night\"\n  \u2022 \"Get Lost\"\n  \u2022 \"Emergency\"\n  \u2022 \"Girls Girls\"\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"Mind Your Manners\"\n  \u2022 \"Never Been In Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Let You Down\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCharli XCX\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 True Romance\n  \u2022 Sucker\nMixtapes\n  \u2022 Number 1 Angel\n  \u2022 Pop 2\nExtended plays\n  \u2022 You're the One\n  \u2022 Vroom Vroom\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Nuclear Seasons\"\n  \u2022 \"You're the One\"\n  \u2022 \"You (Ha Ha Ha)\"\n  \u2022 \"Boom Clap\"\n  \u2022 \"Break the Rules\"\n  \u2022 \"Doing It\"\n  \u2022 \"Famous\"\n  \u2022 \"SuperLove\"\n  \u2022 \"After the Afterparty\"\n  \u2022 \"Boys\"\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"I Love It\"\n  \u2022 \"Fancy\"\n  \u2022 \"Drop That Kitty\"\n  \u2022 \"Crazy Crazy\"\n  \u2022 \"Dirty Sexy Money\"\n  \u2022 \"Girls\"\nConcert tours\n  \u2022 Girl Power North America Tour\n  \u2022 Charli and Jack Do America Tour\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=I_Love_It_(Icona_Pop_song)&oldid=853013834\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2012 singles\n  \u2022 Songs written by Patrik Berger (record producer)\n  \u2022 Icona Pop songs\n  \u2022 Charli XCX songs\n  \u2022 Billboard Dance\/Electronic Songs number-one singles\n  \u2022 Billboard Dance\/Mix Show Airplay number-one singles\n  \u2022 Number-one singles in Scotland\n  \u2022 UK Singles Chart number-one singles\n  \u2022 Television theme songs\n  \u2022 Songs written by Charli XCX\n  \u2022 2012 songs\n  \u2022 Songs with feminist themes\n  \u2022 Songs written by Style of Eye\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)\n  \u2022 CS1 Slovenian-language sources (sl)\n  \u2022 CS1 German-language sources (de)\n  \u2022 CS1 Hungarian-language sources (hu)\n  \u2022 CS1 Italian-language sources (it)\n  \u2022 Cite certification used with missing parameters\n  \u2022 CS1 Korean-language sources (ko)\n  \u2022 CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2018\n  \u2022 Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Australia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Austria\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Flanders\n  \u2022 Singlechart making named ref\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Wallonia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardcanadianhot100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Czech Republic\n  \u2022 Singlechart called without artist\n  \u2022 Singlechart called without song\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Czechdigital\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardeurodigital\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for France\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Germany2\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Hungarydance\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Hungary\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Irish\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Israelairplay\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Italy\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardjapanhot100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Dutch40\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Dutch100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for New Zealand\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Scotland\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Slovakia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Spain\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Sweden\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Switzerland\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for UK\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceelectronic\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceairplay\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Australia\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Austria\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Canada\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Germany\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Italy\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Mexico\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand\n  \u2022 Pages using Certification Table Entry-Sales with missing information\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for unsupported region\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Sweden\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for United States\n  \u2022 All articles with failed verification\n  \u2022 Articles with failed verification from September 2014\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 1 August 2018, at 21:10\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-3126006632503975915","title":"Freedom of the City","text":"Freedom of the City\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor the Northern Irish play, see The Freedom of the City. For the role-playing game campaign setting, see Freedom City.\n\"Key to the City\" redirects here. For other meanings of the term, see Key to the City (disambiguation).\nAward to Robert Hadfield by the City of Sheffield\nGold New York City 'Freedom of the City Box' presented to Commodore Daniel Patterson, made by Jonathan Wilmarth, John L. Moffat, and Joseph Curtis, 1832\n\"Ferdinand Receives the Keys of the City from the Virgin of Ghent\", print after a painting made by Antoon van den Heuvel for the Joyous Entry by the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand into Ghent in 1635\n\nThe Freedom of the City is an honour bestowed by a municipality upon a valued member of the community, or upon a visiting celebrity or dignitary. Arising from the medieval practice of granting respected citizens freedom from serfdom, the tradition still lives on in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, South Africa and New Zealand \u2013 although today the title of \"freeman\" confers no special privileges. The Freedom of the City can also be granted by municipal authorities to military units which have earned the city's trust; in this context, it is sometimes called the Freedom of Entry. This allows them the freedom to parade through the city, and is an affirmation of the bond between the regiment and the citizenry.\n\nThe honour was sometimes accompanied by a \"freedom box\", a small gold box inscribed to record the occasion; these are not usual today. In some countries, such as the United States, esteemed residents and visitors may instead be presented with the Key to the City, a similarly symbolic honour. Other US cities award Honorary Citizenship, with just a certificate.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Military privilege\n  \u2022 2 Entitlement to civil privileges\n    \u2022 2.1 United Kingdom\n      \u2022 2.1.1 Freedom of the City of London\n      \u2022 2.1.2 Freedom of the City of York\n    \u2022 2.2 Ireland\n  \u2022 3 Key to the city\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nMilitary privilege[edit]\n\nMembers of No. 28 Squadron RAAF marching through the centre of Canberra during the unit's Freedom of the City parade in August 2013\n\nFreedom of the City is an ancient honour granted to martial organisations, allowing them the privilege to march into the city \"with drums beating, colours flying, and bayonets fixed\".[1]\n\nThis honour dates back to ancient Rome which regarded the \"pomerium\", the boundary of the city, as sacred. Promagistrates and generals were forbidden from entering it, and resigned their imperium immediately upon crossing it. An exception was made for victory celebrations (called triumphs), during which the victorious general would be permitted to enter for one day only. Under the Republic, soldiers also lost their status when entering, becoming citizens: thus soldiers at their general's triumph wore civilian dress. Weapons were also banned inside the pomerium for religious and traditional reasons. (The assassination of Julius Caesar occurred outside this boundary.)\n\nSimilar laws were passed by other European cities throughout the Medieval era, to protect public security and civic rights, even against their own king's troops. As a result, soldiers would be forced to camp outside the walls of the city during the winter months. The Freedom of the City was an honour granted only to troops which had earned the trust of the local populace, either through some valiant action or simply by being a familiar presence.[1]\n\nToday, martial freedom of the city is an entirely ceremonial honour, usually bestowed upon a unit with historic ties to the area, as a token of appreciation for their long and dedicated service. The awarding of the Freedom is often accompanied by a celebratory parade through the city.\n\nEntitlement to civil privileges[edit]\n\nA slightly more common freedom of the city is connected to the medieval concept of \"free status\", when city and town charters drew a distinction between freemen and vassals of a feudal lord. As such, freemen actually pre-date 'boroughs'. Early freedom of the boroughs ceremonies had great importance in affirming that the recipient enjoyed privileges such as the right to trade and own property, and protection within the town.\n\nIn modern society, the award of honorary freedom of the city or borough tends to be entirely ceremonial, given by the local government in many towns and cities on those who have served in some exceptional capacity, or upon any whom the city wishes to bestow an honour.\n\nUnited Kingdom[edit]\n\nA recipient of Freedom of the City of London, Nigel Cumberland, after his ceremony\n\nBefore parliamentary reform in 1832, freedom of the city or town conferred the right to vote in the 'parliamentary boroughs' for the MPs. Until the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 the freemen were the exclusive electorate for some of the boroughs. These two acts together curtailed the power of the freemen and extended the franchise to all 'householders' (defined as local rate payers; in fact therefore property owners). The private property belonging to the freemen collectively was retained. The freemen of York, Oxford and Newcastle upon Tyne still own considerable areas within their towns, although the income is effectively given to support charitable objects. The Local Government Act 1972 specifically preserved freemen's rights.[2] The Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 removed any restrictions entitling only men to be freemen.[3]\n\nToday, the grant of honorary freedom in the United Kingdom is governed by the Local Government Act 1972 (as amended by the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009). The 1972 Act enabled the councils of cities, royal boroughs, boroughs, and parishes (or, in Wales, communities) with the status of a royal town to confer the status of honorary freeman on \"persons of distinction and persons who have, in the opinion of the council, rendered eminent services\" to the local area.[4] The 2009 Act extends the ability to grant the status of honorary freeman to any county, city, district, borough, town, parish or community council (so removing the requirement for the town to have 'royal' status, and also enabling county councils to confer the honour).[5] A special meeting of the council can grant the honour by passing a resolution with a two-thirds majority at a specially convened meeting.\n\nThe exact qualifications for borough freedom differ between each city or town, but generally fall into two categories, 'patrimony' (inheritance) and 'servitude' (apprenticeship). For example, in Chester, only the children or grandchildren of freemen may apply for admission. In York, this extends to great- and great-great-grandchildren, and apprenticeship to a freeman of the city will also allow admission.[6] In Great Grimsby, the widow of a freeman passes his rights to her second husband, who retains the privilege after either divorce from or death of the widow. The borough freedom is strongest in York, Chester, Newcastle upon Tyne and Coventry; in Coventry, freedom is qualified by having served an apprenticeship. Durham and Northampton have extended their admission criteria to those who have served an apprenticeship without being 'bound' (trained) by a freeman directly. Freemen of Newcastle upon Tyne are bestowed the right to graze cattle on the town moor.[7]\n\nFreedom of the City of London[edit]\n\nLord Nelson's certificate given him after becoming a Freeman of the City of London showing that he has Freedom\nAri Norman's Certificate of Freedom of the City of London\nSir Tim Berners-Lee receiving the freedom of the City of London in 2014\n\nIn England, the most established borough freedom is that conferred by the Freedom of the City of London, first recorded in 1237. This is closely tied to the role and status of the livery companies. From 1835, the freedom \"without the intervention of a Livery Company\" has been bestowed by a general resolution of Common Council, by \"redemption\" (purchase), at one time for an onerous sum. Now the Freedom can be obtained by servitude, by patrimony, by nomination, or by presentation via a Livery Company. Freedom by nomination by two sponsors is available for a fee (known as a \"fine\"), of \u00a3100 as of 2018[update], and free to those on the electoral roll of the City.[8]\n\nNew freemen are enrolled in a ceremony in Guildhall, when they receive a guide to conducting their lives in an honourable fashion and an impressive sealed certificate. Freemen's children get admission preference at the City of London Freemen's School. There are a number of rights traditionally but apocryphally associated with freemen\u2014the right to drive sheep and cattle over London Bridge; to a silken rope, if hanged; to carry a naked sword in public; or that if the City of London Police finds a freeman drunk and incapable, they will bundle him or her into a taxi and send them home rather than throw them into a cell. While sheep have occasionally been driven over London Bridge by Freemen on special occasions, these \"privileges\" are now effectively symbolic.\n\nMark Stephens with a sheep on London Bridge in 2009\n\nThe right to herd sheep and cattle across London's four bridges technically no longer applies, as there are no livestock markets in the city.[9] Nevertheless, this right has been exercised, or the city has granted permission, on several occasions in modern times:\n\n  \u2022 On 19 August 1999, Jef Smith, a freeman of London walked two sheep over Tower Bridge to bring attention to the rights of older citizens.[9]\n  \u2022 On 17 June 2006, a flock of about thirty sheep was driven across the Millennium Bridge to mark the start of London Architecture Week.[10]\n  \u2022 On 31 August 2008, Amanda Cottrell, former High Sheriff of Kent, marched six rams across London Bridge to promote fundraising for the restoration of Canterbury Cathedral and \"a scheme backing local food production\".[11]\n  \u2022 On 17 September 2008, the Lord Mayor of London, David Lewis, and some 500 freemen drove a flock of Romney ewes in relay across London Bridge to raise funds for the Lord Mayor's charities (Orbis and Wellbeing of Women).[12]\n  \u2022 On 7 April 2013, actor and presenter Stephen Fry drove Grace, a year-old lamb, over London Bridge for a documentary about becoming a freeman, Stephen Fry's Key To The City.[13][14]\n\nBy 2015, the driving of sheep across the bridge had become an annual event, organised by the Worshipful Company of Woolmen livery company, typically to raise funds for the Lord Mayor's Appeal and the Worshipful Company of Woolmen.[15][16]\n\nFreedom of the City of York[edit]\n\nYork has a long history of freemen dating back to the Anglo-Saxon period, with records dating back to 1272.[17] Freemen may claim their rights through patronage (as far back as their great-great-grandparent, there are records of women being admitted in York in medieval times, a right forgotten for a time until the late 1970s when the gild carried out research and rediscovered it) or apprenticeship. Once 'sworn in', freemen can join the Gild (archaic spelling used) of Freemen who continue to take an interest in the affairs of the city. New admissions are made every year (usually October) following an admission ceremony with the Lord Mayor at the Guildhall.\n\nIreland[edit]\n\nThis section is about Ireland. For Freedom awarded specifically in Dublin, see Freedom of the City of Dublin.\n\nIn Ireland, borough freedom of the city is generally given to noted foreign and national dignitaries and the list rarely exceeds a few dozen. As in the United Kingdom, the title generally comes with various ancient privileges \u2013 for instance, freemen of Dublin are allowed the right to vote in certain elections, bring goods for sale in the city without customs and the right to pasture sheep on common ground such as College Green and St. Stephen's Green.\n\nKey to the city[edit]\n\nRussian President Dmitry Medvedev received the Golden Key to the City of Madrid during his state visit to Spain in March 2009.\nSee also: List of Keys to the City in the United States and List of Keys to the City in Canada\nFor other uses, see Key to the City (disambiguation).\n\nIn some countries, such as the United States, an ornamental key \u2013 the \"key to the city\" \u2013 is presented to esteemed visitors, residents, or others whom the city wishes to honour. This practice is a variation on the freedom of the city tradition, and has a similar symbolic meaning; evoking medieval walled cities, the gates of which would be guarded during the day and locked at night, the key symbolises the freedom of the recipient to enter and leave the city at will, as a trusted friend of city residents.[18]\n\nIn some cities in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany, the key to the city is given to the so-called \"prince carnival\u00a0(nl)\" who leads the carnivals which take place the week prior to Septuagesima. The tradition is that the mayor steps down for this period and power is transferred to the prince carnival, who then returns the key at the end of Shrove Tuesday\/Mardi Gras. Today, the handing over of the key is mostly symbolic and marks the start and end of the carnival.\n\nIn Calgary, Alberta, Canada, instead of a key, esteemed visitors receive a white cowboy hat and usually recite one of two oaths (one formal, the other more silly) to become honorary Calgarians.[19]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 List of Freedom of the City recipients (military)\n  \u2022 Honorary citizenship\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"1985 \u2013 75th Anniversary Naval Service of Canada\". Royal Canadian Navy. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.\n  2. Jump up ^ Section 248 of Text of the Local Government Act 1972 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk\n  3. Jump up ^ Sections 27 and 28 of the Text of the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk\n  4. Jump up ^ Text of the Section 249 of the Local Government Act 1972 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk\n  5. Jump up ^ Text of the Section 249 of the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk\n  6. Jump up ^ \"The Gild of Freemen of the City of York\". Retrieved 24 June 2011.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"The Moor\". The Freemen of Newcastle upon Tyne. Archived from the original on 8 October 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2013.\n  8. Jump up ^ \"How to apply for the Freedom\". City of London. Retrieved 30 September 2018.\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Protest Freeman herds sheep over Tower Bridge\". BBC News. 19 August 1999. Retrieved 15 November 2010.\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Sheep flock driven through city\". BBC News. 17 June 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2010.\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Sheep marched over London Bridge\". BBC News. 31 August 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2010.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Sheep march over bridge for money\". BBC News. 19 September 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2010.\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Stephen Fry on Twitter\". Twitter. 8 April 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2018.\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Stephen Fry's Key To The City\". ITV. Retrieved 27 June 2018.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Why are there sheep being herded across London Bridge?\". ITV News.\n  16. Jump up ^ 30 September 2018. \"Alan Titchmarsh herds sheep over London Bridge\". BBC News. Retrieved 30 September 2018.\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Register of the Freemen of the City of York - British History Online\". www.british-history.ac.uk.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Key to the City of New York\". New York City Commission for the United Nations, Consular Corps and Protocol. Archived from the original on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2011.\n  19. Jump up ^ \"White Hat Ceremony\". Visit Calgary. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Guild of Freemen of the City of London\n  \u2022 Freedom of the City of London\n  \u2022 The Gild of Freemen of the City of York\n  \u2022 Freemen of the City of Liverpool\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Freedom_of_the_City&oldid=863877299\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Freedom of the City\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2015\n  \u2022 EngvarB from July 2015\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Interlanguage link template link number\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 October 2018, at 17:25\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4931880416121833580","title":"The Fast and the Furious","text":"The Fast and the Furious\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article is about the film franchise. For the franchise's first film, see The Fast and the Furious (2001 film). For other uses, see The Fast and the Furious (disambiguation).\n\nThe Fast and the Furious\nCreated by Gary Scott Thompson\nOriginal work The Fast and the Furious (2001)\nOwner Universal Studios\nFilms and television\nFilm(s)\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious (2001)\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious:\n    Tokyo Drift\n    (2006)\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious (2009)\n  \u2022 Fast Five (2011)\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6 (2013)\n  \u2022 Furious 7 (2015)\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious (2017)\nShort film(s)\n  \u2022 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros (2009)\nTheatrical presentations\nPlay(s) Fast & Furious Live\nAudio\nOriginal music\n  \u2022 BT (The Fast and the Furious)\n  \u2022 David Arnold (2 Fast 2 Furious)\n  \u2022 Brian Tyler (Tokyo Drift\u2013Fast Five, Furious 7 & The Fate of the Furious)\n  \u2022 Lucas Vidal (Fast & Furious 6)\nMiscellaneous\nTheme park attractions Fast & Furious: Supercharged (2015)\nOfficial website\nhttp:\/\/www.fastandfurious.com\/\n\nThe Fast and the Furious (also known as Fast & Furious) is an American franchise based on a series of action films that is largely concerned with illegal street racing, heists and espionage, and includes material in various other media that depicts characters and situations from the films. Distributed by Universal Pictures, the series was established with the 2001 film titled The Fast and the Furious; this was followed by seven sequels, two short films that tie into the series, and as of May 2017,[1] it has become Universal's biggest franchise of all time, currently the sixth-highest-grossing film series of all time with a combined gross of over $5 billion.[2] The spin-off film is set to be released on July 26, 2019.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Films\n    \u2022 1.1 The Fast and the Furious (2001)\n    \u2022 1.2 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\n    \u2022 1.3 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006)\n    \u2022 1.4 Fast & Furious (2009)\n    \u2022 1.5 Fast Five (2011)\n    \u2022 1.6 Fast & Furious 6 (2013)\n    \u2022 1.7 Furious 7 (2015)\n    \u2022 1.8 The Fate of the Furious (2017)\n    \u2022 1.9 Hobbs & Shaw (2019)\n    \u2022 1.10 Future\n  \u2022 2 Short films\n    \u2022 2.1 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\n    \u2022 2.2 Los Bandoleros (2009)\n  \u2022 3 Storyline chronology\n  \u2022 4 Characters\n  \u2022 5 Cast and crew members\n    \u2022 5.1 Characters\n  \u2022 6 Reception\n    \u2022 6.1 Box office performance\n    \u2022 6.2 Critical and public response\n  \u2022 7 Franchise extension\n    \u2022 7.1 Theme park attractions\n    \u2022 7.2 Fast & Furious Live\n      \u2022 7.2.1 Tour overview\n      \u2022 7.2.2 UK tour dates\n      \u2022 7.2.3 Worldwide tour dates\n    \u2022 7.3 Soundtracks\n    \u2022 7.4 Video games\n    \u2022 7.5 Toys and model kits\n  \u2022 8 International locations\n  \u2022 9 See also\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nFilms[edit]\n\nThe Fast and the Furious (2001)[edit]\n\nMain article: The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)\n\nThe film is based on an article, titled \"Racer X\", about New York street clubs that race Japanese cars late at night, although the film is set primarily in Los Angeles. While elite street racer and ex-convict Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) and his crew: Jesse (Chad Lindberg), Leon (Johnny Strong), Vince (Matt Schulze) and Letty Ortiz (Michelle Rodriguez), are under suspicion of stealing expensive electronic equipment by hijacking moving trucks, Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker) is an undercover police officer who attempts to find out who exactly is stealing the equipment. He works for FBI agent Bilkins (Thom Barry) and LAPD Sgt. Tanner (Ted Levine).\n\nFalling for Dominic's younger sister, Mia Toretto (Jordana Brewster), Brian confesses to her his status as an undercover police officer and convinces her to come with him to save her brother and his friends from the truck drivers, who have now armed themselves to combat the robberies. He tracks Dominic's location by triangulating his cell phone signal and they arrive at the hijacking in progress to find Letty, badly injured in a car accident, and Vince critically wounded, having lacerated his arm and been shot by a truck driver. Brian and Mia work together with Dominic, Leon and Letty to rescue Vince. Brian then makes the difficult decision to blow his cover to the crew by phoning in for a medivac. The revelation enrages Dominic, who flees with Leon, Letty, and Mia as the medivac arrives for Vince.\n\nBrian soon follows Dominic to his house and holds him at gunpoint to prevent him from fleeing further. Jesse arrives shortly afterwards, apologizing for his actions at Race Wars and pleading for Dominic's help with Johnny Tran (Rick Yune). Moments later, Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen (Reggie Lee) perform a drive-by shooting, killing Jesse. Brian and Dominic chase them, with Dominic driving his late father's modified 1970 Dodge Charger. Dominic forces Lance's motorcycle off the road, severely injuring him, while Brian shoots and kills Tran. Afterwards, Brian and Dominic engage in an impromptu street race, narrowly avoiding a passing train. However, Dominic collides with a semitruck and rolls his car twice, injuring himself, and rendering the Charger undrivable. Instead of arresting him, Brian hands over the keys to his Supra and lets Dominic escape, using the line \"I owe you a ten-second car.\"\n\n2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)[edit]\n\nMain article: 2 Fast 2 Furious\n\nWatched by undercover Customs Agent Monica Fuentes (Eva Mendes), Brian is caught by US Customs agents and given a deal by FBI Agent Bilkins and Customs Agent Markham (James Remar) to go undercover and try to bring down drug lord Carter Verone (Cole Hauser) in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees but only if he is given permission to choose his partner, refusing to partner with the agent assigned to watch him. Brian heads home to Barstow, California, where he recruits Roman Pearce (Tyrese Gibson), a childhood friend of Brian who had served jail time and is under house arrest, to help him. Pearce agrees, but only for the same deal Brian was offered, and with the help of Monica, Brian and Roman work together to take down Verone. After acquiring confiscated vehicles and being hired by Verone as his drivers, the duo return to a Customs\/FBI hideout, where Roman confronts Markham over the latter's interference with the mission. After the situation is cooled down, Brian tells Bilkins and Markham that Verone plans to smuggle the money into his private jet and fly off, but also suspects something wrong with Monica's role in the mission.\n\nLater, Brian and Roman race two of Verone's drivers for their cars and begin to devise a personal back up plan if the operation goes awry. Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone's men. On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone's money, with two of Verone's men Enrique (Mo Gallini) and Roberto (Roberto Sanchez) riding along to watch Brian and Roman. Before the 15-minute window is set, the detective in charge, Whitworth (Mark Boone Junior), decides to call in the police to move in for the arrest, resulting in a high-speed chase across the city. The duo lead the police to a warehouse, where a scramble by dozens of street racers disorient the police. Following the scramble, police manage to pull over the Evo and the Eclipse, only to find out that they were driven by two members of Brian's new crew, friends, Tej Parker (Ludacris) and Suki (Devon Aoki).\n\nAs Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro, Enrique tells him to make a detour away from the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his (orange) Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs Agents have Verone's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they are duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. As he knew Monica was an undercover agent, he gave her the wrong information on the destination point and plans to use her as leverage. When Brian arrives at the intended drop-off point, Enrique prepares to kill him when Roman suddenly appears and the both of them dispatch Enrique. Verone makes his escape aboard his private yacht, but Brian and Roman use the Yenko Camaro and drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manage to apprehend Verone and save Monica.\n\nWith their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next other than to settle in Miami when the former mentions starting a garage. Roman asks how they would afford that and Brian reveals that he took some of the money, as Roman also reveals that his pockets aren't empty, having taken money for himself.\n\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006)[edit]\n\nMain article: The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n\nThis film's story occurs sometime after Fast & Furious 6 with a scene that was later made concurrent with events in Furious 7.\n\nAfter totaling his car in an illegal street race, Sean Boswell (Lucas Black) is sent to live in Tokyo, Japan, with his father, a U.S. Navy officer, in order to avoid juvenile detention or even jail.\n\nWhile in school, he befriends Twinkie (Bow Wow), a \"military brat\" who introduces him to the world of drift racing in Japan. Though forbidden to drive, he decides to race against Takashi (Brian Tee) aka D.K. (Drift King). He borrows a Nissan Silvia from Han Lue (Sung Kang), now a business partner to Takashi, and loses, totaling the car because of his lack of knowledge of drifting. To repay his debt for the car he destroyed, Sean works for Han. Later on, Han becomes friends with Sean and teaches him how to drift.\n\nTakashi's uncle Kamata (Sonny Chiba) (the head of the Yakuza) reprimands Takashi for allowing Han to steal from him. Takashi confronts Han, Sean and Neela (Nathalie Kelley), and in doing so, they flee. During the chase, Han is killed in a car accident when his car catches fire. Takashi, Sean, and his father become involved in an armed standoff which is resolved by Neela agreeing to leave with Takashi. Twinkie gives his money to Sean to replace the money Han stole, which Sean then returns to Kamata.\n\nSean proposes a race against Takashi to determine who must leave Tokyo. Sean and Han's friends then build a 1967 Ford Mustang, with an inline-6 engine and other parts salvaged from Han's Silvia that Sean had destroyed. Sean wins the race and is later challenged by Dominic Toretto.\n\nFast & Furious (2009)[edit]\n\nMain article: Fast & Furious (2009 film)\n\nFast & Furious, as well as its succeeding films, takes place before the events of The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift.\n\nAbout five years after the events of the first film, Dominic and his new crew (Letty, Han, Leo, Santos and Cara) have been hijacking fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic. When their trail gets too hot, Dominic disbands the crew. However, he is later informed that Letty has been murdered. Dominic returns to Los Angeles where he finds traces of nitro-methane at the crash site, and tracks the buyer of the gas to David Park. Meanwhile, Brian O'Conner, who has been working as an FBI agent, is tracking down a drug trafficker named Arturo Braga. When Brian and Dominic cross paths at David Park's apartment, Dominic is about to drop David out the window. But Brian intervenes, and works a scheme where he enters a street race where the winner would join Braga's team of drivers. Although Dominic wins the four-car race by bumping Brian's car, Brian later joins the team by replacing one of Braga's other drivers.\n\nThe team meets Fenix Calderon (Laz Alonso) who directs them to drive the heroin across the border using underground tunnels to avoid detection. Brian realizes that the drivers are to be killed following the mission, and when Fenix reveals to Dominic that he killed Letty, Dominic detonates the nitrous in his car, blowing up a bunch of vehicles. In the chaos, Brian hijacks the Hummer that is carrying the heroin. Dominic and Brian drive back to Los Angeles, hiding the heroin in an impound lot. When Dominic learns Brian was the last person to contact Letty, he attacks him until Brian reveals that Letty was working undercover for Brian, tracking down Braga in exchange for clearing Dominic's name. Brian negotiates with the agency to free Dominic if they can lure Braga into personally coming to exchange the heroin for cash. However, at the drop site, it is revealed that the Braga they arrested was a decoy, and that the real Braga (John Ortiz) has escaped, fleeing to Mexico.\n\nSuspended from duty, Brian joins Dominic to go to Mexico and in hopes of catching Braga. Although Braga agreeably surrenders, they are pursued by Braga's men through town and then the tunnels. Fenix T-bones Brian's car right outside the tunnel exit, but before he can kill Brian, Dominic drives into and kills Fenix. As the police arrive, Dominic refuses to escape, saying he is tired of running. Despite Brian's request for clemency, the judge sentences Dominic to 25 years to life. During the prison bus ride to Lompoc penitentiary, Brian and Mia, along with Leo and Santos, arrive in their cars and intercept the bus.\n\nFast Five (2011)[edit]\n\nMain article: Fast Five\nThis section is transcluded from Fast Five. (edit | history)\n\nWhen Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro. Awaiting Dom's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that the lead participant, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car - a Ford GT40. Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse.\n\nWhile Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains the complete financial details of Reyes' criminal empire, including the locations of US$100\u00a0million in cash.\n\nDiplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes' men.\n\nHobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes' men, who kill Hobbs' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang break into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24-hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways.\n\nOn a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no-stakes race to prove who is the better driver.\n\nIn a mid-credits scene, Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin, where he discovers a recent photo of Dom's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead.\n\nFast & Furious 6 (2013)[edit]\n\nMain article: Fast & Furious 6\nThis section is transcluded from Fast & Furious 6. (edit | history)\n\nFollowing their successful heist in Brazil, Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto and his professional criminal crew have fled around the world: Dom lives with Elena; his sister Mia lives with Brian O'Conner and their son, Jack; Gisele and Han live together; and Roman and Tej live in luxury. Meanwhile, DSS agent Luke Hobbs and Riley Hicks investigate the destruction of a Russian military convoy by a crew led by former British SAS Major and special ops soldier Owen Shaw. Hobbs persuades Dom to help capture Shaw by showing him a photo of the supposedly long-dead Letty Ortiz, Dom's former lover. Dom and his crew accept the mission in exchange for their amnesty, allowing them to return to the United States.\n\nIn London, Shaw's hideout is found, but this is revealed to be a trap, distracting them and the police while Shaw's crew performs a heist at an Interpol building. Shaw flees by car, detonating his hideout and disabling most of the police, leaving Dom, Brian, Tej, Han, Gisele, Hobbs, and Riley to pursue him. Letty arrives to help Shaw, shooting Dom without hesitation before escaping. Back at their headquarters, Hobbs tells Dom's crew that Shaw is stealing components to create a deadly device, intending to sell it to the highest bidder. Meanwhile, Shaw's investigation into the opposing crew reveals Letty's relationship with Dom, but she is revealed to be suffering from amnesia. Dominic's crew learns that Shaw is connected to a drug lord who was imprisoned by Brian, Arturo Braga. Brian returns to Los Angeles as a prisoner to question Braga, who says Letty survived the explosion that seemingly killed her; Shaw took her in after discovering her amnesia. With FBI help, Brian is released from prison, regrouping with the team in London.\n\nDom challenges Letty in a street racing competition; afterwards, he returns her cross necklace he had kept. After Letty leaves, Shaw offers Dom a chance to walk away, threatening to otherwise hurt his family, but Dom refuses. Tej tracks Shaw's next attack to a Spanish NATO base. Shaw's crew assaults a highway military convoy carrying a computer chip to complete his deadly device. Dom's crew interferes while Shaw, accompanied by Letty, commandeers a tank, destroying cars en route. Brian and Roman manage to flip the tank before it causes further damage, resulting in Letty being thrown from the vehicle and Dom risking his life to save her. Shaw and his crew are captured, but reveal Mia has been kidnapped by Shaw. Hobbs is forced to release Shaw, and Riley, revealed to be Shaw's covert accomplice, leaves with him; Letty chooses to remain with Dom.\n\nShaw's group board a large moving aircraft on a runway as Dom's crew gives chase. Dom, Letty, and Brian board the craft; Brian rescues Mia, escaping in an onboard car. The plane attempts take-off, but is held down by excess weight as the rest of the team tether the plane to their vehicles. Gisele sacrifices herself to save Han from Shaw's henchman; Letty kills Riley and escapes to safety, but Dom pursues Shaw and the computer chip. As the plane crashes into the ground, Shaw is thrown from it, seriously injuring him, and Dom drives a car out of the exploding plane. Dom reunites with his crew, and gives the chip to Hobbs to secure their pardons. Dom and the others return to his old family home in Los Angeles. Hobbs and Elena, now working together, arrive to confirm the crew's freedom; Elena accepts that Dom loves Letty. As Roman says grace over the crew's meal, Dom asks Letty if the gathering feels familiar; she answers \"no, but it feels like home.\"\n\nIn a mid-credits scene, which takes place in Tokyo, Han is involved in a car chase when he is suddenly broadsided by an oncoming car. The driver walks away from the scene after leaving Letty's cross necklace by the crash, and calls Dom as Han's car fatally explodes, saying, \"You don't know me. You're about to.\"\n\nFurious 7 (2015)[edit]\n\nMain article: Furious 7\nThis section is transcluded from Furious 7. (edit | history)\n\nAfter defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes,[N 1] Dominic \"Dom\" Toretto, Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo, explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han's who gives him personal items found at Han's crash site.\n\nBack at Han's funeral in Los Angeles, Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Mr. Nobody. Nobody says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi, where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God's Eye near telecommunications repeaters, the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Nobody and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God's Eye. At his own request, the injured Nobody is left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. To reduce their disadvantage, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family.\n\nWhile Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone, Ramsey attempts to hack into God's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Brian engages Jakande's henchman Kiet and throws him down an elevator shaft, allowing Ramsey to regain control of God's Eye and shut it down. Dom and Shaw engage in a one-on-one brawl on top of a public parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande's helicopter, tossing Shaw's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, \"It's about time\".\n\nShaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high-security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he's gonna say goodbye. Dom says, \"It's never goodbye.\" He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions, as the screen fades to \"For Paul\" written on a white title screen.\n\nThe Fate of the Furious (2017)[edit]\n\nMain article: The Fate of the Furious\nThis section is transcluded from The Fate of the Furious. (edit | history)\n\nDominic \"Dom\" Toretto and Letty Ortiz are on their honeymoon in Havana when Dom's cousin Fernando gets in trouble owing money to local racer Raldo. Sensing Raldo is a loan shark, Dom challenges Raldo to a race, pitting Fernando's reworked car against Raldo's, and wagering his own show car. After narrowly winning the race, Dom allows Raldo to keep his car, earning his respect, and instead leaves his cousin with his show car.\n\nThe next day, Dom is approached by the elusive cyberterrorist Cipher who coerces him into working for her. Shortly afterwards, Dom and his team, comprising Letty, Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, and Ramsey, are recruited by Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs to help him retrieve an EMP device from a military outpost in Berlin. During the getaway, Dom goes rogue, forcing Hobbs off the road and stealing the device for Cipher. Hobbs is arrested and locked up in the same high-security prison he helped imprison Deckard Shaw in. After escaping, Deckard and Hobbs are recruited by intelligence operative Mr. Nobody and his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 to help the team find Dom and capture Cipher. Deckard reveals that Cipher had hired his brother Owen Shaw to steal the Nightshade device and Mose Jakande to steal God's Eye, Ramsey's software program. The team tracks Dom and Cipher to their very location just as the latter two attack the base and steal God's Eye. When Dom questions Cipher's motives, she reveals that she has been holding hostage Dom's ex-lover and DSS agent Elena Neves\u2014as well as their son, of whose existence Dom was previously unaware. Elena tells Dom that she wanted him to decide the child's first name, having already given him the middle name Marcos.\n\nIn New York City, Cipher sends Dom to retrieve a nuclear football held by the Russian Minister of Defence. Prior to the theft, Dom briefly evades Cipher and persuades Deckard and Owen's mother, Magdalene Shaw, to help him. Cipher hacks into the electronics systems of a large number of cars, causing them to drive automatically and taking out the convoy so that Dom can take the football. The team intercepts Dom, but Dom escapes, shooting and apparently killing Deckard in the process. Letty catches up to Dom, but is ambushed and nearly killed by Cipher's enforcer, Connor Rhodes, before Dom rescues her. In retaliation, Cipher has Rhodes execute Elena in front of Dom.\n\nDom infiltrates a base in Russia to use the EMP device to disable their security and then to disable a nuclear submarine, enabling Cipher to hijack it and attempt to use its arsenal to trigger a nuclear war. They are once again intercepted by the team, who attempt to shut down the sub, and then drive out toward the gates that would prevent the sub from leaving into open waters. Meanwhile, Deckard, whose death was apparently faked, teams up with Owen, and under Magdalene's behest, infiltrates Cipher's plane to rescue Dom's son. Once Deckard reports that the child is safe, Dom turns on Cipher and kills Rhodes, avenging Elena's death, before rejoining his team. Outraged, Cipher fires an infrared homing missile at Dom, but he breaks away from his team and maneuvers around it, causing the missile to hit the submarine instead. The team quickly forms a vehicular blockade around Dom, shielding him from the ensuing explosion. When Deckard reaches the front of the plane and confronts a defeated Cipher, she makes her escape by parachuting out of the plane.\n\nMr. Nobody and his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 visit Dom and his team in New York City to report that Cipher is still at large in Athens. Hobbs is offered his DSS job back, but he declines in order to spend more time with his daughter. Deckard delivers Dom his son, putting his differences aside with Dom and Hobbs. Dom names his son Brian, after his friend and brother-in-law Brian O'Conner, and they celebrate.\n\nHobbs & Shaw (2019)[edit]\n\nVin Diesel announced in an interview with Variety that potential spin-offs for the series were in the early stages of development.[3][4] A spin-off film centered around two characters Luke Hobbs and Deckard Shaw has been announced by Universal and has a release date of July 26, 2019,[5] with Variety reporting that Shane Black is being considered to direct and Morgan returning to write the script.[6] The announcement of the spin-off provoked a response on Instagram by Tyrese Gibson, criticizing Johnson for causing the ninth Fast & Furious film to be delayed for another year.[5]\n\nOn October 23, 2017, Dwayne Johnson posted a video on Instagram which showed the finished script for the spin-off, titled Hobbs and Shaw. In February 2018, David Leitch entered talks to direct the film.[7] In March 2018, it was reported that the film will start production in September 2018.[8] On April 12, 2018, it was announced that Leitch would direct the film.\n\nFuture[edit]\n\nIn February 2016, Diesel announced the ninth film and tenth film would be released on April 10, 2020,[9][10] and April 2, 2021, respectively, and that the tenth film would serve as the final film in the series.[11][12] Justin Lin is reportedly in line to direct the ninth installment.[13] It was also announced that Jordana Brewster would return for the ninth installment.\n\nIn September of the same year, both Caleb and Cody Walker revealed to Entertainment Tonight that their brother's character may possibly return for another cameo in the franchise.[14]\n\nOn April 23, 2018, Universal and DreamWorks Animation are creating an animated series based on the franchise and will be launched on Netflix.[15]\n\nShort films[edit]\n\nThe Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)[edit]\n\nMain article: The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n\nThe short film was included on a new print of the DVD of the first film in June 2003 to bridge the first two films.\n\nBrian O'Conner packs his bags and leaves Los Angeles, before the LAPD gets a chance to arrest him for letting Dominic escape. While the FBI launch a national manhunt for him, Brian travels across Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, winning every street race he participates in, with his red Dodge Stealth. However, he is forced to ditch his car at a motel in San Antonio when police officers are notified of his presence. When they collect the car, he manages to hitch a ride from an unknown woman (Minka Kelly), despite her knowing who he really is. She drops him at a used car lot, with him realizing she knows that he is a wanted man. There, he buys a green Nissan Skyline GT-R R34. Later, collecting money from street races, he modifies the car with new rims and repaints it silver before traveling eastbound and winning more races on the way. Upon reaching Jacksonville, Florida, Brian heads south toward Miami, where he sees Slap Jack's Toyota Supra and Orange Julius' Mazda RX-7 (both 2 Fast 2 Furious characters) before the screen reads \"2 be continued...\".\n\nLos Bandoleros (2009)[edit]\n\nMain article: Los Bandoleros (film)\n\nTego Leo (Tego Calder\u00f3n) is in a Dominican Republic prison, ranting about corporations holding back the electric car and starting wars for oil. Meanwhile, on the streets, Rico Santos (Don Omar) chats to an old man unable to find enough gas. Han Lue (Sung Kang) arrives and is collected from the airport by Cara (Mirtha Michelle) and Malo (F. Valentino Morales). They drive him back to Santos' house, where his aunt Rubia (Adria Carrasco) is struggling with rising prices linked to the cost of gasoline and Dominic is working on his car. The team then enjoy a welcome meal with the family. After breaking Leo out of prison, they head to a club, where Han and Cara flirt, while Dominic meets up with local politician Elvis (Juan Fernandez), who informs them of a window of opportunity to hijack a gasoline shipment. While relaxing at the club afterwards, Dominic is surprised by the arrival of Letty, who has tracked him from Mexico. The two drive together to the beach, where they \"rekindle their relationship\".\n\nStoryline chronology[edit]\n\nBelow is a table of all films, both short and feature length, in chronological order. Real world release dates are also noted.[16]\n\nTimeline order Title Release date\n1\nThe Fast and the Furious 2001-06-22 !June 22, 2001\n\u2014\nThe Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious 2003-06-03 !June 3, 2003\n2\n2 Fast 2 Furious 2003-06-06 !June 6, 2003\n\u2014\nLos Bandoleros 2009-07-28 !July 28, 2009\n3\nFast & Furious 2009-04-03 !April 3, 2009\n4\nFast Five 2011-04-29 !April 29, 2011\n5\nFast & Furious 6 2013-05-24 !May 24, 2013\n6\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift 2006-06-16 !June 16, 2006\n7\nFurious 7 2015-04-03 !April 3, 2015\n8\nThe Fate of the Furious 2017-04-12 !April 14, 2017\n\n\nCharacters[edit]\n\nObserva\u00e7\u00e3o\n\n* The dark grey-colored fields indicate that the character did not appear in the film\n\nCharacter Filme\nThe Fast and the Furious\n(2001)\nTurbo-Charged Prelude\n(2003)\n2 Fast 2 Furious\n(2003)\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n(2006)\nLos Bandoleros\n(2009)\nFast & Furious\n(2009)\nFast Five\n(2011)\nFast Six\n(2013)\nFurious 7\n(2015)\nThe Fate of the Furious\n(2017)\nDominic Toretto Vin Diesel Vin Diesel\nBrian O'Conner Paul Walker Paul Walker\nLetty Ortiz Michelle Rodriguez Michelle Rodriguez Michelle Rodriguez\nMia Toretto Jordana Brewster Jordana Brewster\nRoman Pearce Tyrese Gibson Tyrese Gibson\nSean Boswell Lucas Black Lucas Black\nTej Parker Ludacris Ludacris\nHan Seoul-Oh Sung Kang\nTego Leo Tego Calder\u00f3 Tego Calder\u00f3n\nRico Santos Don Omar Don Omar\nGisele Yashar Gal Gadot\nLuke Hobbs Dwayne Johnson\nTwinkie Bow Wow (rapper) Bow Wow (rapper)\nElena Neves Elsa Pataky\nOwen Shaw Luke Evans\nDeckard Shaw Jason Statham\nNeela Nathalie Kelley Nathalie Kelley\n\nCast and crew members[edit]\n\nCrew\/Detail The Fast and the Furious\n(2001)\n2 Fast 2 Furious\n(2003)\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n(2006)\nFast & Furious\n(2009)\nFast Five\n(2011)\nFast & Furious 6\n(2013)\nFurious 7\n(2015)\nThe Fate of the Furious\n(2017)\nDirector Rob Cohen John Singleton Justin Lin James Wan F. Gary Gray\nProducer(s) Neal H. Moritz Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Michael Fottrell Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Clayton Townsend Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Michael Fottrell Neal H. Moritz, Vin Diesel, Michael Fottrell, Chris Morgan\nWriter(s) Screenplay by:\nGary Scott Thompson\nErik Bergquist\nDavid Ayer\n\nBased on:\n\"Racer X\" by Ken Li\nScreenplay by:\nMichael Brandt\nDerek Haas\n\nStory by:\nMichael Brandt\nDerek Haas\nGary Scott Thompson\nWritten by:\nChris Morgan\n\nBased on characters by:\nGary Scott Thompson\nCinematographer(s) Ericson Core Matthew F. Leonetti Stephen F. Windon Amir Mokri Stephen F. Windon Stephen F. Windon\nMarc Spicer\nStephen F. Windon\nComposer BT David Arnold Brian Tyler Lucas Vidal Brian Tyler\nEditor(s) Peter Honess Bruce Cannon\nDallas Puett\nKelly Matsumoto\nDallas Puett\nFred Raskin\nChristian Wagner\nFred Raskin\nKelly Matsumoto\nFred Raskin\nChristian Wagner\nChristian Wagner\nKelly Matsumoto\nDylan Highsmith\nGreg D'auria\nLeigh Folsom Boyd\nChristian Wagner\nLeigh Folsom Boyd\nDylan Highsmith\nKirk M. Morri\nChristian Wagner\nPaul Rubell\nCostume Designer(s) Sanja Milkovic Hays\nProduction Designer Waldemar Kalinowski Keith Brian Burns Ida Random Peter Wenham Jan Roelfs Bill Brzeski\nRunning time 106 minutes 107 minutes 104 minutes 107 minutes 131 minutes (extended - 132 minutes) 130 minutes (extended - 131 minutes) 137 minutes (extended - 140 minutes) 136 minutes (extended, only on digital - 148 minutes)\nMPAA rating PG-13 PG-13 (Theatrical version)\nUnrated (Extended version)\nPG-13 (Theatrical version)\nUnrated (Extended Director\u2019s Cut, only on Digital)\n\nCharacters[edit]\n\nMain article: List of The Fast and the Furious characters\n\nReception[edit]\n\nFor more details on the reception of each film, see the \"Reception\" section on each film's article.\n\nBox office performance[edit]\n\nFilm Release date Budget Box office gross Box office ranking Ref(s)\nNorth America Other\nterritories\nWorldwide All time\nNorth America\nAll time\nOther territories\nAll time\nworldwide\nThe Fast and the Furious June 22, 2001 $38,000,000 $144,533,925 $62,750,000 $207,283,925 #299 #573 [17]\n2 Fast 2 Furious June 6, 2003 $76,000,000 $127,154,901 $109,195,760 $236,350,661 #388 #476 [18]\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift June 16, 2006 $85,000,000 $62,514,415 $95,953,877 $158,468,292 #1,121 [19][20]\nFast & Furious April 3, 2009 $85,000,000 $155,064,265 $208,100,000 $363,164,265 #281 #257 #244 [21]\nFast Five April 29, 2011 $125,000,000 $209,837,675 $416,300,000 $626,137,675 #137 #85 #89 [22]\nFast & Furious 6 May 24, 2013 $160,000,000 $238,679,850 $550,000,000 $788,679,850 #101 #38 #49 [23]\nFurious 7 April 3, 2015 $190,000,000 $353,007,020 $1,163,038,891 $1,516,045,911 #37 #3 #6 [24]\nThe Fate of the Furious April 14, 2017 $250,000,000 $226,008,385 $1,009,996,733 $1,236,005,118 #140 #6[25] #11 [26]\nTotal $1,009,000,000 $1,516,800,436 $3,615,335,261 $5,132,135,697 10[27][28] -[29] 6[30] [1]\nList indicator(s)\n  \u2022 A dark grey cell indicates the information is not available for the film.\n\nCritical and public response[edit]\n\nFilm Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic CinemaScore\nThe Fast and the Furious 53% (147 reviews)[31] 58 (34 reviews)[32] 7001750000000000000\u2660B+[33]\n2 Fast 2 Furious 36% (160 reviews)[34] 38 (36 reviews)[35] 7001833300000000000\u2660A-[33]\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift 37% (114 reviews)[36] 45 (32 reviews)[37] 7001833300000000000\u2660A-[33]\nFast & Furious 29% (175 reviews)[38] 46 (28 reviews)[39] 7001833300000000000\u2660A-[33]\nFast Five 77% (196 reviews)[40] 66 (41 reviews)[41] 7001916700000000000\u2660A[33]\nFast & Furious 6 69% (198 reviews)[42] 61 (39 reviews)[43] 7001916700000000000\u2660A[33]\nFurious 7 80% (240 reviews)[44] 67 (50 reviews)[45] 7001916700000000000\u2660A[33]\nThe Fate of the Furious 66% (253 reviews)[46] 56 (45 reviews)[47] 7001916700000000000\u2660A[33]\n\nFranchise extension[edit]\n\nTheme park attractions[edit]\n\nUniversal has incorporated several theme park attractions involving the Fast & Furious franchise. Universal Studios Hollywood and its Studio Tour has featured several of the picture car vehicles. From 2006 to 2013, The Fast & The Furious: Extreme Close-Up attraction was part of the Studio Tour.[48][49][50] On June 25, 2015, Universal Studios Hollywood allotted the final portion of their Studio Tour for the dark ride Fast and Furious: Supercharged.[51] Universal Orlando announced the development of a ride of the same name to open in 2018.[52]\n\nFast & Furious Live[edit]\n\nFast & Furious Live is a live show that combines stunt drivers, pyrotechnics and projection mapping.[53] The show had two preview shows on January 11\u201312 at Liverpool's Echo Arena. It officially began its tour at London's The O2 Arena on January 19, 2018, followed by a worldwide tour until later in 2018. On March 1, 2018, it was revealed on the tour's website that five new dates had been released for September.\n\nThe following list is sourced from the tour's website.\n\nTour overview[edit]\n\nTour Cities Shows Start date End date\nUK London; Newcastle; Manchester; Birmingham; Sheffield; Belfast; Glasgow 20 19\u00a0January\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-19) 13\u00a0May\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-05-13)\nWorldwide Antwerp; Vienna; Munich; Cologne; Lisbon; Z\u00fcrich; Stockholm; Oslo; Helsinki; Copenhagen; Berlin; Paris; Turin; Amsterdam; Prague 36 26\u00a0January\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-26) 22\u00a0September\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-09-22)\n\nUK tour dates[edit]\n\nVenue(s) City(s) Show(s) Date(s)\nThe O2 Arena London 2 19\/20 January 2018\nMetro Radio Arena Newcastle 3 6-8 April 2018\nManchester Arena Manchester 3 13-15 April 2018\nArena Birmingham Birmingham 3 20-22 April 2018\nThe SSE Arena Belfast 3 27-29 April 2018\nFlyDSA Arena Sheffield 3 4-6 May 2018\nThe SSE Hydro Glasgow 3 11-13 May 2018\n\nWorldwide tour dates[edit]\n\nVenue(s) City(s) Country(s) Show(s) Date(s)\nSportpaleis Antwerp Belgium 3 26-28 January 2018\nStadthalle Vienna Austria 3 9-11 February 2018\nOlympiahalle Munich Germany 3 16-18 February 2018\nLanxess Arena Cologne 3 2-4 March 2018\nAltice Arena Lisbon Portugal 1 17 March 2018\nHallenstadion Z\u00fcrich Switzerland 3 18-20 May 2018\nEricsson Globe Stockholm Sweden 3 25-27 May 2018\nTelenor Arena Oslo Norway 3 1-3 June 2018\nHartwall Arena Helsinki Finland 3 8-10 June 2018\nRoyal Arena Copenhagen Denmark 3 15-17 June 2018\nMercedes-Benz Arena Berlin Germany 3 22-24 June 2018\nAccorHotels Arena Paris France 3 29 June\u20131 July 2018\nPala Alpitour Turin Italy 2 7\/8 September 2018\nZiggo Dome Amsterdam The Netherlands 1 15 September 2018\nO2 Arena Prague Czech Republic 2 21\/22 September 2018\n\nSoundtracks[edit]\n\nFast & Furious soundtrack albums\nTitle Release date\nThe Fast and the Furious: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2001 First soundtrack to the 2001 film\nMore Fast and Furious 2001 Second soundtrack album to the 2001 film\n2 Fast 2 Furious: Soundtrack 2003 Soundtrack to the 2003 film\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2006 First soundtrack to the 2006 film\nThe Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (Original Motion Picture Score) 2006 Second soundtrack to the 2006 film\nFast & Furious: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2009 First soundtrack to the 2009 film\nFast & Furious (Original Motion Picture Score) 2009 Second soundtrack to the 2009 film\nFast Five (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2011 First soundtrack to the 2011 film\nFast Five: Original Motion Picture Score 2011 Second soundtrack to the 2011 film\nFast & Furious 6 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) 2013 Soundtrack to the 2013 film\nFurious 7: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 2015 First soundtrack to the 2015 film\nFurious 7: Original Motion Picture Score 2015 Second soundtrack to the 2015 film\nThe Fate of the Furious: The Album 2017 First soundtrack to the 2017 film\nThe Fate of the Furious: Original Motion Picture Score 2017 Second soundtrack to the 2017 film\n\nVideo games[edit]\n\nThe film series has spawned several racing video games for various systems. The arcade game The Fast and the Furious (known as Wild Speed in Japan) was released by Raw Thrills in 2004.[54] In 2006, the video game The Fast and the Furious was released for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable. Several games (The Fast and the Furious: Pink Slip, Fast & Furious, Fast Five, Fast & Furious: Adrenaline, Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy) have all been released for iOS and are available on the iTunes App Store; for Android devices there is an official version of Fast & Furious 6: The Game and Fast & Furious Legacy. In 2013, Fast & Furious: Showdown was released for the PC (Windows OS), Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. Various cars, locations and characters from the series have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town. In 2015, in a deal with Microsoft Studios, a standalone expansion of Forza Horizon 2 for Xbox One and Xbox 360 was released titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious.\n\nToys and model kits[edit]\n\nRacing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film's cars in different scales from 1\/18 to 1\/64.[55] RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002.[56] 1\/24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl. Johnny Lightning, under the JL Full Throttle Brand, released 1\/64th and 1\/24th models of the cars from Tokyo Drift. These models were designed by Diecast Hall of Fame designer Eric Tscherne. Greenlight has also sold cars from the new films in the series and some from the previous films.[57] Hot Wheels has released 1\/64 models since 2013.[58]\n\nInternational locations[edit]\n\nThe Fast and the Furious franchise was filmed in a number of countries including: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Spain, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and the United States.[59]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 List of highest-grossing film franchises\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Fast and the Furious Movies at the Box Office\". Box Office Mojo. June 15, 2015. Retrieved March 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ David Gonzales (6 April 2015). \"'Furious 7' Marks Universal's Biggest Franchise Ever\". Forbes. Retrieved 8 March 2017.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Lang, Brent (November 16, 2015). \"'Fast & Furious' Spinoffs In the Works (EXCLUSIVE)\". Variety.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Fast and Furious 10 Cast and Crew\". Fast and Furious. January 22, 2017. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2017.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fast & Furious: The Rock And Jason Statham Spin-Off Coming In 2019\". October 6, 2017.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (October 5, 2017). \"Dwayne Johnson and Jason Statham's 'Fast and Furious' Spinoff Gets 2019 Release Date\".\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"'Deadpool 2' Director in Early Talks for Dwayne Johnson's 'Fast and Furious' Spinoff\".\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"The Rock's Fast and Furious Spin-Off Begins Shooting This Fall\".\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Mendelson, Scott. \"Box Office: 'Fast And Furious 9' Delay Offers Answer To Universal's 'Wicked' Problem\".\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (October 4, 2017). \"'Fast and Furious 9' Moved Back a Year to 2020\".\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Rahman, Abid (February 3, 2016). \"Universal Sets Dates for 'Fast & Furious' Parts 9 and 10\". The Hollywood Reporter.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 10 will be the final movie of the series\". April 21, 2017.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Kit, Borys. \"Fast and Furious Spinoff Gets July 2019 Release Date\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Michael, Alex (April 14, 2017). \"EXCLUSIVE: Paul Walker's brother Cody claims Fast & Furious: Ride or Die 'WILL be filmed and set in Australia'\". Daily Mail.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"'Fast and Furious' Animated Series From DreamWorks Animation Set at Netflix\". Variety. April 23, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ aegies. \"The Fast & Furious Timeline\". Polygon. Retrieved May 29, 2015.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious (2001)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Challenge (2006)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Challenge\". The Numbers. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Fast and Furious (2009)\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Fast Five (2011)\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 22, 2013.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Furious 7 (2015)\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved June 11, 2015.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo Movie Franchises \u2013 WORLDWIDE GROSSES - Overseas\". Retrieved June 26, 2017.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious (2017)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved June 26, 2017.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo Movie Franchises \u2013 Franchise Index\". Retrieved April 12, 2015.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"All Time Domestic Gross\". Archived from the original on June 13, 2015. Retrieved June 11, 2015.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"BoxOfficeMojo \u2013 Alltime Box Office \u2013 Worldwide Grosses & #1-100\". Retrieved May 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"TheNumbers Movie Franchises\". The Numbers. Nash Information Services. Retrieved May 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious (2001)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h \"CinemaScore\". cinemascore.com. Retrieved March 8, 2015.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"2 Fast 2 Furious (2003)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved September 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious (2009)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Fast Five\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Fast Five (2011)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6\". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved September 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious 6 (2013)\". Metacritic. Retrieved August 4, 2013.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Furious 7\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved May 28, 2015.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Furious 7 (2015)\". Metacritic. Retrieved April 8, 2015.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"The Fate of the Furious (2017)\". Metacritic. Retrieved April 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"theStudioTour.com - Universal Studios Hollywood - The Fast and the Furious\". thestudiotour.com. Retrieved December 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Fast & Furious attraction takes shape at Universal Studios Hollywood\". Los Angeles Times. May 5, 2015. Retrieved December 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ IGN Cars (July 11, 2006). \"Fast and Furious: Extreme Close Up\". IGN. Retrieved December 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ Marc Graser. \"'Fast & Furious-Supercharged' Opening at Universal Studios June 25 - Variety\". Variety. Retrieved December 15, 2015.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Universal Orlando Close Up - New Fast & Furious Ride Coming - Universal Orlando Blog\". Close Up.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Spectacular Fast and Furious car stunt live show is a \u00a325m gamble - Mark Brown, The Guardian, 22 September 2017\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on April 23, 2005. Retrieved October 24, 2013.\u00a0CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on October 11, 2004. Retrieved May 21, 2011.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Mods \u2013 RadioShack ZipZaps \u2013 These Zaps Zip From Radio Shack\". Micro RC Cars. November 25, 2002. Retrieved December 1, 2013.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on November 2, 2004. Retrieved May 21, 2011.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ HW City \/ Speed Power Series (2013 New Model): Toyota Supra - Orange Track Diecast, 8 January 2016\n  59. Jump up ^ The Fate of the Furious (2017), retrieved 2017-09-05\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious on IMDb\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Fast and the Furious\nFilms\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 2nd album\n  \u2022 2 Fast 2 Furious\n    \u2022 album\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 Fast Five\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious 6\n    \u2022 album\n  \u2022 Furious 7\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\n  \u2022 The Fate of the Furious\n    \u2022 album\n    \u2022 score\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Dominic Toretto\n  \u2022 Brian O'Conner\n  \u2022 Letty Ortiz\n  \u2022 Han Lue\n  \u2022 Gisele Yashar\nTV series\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious\nShort films\n  \u2022 The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious\n  \u2022 Los Bandoleros\nVideo games\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious: Showdown\nAttractions\n  \u2022 Fast & Furious: Supercharged\nRelated\n  \u2022 \"Act a Fool\"\n  \u2022 \"Conteo\"\n  \u2022 \"See You Again\"\n    \u2022 video\n  \u2022 \"Gang Up\"\n  \u2022 Category Category\n\n\nCite error: There are <ref\u00a0group=N> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=N}} template (see the help page).\n\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Fast_and_the_Furious&oldid=838040431\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 The Fast and the Furious\n  \u2022 Action films by series\n  \u2022 American action adventure films\n  \u2022 Action thriller films\n  \u2022 Auto racing films\n  \u2022 Crime films by series\n  \u2022 Crime thriller films\n  \u2022 Film series\n  \u2022 American road movies\n  \u2022 Techno-thriller films\n  \u2022 Thriller films by series\n  \u2022 Universal Pictures films\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from March 2016\n  \u2022 Pages with reference errors\n  \u2022 Pages with missing references list\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Veps\u00e4n kel\u2019\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 24 April 2018, at 15:28.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"2473199973077349805","title":"Skywalker family","text":"Skywalker family\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"Skywalker\" redirects here. For other uses, see Skywalker (disambiguation).\nThis Star Wars-related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (February 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nThe Skywalker family is a fictional family in the Star Wars franchise. Within the series' fictional universe, the Skywalkers are a bloodline with strong inherent capabilities related to the Force. Luke Skywalker, his twin sister Princess Leia, and their father Darth Vader are central characters in the original Star Wars film trilogy. Vader, in his previous identity as Anakin Skywalker, is a lead character in the prequel film trilogy. Luke, Leia, and Leia's son Kylo Ren play crucial roles in the sequel trilogy of films.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Family members\n    \u2022 2.1 Shmi Skywalker-Lars\n    \u2022 2.2 Anakin Skywalker (Darth Vader)\n    \u2022 2.3 Padm\u00e9 Amidala\n    \u2022 2.4 Luke Skywalker\n    \u2022 2.5 Leia Organa\n    \u2022 2.6 Ben Solo (Kylo Ren)\n  \u2022 3 Family tree\n  \u2022 4 Legends\n    \u2022 4.1 Ben Skywalker\n    \u2022 4.2 Nat Skywalker\n    \u2022 4.3 Kol Skywalker\n    \u2022 4.4 Cade Skywalker\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nIn terms of the series' internal chronology, the Skywalkers first appeared in the 1999 film Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace. In this film, Jedi Knight Qui-Gon Jinn discovers Shmi Skywalker and her son Anakin as slaves on the planet Tatooine. Qui-Gon finds that Anakin has a higher count of midi-chlorians (force-imparting microorganisms) than any Jedi, even Yoda, counting to about 20,000. Shmi informs Qui-Gon that Anakin has no father, leading Qui-Gon to suggest that Anakin is a product of midi-chlorians, an example of a miraculous birth. As the film progresses, Anakin leaves Tatooine to begin his Jedi training.\n\nStar Wars: Episode II \u2013 Attack of the Clones reveals that, in Anakin's absence, Shmi has married Cliegg Lars, becoming the stepmother of Owen. Owen tells Anakin they are stepbrothers. Owen later marries Beru Whitesun. As a Jedi Knight, Anakin secretly marries Padm\u00e9 Amidala.\n\nIn Star Wars: Episode III \u2013 Revenge of the Sith Padme gives birth to twins, Luke and Leia. Luke is raised by Beru and Owen Lars on Tatooine. While Leia is raised by Senator Bail Organa and Queen Breha Organa on Alderaan.\n\nIn Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Leia and her husband Han Solo, after marrying have a son named Ben Solo, who later adopts the name Kylo Ren. The family breaks apart following Ben's descent into the dark side, with Leia and Han separating.\n\nFamily members[edit]\n\nShmi Skywalker-Lars[edit]\n\nShmi Skywalker is a fictional character in the Star Wars universe, portrayed by Pernilla August. She appears in Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace and Star Wars: Episode II \u2013 Attack of the Clones. She is the mother of Anakin Skywalker, paternal grandmother to Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa and paternal-maternal great-grandmother to Kylo Ren. Her first name is derived from Lakshmi, a Hindu goddess.\n\nIn The Phantom Menace, she and her son are introduced as slaves of junk merchant Watto on the desert world Tatooine.[1] She welcomes Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) into their home, and tells him that Anakin has no father; she simply \"became\" pregnant with him. Qui-Gon helps Anakin win his freedom, but cannot get Shmi out of slavery. She allows Anakin to leave with Qui-Gon, assuring her heartbroken son that they will meet again.\n\nIn Attack of the Clones, Anakin (Hayden Christensen), now a young adult Jedi apprentice, senses through the Force that she is in pain. He travels to Tatooine to find her, and, upon arriving, learns that she had been freed by and married to moisture farmer Cliegg Lars (Jack Thompson), but had recently been abducted by Tusken Raiders. He finds her inside one of their encampments, but it's too late\u2014beaten and tortured beyond help, she dies in his arms. Heartbroken and enraged, Anakin slaughters every single Tusken in the camp, including the women and children. His mother's death ignites a strong anger in Anakin, and sets him on the path to becoming Darth Vader.\n\nAnakin Skywalker (Darth Vader)[edit]\n\nMain article: Darth Vader\n\nAnakin Skywalker is the son of Shmi Skywalker and no father, due to being conceived through the force. Anakin is discovered on Tatooine by Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn who is sure that the boy is the \"Chosen One\" of Jedi Prophecy, who will bring balance to the Force. After the death of Qui-Gon, he becomes the Padawan of Obi-Wan Kenobi. He also forms a close bond with Padm\u00e9 Amidala, the young senator of Naboo. The newly elected Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, Palpatine, also befriends Anakin, promising to watch the boy's progress \"with great interest\" and advise him. Torn between his loyalty to the Jedi and his drive for power, Anakin succumbs to temptation and becomes Darth Vader.\n\nPadm\u00e9 Amidala[edit]\n\nMain article: Padm\u00e9 Amidala\n\nThe secret wife of Anakin Skywalker, and mother of Luke and Leia and maternal grandmother of Kylo Ren. She served as Queen of Naboo, and later as a Senator for her planet. Her closest friend in the Senate was Senator Bail Organa. She reconnected and fell in love with Anakin Skywalker after he was assigned to protect her from an assassination attempt, and secretly married him shortly after the Battle of Geonosis, and died while giving birth to her children shortly after the first Empire Day. Obi-Wan and Yoda decided to separate the children in order to keep them hidden from Darth Vader.\n\nLuke Skywalker[edit]\n\nMain article: Luke Skywalker\n\nLuke Skywalker is the son of Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker and Senator of Naboo, Padm\u00e9 Amidala. He is taken in by his uncle and aunt, Owen and Beru Lars, after the death of Padm\u00e9 and Anakin's fall to the dark side. He is force sensitive and skilled with a lightsaber. In Return of the Jedi, a dying Yoda confirms to Luke, that Darth Vader (previously Anakin Skywalker) is actually his father, despite Luke's belief that Vader's claim to fatherhood in The Empire Strikes Back was a ruse to pull Luke to the dark side. He also finds out from Obi-Wan's force ghost that Princess Leia Organa is his sister. In The Force Awakens, as the last known Jedi, Luke is in hiding after failing to prevent his nephew Ben (now Kylo Ren) from turning to the dark side to join Supreme Leader Snoke.\n\nLeia Organa[edit]\n\nMain article: Princess Leia\n\nThe daughter of Anakin Skywalker and Padm\u00e9 Amidala, Leia Organa was adopted by Bail and Breha Organa of Alderaan. At age 19 she is the Princess of Alderaan, and is captured by Darth Vader while in the Tantive IV blockade runner on a so-called \"diplomatic mission\". Leia is shown to be force sensitive. In The Empire Strikes Back, Leia professes her love for Han Solo when he is put into carbonite stasis, although it is originally Han and Luke who compete for her affections. In Return of the Jedi, planning to feed Luke, Han, and Chewbacca to the flesh eating Sarlacc, Jabba the Hutt is instead strangled to death by Leia by a chain he has on her. She later becomes involved in the Battle of Endor. In the years that follow, she becomes General Organa, the leader of the Resistance, a military organization unofficially backed by the New Republic to counter the First Order. She married Han Solo and had a son named Ben Solo, later Kylo Ren, whose turning to the dark side separated the couple before the events of The Force Awakens. Leia has been on a search to find her missing brother Luke[2] and save her son from the dark side.\n\nBen Solo (Kylo Ren)[edit]\n\nMain article: Kylo Ren\n\nBen Solo[3] is the son of Leia Organa and Han Solo. He initially trains to be a Jedi under his uncle, Luke Skywalker, before he falls to the dark side and becomes Kylo Ren, working for the First Order and under the influence of Supreme Leader Snoke. He is obsessed with the legacy of his grandfather, the Sith Lord Darth Vader, and aspires to finish what Vader started: the elimination of the Jedi.\n\nFamily tree[edit]\n\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSkywalker family tree\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nAika\nLars[a]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nCliegg\nLars\n[b]\n\u00a0\nShmi\nSkywalker\n[c]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nJobal\nNaberrie\n[d]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nRuwee\nNaberrie\n[d]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nBeru\nWhitesun\n[e]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nOwen\nLars\n[f]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nAnakin\nSkywalker\n[g][h]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nPadm\u00e9\nAmidala\n[i]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nBail\nOrgana\n[j][k]\n\u00a0\nBreha\nOrgana\n[l]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nLuke\nSkywalker\n[m][n]\n\u00a0\nLeia\nOrgana\n[o]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nHan\nSolo\n[p]\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\n\u00a0\nBen\nSolo\n[p][q]\n\u00a0\nReferences:\n  1. Jump up ^ Hidalgo, Pablo (2016). Star Wars Character Encyclopedia: Updated and Expanded.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Cliegg Lars\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 3, 2015.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Shmi Skywalker Lars\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 3, 2015.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Attack of the Clones (2002) and Revenge of the Sith (2005)\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Beru Lars\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 3, 2015.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Owen Lars\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 3, 2015.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Anakin Skywalker\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Darth Vader\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Padm\u00e9 Amidala\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Adopted father of Leia Organa, as established in Revenge of the Sith (2005).\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Bail Organa\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 3, 2015.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Adopted mother of Leia Organa, as established in Revenge of the Sith (2005).\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Luke Skywalker\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe (Legends), Luke is married to Mara Jade and has a son, Ben Skywalker.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Databank: Princess Leia Organa\". StarWars.com. Retrieved December 4, 2015.\u00a0\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b The Force Awakens. 2015.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ In the alternate Star Wars expanded universe (Legends) continuity, Han and Leia have three children: Jaina, Jacen and Anakin Solo.\n\nLegends[edit]\n\nWith the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.[4][5][6]\n\nIn the Star Wars expanded universe, Luke, following his sister's marriage to Han Solo and the birth of the Solo children (Anakin, Jacen, and Jaina), marries Mara Jade, who has a son named Ben. A further complication in this continuity is the fact that the Return of the Jedi novelization includes a detail about Owen Lars being Obi-Wan Kenobi's estranged brother.[7] To explain subsequent references,[8] Star Wars: Lone Wolf: A Tale of Obi-Wan and Luke[9] introduces \"Owen Kenobi\", a personification of the bond Kenobi feels toward Owen Lars.\n\nIn the Expanded Universe book Tatooine Ghost, Shmi's granddaughter, Leia, is given Shmi's old journal, which describes Anakin's childhood. Leia learns, through Shmi's love for Anakin, to forgive her father for his role in the destruction of Alderaan and for torturing her aboard the Death Star, as depicted in A New Hope.\n\nBen Skywalker[edit]\n\nLuke Skywalker and Mara Jade Skywalker's son. Named after Obi-Wan \"Ben\" Kenobi, Jedi Knight. Former student of Jacen Solo, his cousin. In Fate of the Jedi: Outcast, he voluntarily accompanies his father into exile. He proves himself as both a fighter and as an investigator to carry on his father's name.\n\nHis love interest is Vestara Khai, formerly a Sith apprentice, then a Jedi apprentice.\n\nThe character was voted the 40th top Star Wars character by IGN[10] and the top 6th Star Wars Expanded Universe character by UGO Networks.[11]\n\nNat Skywalker[edit]\n\nNat is a former\/returned Jedi master and the older brother of Kol. He took the name \"Bantha\" Rawk He was also with him all the time.[who?]\n\nKol Skywalker[edit]\n\nKol Skywalker is a character in Star Wars: Legacy. He is a descendant of Luke Skywalker and is a Jedi master. He is the father of Cade Skywalker.\n\nCade Skywalker[edit]\n\nThe descendant of Anakin Skywalker, Luke Skywalker, Mara Jade Skywalker and Ben Skywalker, and the son of Kol Skywalker. He is a protagonist of the Star Wars: Legacy comic series. According to the comic book series from Dark Horse called Star Wars: Legacy, which takes place 125 years after Return of the Jedi, Cade Skywalker, son of Kol Skywalker and a direct descendant of Luke Skywalker, is the last surviving Skywalker of his time. It is shown that he has completely abandoned the Jedi way after an attack by the New Sith Order on the Jedi Academy on Ossus. Nevertheless, he still encounters other Jedi, as well as the ghost of Luke Skywalker. The character was voted the 84th top Star Wars character by IGN.[10]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Solo family\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Star Wars I: The Phantom Menace script\n  2. Jump up ^ O'Keefe, Kevin. \"There's Either an Error in the New 'Star Wars' Crawl or a Big Surprise for Luke and Leia\". Mic. Retrieved 24 December 2015.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Wendig, Chuck (2017). Star Wars: Aftermath: Empire's End. Del Rey. ISBN\u00a09781101966976. What is known is this: The child\u2019s name is Ben, and he takes his father\u2019s last name, even as Leia keeps only her own family name, Organa.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ McMilian, Graeme (April 25, 2014). \"Lucasfilm Unveils New Plans for Star Wars Expanded Universe\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"The Legendary Star Wars Expanded Universe Turns a New Page\". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Disney and Random House announce relaunch of Star Wars Adult Fiction line\". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Kahn, James (1983). Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. Del-Rey. ISBN\u00a00-345-30767-4.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Watson, Jude (1999). Jedi Apprentice: The Hidden Past. Scholastic. ISBN\u00a00590519336.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Rare Clone Wars Comics and Literature\". Starwars.com. Archived from the original on 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2015-12-24.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Top 100 Star Wars Characters\". IGN. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2010.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Adam Rosenberg (1 July 2008). \"Top 50 Star Wars Expanded Universe Characters\". UGO Networks. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2010.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Skywalker family on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFictional universe of Star Wars\nConcepts\n  \u2022 The Force\n  \u2022 Architecture\n  \u2022 Languages\n  \u2022 Physics\nOrganizations\n  \u2022 First Order\n  \u2022 Galactic Empire\n  \u2022 Galactic Republic\n  \u2022 Jedi\n  \u2022 New Republic\n  \u2022 Rebel Alliance\n  \u2022 Resistance\n  \u2022 Sith\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Admiral Ackbar\n  \u2022 Padm\u00e9 Amidala\n  \u2022 Cassian Andor\n  \u2022 Wedge Antilles\n  \u2022 Cad Bane\n  \u2022 Darth Bane\n  \u2022 BB-8\n  \u2022 Jar Jar Binks\n  \u2022 C-3PO\n  \u2022 Lando Calrissian\n  \u2022 Chewbacca\n  \u2022 Lieutenant Connix\n  \u2022 Poe Dameron\n  \u2022 Count Dooku\n  \u2022 Jyn Erso\n  \u2022 Boba Fett\n  \u2022 Jango Fett\n  \u2022 Finn (FN-2187)\n  \u2022 Saw Gerrera\n  \u2022 Greedo\n  \u2022 Tag Greenley\n  \u2022 General Grievous\n  \u2022 HK-47\n  \u2022 Jabba the Hutt\n  \u2022 General Hux\n  \u2022 Mara Jade\n  \u2022 Kanan Jarrus\n  \u2022 Qi'ra\n  \u2022 Qui-Gon Jinn\n  \u2022 K-2SO\n  \u2022 Maz Kanata\n  \u2022 Kyle Katarn\n  \u2022 Obi-Wan Kenobi\n  \u2022 Kreia\n  \u2022 Orson Krennic\n  \u2022 Darth Maul\n  \u2022 Nien Nunb\n  \u2022 Leia Organa\n  \u2022 Bink Otauna\n  \u2022 Emperor Palpatine\n  \u2022 Captain Phasma\n  \u2022 Admiral Piett\n  \u2022 R2-D2\n  \u2022 Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)\n  \u2022 Revan\n  \u2022 Rey\n  \u2022 Captain Rex\n  \u2022 Bodhi Rook\n  \u2022 Bail Organa\n  \u2022 Anakin Skywalker\/Darth Vader\n  \u2022 Luke Skywalker\n  \u2022 Supreme Leader Snoke\n  \u2022 Han Solo\n  \u2022 Jacen Solo\n  \u2022 Starkiller\n  \u2022 Ahsoka Tano\n  \u2022 Grand Moff Tarkin\n  \u2022 Grand Admiral Thrawn\n  \u2022 Rose Tico\n  \u2022 Asajj Ventress\n  \u2022 Watto\n  \u2022 Wicket W. Warrick\n  \u2022 Mace Windu\n  \u2022 Yoda\nLists\n  \u2022 The Clone Wars characters\n  \u2022 Rebels characters\n  \u2022 Legends characters\n    \u2022 KotOR\nGroups\n  \u2022 Militaries\n    \u2022 Clone trooper\n    \u2022 Stormtrooper\n    \u2022 Droid Army\n    \u2022 Rogue Squadron\n  \u2022 Families\n    \u2022 Skywalker\n    \u2022 Solo\n  \u2022 Music Bands\n    \u2022 Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes\n    \u2022 Max Rebo Band\nPlanets and moons\n  \u2022 Alderaan\n  \u2022 Bespin\n  \u2022 Coruscant\n  \u2022 Dagobah\n  \u2022 Endor\n  \u2022 Hoth\n  \u2022 Jakku\n  \u2022 Kashyyyk\n  \u2022 Naboo\n  \u2022 Tatooine\n  \u2022 Yavin\nSpecies\n  \u2022 A\u2013E\n    \u2022 Bantha\n    \u2022 Droid\n    \u2022 Ewok\n  \u2022 F\u2013J\n    \u2022 Hutt\n  \u2022 K\u2013O\n  \u2022 P\u2013T\n    \u2022 Sarlacc\n    \u2022 Tusken Raiders\n  \u2022 U\u2013Z\n    \u2022 Wookiee\n  \u2022 List of creatures\nTechnology\nWeapons\n  \u2022 Blaster\n  \u2022 Death Star\n  \u2022 Lightsaber\nTerrestrial vehicles\n  \u2022 Landspeeder\n  \u2022 Speeder bike\n  \u2022 Sandcrawler\n  \u2022 Walkers\nStarfighters\n  \u2022 A-wing\n  \u2022 B-wing\n  \u2022 TIE fighter\n  \u2022 X-wing\n  \u2022 Y-wing\nSpacecraft\n  \u2022 Death Star\n  \u2022 Millennium Falcon\n  \u2022 Mon Calamari cruiser\n  \u2022 Star Destroyer\n  \u2022 Tantive IV\nOther\n  \u2022 Clone Wars\n  \u2022 Galactic Civil War\n  \u2022 Mos Eisley\n    \u2022 Mos Eisley Cantina\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Skywalker_family&oldid=843572122\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Star Wars characters\n  \u2022 Fictional family trees\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from February 2008\n  \u2022 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 Star Wars articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases\n  \u2022 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2018\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 01:11.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7477781224997903414","title":"Clean Air Act (United States)","text":"Clean Air Act (United States)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nClean Air Act\nGreat Seal of the United States\nLong title An Act to improve, strengthen, and accelerate programs for the prevention and abatement of air pollution.\nAcronyms (colloquial) CAA\nNicknames Clean Air Act of 1963\nEnacted\u00a0by the 88th United States Congress\nEffective December 17, 1963\nCitations\nPublic law 88-206\nStatutes at Large 77\u00a0Stat.\u00a0392\nCodification\nTitles amended 42 U.S.C.: Public Health and Social Welfare\nU.S.C. sections amended 42 U.S.C. ch. 85, subch. I \u00a7\u20097401 et seq.\nLegislative history\n  \u2022 Introduced in the House as H.R. 6518 by Kenneth A. Roberts (D\u2013AL) on July 9, 1963\n  \u2022 Committee consideration by House Energy and Commerce\n  \u2022 Passed the House on July 24, 1963\u00a0(275-104)\n  \u2022 Passed the Senate on November 19, 1963\u00a0(passed voice vote, in lieu of S. 432)\n  \u2022 Reported by the joint conference committee on December 5, 1963; agreed to by the House on December 10, 1963\u00a0(276-112) and by the Senate on December 10, 1963\u00a0(passed voice vote)\n  \u2022 Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on December 17, 1963\nMajor amendments\nMotor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965 (79 Stat. 992, Pub.L. 89\u2013272)\nAir Quality Act of 1967 (81 Stat. 485, Pub.L. 90\u2013148)\nClean Air Act Extension of 1970 (84 Stat. 1676, Pub.L. 91\u2013604)\nClean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (91 Stat. 685, Pub.L. 95\u201395)\nClean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (104 Stat. 2468, Pub.L. 101\u2013549)\nUnited States Supreme Court cases\nUnion Elec. Co. v. EPA, 427 U.S. 246 (1976)\nChevron USA v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 U.S. 837 (1984)\nWhitman v. American Trucking Ass'ns, Inc., 531 U.S. 457 (2001)\n\nThe Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. \u00a7 7401) is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level.[1] It is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws, and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world.[2][3] As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments.[4] Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C, Parts 50-97.\n\nThe 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U.S. federal legislation that pertained to air pollution; it also provided funds for federal government research of air pollution.[4] The first federal legislation to actually pertain to \"controlling\" air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963.[5] The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution.[6]\n\nIt was first amended in 1965, by the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act, which authorized the federal government to set required standards for controlling the emission of pollutants from certain automobiles, beginning with the 1968 models. A second amendment, the Air Quality Act of 1967, enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport, and, for the first time, to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections. The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques.[7] Amendments approved in 1970 greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary (industrial) pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly expanded federal enforcement. Also, EPA was established on December 2, 1970 for the purpose of consolidating pertinent federal research, monitoring, standard-setting and enforcement activities into one agency that ensures environmental protection.[8][9]\n\nFurther amendments were made in 1990 to address the problems of acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, and to establish a national permit program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements, set Reid vapor pressure (RVP) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline, and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. W. Bush, William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment.[10]\n\nThe Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits. Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation, either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Summary\n    \u2022 1.1 Title I: Programs and Activities\n      \u2022 1.1.1 Part A: Air Quality and Emissions Limitations\n      \u2022 1.1.2 Part B: Ozone Protection\n      \u2022 1.1.3 Part C - Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality\n      \u2022 1.1.4 Part D: Plan Requirements for Non-attainment Areas\n    \u2022 1.2 Title II: Emission Standards for Moving Sources\n      \u2022 1.2.1 Part A: Motor Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards\n      \u2022 1.2.2 Part B: Aircraft Emission Standards\n      \u2022 1.2.3 Part C: Clean Fuel Vehicles\n    \u2022 1.3 Title III: General Provisions\n    \u2022 1.4 Title IV: Noise Pollution\n    \u2022 1.5 Title IV-A: Acid Deposition Control\n    \u2022 1.6 Title V: Permits\n    \u2022 1.7 Title VI: Stratospheric Ozone Protection\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 Legislation\n    \u2022 2.2 History of the Clean Air Act\n      \u2022 2.2.1 Introduction\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Clean Air Act of 1970\n      \u2022 2.2.3 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977\n      \u2022 2.2.4 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990\n      \u2022 2.2.5 Milestones\n    \u2022 2.3 Regulations\n  \u2022 3 Roles of the federal government and states\n    \u2022 3.1 State Programs\n  \u2022 4 Interstate air pollution\n  \u2022 5 Leak detection and repair\n  \u2022 6 Application to greenhouse gas emissions\n  \u2022 7 Clean Air Act and environmental justice\n  \u2022 8 Clean Air Act violations\n  \u2022 9 Effects\n  \u2022 10 See also\n  \u2022 11 References\n  \u2022 12 Further reading\n  \u2022 13 External links\n\nSummary[edit]\n\nCounties in the United States with one or more National Ambient Air Quality Standards not met as of June 2017\n\nTitle I: Programs and Activities[edit]\n\nGraph showing decreases in US air pollution concentrations during 1990 to 2015\n\nPart A: Air Quality and Emissions Limitations[edit]\n\nThis section of the act declares that protecting and enhancing the nation's air quality promotes public health. The law encourages to prevent regional air pollution and control programs. It also provides technical and financial assistance for preventing air pollution at both state and local governments. Additional subchapters cover cooperation, research, investigation, training, and other activities. Grants for air pollution planning and control programs, and interstate air quality agencies and program cost limitations are also included in this section.[11]\n\nThe act even mandates air quality control regions, designated as attainment vs non-attainment. Non-attainment areas do not meet national standards for primary or secondary ambient air quality. Attainment areas meet these standards, while unclassifiable areas cannot be classified based on the available information.[11]\n\nAir quality criteria, national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, state implementation plans and performance standards for new stationary sources are covered in Part A as well. The list of hazardous air pollutants that the act establishes includes compounds of acetaldehyde, benzene, chloroform, phenols, and selenium. The list also includes mineral fiber emissions from manufacturing or processing glass, rock or slag fibers as well as radioactive atoms. The list can periodically be modified. The act lists unregulated radioactive pollutants such as cadmium, arsenic, and polycyclic organic matter and it mandates listing them if they will cause or contribute to air pollution that endangers public health, under section 7408 or 7412.[11]\n\nThe remaining subchapters cover smokestack heights, state plan adequacy, and estimating emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and oxides of nitrogen from area and mobile sources. Measures to prevent unemployment or other economic disruption include using local coal or coal derivatives to comply with implementation requirements. The final subchapter in this act focuses on land use authority.[11]\n\nPart B: Ozone Protection[edit]\n\nBecause of advances in the atmospheric chemistry, this section was replaced by Title VI when the law was amended in 1990.[12]\n\nThis change in the law reflected significant changes in scientific understanding of ozone formation and depletion. Ozone absorbs UVC light and shorter wave UVB, and lets through UVA, which is largely harmless to people. Ozone exists naturally in the stratosphere, not the troposphere. It is laterally distributed because it is destroyed by strong sunlight, so there is more ozone at the poles. Ozone is created when O2 comes in contact with photons from solar radiation. Therefore, a decrease in the intensity of solar radiation also results in a decrease in the formation of ozone in the stratosphere. This exchange is known as the Chapman mechanism:\n\nO2 + UV photon \u2192 2 O (note that atmospheric oxygen as O is highly unstable)\nO + O2 + M \u2192 O3 (O3 is Ozone) + M\nM represents a third molecule, needed to carry off the excess energy of the collision of O + O2.\n\nAtmospheric freon and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contribute to ozone depletion (Chlorine is a catalytic agent in ozone destruction). Following discovery of the ozone hole in 1985, the 1987 Montreal Protocol successfully implemented a plan to replace CFCs and was viewed by some environmentalists as an example of what is possible for the future of environmental issues, if the political will is present.\n\nPart C - Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality[edit]\n\nThe Clean Air Act requires permits to build or add to major stationary sources of air pollution. This permitting process, known as New Source Review (NSR), applies to sources in areas that meet air quality standards as well as areas that are unclassifiable.[13] Permits in attainment or unclassifiable areas are referred to as Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permits, while permits for sources located in nonattainment areas are referred to as nonattainment area (NAA) permits.[14]\n\nThe fundamental goals of the PSD program are to:\n\n  1. prevent new non-attainment areas by ensuring economic growth in harmony with existing clean air;\n  2. protect public health and welfare from any adverse effects;\n  3. preserve and enhance the air quality in national parks and other areas of special natural recreational, scenic, or historic value.[14]:3\n\nPart D: Plan Requirements for Non-attainment Areas[edit]\n\nUnder the Clean Air Act states are required to submit a plan for non-attainment areas to reach attainment status as soon as possible but in no more than five years, based on the severity of the air pollution and the difficulty posed by obtaining cleaner air.\n\nThe plan must include:\n\n  \u2022 an inventory of all pollutants\n  \u2022 permits\n  \u2022 control measures, means and techniques to reach standard qualifications\n  \u2022 contingency measures\n\nThe plan must be approved or revised if required for approval, and specify whether local governments or the state will implement and enforce the various changes. Achieving attainment status makes a request for reevaluation possible. It must include a plan for maintenance of air quality.\n\nTitle II: Emission Standards for Moving Sources[edit]\n\nGraph showing decreases in US air pollution emissions from transportation sources during 1980-2015, while US population and economic activity increased.\n\nPart A: Motor Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards[edit]\n\nSubchapters of Title II cover state standards and grants, prohibited acts and actions to restrain violations, as well as a study of emissions from nonroad vehicles (other than locomotives) to determine whether they cause or contribute to air pollution. Motorcycles are treated in the same way as automobiles under the emission standards for new motor vehicles or motor vehicle engines. The last few subchapters deal with high altitude performance adjustments, motor vehicle compliance program fees, prohibition on production of engines requiring leaded gasoline and urban bus standards.[15]\n\nThis part of the bill was extremely controversial the time it was passed. The automobile industry argued that it could not meet the new standards. Senators expressed concern about impact on the economy. Specific new emissions standards for moving sources passed years later.\n\nPart B: Aircraft Emission Standards[edit]\n\nMany volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted over airports and affect the air quality in the region. VOCs include benzene, formaldehyde and butadienes which are known to cause health problems such as birth defects, cancer and skin irritation. Hundreds of tons of emissions from aircraft, ground support equipment, heating systems, and shuttles and passenger vehicles are released into the air, causing smog. Therefore, major cities such as Seattle, Denver, and San Francisco require a Climate Action Plan as well as a greenhouse gas inventory. Additionally, federal programs such as the Voluntary Airport Low Emissions Program (VALE) are working to offset costs for programs that reduce emissions.[16]\n\nTitle II sets emission standards for airlines and aircraft engines and adopts standards set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). However aircraft carbon dioxide emission standards have not been established by either ICAO nor the EPA.[17] It is the responsibility of the Secretary of Transportation, after consultation with the Administrator, to prescribe regulations that comply with 42 U.S. Code \u00a7 7571 (Establishment of standards) and ensure the necessary inspections take place.[18]\n\nPart C: Clean Fuel Vehicles[edit]\n\nTrucks and automobiles play a large role in deleterious air quality. Harmful chemicals such as nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide are released from motor vehicles. Some of these also react with sunlight to produce photochemicals.[19] These harmful substances change the climate, alter ocean pH and include toxins that may cause cancer, birth defects or respiratory illness. Motor vehicles increased in the 1990s since approximately 58 percent of households owned two or more vehicles.[19] The Clean Fuel Vehicle programs focused on alternative fuel use and petroleum fuels that met low emission vehicle (LEV) levels. Compressed natural gas, ethanol,[20] methanol,[21] liquefied petroleum gas and electricity are examples of cleaner alternative fuel. Programs such as the California Clean Fuels Program and pilot program are increasing demand that for new fuels to be developed to reduce harmful emissions.[19]\n\nThe California pilot program incorporated under this section focuses on pollution control in ozone non-attainment areas. The provisions apply to light-duty trucks and light-duty vehicles in California. The state also requires that clean alternative fuels for sale at numerous locations with sufficient geographic distribution for convenience. Production of clean-fuel vehicles isn't mandated except as part of the California pilot program.[11]\n\nTitle III: General Provisions[edit]\n\nUnder the law prior to 1990, EPA was required to construct a list of Hazardous Air Pollutants as well as health-based standards for each one. There were 187 air pollutants listed and the source from which they came. The EPA was given ten years to generate technology-based emission standards. Title III is considered a second phase, allowing the EPA to assess lingering risks after the enactment of the first phase of emission standards. Title III also enacts new standards with regard to the protection of public health.[22]\n\nA citizen may file a lawsuit to obtain compliance with an emission standard issued by the EPA or by a state, unless there is an ongoing enforcement action being pursued by EPA or the appropriate state agency.[23]\n\nTitle IV: Noise Pollution[edit]\n\nThis title pre-dates the Clean Air Act. With the passage of the Clean Air Act, it became codified as Title IV. However, another Title IV was enacted in the 1990 amendments. The second Title IV was then appended to this Title IV as Title IV-A (see below).\n\nThis title established the EPA Office of Noise Abatement and Control to reduce noise pollution in urban areas, to minimize noise-related impacts on psychological and physiological effects on humans, effects on wildlife and property (including values), and other noise-related issues. The agency was also assigned to run experiments to study the effects of noise.\n\nSee also: Noise Control Act\n\nTitle IV-A: Acid Deposition Control[edit]\n\nThis title was added as part of the 1990 amendments. It addresses the issue of acid rain, which is caused by nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from electric power plants powered by fossil fuels, and other industrial sources. The 1990 amendments gave industries more pollution control options including switching to low-sulfur coal and\/or adding devices that controlled the harmful emissions. In some cases plants had to be closed down to prevent the dangerous chemicals from entering the atmosphere.[24]\n\nTitle IV-A mandated a two-step process to reduce SO2 emissions. The first stage required more than 100 electric generating facilities larger than 100 megawatts to meet a 3.5 million ton SO2 emission reduction by January 1995. The second stage gave facilities larger than 75 megawatts a January 2000 deadline.[24]\n\nTitle V: Permits[edit]\n\nThe 1990 amendments authorized a national operating permit program, covering thousands of large industrial and commercial sources.[25] It required large businesses to address pollutants released into the air, measure their quantity, and have a plan to control and minimize them as well as to periodically report. This consolidated requirements for a facility into a single document.[25]\n\nIn non-attainment areas, permits were required for sources that emit as little as 50, 25, or 10 tons per year of VOCs depending on the severity of the region\u2019s non-attainment status.[26]\n\nMost permits are issued by state and local agencies.[27] If the state does not adequately monitor requirements, the EPA may take control. The public may request to view the permits by contacting the EPA. The permit is limited to no more than five years and requires a renewal.[26]\n\nTitle VI: Stratospheric Ozone Protection[edit]\n\nStarting in 1990, Title VI mandated regulations regarding the use and production of chemicals that harm the Earth\u2019s stratospheric ozone layer. This ozone layer protects against harmful ultraviolet B sunlight linked to several medical conditions including cataracts and skin cancer.[28]\n\nThe ozone-destroying chemicals were classified into two groups, Class I and Class II. Class I consists of substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, that have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) (HL) of 0.2 or higher. Class II lists substances, including hydrochlorofluorocarbons, that are known to or may be detrimental to the stratosphere. Both groups have a timeline for phase-out:\n\n  \u2022 For Class I substances, no more than seven years after being added to the list and\n  \u2022 For Class II substances no more than ten years.[29]\n\nTitle VI establishes methods for preventing harmful chemicals from entering the stratosphere in the first place, including recycling or proper disposal of chemicals and finding substitutes that cause less or no damage.[29] The Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program is EPA's program to evaluate and regulate substitutes for the ozone-depleting chemicals that are being phased out under the stratospheric ozone protection provisions of the Clean Air Act.[30]\n\nOver 190 countries signed the Montreal Protocol in 1987, agreeing to work to eliminate or limit the use of chemicals with ozone-destroying properties.[28]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThis section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: There is a \"History\" subsection within this section; redundant & confusing. Overlapping material should be consolidated or deleted as appropriate. Please help improve this section if you can. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nLegislation[edit]\n\nCongress passed the first legislation to address air pollution with the 1955 Air Pollution Control Act that provided funds to the U.S. Public Health service, but did not formulate pollution regulation.[31] However, the Clean Air Act in 1963 created a research and regulatory program in the U.S. Public Health Service.[32] The Act authorized development of emission standards for stationary sources, but not mobile sources of air pollution.[33]:211 The 1967 Air Quality Act mandated enforcement of interstate air pollution standards and authorized ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections.[34]\n\nIn the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970, Congress greatly expanded the federal mandate by requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both industrial and mobile sources.[35] The law established four new regulatory programs:\n\n  \u2022 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). EPA was required to promulgate national standards for six criteria pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants. (Some of the criteria pollutants were revised in subsequent legislation.)[33]:213[36]\n  \u2022 State Implementation Plans (SIPs)\n  \u2022 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS); and\n  \u2022 National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs).\n\nThe 1970 law is sometimes called the \"Muskie Act\" because of the central role Maine Senator Edmund Muskie played in drafting the bill.[37]\n\nTo implement the strict new Clean Air Act of 1970, during his first term as EPA Administrator William Ruckelshaus spent 60% of his time on the automobile industry, whose emissions were to be reduced 90% under the new law. Senators had been frustrated at the industry\u2019s failure to cut emissions under previous, weaker air laws.[38]\n\nThe Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 required Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality for areas attaining the NAAQS and added requirements for non-attainment areas.[39]\n\nThe 1990 Clean Air Act added regulatory programs for control of acid deposition (acid rain) and stationary source operating permits. The amendments moved considerably beyond the original criteria pollutants, expanding the NESHAP program with a list of 189 hazardous air pollutants to be controlled within hundreds of source categories, according to a specific schedule.[40] The NAAQS program was also expanded. Other new provisions covered stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority and expanded research programs.[41]\n\nHistory of the Clean Air Act[edit]\n\nIntroduction[edit]\n\nPresident Lyndon B. Johnson signing the 1967 Air Quality Act in the East Room of the White House, November 21, 1967.\n\nThe legal authority for federal programs regarding air pollution control is based on the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (1990 CAAA). These are the latest in a series of amendments made to the Clean Air Act (CAA), often referred to as \"the Act.\" This legislation modified and extended federal legal authority provided by the earlier Clean Air Acts of 1963 and 1970.[7]\n\nThe 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first federal legislation involving air pollution; it authorized $3 million per year to the U.S. Public Health Service for five years to fund federal level air pollution research, air pollution control research, and technical and training assistance to the states. Subsequently, the act was extended for four years in 1959 with funding levels at $5 million per year. The act was then amended in 1960 and 1962. Although the 1955 act brought the air pollution issue to the federal level, no federal regulations were formulated. Control and prevention of air pollution was instead delegated to state and local agencies.[31]\n\nThe Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution control. It established a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorized research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution. In 1967, the Air Quality Act was enacted in order to expand federal government activities. In accordance with this law, enforcement proceedings were initiated in areas subject to interstate air pollution transport. As part of these proceedings, the federal government for the first time conducted extensive ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections.\n\nThe Air Quality Act of 1967 also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques.[7]\n\nClean Air Act of 1970[edit]\n\nThe Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from both stationary (industrial) sources and mobile sources. Four major regulatory programs affecting stationary sources were initiated:\n\n  \u2022 the National Ambient Air Quality Standards [NAAQS (pronounced \"knacks\")],\n  \u2022 State Implementation Plans (SIPs),\n  \u2022 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS),\n  \u2022 and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs).\n\nEnforcement authority was substantially expanded. This very important legislation was adopted at approximately the same time as the National Environmental Policy Act.[7][9]\n\nClean Air Act Amendments of 1977[edit]\n\nMajor amendments were added to the Clean Air Act in 1977 (1977 CAAA). The 1977 Amendments primarily concerned provisions for the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality in areas attaining the NAAQS. The 1977 CAAA also contained requirements pertaining to sources in non-attainment areas for NAAQS. A non-attainment area is a geographic area that does not meet one or more of the federal air quality standards. Both of these 1977 CAAA established major permit review requirements to ensure attainment and maintenance of the NAAQS.[7]\n\nClean Air Act Amendments of 1990[edit]\n\nAnother set of major amendments to the Clean Air Act occurred in 1990 (1990 CAAA). The 1990 CAAA substantially increased the authority and responsibility of the federal government. New regulatory programs were authorized for control of acid deposition (acid rain) and for the issuance of stationary source operating permits. The NESHAPs were incorporated into a greatly expanded program for controlling toxic air pollutants. The provisions for attainment and maintenance of NAAQS were substantially modified and expanded. Other revisions included provisions regarding stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority, and expanded research programs.[7]\n\nMilestones[edit]\n\nSome of the principal milestones in the evolution of the Clean Air Act are as follows:[7]\n\nThe Air Pollution Control Act of 1955\n\n  \u2022 First federal air pollution legislation\n  \u2022 Funded research on scope and sources of air pollution\n\nClean Air Act of 1963\n\n  \u2022 Authorized a national program to address air pollution\n  \u2022 Authorized research into techniques to minimize air pollution\n\nAir Quality Act of 1967\n\n  \u2022 Authorized enforcement procedures involving interstate transport of pollutants\n  \u2022 Expanded research activities\n\nClean Air Act of 1970\n\n  \u2022 Established National Ambient Air Quality Standards\n  \u2022 Established requirements for State Implementation Plans to achieve them\n  \u2022 Establishment of New Source Performance Standards for new and modified stationary sources\n  \u2022 Establishment of National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants\n  \u2022 Increased enforcement authority\n  \u2022 Authorized control of motor vehicle emissions\n\n1977 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970\n\n  \u2022 Authorized provisions related to prevention of significant deterioration\n  \u2022 Authorized provisions relating to non-attainment areas\n\n1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970\n\n  \u2022 Authorized programs for acid deposition control\n  \u2022 Authorized controls for 189 toxic pollutants, including those previously regulated by the national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants\n  \u2022 Established permit program requirements\n  \u2022 Expanded and modified provisions concerning National Ambient Air Quality Standards\n  \u2022 Expanded and modified enforcement authority\n\nRegulations[edit]\n\n[icon]\nThis section needs expansion with: additional regulations. You can help by adding to it. (June 2011)\n\nSince the initial establishment of six mandated criteria pollutants (ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and lead), advancements in testing and monitoring have led to the discovery of many other significant air pollutants.[42]\n\nHowever, with the act in place and its many improvements, the U.S. has seen many pollutant levels and associated cases of health complications drop. According to the EPA, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments has prevented or will prevent:\n\nYear 2010\n(cases prevented)\nYear 2020\n(cases prevented)\nAdult Mortality - particles 160,000 230,000\nInfant Mortality - particles 230 280\nMortality - ozone 4,300 71,000\nChronic Bronchitis 54,000 75,000\nHeart Disease - Acute Myocardial Infarction 130,000 200,000\nAsthma Exacerbation 1,700,000 2,400,000\nEmergency Room Visits 86,000 120,000\nSchool Loss Days 3,200,000 5,400,000\nLost Work Days 13,000,000 17,000,000\n\nThis chart shows the health benefits of the Clean Air Act programs that reduce levels of fine particles and ozone.[43]\n\nIn 1997 EPA tightened the NAAQS regarding permissible levels of the ground-level ozone that make up smog and the fine airborne particulate matter that makes up soot.[44][45] The decision came after months of public review of the proposed new standards, as well as long and fierce internal discussion within the Clinton administration, leading to the most divisive environmental debate of that decade.[46] The new regulations were challenged in the courts by industry groups as a violation of the U.S. Constitution's nondelegation principle and eventually landed in the Supreme Court of the United States,[45] whose 2001 unanimous ruling in Whitman v. American Trucking Ass'ns, Inc. largely upheld EPA's actions.[47]\n\nThe Clean Air Act (CAA or Act) directs EPA to establish national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for pollutants at levels that will protect public health. EPA and American Lung Association promoted the 2011 Cross State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) to control ozone and fine particles. Aim was to cut emissions half from 2005 to 2014. It was claimed to prevent each year 400,000 asthma cases and save ca 2m work and schooldays lost by respiratory illness. Some states (e.g. Texas), cities and power companies sued the case (EPA v EME Homer City Generation).[48] The appeals-court judges decided by two to one that the rule is too strict. Based on appeals the power companies were allowed to continue thousands of persons respiratory illnesses prolonged time in the USA. According to the Economist (2013) the Supreme Court decision may affect how the EPA regulates other pollutants, including the greenhouse gases.[49]\n\nRoles of the federal government and states[edit]\n\nAlthough the 1990 Clean Air Act is a federal law covering the entire country, the states do much of the work to carry out the Act. The EPA has allowed the individual states to elect responsibility for compliance with and regulation of the CAA within their own borders in exchange for funding. For example, a state air pollution agency holds a hearing on a permit application by a power or chemical plant or fines a company for violating air pollution limits. However, election is not mandatory and in some cases states have chosen to not accept responsibility for enforcement of the act and force the EPA to assume those duties.\n\nIn order to take over compliance with the CAA the states must write and submit a state implementation plan (SIP) to the EPA for approval. A state implementation plan is a collection of the regulations a state will use to clean up polluted areas. The states are obligated to notify the public of these plans, through hearings that offer opportunities to comment, in the development of each state implementation plan. The SIP becomes the state's legal guide for local enforcement of the CAA. For example, Rhode Island law requires compliance with the Federal CAA through the SIP.[50] The SIP delegates permitting and enforcement responsibility to the state Department of Environmental Management (RI-DEM).\n\nThe federal law recognizes that states should lead in carrying out the Clean Air Act, because pollution control problems often require special understanding of local industries, geography, housing patterns, etc. However, states are not allowed to have weaker pollution controls than the national minimum criteria set by EPA. EPA must approve each SIP, and if a SIP isn't acceptable, EPA can take over CAA enforcement in that state.\n\nThe United States government, through the EPA, assists the states by providing scientific research, expert studies, engineering designs, and money to support clean air programs.\n\nMetropolitan planning organizations must approve all federally funded transportation projects in a given urban area. If the MPO's plans do not, Federal Highway Administration and the Federal Transit Administration have the authority to withhold funds if the plans do not conform with federal requirements, including air quality standards.[51] In 2010, the EPA directly fined the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District $29 million for failure to meet ozone standards, resulting in fees for county drivers and businesses. This was the results of a federal appeals court case that required the EPA to continue enforce older, stronger standards,[52] and spurred debate in Congress over amending the Act.[53]\n\nState Programs[edit]\n\nMany states, or concerned citizens of the state, have established their own programs to help promote pollution clean-up strategies.\n\nFor example,(in alphabetical order by state)\n\n  \u2022 California - California's Clean Air Project - designed to create a smoke-free gaming atmosphere in tribal casinos\n  \u2022 Georgia - The Clean Air Campaign\n  \u2022 Illinois - Illinois Citizens for Clean Air and Water - coalition of farmers and other citizens to reduce harmful effects of large-scale livestock production methods\n  \u2022 New York - Clean Air NY\n  \u2022 Oklahoma - \"Breathe Easy\" - Oklahoma Statutes on Smoking in Public Places and Indoor Workplaces (Effective November 1, 2010)[54]\n  \u2022 Oregon - Indoor Clean Air Act - Statutes on Smoking in Indoor Workplaces and Within 10ft of an Entrance[55]\n  \u2022 Texas - Drive Clean Across Texas\n  \u2022 Virginia - Virginia Clean Cities, Inc.\n\nInterstate air pollution[edit]\n\nAir pollution often travels from its source in one state to another state. In many metropolitan areas, people live in one state and work or shop in another; air pollution from cars and trucks may spread throughout the interstate area. The 1990 Clean Air Act provides for interstate commissions on air pollution control, which are to develop regional strategies for cleaning up air pollution. The 1990 amendments include other provisions to reduce interstate air pollution.\n\nThe Acid Rain Program, created under Title IV of the Act, authorizes emissions trading to reduce the overall cost of controlling emissions of sulfur dioxide.\n\nLeak detection and repair[edit]\n\nThe Act requires industrial facilities to implement a Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR) program to monitor and audit a facility's fugitive emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC). The program is intended to identify and repair components such as valves, pumps, compressors, flanges, connectors and other components that may be leaking. These components are the main source of the fugitive VOC emissions.\n\nTesting is done manually using a portable vapor analyzer that read in parts per million (ppm). Monitoring frequency, and the leak threshold, is determined by various factors such as the type of component being tested and the chemical running through the line. Moving components such as pumps and agitators are monitored more frequently than non-moving components such as flanges and screwed connectors. The regulations require that when a leak is detected the component be repaired within a set amount of days. Most facilities get 5 days for an initial repair attempt with no more than 15 days for a complete repair. Allowances for delaying the repairs beyond the allowed time are made for some components where repairing the component requires shutting process equipment down.\n\nApplication to greenhouse gas emissions[edit]\n\nMain article: Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act\n\nEPA began regulating greenhouse gases (GHGs) from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution under the Clean Air Act for the first time on January 2, 2011. Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA, and GHGs from stationary sources are controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act.\n\nBelow is a table for the sources of greenhouse gases, taken from data in 2008.[56] Of all greenhouse gases, about 76 percent of the sources are manageable under the CAA, marked with an asterisk (*). All others are regulated independently, if at all.\n\nSource Percentage\nElectric Generation* 34%\nIndustry* 15%\nLarge Non-Agricultural Methane Sources* 5%\nLight-, Medium-, and Heavy-Duty Vehicles* 22%\nOther Transport 7%\nCommercial and Residential Heating 7%\nAgriculture 7%\nHFCs 2%\nOther 1%\n\nClean Air Act and environmental justice[edit]\n\nBy promoting pollution reduction, the Clean Air Act can help reduce heightened exposure to air pollution among communities of color and low-income communities.[57] Environmental researcher Dr. Marie Lynn Miranda notes that African American populations are \u201cconsistently overrepresented\u201d in areas with the poorest air quality.[58] Dense populations of low-income and minority communities inhabit the most polluted areas across the United States, which is considered to exacerbate health problems among these populations.[59] High levels of exposure to air pollution is linked to several health conditions, including asthma, cancer, premature death, and infant mortality, each of which disproportionately impact communities of color and low-income communities.[60] The pollution reduction achieved by the Clean Air Act is associated with a decline in each of these conditions and can promote environmental justice for communities that are disproportionately impacted by air pollution and diminished health status.[60]\n\nClean Air Act violations[edit]\n\nMajor cases of Clean Air Act violations include:\n\n  \u2022 The Volkswagen emissions scandal (2015);\n  \u2022 Caterpillar and five other manufacturers violated diesel engine emission standards (consent decree, July 1999)[61][better\u00a0source\u00a0needed]\n  \u2022 Alleged violations by Hyundai and Kia which resulted in a total $100 million in civil penalties paid to the United States and to the California Air Resources Board.[62]\n\nEffects[edit]\n\nA 2017 study found that the Clean Air Act of 1970 led to an over 10 percent reduction in pollution (\"ambient TSP levels\") in counties that exceeded the pollution thresholds set by the Act in the three years after the regulation went into effect. The study found that this regulation-induced reduction in air pollution is caused affected workers to work more and earned one percent more in annual earnings. The authors estimate that cumulative lifetime income gain for each affected individual is approximately $4,300 in present value terms.[63]\n\nA 2018 study found that the Clean Air Act contributed to the 60% decline in pollution emissions by the manufacturing industry between 1990 and 2008.[64][65]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Clean Air Act (disambiguation)\n  \u2022 Air quality law\n  \u2022 United States environmental law\n  \u2022 Alan Carlin, controversy over the EPA carbon dioxide endangerment finding\n  \u2022 Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management\n  \u2022 Emission standard\n  \u2022 Emissions trading\n  \u2022 Environmental policy of the United States\n  \u2022 Startups, shutdowns, and malfunctions\n  \u2022 The Center for Clean Air Policy (in the US)\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act\". Clean Air Act Overview. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). April 2007.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Environmental Laws and Treaties\". Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved 2015-12-22.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Gordon, Erin L. \"History of the Modern Environmental Movement in America\" (PDF).\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Summary of the Clean Air Act\". EPA. Retrieved 2015-12-22.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Shekhtman, Lonnie. \"Beijing smog: What makes some cities cleaner than others?\". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN\u00a00882-7729. Retrieved 2015-12-22.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Yang,, Ming. Energy Efficiency: Benefits for Environment and Society.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \u00a0This article incorporates\u00a0public domain material from the United States Government document \"History of the Clean Air Act, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\".\"History of the Clean Air Act\". Environmental Protection Agency. August 8, 2013. Retrieved August 23, 2014.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \u00a0This article incorporates\u00a0public domain material from the United States Government document \"EPA History, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\".\"EPA History\". Environmental Protection Agency. March 12, 2014. Retrieved August 23, 2014.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Rinde, Meir (2017). \"Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism\". Distillations. 3 (1): 16\u201329. Retrieved 4 April 2018.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ EPA Alumni Association: EPA Administrator William K. Reilly describes why passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments was vitally important. Reflections on US Environmental Policy: An Interview with William K. Reilly Video, Transcript (see p10).\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Clean Air Act: Title I - Air Pollution Prevention and Control\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ EPA. \"Clean Air Act: Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection.\" Archived 2010-11-26 at the Wayback Machine. Updated 2008-12-19.\n  13. Jump up ^ \"The Clean Air Act in a Nutshell: How It Works\" (pdf). Retrieved 2014-04-24. Collectively, the PSD permitting program and nonattainment area permitting program for major sources are known as \"New Source Review.\" Before starting the construction of a new major source located in an attainment, or unclassifiable area, or the modification of an existing major source that results in a significant emissions increase in such areas, the source must obtain a PSD permit under the Act.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b EPA (1990). New Source Review Workshop Manual: Prevention of Significant Deterioration and Nonattainment Area Permitting.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Clean Air Act: Title II - Emission Standards for Moving Sources\". EPA. Retrieved 30 April 2012.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Trendowski, John. \"Sustainability Trends \u2014 Reducing Emissions at Airports\" (PDF). Airport Magazine. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2012.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Aircraft Emissions Expected to Grow, but Technological and Operational Improvements and Government Policies Can Help Control Emissions\" (PDF). U.S. Government Accountability Office. Retrieved 22 April 2012.\u00a0 Report no. GAO-09-554.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Clean Air Act\". Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 22 April 2012.\u00a0\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"www.biodiesel.org\" (PDF). The Clean Air Act's Clean-Fuel Vehicle Program. Retrieved 10 March 2012.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Shackleton, Abe (2011-06-06). \"What is Ethanol?\". Open Fuel Standard. Retrieved 2014-01-06.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Shackleton, Abe (2011-05-31). \"What is Methanol?\". Open Fuel Standard. Retrieved 2014-01-06.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Title III: General\" Clean Air Act, United States. The Earth Encyclopedia. Updated: Apr 12, 2011. http:\/\/www.eoearth.org\/article\/Clean_Air_Act,_United_States\n  23. Jump up ^ CAA section 304, 42 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a07604.\n  24. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Title IV: Acid Deposition Control. Clean Air Act, United States. The Earth Encyclopedia. Updated: April 12, 2011\".\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b EPA. \"Permits and Enforcement.\" The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act. Revised 2011-11-08.\n  26. ^ Jump up to: a b McCarthy, James. \"Clean Air Act: A Summary of the Act and its Major Requirements\" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Retrieved 23 April 2012.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ EPA (February 1998). \"Air Pollution Operating Permit Program Update: Key Features and Benefits.\" Document no. EPA\/451\/K-98\/002. p. 1.\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b EPA. \"Protecting the Stratospheric Ozone Layer.\" The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act. Revised 2011-11-08.\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Title VI: Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Clean Air Act, United States. The Earth Encyclopedia. Updated: April 12, 2011\".\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program\". US EPA. Retrieved 5 August 2013.\u00a0\n  31. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobson, Mark Z. (April 2012). Air Pollution and Global Warming History, Science, and Solutions (Google Books) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.\u00a0175, 176. ISBN\u00a09781107691155.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Clean Air Act of 1963, P.L. 88-206, 77\u00a0Stat.\u00a0392, 1963-12-17.\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobson, Mark Z. (2002). Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-01044-3.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ EPA. \"History of the Clean Air Act.\" Updated 2010-11-16.\n  35. Jump up ^ Clean Air Act Extension of 1970, 84\u00a0Stat.\u00a01676, P.L. 91-604, 1970-12-31.\n  36. Jump up ^ EPA. \"National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).\" Updated 2011-04-18.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Muskie Act\". Toyota Motor Corp.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ EPA Alumni Association: William Ruckelshaus in a 2013 interview discusses his first-term efforts at implementing the Clean Air Act of 1970, Video, Transcript (see p14).\n  39. Jump up ^ Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, P.L. 95-95, 91\u00a0Stat.\u00a0685, 1977-08-07.\n  40. Jump up ^ EPA. \"Reducing Toxic Air Pollutants.\" The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act. Revised 2011-11-08.\n  41. Jump up ^ Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, P.L. 101-549, 104\u00a0Stat.\u00a02399, 1990-11-15.\n  42. Jump up ^ EPA. \"What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?\" Revised 2010-07-01.\n  43. Jump up ^ EPA (2011). \"The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2020. Final Report.\" (also known as the \"Second Prospective Study.\")\n  44. Jump up ^ Cushman Jr.; John H. (June 26, 1997). \"Clinton Sharply Tightens Air Pollution Regulations Despite Concern Over Costs\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  45. ^ Jump up to: a b Chebium, Raju (November 7, 2000). \"U.S. Supreme Court hears clean air cases regarding smog and soot standards\". CNN. Archived from the original on 2007-09-19.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Cushman Jr.; John H. (June 25, 1997). \"D'Amato Vows to Fight for E.P.A.'s Tightened Air Standards\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2001-02-28). \"E.P.A.'s Right to Set Air Rules Wins Supreme Court Backing\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Supreme Court Of The United States Decided April 29, 2014\n  49. Jump up ^ Interstate pollution Smother my neighbour The Economist September 7th 2013 page 37\n  50. Jump up ^ Rhode Island General Law, Title 23, Chapter 23, Section 2 (RIGL 23-23-2).\n  51. Jump up ^ Texas Department of Transportation (2010). \"Metropolitan Planning Funds Administration. Section 5: Planning Process Self-Certification.\" TxDOT Manual System.\n  52. Jump up ^ Nelson, Gabriel (2011-07-01). \"D.C. Circuit Rejects EPA's Latest Guidance on Smog Standards\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Nelson, Gabriel (2011-05-03). \"Republicans seek to spare smoggy Calif. areas from punishment\". Environment & Energy News. E&E Publishing.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Breathe Easy OK - Secondhand Smoke Laws\". Ok.gov. 2002-07-01. Retrieved 2014-01-06.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Oregon ICAA\". Oregon Health Authority. Oregon Public Health Division. Retrieved 27 April 2017.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ EPA (2010). \"Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990\u20132008.\" Document no. 430-R-10-006. Office of Atmospheric Programs.\n  57. Jump up ^ EPA, OAR, US. \"Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges\". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Miranda, Marie Lynn; Edwards, Sharon E.; Keating, Martha H.; Paul, Christopher J. (2017-04-18). \"Making the Environmental Justice Grade: The Relative Burden of Air Pollution Exposure in the United States\". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 8 (6): 1755\u20131771. doi:10.3390\/ijerph8061755. ISSN\u00a01661-7827. PMC\u00a03137995\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a021776200.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ Massey, Rachel (2004). \"Environmental Justice: Income, Race, and Health\" (PDF). Tufts University Global Development And Environment Institute, Tufts University.\u00a0\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b \"ADVANCING ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE THROUGH POLLUTION PREVENTION A Report developed from the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council Meeting of December 9-13, 2002\" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. 2002.\u00a0 |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)\n  61. Jump up ^ Caterpillar Inc.#Clean Air Act violation\n  62. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2014-11\/documents\/hyundai-kia-cd.pdf\n  63. Jump up ^ Isen, Adam; Rossin-Slater, Maya; Walker, W. Reed (2017-05-01). \"Every Breath You Take\u2014Every Dollar You'll Make: The Long-Term Consequences of the Clean Air Act of 1970\". Journal of Political Economy. doi:10.1086\/691465. ISSN\u00a00022-3808.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Environmental regulations drove steep declines in U.S. factory pollution\". Berkeley News. 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2018-08-11.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ Shapiro, Joseph S.; Walker, Reed. \"Why is Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing Declining? The Roles of Environmental Regulation, Productivity, and Trade\". American Economic Review. doi:10.1257\/aer.20151272&&from=f. ISSN\u00a00002-8282.\u00a0\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 EPA Alumni Association. \"Cleaning the Air We Breathe: A Half Century of Progress.\". September 2016.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikisource has original text related to this article:\nClean Air Act\n  \u2022 EPA Enforcement and Compliance History Online\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUnited States environmental law\nSupreme Court\ndecisions\n  \u2022 Missouri v. Holland (1920)\n  \u2022 Sierra Club v. Morton (1972)\n  \u2022 United States v. SCRAP (1973)\n  \u2022 Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill (1978)\n  \u2022 Vermont Yankee v. NRDC (1978)\n  \u2022 Hughes v. Oklahoma (1979)\n  \u2022 Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife (1992)\n  \u2022 United States v. Bestfoods (1998)\n  \u2022 Friends of the Earth v. Laidlaw Environmental Services (2000)\n  \u2022 SWANCC v. Army Corps of Engineers (2001)\n  \u2022 Department of Transportation v. Public Citizen (2004)\n  \u2022 Rapanos v. United States (2006)\n  \u2022 Massachusetts v. EPA (2007)\n  \u2022 National Ass'n of Home Builders v. Defenders of Wildlife (2007)\n  \u2022 Coeur Alaska, Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council (2009)\nMajor\nfederal legislation\nand treaties\n  \u2022 Rivers and Harbors Act (1899)\n  \u2022 Lacey Act (1900)\n  \u2022 Weeks Act (1911)\n  \u2022 North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 (1911)\n  \u2022 Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918)\n  \u2022 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1934)\n  \u2022 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act (1954)\n  \u2022 Clean Air Act (1963, 1970)\n  \u2022 National Environmental Policy Act (1970)\n  \u2022 Clean Water Act (1972)\n  \u2022 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1972)\n  \u2022 Noise Control Act (1972)\n  \u2022 Endangered Species Act (1973)\n  \u2022 Safe Drinking Water Act (1974)\n  \u2022 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)\n  \u2022 Toxic Substances Control Act (1976)\n  \u2022 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977)\n  \u2022 CERCLA (Superfund) (1980)\n  \u2022 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986)\n  \u2022 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act (1986)\n  \u2022 Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act (2016)\nFederal agencies\n  \u2022 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry\n  \u2022 Council on Environmental Quality\n  \u2022 Office of Surface Mining\n  \u2022 United States Environmental Protection Agency\n  \u2022 United States Fish and Wildlife Service\nRegulations\nand concepts\n  \u2022 Best available technology\n  \u2022 Citizen suit\n  \u2022 Discharge Monitoring Report\n  \u2022 Effluent guidelines\n  \u2022 Environmental crime\n  \u2022 Environmental impact statement\n  \u2022 Environmental justice\n  \u2022 National Ambient Air Quality Standards\n  \u2022 National Priorities List\n  \u2022 New Source Performance Standard\n  \u2022 Not-To-Exceed (NTE)\n  \u2022 Right to know\n  \u2022 Total maximum daily load\n  \u2022 Toxicity category rating\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNatural resources\nAir\nPollution\u00a0\/ quality\n  \u2022 Ambient standards (USA)\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Indoor\n    \u2022 developing nations\n  \u2022 Law\n    \u2022 Clean Air Act (USA)\n  \u2022 Ozone depletion\nEmissions\n  \u2022 Airshed\n  \u2022 Trading\n  \u2022 Deforestation (REDD)\nCarson Falls on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo\nEnergy\n  \u2022 Law\n  \u2022 Resources\n  \u2022 Fossil fuels\u00a0(peak oil)\n  \u2022 Geothermal\n  \u2022 Hydro\n    \u2022 tidal\n    \u2022 wave\n  \u2022 Nuclear\n  \u2022 Solar\n    \u2022 sunlight\n    \u2022 shade\n  \u2022 Wind\nLand\n  \u2022 Arable\n    \u2022 peak farmland\n  \u2022 Degradation\n  \u2022 Law\n    \u2022 property\n  \u2022 Management\n    \u2022 habitat conservation\n  \u2022 Minerals\n    \u2022 mining\n      \u2022 law\n      \u2022 sand\n    \u2022 peak\n    \u2022 rights\n  \u2022 Soil\n    \u2022 conservation\n    \u2022 fertility\n    \u2022 health\n    \u2022 resilience\n  \u2022 Use\n    \u2022 planning\n    \u2022 reserve\nLife\n  \u2022 Biodiversity\n  \u2022 Bioprospecting\n  \u2022 Biosphere\n  \u2022 Bushfood\n  \u2022 Bushmeat\n  \u2022 Fisheries\n    \u2022 law\n    \u2022 management\n  \u2022 Food\n  \u2022 Forests\n    \u2022 genetic resources\n    \u2022 law\n    \u2022 management\n  \u2022 Game\n    \u2022 law\n  \u2022 Gene bank\n  \u2022 Herbalist plants\n  \u2022 Marine conservation\n  \u2022 Non-timber forest products\n  \u2022 Rangeland\n  \u2022 Seed bank\n  \u2022 Wildlife\n    \u2022 conservation\n    \u2022 management\n  \u2022 Wood\nWater\nTypes\u00a0\/ location\n  \u2022 Aquifer\n    \u2022 storage and recovery\n  \u2022 Drinking\n  \u2022 Fresh\n  \u2022 Groundwater\n    \u2022 pollution\n    \u2022 recharge\n    \u2022 remediation\n  \u2022 Hydrosphere\n  \u2022 Ice\n    \u2022 bergs\n    \u2022 glacial\n    \u2022 polar\n  \u2022 Irrigation\n  \u2022 Rain\n    \u2022 harvesting\n  \u2022 Stormwater\n  \u2022 Surface water\n  \u2022 Wastewater\n    \u2022 reclaimed\nAspects\n  \u2022 Desalination\n  \u2022 Floods\n  \u2022 Law\n  \u2022 Leaching\n  \u2022 Sanitation\n  \u2022 Conflict\n  \u2022 Conservation\n  \u2022 Peak water\n  \u2022 Pollution\n  \u2022 Privatization\n  \u2022 Quality\n  \u2022 Right\n  \u2022 Resources\n    \u2022 management\n    \u2022 policy\nRelated\n  \u2022 Commons\n    \u2022 enclosure\n    \u2022 global\n    \u2022 land\n    \u2022 tragedy of\n  \u2022 Economics\n    \u2022 ecological\n    \u2022 land\n  \u2022 Ecosystem services\n  \u2022 Exploitation\n    \u2022 overexploitation\n    \u2022 Earth Overshoot Day\n  \u2022 Management\n    \u2022 adaptive\n  \u2022 Natural capital\n    \u2022 accounting\n  \u2022 Nature reserve\n  \u2022 Systems ecology\n  \u2022 Urban ecology\n  \u2022 Wilderness\nResource\n  \u2022 Common-pool\n  \u2022 Conflict (perpetuation)\n  \u2022 Curse\n  \u2022 Depletion\n  \u2022 Extraction\n  \u2022 Nationalism\n  \u2022 Renewable\u00a0\/ Non-renewable\nPortal Portals\n  \u2022 Agriculture and agronomy\n  \u2022 Energy\n  \u2022 Environment\n  \u2022 Fishing\n  \u2022 Forestry\n  \u2022 Mining\n  \u2022 Water\n  \u2022 Wetlands\n  \u2022 Category Category\n    \u2022 agencies\n    \u2022 law\n    \u2022 management\n    \u2022 ministries\n    \u2022 organizations\n  \u2022 Colleges\n  \u2022 Commons page Natural resources\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 LCCN: n81077007\n  \u2022 NARA: 10639941\n  \u2022 VIAF: 88145857847123021522\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)&oldid=854505251\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Air pollution in the United States\n  \u2022 Climate change in the United States\n  \u2022 United States federal environmental legislation\n  \u2022 1970 in law\n  \u2022 1990 in law\n  \u2022 88th United States Congress\n  \u2022 1963 in the environment\n  \u2022 1970 in the environment\n  \u2022 1970 in the United States\n  \u2022 1990 in the United States\n  \u2022 Environmental law in the United States\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 CS1 errors: missing author or editor\n  \u2022 Articles needing cleanup from March 2017\n  \u2022 All pages needing cleanup\n  \u2022 Cleanup tagged articles with a reason field from March 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from March 2017\n  \u2022 Articles to be expanded from June 2011\n  \u2022 All articles to be expanded\n  \u2022 Articles using small message boxes\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from May 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 11 August 2018, at 21:07\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"1030650368316108760","title":"Wikipedia:Sauce for the goose is (not) sauce for the gander","text":"Wikipedia:Sauce for the goose is (not) sauce for the gander\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nEssay.svg\nThis page is an essay.\nIt contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, as it has not been thoroughly vetted by the community. Some essays represent widespread norms; others only represent minority viewpoints.\nShortcuts\n  \u2022 WP:SAUCE\n  \u2022 WP:GOOSE\n  \u2022 WP:GANDER\nThis page in a nutshell: This phrase is employed to expose holding forth a \"double standard.\" If some kind of behavior is wrong, it's probably wrong for both sides, not just one. Don't do it yourself either.\n\nThere's an old saying, \"What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.\" This meshes well with the Golden Rule, or ethic of reciprocity, which is a key moral principle in many religions and philosophies, and is often stated as \"Do unto others as you wish to be done for you\", or conversely, \"Don't do unto others what you would not wish to be done to you.\"\n\nTasty sauces to enjoy on your stir-fried wikipedia. But are they reliable sauces?\nLook up sauce for the goose in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\nUnfortunately, when the infighting here in Wikipedia gets heated, participants often forget this principle and do unto their opponents things that would not be fair to be done unto them, and sometimes add insult to injury by crying \"fowl\" if their opponents do in fact raise similar objections to their own actions (and those of their friends) to the ones they raised against the opponents in the first place. These \"wars\" can easily turn both parties into hypocrites.\n\nSome of the sorts of things that violate this principle include:\n\n  \u2022 Trying to squelch or discredit an opposing viewpoint by associating it with a banned editor who espoused something similar, when in fact some of your own viewpoints are similar to those of a different banned editor.\n  \u2022 Insisting that some publication or Web site is not a reliable source when it's being used to support viewpoints you oppose, but turning around and insisting the same or a similar site or publication is a reliable source when it supports a viewpoint you agree with.\n  \u2022 Demanding strict adherence to WP:BLP and WP:NPA when it comes to negative statements about yourself, your friends, and people you like, while making unrestrained ad hominem statements to badmouth people you dislike.\n  \u2022 Insisting that comments you dislike on others' user pages be deleted under WP:SOAP, while defending similarly inflammatory comments on other user pages if you happen to agree or sympathize with them.\n  \u2022 Supporting the deletion of an article about a marginally notable person, company, organization, band, Web site, or other thing that you personally dislike, while opposing the deletion of another one of a similar level of notability that you personally like.\n  \u2022 Insisting that all policies and processes must be followed strictly when it suits you, but saying \"screw process!\" and Ignore All Rules when that suits you.\n  \u2022 Saying harsh things about the insubordinate ingrates who fail to completely love, honor, and obey the ArbCom, Jimbo, and the other Powers That Be in Wikipedia... until ArbCom, Jimbo, or other TPTBs issue a ruling that you disagree with, at which point raising a loud objection and challenging the legitimacy of this exercise of power is called for.\n  \u2022 Raising a major fuss about how your personal information has been \"outed\" by somebody else, and that they need to be immediately banned and the information oversighted right away... while you're posting similar personal information about that person yourself.\n  \u2022 Demanding topic bans be strictly enforced where opponents of yours are concerned, while excusing ban violations on \"your side\" by saying an edit was just a trivial spelling correction, etc., and not really an actual violation even if it technically qualifies.\n  \u2022 Calling it \"harassment\" when somebody you dislike keeps leaving warnings against you on your talk page after you have removed their prior warnings... but also calling it \"harassment\" when somebody you dislike removes the warnings you left against them on their talk page.\n\nSo what's the point? Simply that consistency is a virtue (never mind that other saying that \"a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds\"[1]!), and it's best to step back and think a little before you take a position that will seem in the light of day to be purely self-serving and hypocritical. Do unto thine enemies what you'd like to be done unto thy friends, and expect your good or bad karma to return threefold.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Wikipedia:Don't call the kettle black\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo, \"Self Reliance\", Essays: First Series, 1841\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Sauce_for_the_goose_is_(not)_sauce_for_the_gander&oldid=839555764\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia essays\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Project page\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 4 May 2018, at 05:25\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8788616595671419029","title":"Zimbabwe","text":"Zimbabwe\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nChanges must be reviewed before being displayed on this page.show\/hide details\nThis is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 30 May 2018.\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article is about the country. For the historical city, see Great Zimbabwe. For other uses, see Zimbabwe (disambiguation).\n\"ZWE\" redirects here. For other uses, see ZWE (disambiguation).\n\nCoordinates: 20\u00b0S 30\u00b0E\ufeff \/ \ufeff20\u00b0S 30\u00b0E\ufeff \/ -20; 30\n\nRepublic of Zimbabwe\nFlag of Zimbabwe\nFlag\nCoat of arms of Zimbabwe\nCoat of arms\nMotto:\u00a0\"Unity, Freedom, Work\"[1]\nAnthem:\u00a0\n\"Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe\"[2]\nLocation of \u00a0Zimbabwe\u00a0\u00a0(dark blue)in the African Union\u00a0\u00a0(light blue)\nLocation of \u00a0Zimbabwe\u00a0\u00a0(dark blue)\n\nin the African Union\u00a0\u00a0(light blue)\n\nCapital\nand largest city\nHarare\n17\u00b050\u2032S 31\u00b03\u2032E\ufeff \/ \ufeff17.833\u00b0S 31.050\u00b0E\ufeff \/ -17.833; 31.050\nOfficial\u00a0languages\n16 languages[a][show]\n  \u2022 Chewa\n  \u2022 Chibarwe\n  \u2022 English\n  \u2022 Kalanga\n  \u2022 \"Koisan\"\n    (presumably Tsoa)\n  \u2022 Nambya\n  \u2022 Ndau\n  \u2022 Ndebele\n  \u2022 Shangani\n  \u2022 Shona\n  \u2022 \"sign language\"\n  \u2022 Sotho\n  \u2022 Tonga\n  \u2022 Tswana\n  \u2022 Venda\n  \u2022 Xhosa\nEthnic\u00a0groups (2012)\n  \u2022 99.4% Black African (over 80% Shona; Ndebele are largest minority)\n  \u2022 0.2% White African\n  \u2022 0.4% others, including Coloured and Indian\nDemonym Zimbabwean\nZimbo[4] (colloquial)\nGovernment\n  \u2022 Unitary dominant-party presidential republic (de jure)\n  \u2022 Military dictatorship under a presidential republic (de facto)\n\u2022\u00a0President\nEmmerson Mnangagwa\n\u2022\u00a0 Vice President\nConstantino Chiwenga\n\u2022\u00a0 Vice President\nKembo Mohadi\nLegislature Parliament\n\u2022\u00a0Upper house\nSenate\n\u2022\u00a0Lower house\nHouse of Assembly\nIndependence from the United Kingdom\n\u2022\u00a0Declared\n11 November 1965\n\u2022\u00a0Republic\n2 March 1970\n\u2022\u00a0Zimbabwe Rhodesia\n1 June 1979\n\u2022\u00a0Republic of Zimbabwe\n18 April 1980\n\u2022\u00a0Current constitution\n15 May 2013\nArea\n\u2022\u00a0Total\n390,757\u00a0km2 (150,872\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) (60th)\n\u2022\u00a0Water\u00a0(%)\n1\nPopulation\n\u2022\u00a02016\u00a0estimate\n16,150,362[5] (73rd)\n\u2022\u00a02012\u00a0census\n12,973,808[6]\n\u2022\u00a0Density\n26\/km2 (67.3\/sq\u00a0mi) (170th)\nGDP\u00a0(PPP) 2017\u00a0estimate\n\u2022\u00a0Total\n$33.872 billion[7]\n\u2022\u00a0Per capita\n$2,276[7]\nGDP\u00a0(nominal) 2017\u00a0estimate\n\u2022\u00a0Total\n$17.105 billion[7]\n\u2022\u00a0Per capita\n$1,149[7]\nGini\u00a0(1995) 50.1[8]\nhigh\nHDI\u00a0(2015) Increase\u00a00.516[9]\nlow\u00a0\u00b7\u00a0154th\nCurrency United States dollar (official for government), South African rand, and many other currenciesa, e.g. Botswana pula, euro, Chinese renminbi, Indian rupees, pound sterling, Australian dollars. Zimbabwean bond coins are used as a proxy for US dollar and cent coins. Zimbabwean bond notes for 2 and 5 dollars were introduced in 2016 at par value of the US dollar\nTime zone CAT[10] (UTC+2)\nDrives on the left\nCalling code +263\nISO 3166 code ZW\nInternet TLD .zw\n  1. The Zimbabwean dollar is no longer in active use after it was officially suspended by the government due to hyperinflation. The United States dollar (US$), Euro (\u20ac), South African rand (R), Botswana pula (P), Pound sterling (\u00a3), Indian rupees (\u20b9), Australian dollars (A$), Chinese Renminbi (\u5143\/\u00a5), and Japanese yen (\u00a5)[11] are legal tender.[12] The United States dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions.\n\nZimbabwe (\/z\u026am\u02c8b\u0251\u02d0bwe\u026a\/), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe,[13] is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Zambia and Mozambique. The capital and largest city is Harare. A country of roughly 16 million[5] people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages,[14] with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used.\n\nSince the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a major route for migration and trade. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s; it became the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia in 1923. In 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. The state endured international isolation and a 15-year guerrilla war with black nationalist forces; this culminated in a peace agreement that established universal enfranchisement and de jure sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980. Zimbabwe then joined the Commonwealth of Nations, which it withdrew from in December 2003. It is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). It was once known as the \"Jewel of Africa\" for its prosperity.[15][16][17]\n\nRobert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the elections following the end of white minority rule; he was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987 until his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's authoritarian regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread human rights violations.[18] Mugabe maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric of the Cold War era, blaming Zimbabwe's economic woes on conspiring Western capitalist countries.[19] Contemporary African political leaders were reluctant to criticise Mugabe, who was burnished by his anti-imperialist credentials, though Archbishop Desmond Tutu called him \"a cartoon figure of an archetypal African dictator\".[20] The country has been in economic decline since the 1990s, experiencing several crashes and hyperinflation along the way.[21]\n\nOn 15 November 2017, in the wake of over a year of protests against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, Mugabe was placed under house arrest by the country's national army in a coup d'\u00e9tat.[22][23] On 19 November 2017, ZANU-PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice President Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place.[24] On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed.[25]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Etymology\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 Pre-colonial era (1000\u20131887)\n    \u2022 2.2 Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888\u20131964)\n    \u2022 2.3 UDI and civil war (1965\u20131980)\n    \u2022 2.4 Independence era (1980\u2013present)\n  \u2022 3 Geography and environment\n    \u2022 3.1 Climate\n    \u2022 3.2 Flora and fauna\n    \u2022 3.3 Environmental issues\n  \u2022 4 Government and politics\n    \u2022 4.1 Human rights\n    \u2022 4.2 Armed forces\n    \u2022 4.3 Administrative divisions\n  \u2022 5 Economy\n    \u2022 5.1 Agriculture\n    \u2022 5.2 Tourism\n    \u2022 5.3 Water supply and sanitation\n  \u2022 6 Science and technology\n  \u2022 7 Demographics\n    \u2022 7.1 Largest cities\n    \u2022 7.2 Language\n    \u2022 7.3 Refugee crisis\n    \u2022 7.4 Religion\n  \u2022 8 Culture\n    \u2022 8.1 Arts\n    \u2022 8.2 Cuisine\n    \u2022 8.3 Sports\n    \u2022 8.4 Media\n    \u2022 8.5 Scouting\n    \u2022 8.6 National symbols\n  \u2022 9 Health\n  \u2022 10 Education\n  \u2022 11 See also\n  \u2022 12 Source\n  \u2022 13 Notes\n  \u2022 14 References\n  \u2022 15 Sources\n  \u2022 16 Further reading\n  \u2022 17 External links\n\nEtymology[edit]\n\nFurther information: Great Zimbabwe and Rhodesia (name)\n\nThe name \"Zimbabwe\" stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the country's south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that \"Zimbabwe\" derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as \"large houses of stone\" (dzimba = plural of imba, \"house\"; mabwe = plural of bwe, \"stone\").[26][27][28] The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the modern-day province of Masvingo. Archaeologist Peter Garlake claims that \"Zimbabwe\" represents a contracted form of dzimba-hwe, which means \"venerated houses\" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually references chiefs' houses or graves.[29]\n\nZimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia (1898), Rhodesia (1965), and Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979). The first recorded use of \"Zimbabwe\" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as a coinage by the black nationalist Michael Mawema,[30] whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961.[31] The term \"Rhodesia\"\u2014derived from the surname of Cecil Rhodes, the primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory during the late 19th century\u2014was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations.[30]\n\nAccording to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as \"Matshobana\" and \"Monomotapa\" before his suggestion, \"Zimbabwe\", prevailed.[32] A further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been \"Matopos\", referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo.[31]\n\nIt was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used \u2014 a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to \"Zimbabweland\"[31] \u2014 but \"Zimbabwe\" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.[30] In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a political rally, \"and it caught hold, and that was that\".[30] The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964\u20131979. Major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union (led by Robert Mugabe from 1975), and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (led by Joshua Nkomo from its founding in the early 1960s).[citation needed]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nMain article: History of Zimbabwe\n\nPre-colonial era (1000\u20131887)[edit]\n\nFurther information: Bantu expansion\nTowers of Great Zimbabwe.\n\nProto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilisations that would dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins at Great Zimbabwe, near Masvingo, and other smaller sites. The main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture.\n\nThe Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.[33]\n\nFrom about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. From c. 1450 to 1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa. This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa as well as \"Munhumutapa\", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.[33]\n\nAs a direct response to increased European presence in the interior, and especially due to the increasing amount of Carnegie family farmers, a new Shona state emerged, known as the Rozwi Empire. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning \"destroyers\") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau by force of arms. They continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding muskets to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to defend recent conquests.[citation needed]\n\nAround 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled against King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane. When Dutch trekboers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward. By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to vassaldom.[34]\n\nAfter losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, Lobengula.\n\nColonial era and Rhodesia (1888\u20131964)[edit]\n\nMain articles: Company rule in Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMatabeleland in the 19th century.\n\nIn the 1880s, white colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company (BSAC).[35] In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples.[36] He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland as well.[37]\n\nRhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column, a group of Europeans protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (now Harare), and thereby establish company rule over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new Maxim guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the First Matabele War. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as \"Zambesia\".[37]\n\nIn accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,[37] mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources.[38]\n\nIn 1895, the BSAC adopted the name \"Rhodesia\" for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898 \"Southern Rhodesia\" became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi,[39][40] which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately and later termed Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). Shortly after Rhodes' disastrous Jameson Raid on the South African Republic, the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The Second Matabele War lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga) against company rule during 1896 and 1897.[citation needed]\n\nFollowing these failed insurrections, the Ndebele and Shona groups were finally subdued by the Rhodes administration, which organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.[citation needed]\n\nThe opening of the railway to Umtali in 1899.\n\nSouthern Rhodesia was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923.[41][42][43][44] Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.[43][45]\n\nUnder the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the First and Second World Wars than any other part of the Empire, including Britain itself.[46]\n\nIn 1953, in the face of African opposition,[47] Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland (Malawi) in the ill-fated Central African Federation, which was essentially dominated by Southern Rhodesia. Growing African nationalism and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While multiracial democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, however, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority rule.[citation needed]\n\nWith Zambian independence, Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front (RF) dropped the designation \"Southern\" in 1964 and issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (commonly abbreviated to \"UDI\") from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965, intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of \"no independence before majority rule\". It was the first such course taken by a British colony since the American declaration of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions.[46]\n\nUDI and civil war (1965\u20131980)[edit]\n\nMain articles: Rhodesia, Rhodesian Bush War, Zimbabwe Rhodesia, and Lancaster House Agreement\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nIan Smith signing the Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience.\n\nAfter the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), the British government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state.[48] These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.[48]\n\nThe United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. A guerrilla war subsequently ensued when Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated guerilla operations against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a Marxist\u2013Leninist ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a referendum the previous year, but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant nationalists.\n\nBishop Abel Muzorewa signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to British Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington.\n\nIn March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the Internal Settlement, elections were held in April 1979, concluding with the United African National Council (UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the Rhodesian Security Forces, civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites.[49] On 12 June, the United States Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.\n\nFollowing the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), held in Lusaka, Zambia from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.[50]\n\nWith Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47 plenary sessions.[50] On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the Lancaster House Agreement, effectively ending the guerrilla war.[51]\n\nOn 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status (the 'aye' votes included Ian Smith himself). The bill then passed the Senate and was assented to by the President. With the arrival of Lord Soames, the new Governor, just after 2 p.m. on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia, although on 13 December Soames declared that during his mandate the name Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Rhodesia would continue to be used. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December, and the United Nations on 16 December, before calling on its member states to do likewise on 21 December. Thus Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Botswana lifted sanctions on 22\u201323 December; Australia partly pre-empted this, lifting all but trade sanctions on 18 December, and trade sanctions on 21 December.[52]\n\nDuring the elections of February 1980, Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.[53] Prince Charles, as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to the new nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare in April 1980.[54]\n\nIndependence era (1980\u2013present)[edit]\n\nTrends in Zimbabwe's Multidimensional Poverty Index, 1970\u20132010.\n\nZimbabwe's first president after its independence was Canaan Banana in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as Head of State. Robert Mugabe, leader of the ZANU party, was the country's first Prime Minister and Head of Government.[55]\n\nOpposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: \"the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains\").[56] The Fifth Brigade, a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to the Zimbabwean Prime Minister,[57] entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting \"dissidents\".[57][58]\n\nEstimates for the number of deaths during the five-year Gukurahundi campaign ranged from 3,750[59] to 80,000.[58] [60] Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.[61][62] The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union \u2013 Patriotic Front (ZANU\u2013PF).[57][63][64]\n\nElections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.[65][66]\n\nDuring the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU-PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.[67][68] The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.[69][70]\n\nLand redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU-PF government around 1997. Despite the existence of a \"willing-buyer-willing-seller\" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population of around 0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile agricultural land.[71]\n\nIn 2000, the government pressed ahead with its Fast Track Land Reform programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population.[72] Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other supports led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.[72] Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.[73]\n\nMap showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008\n\nPresident Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions.[74] In 2002, the nation was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant election tampering.[75] The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.[76]\n\nThe Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA) went into effect in 2002, creating a credit freeze of the Zimbabwean government through Section 4 C, Multilateral Financing Restriction. The bill was sponsored by Bill Frist, and co-sponsored by US senators Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, Russ Feingold and Jesse Helms. Through ZDERA Section 4C, the Secretary of the Treasury is ordered to direct US Directors at the International Financial Institutions listed in Section 3, \"to oppose and vote against-- (1) any extension by the respective institution of any loan, credit, or guarantee to the Government of Zimbabwe; or (2) any cancellation or reduction of indebtedness owed by the Government of Zimbabwe to the United States or any international financial institution.\"[77]\n\nFollowing elections in 2005, the government initiated \"Operation Murambatsvina\", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless.[78] The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as Amnesty International, authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.[79]\n\nOn 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a parliamentary election. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the Movement for Democratic Change \u2013 Tsvangirai (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament.[citation needed]\n\nIn late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major cholera outbreak in December) and various basic affairs.[80]\n\nIn September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless \"western sanctions\" were lifted.[81]\n\nZimbabwean President Robert Mugabe attended the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011\n\nA 2011 survey by Freedom House suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement.[82] The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated in its 2012\u20132013 planning document that the \"humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people\".[83]\n\nOn 17 January 2013, Vice President John Nkomo died of cancer at St Anne's Hospital, Harare at the age of 78.[84] A new constitution approved in the Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013 curtails presidential powers.[85]\n\nMugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean general election which The Economist described as \"rigged.\"[86] and the Daily Telegraph as \"stolen\".[87] The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts.[88] In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU-PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.[89] After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU-PF government re-instituted one party rule,[87] doubled the civil service and, according to The Economist, embarked on \"misrule and dazzling corruption\".[86] A 2017 study conducted by the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy \"the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions\" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this.[90]\n\nIn July 2016 nationwide protests took place regarding the economic collapse in the country,[91][92] and the finance minister admitted \"Right now we literally have nothing.\"[86]\n\nIn November 2017, the army led a coup d'\u00e9tat following the dismissal of Vice President Emmerson Mnangagwa, placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a coup.[22][23] Mugabe resigned on 21 November 2017, after leading the country for 37 years. Although under the Constitution of Zimbabwe Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice President Phelekezela Mphoko, a supporter of Grace Mugabe, ZANU-PF chief whip Lovemore Matuke stated to the Reuters news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president. [25]\n\nIn December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about 5 per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2016 a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3,5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and death from politically motivated violence sponsored by government exceeds 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least 3 million Zimbabweans in 37 years.[93]\n\nGeography and environment[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain article: Geography of Zimbabwe\nThe Zambezi River in the Mana Pools National Park.\nZimbabwe map of K\u00f6ppen climate classification.\n\nZimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes 15\u00b0 and 23\u00b0S, and longitudes 25\u00b0 and 34\u00b0E. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from Namibia, nearly forming a four-nation quadripoint. Most of the country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern Highlands, with Mount Nyangani as the highest point at 2,592 m.[citation needed]\n\nThese highlands are renowned for their great natural beauty, with famous tourist destinations such as Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba and Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda. About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. Victoria Falls, one of the world's biggest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme northwest and is part of the Zambezi river.[citation needed]\n\nClimate[edit]\n\nZimbabwe has a tropical climate with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter, the Zambezi valley is also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season generally runs from late October to March and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts, the latest one commencing early in 2015 and ongoing into 2016. Severe storms are rare.[94]\n\nFlora and fauna[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain article: Wildlife of Zimbabwe\nAn elephant at a water hole in Hwange National Park.\n\nThe country is mostly savannah, although the moist and mountainous eastern highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in these Eastern Highlands include teak, mahogany, enormous specimens of strangling fig, forest newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others.\n\nIn the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane, combretum and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species.\n\nEnvironmental issues[edit]\n\nLarge parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. Deforestation and poaching has reduced the amount of wildlife. Woodland degradation and deforestation, due to population growth, urban expansion and lack of fuel, are major concerns[95] and have led to erosion and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have also been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns.[96]\n\nGovernment and politics[edit]\n\nMain articles: Politics of Zimbabwe and Elections in Zimbabwe\n\nZimbabwe is a republic with a presidential system of government. The semi-presidential system was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after a referendum in March 2013. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an upper chamber, the Senate, was reinstated.[97] The House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament. Former President Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union \u2013 Patriotic Front (commonly abbreviated ZANU-PF) has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence.[98]\n\nIn 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the ceremonial presidency and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president, a Presidential system. His ZANU party has won every election since independence, in the 1990 election the second-placed party, Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, won only 20% of the vote.[99]\n\nDuring the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near-sweep by the ruling party.[100] When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU.[100]\n\nPresidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.[101] The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on 31 March and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.[102] Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.[citation needed]\n\nGeneral elections were again held in Zimbabwe on 30 March 2008.[103] The official results required a runoff between Mugabe and Morgan Tsvangirai, the opposition leader; the MDC challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government.[104]\n\nThe run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a \"violent, illegitimate sham of an election process\", Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run-off, the ZEC held the run-off and President Mugabe received a landslide majority.[105]\n\nSupporters of the Movement for Democratic Change in 2005.\n\nThe MDC-T led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the Lower chamber of Parliament. The MDC split into two factions. One faction (MDC-M), now led by Arthur Mutambara contested the elections to the Senate, while the other, led by Tsvangirai, opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. The opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC-T, which has become more popular than the other group.[106]\n\nMutambara, a robotics professor and former NASA robotics specialist has replaced Welshman Ncube who was the interim leader of MDC-M after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the Senate. The Mutambara formation has been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto. As of 2008[update], the Movement for Democratic Change has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500\u20135,000 for the other formation.[106]\n\nOn 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in Johannesburg that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.[107][108] Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary majority.[108] On the same day, Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five constituencies had been completed, that the results were being collated and that they would be published on 29 April.[109]\n\nIn mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain control over the army. Donor nations have adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which are estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as Prime Minister by President Mugabe.[citation needed]\n\nIn November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million donated by the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money.[110]\n\nIn February 2013, Zimbabwe's election chief, Simpson Mtambanengwe, resigned due to ill health. His resignation came months before the country's constitutional referendum and elections.[111]\n\nHuman rights[edit]\n\nMain article: Human rights in Zimbabwe\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nA demonstration in London against Robert Mugabe. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.[112]\n\nThere are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and the dominant party, the ZANU-PF.[113]\n\nIn 2011, there were reports of 640 corpses having been recovered from the Monkey William Mine in Chibondo. They were allegedly authenticated by the Fallen Heroes Trust of Zimbabwe and the Department of National Museums and Monuments who are leading the exhumation process as victims of the Ian Smith regime during the Rhodesian Bush War.[114][115] One body was identified as a ZANLA cadre, Cde Rauya, by the Fallen Heroes Trust Chief exhumer.[116]\n\nGovernment Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains were discovered in 2008, but claimed the remains were decades old despite clear evidence the exhumed skeletons still had hair and clothes. Solidarity Peace Trust said that the presence of soft tissues \"is not necessarily an indicator that these bones entered the grave more recently, although it could be.\"[117]\n\nJournalists found a body in the mine with 'what appeared to be blood and fluids dripping onto the skulls below'. The opposition MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its supporters during disputed elections in 2008. Amnesty International (AI) expressed concern that \"international best practice on exhumations is not being adhered to ... [M]ishandling of these mass graves has serious implications on potential exhumations of other sites in Zimbabwe. Thousands of civilians were also killed in Matabeleland and Midlands provinces in the mid 1980s and are allegedly buried in mine shafts and mass graves in these regions\", AI added.[117][118]\n\nAccording to human rights organisations such as Amnesty International[119] and Human Rights Watch[120] the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, freedom of movement and residence, freedom of assembly and the protection of the law. In 2009, Gregory Stanton, then President of the International Association of Genocide Scholars, stated there was \"clear evidence that Mugabe government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the International Criminal Court. [121]\n\nMale homosexuality is illegal in Zimbabwe. Since 1995, the government has carried out campaigns against both homosexual men and women.[122] President Mugabe has blamed gays for many of Zimbabwe's problems and viewed homosexuality as an \"un-African\" and immoral culture brought by European colonists and practiced by only \"a few whites\" in his country.[123]\n\nOpposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign.[124]\n\nIn the attacks of 2007, party leader Morgan Tsvangirai and 49 other opposition activists were arrested and severely beaten by the police. After his release, Morgan Tsvangirai told the BBC that he suffered head injuries and blows to the arms, knees and back, and that he lost a significant amount of blood and hundreds were killed.[125]\n\nPolice action was strongly condemned by the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the European Union and the United States.[125] While noting that the activists had suffered injuries, but not mentioning the cause of them,[126] the Zimbabwean state-owned daily newspaper The Herald claimed the police had intervened after demonstrators \"ran amok looting shops, destroying property, mugging civilians, and assaulting police officers and innocent members of the public\". The newspaper argued that the opposition had been \"willfully violating the ban on political rallies\".[126]\n\nThere are also abuses of media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech.[119] It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, as a propaganda tool.[127] Newspapers critical of the government, such as the Daily News, closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their license.[128][129] BBC News, Sky News, and CNN were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted.[130] Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.[131][132]\n\nArmed forces[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain article: Zimbabwe Defence Forces\nThe flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces.\n\nThe Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three insurrectionist forces \u2013 the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), and the Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) \u2013 after the Second Chimurenga and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of The Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) and Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) as separate entities under the command of Rtd General Solomon Mujuru and Air Marshal Norman Walsh who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai in 1985.\n\nIn December 2003, General Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army.[133]\n\nThe ZNA currently has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel.[134] The Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.[135]\n\nFollowing majority rule in early 1980, British Army trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a battalion structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa.[136] This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure. From early 1981, this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments, and ZANLA and ZANU fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA.[citation needed]\n\nThe ZNA was originally formed into four brigades, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and murder during the brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: \"the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains\"), the campaign which finished off Mugabe's liberation struggle.[56][137] The Brigade had been re-formed by 2006, with its commander, Brigadier-General John Mupande praising its \"rich history\".[138]\n\nAdministrative divisions[edit]\n\nMain articles: Provinces of Zimbabwe, Districts of Zimbabwe, and Wards of Zimbabwe\nAdministrative divisions of Zimbabwe\n\nZimbabwe has a centralised government and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out.[2]\n\nProvince Capital\nBulawayo Bulawayo\nHarare Harare\nManicaland Mutare\nMashonaland Central Bindura\nMashonaland East Marondera\nMashonaland West Chinhoyi\nMasvingo Masvingo city\nMatabeleland North Lupane District\nMatabeleland South Gwanda\nMidlands Gweru\n\nThe names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people, although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor, appointed by the President.[139]\n\nThe provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments.[140]\n\nThe provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 wards (sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.[141]\n\nAt the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a Headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).[142]\n\nEconomy[edit]\n\nMain article: Economy of Zimbabwe\nA proportional representation of Zimbabwe's exports, 2010\n\nMinerals, gold,[94] and agriculture are the main foreign exports of Zimbabwe. Tourism also plays a key role in its economy.[143]\n\nThe mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo American plc and Impala Platinum.[144] The Marange diamond fields, discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century.[145] They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU-PF politicians.[146]\n\nIn terms of carats produced, the Marange field is one of the largest diamond producing projects in the world,[147] estimated to produce 12 million carats in 2014 worth over $350 million.[citation needed] Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.[148]\n\nTaxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and costly.[149] Government spending was predicted to reach 67% of GDP in 2007.[150]\n\nTourism was an important industry for the country, but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry.[151]\n\nThe ICT sector of Zimbabwe has been growing at a fast pace. A report by the mobile internet browser company, Opera, in June\/July 2011 has ranked Zimbabwe as Africa's fastest growing market.[152][153]\n\nA market in Mbare, Harare\n\nSince 1 January 2002, the government of Zimbabwe has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen, through US legislation called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the Secretary of the Treasury to direct directors at international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government.[154] According to the United States, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.[155]\n\nThe GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100).\n\nZimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.[156] Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.[157] From 1999\u20132009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%.[158]\n\nThe downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000.[159][160][161][162] The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy.[163]\n\nBy 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953.[164] In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor Gideon Gono, started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.[165] By 2016 there were about 300 farms owned by white farmers left out of the original 4,500. The farms left were either too remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime.[87]\n\nIn January 2007, the government issued long term leases to some white farmers.[166] At the same time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.[167][168] Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged \"sabotage\" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.[169]\n\nInflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an official estimated high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office.[170] This represented a state of hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note.[171]\n\nOn 29 January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister Patrick Chinamasa announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business, alongside the Zimbabwe dollar.[172] In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth the Zimbabwean Dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009.[173] In 2016 Zimbabwe allowed trade in the United States dollar and various other currencies such as the rand (South Africa), the pula (Botswana), the euro, and the Pound Sterling (UK).[174]\n\nAfter the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8\u20139% a year between 2009 and 2012.[175] In November 2010, the IMF described the Zimbabwean economy as \"completing its second year of buoyant economic growth\".[176][177] By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s[175] but between 2012 and 2016 growth faltered.[178]\n\nZimplats, the nation's largest platinum company, has proceeded with US$500 million in expansions, and is also continuing a separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the company.[179] The pan-African investment bank IMARA released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts.[180]\n\nIn late January 2013, the Zimbabwean finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections that is estimated to cost 107 million USD.[181][182]\n\nAs of October 2014, Metallon Corporation was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.[183] The group is looking to increase its production to 500,000 troy ounces per annum by 2019.[183]\n\nAgriculture[edit]\n\nZimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange, and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products.[2] For example, between 2000 and 2016 annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 to 244,000.[87] Coffee production, once a prized export commodity came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee farms in 2000, and has never recovered.[184]\n\nFor the past ten years, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt conservation agriculture techniques, a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content.[citation needed]\n\nBetween 2005 and 2011, the number of smallholders practising conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5000 to more than 150000. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions.[185]\n\nTourism[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain article: Tourism in Zimbabwe\nVictoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi.\n\nSince the land reform programme in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. After rising during the 1990s, (1.4 million tourists in 1999) industry figures described a 75% fall in visitors to Zimbabwe in 2000.[citation needed] By December, less than 20% of hotel rooms had been occupied.[186]\n\nIn 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe was $1.1 billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's GDP. It is expected to rise 1.4% in 2017. Employment in travel and tourism, as well as industries travel and tourism indirectly supports, was 5.2% of national employment and is expected to rise by 1.4% in 2017.[187]\n\nSeveral airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007. Australia's Qantas, Germany's Lufthansa, and Austrian Airlines were among the first to pull out and in 2007 British Airways suspended all direct flights to Harare.[186][188] The country's flagship airline Air Zimbabwe, which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.[189][needs update] As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to Zimbabwe.\n\nZimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north west of Zimbabwe. Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The Victoria Falls National Park is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe,[190] the largest of which is Hwange National Park.\n\nThe Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, Mount Nyangani at 2,593\u00a0m (8,507\u00a0ft) is located here as well as the Bvumba Mountains and the Nyanga National Park. World's View is in these mountains and it is from here that places as far away as 60\u201370\u00a0km (37\u201343\u00a0mi) are visible and, on clear days, the town of Rusape can be seen.\n\nZimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique dry stone style. The most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo. Other ruins include Khami Ruins, Zimbabwe, Dhlo-Dhlo and Naletale.\n\nThe Matobo Hills are an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 22 miles (35\u00a0km) south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The Hills were formed over 2,000 million years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth \"whaleback dwalas\" and broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become famous and a tourist attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Cecil Rhodes and other early white pioneers like Leander Starr Jameson are buried in these hills at a site named World's View.[191]\n\nWater supply and sanitation[edit]\n\nMain article: Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe\n\nWater supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the World Health Organization in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved, i.e. clean, drinking-water sources, and only 40% of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities.[192] Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas.[193]\n\nPublic expenditure on education in Southern Africa as a share of GDP, 2012 or closest year. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015)\n\nThere are many factors which continue to determine the nature, for the foreseeable future, of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe.\n\nThree major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organizations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the Zimbabwean state.[193][194]\n\nScience and technology[edit]\n\nMain article: Science and technology in Zimbabwe\n\nZimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a long-standing tradition of promoting research and development (R&D), as evidenced by the levy imposed on tobacco-growers since the 1930s to promote market research.[195][196]\n\nThe country also has a well-developed education system, with one in eleven adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the country\u2019s solid knowledge base and abundant natural resources, Zimbabwe has the potential to figure among the countries leading growth in sub-Saharan Africa by 2020.[195][196]\n\nScientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008\u20132014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 20.6\n\nTo do so, however, Zimbabwe will need to correct a number of structural weaknesses. For instance, it currently lacks the critical mass of researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the infrastructure is in place to harness research and development to Zimbabwe\u2019s socio-economic development, universities and research institutions lack the requisite financial and human resources to conduct research and the current regulatory environment hampers the transfer of new technologies to the business sector. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and professionals in key areas of expertise (medicine, engineering, etc.) that is of growing concern. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average (91 in 2013) but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.[195][196]\n\nDespite the fact that human resources are a pillar of any research and innovation policy, the Medium Term Plan 2011\u20132015 did not discuss any explicit policy for promoting postgraduate studies in science and engineering. The scarcity of new PhDs in science and engineering fields from the University of Zimbabwe in 2013 was symptomatic of this omission.[195][196]\n\nNor does the development agenda to 2018, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation, contain any specific targets for increasing the number of scientists and engineers, or the staffing requirements for industry and other productive sectors. In addition, the lack of co-ordination and coherence among governance structures has led to a multiplication of research priorities and poor implementation of existing policies.[195][196]\n\nScientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005\u20132014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded\n\nThe country's Second Science and Technology Policy was launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The Second Science and Technology Policy also asserts the government commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects.[195][196]\n\nIn 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) and, above all, South Africa (175) and the Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million.[196]\n\nDemographics[edit]\n\nMain article: Demographics of Zimbabwe\nPopulation in Zimbabwe[5]\nYear Million\n1950 2.7\n2000 12.2\n2016 16.2\nA n'anga (Traditional Healer) of the majority (70%) Shona people, holding a kudu horn trumpet\n\nZimbabwe's total population is 12.97\u00a0million.[6] According to the United Nations World Health Organisation, the life expectancy for men was 56 years and the life expectancy for women was 60 years of age (2012).[197] An association of doctors in Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.[198] The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15\u201349 in 2009.[199] UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.[200]\n\nSome 85% of Zimbabweans are Christian; 62% of the population attends religious services regularly.[201] The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist[202] and Methodist.\n\nAs in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Ancestral worship is the most practised non-Christian religion, involving spiritual intercession; the mbira dzavadzimu, which means \"voice of the ancestors\", an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means \"God the Creator\" (musika vanhu in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.[203]\n\nA group of women and children in Norton, Zimbabwe\n\nBantu-speaking ethnic groups make up 98% of the population. The majority people, the Shona, comprise 70%. The Ndebele are the second most populous with 20% of the population.[204][205]\n\nThe Ndebele descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa. Other Bantu ethnic groups make up the third largest with 2 to 5%: these are Venda, Tonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana, Xhosa and Lozi.[205]\n\nMinority ethnic groups include white Zimbabweans, who make up less than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also Afrikaner, Greek, Portuguese, French and Dutch communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000 or 4.3% of the population in 1975[206] to possibly 120,000 in 1999, and was estimated to be no more than 50,000 in 2002, and possibly much less. The 2012 census lists the total white population at 28,782 (roughly 0.22% of the population), one-tenth of its 1975 estimated size.[207] Most emigration has been to the United Kingdom (between 200,000 and 500,000 Britons are of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Coloureds form 0.5% of the population, and various Asian ethnic groups, mostly of Indian and Chinese origin, are also 0.5%.[208]\n\nAccording to 2012 Census report, 99.7% of the population is of African origin.[209] Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3.6 (2002 Census),[210] 3.8 (2006)[211] and 3.8 (2012 Census).[209]\n\nLargest cities[edit]\n\n\u00a0\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nLargest cities or towns in Zimbabwe\nhttp:\/\/www.geohive.com\/cntry\/zimbabwe.aspx\nRank Name Province Pop.\nHarare\nHarare\nBulawayo\nBulawayo\n1 Harare Harare 1,485,231 Mutare\nMutare\n2 Bulawayo Bulawayo 653,337\n3 Chitungwiza Harare 356,840\n4 Mutare Manicaland 187,621\n5 Epworth Harare 167,462\n6 Gweru Midlands 157,865\n7 Kwekwe Midlands 100,900\n8 Kadoma Mashonaland West 92,469\n9 Masvingo Masvingo 87,886\n10 Chinhoyi Mashonaland West 77,929\n\nLanguage[edit]\n\nMain article: Languages of Zimbabwe\n\nEnglish is the main language used in the education and judiciary systems. The Bantu languages Shona and Sindebele are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Shona is spoken by 70% of the population, Sindebele by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya. Less than 2.5%, mainly the white and \"coloured\" (mixed race) minorities, consider English their native language.[212] Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, Feso by Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956.[213] English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news now broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English.[citation needed]\n\nZimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised languages.[14]\n\nRefugee crisis[edit]\n\nThe economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees into neighbouring countries. An estimated 3.4 million Zimbabweans, a quarter of the population, had fled abroad by mid-2007.[214] Some 3,000,000 of these left for South Africa and Botswana.[215]\n\nApart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries, there are approximately 36,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs). There is no current comprehensive survey,[216] although the following figures are available:\n\nSurvey Number Date Source\nNational Survey 880\u2013960,000 2007 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee[217]\nFormer Farm Workers 1,000,000 2008 UNDP[216]\nVictims of Operation Murambatsvina 570,000 2005 UN[218]\nPeople Displaced by Political Violence 36,000 2008 UN[216]\n\nThe above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries of the fast-track land reform programme but who have since been evicted.[216]\n\nReligion[edit]\n\nMain article: Religion in Zimbabwe\nReligion in Zimbabwe\nreligion percent\nProtestantism\n\u2009\n63%\nRoman Catholicism\n\u2009\n17%\nEthnic religion\n\u2009\n11%\nIrreligion\n\u2009\n7%\nOthers\n\u2009\n2%\n\nAn estimated 80% of the country's citizens identify themselves as Christians. Protestants (mostly followers of Pentecostal African Churches) are around 63% of the population. Estimates from 2005 said there were 1,145,000 Roman Catholics in Zimbabwe. This is about 9% of the total population. The followers of ethnic religions are around 11%. Around 1% are Muslims, mainly from Mozambique and Malawi, 0.1% are Hindus and 0.3% are Baha'is. Approximately 7% of citizens have no religious practice or are atheist.[219][220][221]\n\nCulture[edit]\n\nMain article: Culture of Zimbabwe\n\nZimbabwe has many different cultures which may include beliefs and ceremonies, one of them being Shona, Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group. The Shona people have many sculptures and carvings which are made with the finest materials available.[222]\n\nZimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.[223] Celebrations are held at either the National Sports Stadium or Rufaro Stadium in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations doves are released to symbolise peace and fighter jets fly over and the national anthem is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.[224] Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the Miss Heritage Zimbabwe contest which has been held annually ever since 2012.\n\nArts[edit]\n\nMain article: Zimbabwean art\nSee also: Music of Zimbabwe\n\"Reconciliation\", a stone sculpture by Amos Supuni\n\nTraditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become world-famous in recent years having found popularity in the 1940s. Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rocks such as soapstone, as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada. i.e. Dominic Benhura's statue in the Singapore Botanic Gardens.\n\nShona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas, Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the United States.\n\nSeveral authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. Charles Mungoshi is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities.[225] Catherine Buckle has achieved international recognition with her two books African Tears and Beyond Tears which tell of the ordeal she went through under the 2000 Land Reform.[226] The first Prime Minister of Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wrote two books \u2013 The Great Betrayal and Bitter Harvest. The book The House of Hunger by Dambudzo Marechera won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author Doris Lessing's first novel The Grass Is Singing, the first four volumes of The Children of Violence sequence, as well as the collection of short stories African Stories are set in Rhodesia. In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo's novel We Need New Names was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. The novel tells the story of the devastation and emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the Gukurahundi in the early 1980s.[citation needed]\n\nInternationally famous artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast.[227] Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, the Bhundu Boys; Alick Macheso and Audius Mtawarira have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.[228]\n\nCuisine[edit]\n\nA meal of sadza (right), greens, and goat offal. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.\n\nLike in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. \"Mealie meal\", also known as cornmeal, is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala, as well as porridge known as bota or ilambazi. Sadza is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste\/porridge. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste.\n\nThis is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as gravy, vegetables (spinach, chomolia, or spring greens\/collard greens), beans, and meat (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried). Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk (sour milk), commonly known as \"lacto\" (mukaka wakakora), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam.[229] Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.\n\nGraduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued or roasted by the family.\n\nRaw boerewors\n\nEven though the Afrikaners are a small group (10%) within the white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. Biltong, a type of jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.[230] Boerewors is served with sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef rather than pork, and barbecued.[citation needed] As Zimbabwe was a British colony, some people there have adopted some colonial-era English eating habits. For example, most people will have porridge in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked sadza, or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner.[citation needed]\n\nRice, pasta, and potato-based foods (french fries and mashed potato) also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed vegetables and meat.[citation needed] A potpourri of peanuts known as nzungu, boiled and sundried maize, black-eyed peas known as nyemba, and bambara groundnuts known as nyimo makes a traditional dish called mutakura. Mutakura can also be the above ingredients cooked individually. One can also find local snacks, such as maputi (roasted\/popped maize kernels similar to popcorn), roasted and salted peanuts, sugar cane, sweet potato, pumpkin, and indigenous fruits, such as horned melon, gaka, adansonia, mawuyu, uapaca kirkiana, mazhanje (sugar plum), and many others.[citation needed]\n\nSports[edit]\n\nMain article: Sport in Zimbabwe\nZimbabwe women's national football team at the 2016 Olympic Games\n\nFootball is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe.[citation needed] The Warriors have qualified for the Africa Cup of Nations three times (2004, 2006, 2017), and won the Southern Africa championship on four occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009) and the Eastern Africa cup once (1985).\n\nRugby union is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. The national side have represented the country at 2 Rugby World Cup tournaments in 1987 and 1991. The team are currently ranked 26 in the world by World Rugby.[231]\n\nCricket also has a following among the white minority. It is one of ten Test cricket playing nations and a ICC full member as well. Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include Andy Flower, Heath Streak and Brendan Taylor.\n\nZimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in field hockey with the women's team at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, and seven by swimmer Kirsty Coventry, three at the 2004 Summer Olympics and four at the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n\nZimbabwe has also done well in the Commonwealth Games and All-Africa Games in swimming with Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions.[232][233][234][235] Zimbabwe has also competed at Wimbledon and the Davis Cup in tennis, most notably with the Black family, which comprises Wayne Black, Byron Black and Cara Black. Zimbabwe has also done well in golf. The Zimbabwean Nick Price held the official World Number 1 status longer than any player from Africa has ever done in the 24-year history of the ranking.[236]\n\nOther sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball, volleyball, netball, and water polo, as well as squash, motorsport, martial arts, chess, cycling, polocrosse, kayaking and horse racing. However, most of these sports do not have international representatives but instead stay at a junior or national level.\n\nZimbabwean professional rugby league players currently playing overseas are Masimbaashe Motongo and Judah Mazive.[237][238] Former players include now SANZAAR CEO Andy Marinos who made an appearance for South Africa at the Super League World Nines and featured for the Sydney Bulldogs as well as Zimbabwe-born former Scotland rugby union international Scott Gray, who spent time at the Brisbane Broncos.[239]\n\nMedia[edit]\n\nMain article: Media of Zimbabwe\n\nThe media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the growing economic and political crisis in the country. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is currently facing less political interference and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional.[240] In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. CNN welcomed the move. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, \"the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe\".[130] The BBC also welcomed the move saying, \"we're pleased at being able to operate openly in Zimbabwe once again\".[241]\n\nIn 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately owned newspapers, including the previously banned Daily News, for publication.[242] Reporters Without Borders described the decisions as a \"major advance\".[243] In June 2010 NewsDay became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.[244]\n\nZBC's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012.[245]\n\nSince the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) was passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including Daily News whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential The Zimbabwean.[246][247] As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled Zimbabweans. Because the internet is currently unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists.[248] Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves \"surveillance, threats, imprisonment, censorship, blackmail, abuse of power and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news.\"[246] The main published newspapers are The Herald and The Chronicle which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively. The heavy-handedness on the media has progressively relaxed since 2009.\n\nIn its 2008 report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 151st out of 173.[246] The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the CBC, Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), and Fox News. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country.\n\nScouting[edit]\n\nMain article: The Scout Association of Zimbabwe\nBaden-Powell's drawing of Chief of Scouts Burnham, Matobo Hills, 1896\n\nIt was in the Matabeleland region in Zimbabwe that, during the Second Matabele War, Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, and Frederick Russell Burnham, the American born Chief of Scouts for the British Army, first met and began their lifelong friendship.[249] In mid-June 1896, during a scouting patrol in the Matobo Hills, Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell woodcraft. Baden-Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich in exploration, tracking, fieldcraft, and self-reliance.[250] It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham.[251]\n\nScouting in the former Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1909 when the first Boy Scout troop was registered. Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second World Scout Jamboree in Ermelunden, Denmark. In 1959, Rhodesia hosted the Central African Jamboree at Ruwa. In 2009, Scouts celebrated 100 years of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at Gordon Park, a Scout campground and training area, as part of these celebrations.[252]\n\nBesides scouting, there are also leadership, life skills and general knowledge courses and training experiences mainly for school children ranging from pre-school to final year high school students and some times those beyond High school. These courses and outings are held at, for example, Lasting Impressions (Lasting Impressions ~Zimbabwe on YouTube), Far and Wide Zimbabwe (Far and wide.) and Chimanimani Outward Bound (Outwardbound Zimbabwe at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 June 2007)).\n\nNational symbols[edit]\n\nTraditional Zimbabwe Bird design\n\nThe stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on banknotes and coins (first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar). It probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle.[253][254]\n\nThe famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe, built, it is believed, sometime between the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the Shona. The ruins, which gave their name to modern Zimbabwe, cover some 1,800 acres (7.3\u00a0km2) and are the largest ancient stone construction in Zimbabwe.[255]\n\nBalancing Rocks are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They are often remarked on and have been depicted on both the banknotes of Zimbabwe and the Rhodesian dollar banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in Epworth, approximately 9 miles (14\u00a0km) south east of Harare.[256] There are many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.[citation needed]\n\nThe National Anthem of Zimbabwe is \"Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe\" (Shona: \"Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe\"; Northern Ndebele: \"Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe\"). It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace \"Ishe Komborera Africa\" as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe.[citation needed]\n\nHealth[edit]\n\nSee also: HIV\/AIDS in Zimbabwe and Zimbabwean cholera outbreak\nMap showing the spread of cholera in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources.\n\nAt independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate.[257] Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have an achieved a good record of health development.[258]\n\nZimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases (such as plague in 1994). The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,[259] the impact of the HIV\/AIDS pandemic[144] and the economic crisis since the year 2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the world according to UN figure \u00a0\u2013 44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015.[260][261] The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV\/AIDS pandemic. Infant mortality rose from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.[144] By 2016 HIV\/AIDS prevalence had been reduced to 13.5%[260] compared to 40% in 1998.[175]\n\nThe health system has more or less collapsed. At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working.[262] Due to hyperinflation, those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.[263] The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.[264]\n\nIn August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces and the outbreak had spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.[265][266] On 4 December 2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid.[267][268]\n\nBy 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018.[269] In Harare, the city council offered free graves to cholera victims.[270] There had been signs that the disease is abating, with cholera infections down by about 50% to around 4,000 cases a week.[269]\n\nThe 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614[175] compared to 960 in 2010\u201311[175] and 232 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 (94 in 2009).[175] The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42.[271]\n\nEducation[edit]\n\nMain article: Education in Zimbabwe\nSt George's College, Harare was established in 1896 by a French Jesuit\n\nDue to large investments in education since independence, Zimbabwe has the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90.70%.[272] This is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the United Nations Development Programme[273][274] and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while still substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.[275]\n\nThe education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.[276]\n\nThe wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidized by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.\n\nZimbabwe's education system consists of 2 years of pre-school, 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with \"O\" level and \"A\" level subjects also offered in June.[277]\n\nThere are seven public (Government) universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited.[277] The University of Zimbabwe, the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of Mount Pleasant. Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube; Peter Moyo (of Amabhubesi); Tendai Biti, Chenjerai Hove, Zimbabwean poet, novelist and essayist; and Arthur Mutambara. Many of the current politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other universities abroad.\n\nNational University of Science and Technology (NUST) is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of Universities. Its guidance, cultural values is the encouragement of all its members and society of those attitudes of fair mindedness, understanding, tolerance and respect for people and views which are essential for the attainment and maintenance of justice, peace and harmony at all times.\n\nAfrica University is a United Methodist related university institution located in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36 African countries. The institution has been growing steadily and has steady study material and learning facilities. The highest professional board for accountants is the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Zimbabwe (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in South Africa, Canada, the UK and Australia. A qualified Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe is also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States. The Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers (ZIE) is the highest professional board for engineers.\n\nEducation in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.[278]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 flagZimbabwe portal\n  \u2022 Education in Zimbabwe\n  \u2022 Index of Zimbabwe-related articles\n  \u2022 Outline of Zimbabwe\n\nSource[edit]\n\nDefinition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg\u00a0This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO3.0 UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The following languages, namely Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa, are the officially recognised languages of Zimbabwe.[3]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe\". The Beaver County Times. 13 September 1981. Retrieved 2 November 2011.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"The World Factbook \u2013 Zimbabwe\". Central Intelligence Agency.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) (PDF), Kubatana\u00a0 Archived 2 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.).\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Developments in English\". International Association of University Professors of English Conference. Cambridge University Press. 31 October 2014 \u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision\". ESA.UN.org (custom data acquired via website). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 10 September 2017.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Census Results in Brief\" (PDF). Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2013.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Zimbabwe\". International Monetary Fund.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"GINI Index\". World Bank. Retrieved 21 July 2013.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"2016 Human Development Report\" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2017.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Time\". Greenwich Mean Time. Greenwich 2000. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2017.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe to make Chinese yuan legal currency after Beijing cancels debts\", The Guardian, France-Presse, 22 December 2015\u00a0.\n  12. Jump up ^ Hungwe, Brian (6 February 2014), \"Zimbabwe's multi-currency confusion\", News, BBC, retrieved 26 May 2014\u00a0.\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe\". CIA World Factbook. CIA.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Cite error: The named reference language was invoked but never defined (see the help page).\n  15. Jump up ^ Johnson, Boris (15 November 2017). \"Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again\" \u2013 via www.telegraph.co.uk.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Lessing, Doris (10 April 2003). \"The Jewel of Africa\" \u2013 via www.nybooks.com.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Chifera, Irwin. \"What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?\".\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report\". United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2016.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe\". BBC. 16 August 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2016.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Archbishop Desmond Tutu lambasts African silence on Zimbabwe\". USA Today. 16 March 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2016.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"What Caused Zimbabwe's Economic Crash?\". Quora. 29 November 2015 \u2013 via Slate.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b McKenzie, David; Swails, Brent; Dewan, Angela. \"Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup\". CNN. Retrieved 2017-11-15.\u00a0\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control\". The Guardian. 2017 Nov 15. Retrieved 15 November 2017.\u00a0 Check date values in: |date= (help)\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Ruling party sacks Mugabe as leader\". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 19 November 2017.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe's President Mugabe 'resigns'\". BBC News. Retrieved 21 November 2017.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe \u2013 big house of stone\". Somali Press. Retrieved 14 December 2008.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Lafon, Michel (1994). \"Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix\" (PDF). Zambezia. 21: 51\u201380.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Vale, Lawrence J. (1999). \"Mediated monuments and national identity\". Journal of Architecture. 4 (4): 391\u2013408. doi:10.1080\/136023699373774.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Garlake, Peter (1973). Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. p.\u00a013. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8128-1599-3.\u00a0\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Fontein, Joost (September 2006). The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage (First ed.). London: University College London Press. pp.\u00a0119\u201320. ISBN\u00a0978-1844721238.\u00a0\n  31. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. (2009). Do \"Zimbabweans\" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State (First ed.). Bern: Peter Lang AG. pp.\u00a0113\u201314. ISBN\u00a0978-3-03911-941-7.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"What's in a Name? Welcome to the 'Republic of Machobana'\". Read on. Harare: Training Aids Development Group: 40. 1991.\u00a0\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b Hall, Martin; Stephen W. Silliman (2005). Historical Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. pp.\u00a0241\u201344. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4051-0751-8.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Nelson, Harold (1983). Zimbabwe: A Country Study. The Studies. pp.\u00a01\u2013317.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really?\". The Odyssey. Retrieved 14 December 2008.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Hensman, Howard (1901). Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. pp. 106\u201307.\n  37. ^ Jump up to: a b c Parsons, pp. 178\u201381.\n  38. Jump up ^ Bryce, James (2008). Impressions of South Africa. p. 170; ISBN\u00a0055430032X.\n  39. Jump up ^ Southern Rhodesia Order in Council of 20 October 1898 which includes at seection 4 thereof: \"The territory for the time being within the limits of this Order shall be known as Southern Rhodesia.\"\n  40. Jump up ^ Gray, J. A. (1956). \"A Country in Search of a Name\". The Northern Rhodesia Journal. 3 (1): 78.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: \"From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia.\"\n  42. Jump up ^ Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder \u2013 Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 \u2013 Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect\n  43. ^ Jump up to: a b Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia by Vera Gowlland-Debbas\n  44. Jump up ^ Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder \u2013 Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645\n  45. Jump up ^ Southern Rhodesia Constitution Letters Patent, 1923\n  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Moorcraft, Paul (31 August 1990). \"Rhodesia's War of Independence\". History Today. 40 (9). [P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Parsons, p. 292.\n  48. ^ Jump up to: a b Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Infobase Publishing, p. 537; ISBN\u00a0143810989X.\n  49. Jump up ^ \"On This Day\". BBC News. 1 June 1979. Retrieved 14 December 2008.\u00a0\n  50. ^ Jump up to: a b Chung, Fay (2006). Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe, Preben (INT) Kaarsholm. p. 242; ISBN\u00a09171065512.\n  51. Jump up ^ Preston, Matthew (2004). Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective. p. 25; ISBN\u00a01850435790.\n  52. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe, May 1980\/Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence, Canberra: Government Printer, 1980. p. 122.\n  53. Jump up ^ George M. Houser. \"Letter by George M. Houser, Executive Director of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), on the 1980 independence election in Rhodesia\". Retrieved 1 December 2007.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ Smith, Ian (2008). Bitter Harvest. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. p.\u00a0367. ISBN\u00a0978-1-85782-604-3.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ Godwin, Peter; Hancock, Ian (1995) [1993]. 'Rhodesians Never Die': The Impact of War and Political Change on White Rhodesia, c. 1970\u20131980. Harare: Baobab Books. p.\u00a0312. ISBN\u00a00-908311-82-6.\u00a0\n  56. ^ Jump up to: a b Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). Against the Grain, Zebra, p. 134; ISBN\u00a01770071121.\n  57. ^ Jump up to: a b c Meredith, Martin (September 2007) [2002]. Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe. New York: PublicAffairs. pp.\u00a062\u201373. ISBN\u00a0978-1-58648-558-0.\u00a0\n  58. ^ Jump up to: a b Hill, Geoff (2005) [2003]. The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown. Johannesburg: Struik Publishers. p.\u00a077. ISBN\u00a0978-1-86872-652-3.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Report on the 1980s disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, March 1997 \u2013 Conclusion \u2013 FINAL ESTIMATE: The figure for the dead and missing is not less than 3000. This statement is now beyond reasonable doubt. Adding up the conservative suggestions made above, the figure is reasonably certainly 3750 dead. More than that it is still not possible to say, except to allow that the real figure for the dead could be possibly double 3000, or even higher. Only further research will resolve the issue\" (PDF).\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"Gukurahundi killed 80,000: Eddie Cross\".\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe; Legal Resources Foundation (1 January 1997). \"Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace\" \u2013 via Internet Archive.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ \"REPORT ON THE 1980s DISTURBANCES IN MATABELELAND & THE MIDLANDS\". Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe. March 1997. Retrieved 8 August 2015.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ \"Chronology of Zimbabwe\". badley.info. Archived from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Timeline: Zimbabwe\". BBC News. 15 October 2009. Retrieved 9 December 2008.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections\". EISA. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ Moyo, Jonathon M. \"Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe\". University of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 9 December 2008.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ \"A Brief History of Zimbabwe\". about.com. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: ZANU PF hegemony and its breakdown (1990\u20131999)\". EISA. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"History of Zimbabwe\". Infoplease.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ \"History of HIV & AIDS in Africa\". AVERT. Retrieved 8 August 2015.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ \"Britain's troubles with Mugabe\". BBC News. 3 April 2000.\u00a0\n  72. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Human Rights Watch.\u00a0\u00a0(175\u00a0KB)\n  73. Jump up ^ Polgreen, Lydia (20 July 2012). \"In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining\". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 July 2012.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ \"Council Common Position renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 26 January 2009.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Suspended Indefinitely from Commonwealth\". Human Rights First. 8 December 2003. Archived from the original on 29 June 2007.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ \"Commonwealth website confirms Zimbabwe \"terminated\" its membership with effect from 7 December 2003\". Thecommonwealth.org. 12 December 2003. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ \"Text of S. 494 (107th): Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (Passed Congress\/Enrolled Bill version)\". GovTrack. 12 December 2001. Retrieved 29 December 2016.\u00a0 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n  78. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story\". BBC. 30 August 2005. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  79. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies \u2013 Amnesty International\". Web.archive.org. 9 August 2006. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ Jacobson, Celean (24 November 2008). \"Carter warns situation appears dire in Zimbabwe\". Fox News. Associated Press.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ \"Mugabe wants sanctions removed\". United Press International. 18 December 2010. Retrieved 21 August 2011.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ Booysen, Susan (4 March 2011). Changing Perceptions in Zimbabwe \u2013 Nationwide Survey of the Political Climate in Zimbabwe November 2010 \u2013 January 2011 (PDF) (Report). Freedom House. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ OCHA in 2012\u20132013: Plan and Budget: Zimbabwe (Report). United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. December 2011. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ Chinaka, Cris (17 January 2013). \"Mugabe deputy John Nkomo dies after cancer battle\". Reuters. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  85. Jump up ^ Dzirutwe, MacDonald. \"Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution\". Reuters. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.\u00a0\n  86. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Bailing out bandits\". The Economist. 420 (8997). 9 July 2016. pp.\u00a043\u201344. ISSN\u00a00013-0613. Retrieved 8 July 2016.\u00a0\n  87. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Fletcher, Martin (7 February 2017). \"Out of House and Home\". The Telegraph (Telegraph Magazine ed.). p.\u00a039.\u00a0\n  88. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe election: A guide to rigging allegations\". BBC News. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2016.\u00a0\n  89. Jump up ^ \"As the House Burns, Whither the Zimbabwean Opposition? \u2013 By Nicole Beardsworth \u2013 African Arguments\".\u00a0\n  90. Jump up ^ Matyszak, Derek (20 September 2017). \"Zimbabwe's shady police roadblocks reflect its failing governance - ISS Africa\". ISS Africa. Retrieved 2017-09-22.\u00a0\n  91. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse\". BBC News. Retrieved 7 July 2016.\u00a0\n  92. Jump up ^ Raath, Jan; Graham, Stuart (25 July 2016). \"Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power\". The Times. Retrieved 25 July 2016. (Subscription required (help)).\u00a0\n  93. Jump up ^ \"The costs of the Robert Mugabe era\". newzimbabwe.com. Retrieved 12 March 2018.\u00a0\n  94. ^ Jump up to: a b Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; ISBN\u00a01590848101.\n  95. Jump up ^ Chipika, J; Kowero, G. (2000). \"Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies?\". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 79 (2\u20133): 175. doi:10.1016\/S0167-8809(99)00156-5.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ \"Chaos as tobacco sales start\". NewsdezeZimbabwe. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2015.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 17) Act, 2005 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. NGO Network Alliance Project\n  98. Jump up ^ Mugabe, Robert. (2007). Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite, Chicago: Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n  99. Jump up ^ \"Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book\". Archived from the original on 27 December 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2008.\u00a0\n  100. ^ Jump up to: a b Frankel, Matthew. \"Myanmar Boycott is Misguided\" Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine., The Brookings Institution, 26 May 2010.\n  101. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe: Election Fraud Report, 04\/18\/05. University of Pennsylvania, 18 April 2005.\n  102. Jump up ^ \"Mugabe's former ally accuses him of foul play\", Independent Online Zimbabwe, 12 March 2005.\n  103. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe stands 'on a precipice'\". BBC News. 31 March 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  104. Jump up ^ \"Mugabe critics predict fraud in Zimbabwe elections\". CNN. 28 March 2008.\u00a0\n  105. Jump up ^ \"Mugabe rival quits election race\". BBC News. 22 June 2008.\u00a0\n  106. ^ Jump up to: a b Latham, Brian (4 March 2002). \"Contrast in styles as contenders hold rallies in Harare townships\". The Independent. UK. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe's MDC factions reunite\". Archived from the original on 2 May 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2009.\u00a0, SABC News, 28 April 2008.\n  108. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Opposition reunites in Zimbabwe\". BBC News. 28 April 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  109. Jump up ^ Chinaka, Cris (29 April 2008) All eyes on Zim as ZEC wrap-up recount, Reuters via iol.co.za; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  110. Jump up ^ Dugger, Celia W. (3 November 2008). \"Aid Group Says Zimbabwe Misused $7.3 Million\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  111. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: Election chief Mutambanengwe resigns\". BBC News. 2013.\u00a0\n  112. Jump up ^ \"Police baton charge Harare protesters\". ABC News. 3 December 2008.\u00a0\n  113. Jump up ^ Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E. (24 November 2010). \"Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000\u20132009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect\". Human Rights Quarterly. 32 (4): 898\u2013920. doi:10.1353\/hrq.2010.0030. ISSN\u00a01085-794X.\u00a0\n  114. Jump up ^ \"Mass grave discovered\". Manicapost.com. 22 March 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  115. Jump up ^ \"Exhumation begins at the Rusape Heroes Acre\". Bulawayo24.com. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  116. Jump up ^ \"ZANLA cadre exhumed in Chibondo\". Zbc.co.zw. 14 August 2011. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  117. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe mass grave used as political propaganda\". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2013.\u00a0\n  118. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: Mass grave bodies must be exhumed by forensic experts\". Amnesty International. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 7 December 2014.\u00a0\n  119. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe\". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007.\u00a0\n  120. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe \u2013 Events of 2006\". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007.\u00a0\n  121. Jump up ^ Howard-Hassmann 2010, p.\u00a0909\n  122. Jump up ^ \"State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition\" (PDF). International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. 17 May 2016.\u00a0\n  123. Jump up ^ \"BBC News - Africa - Zimbabwe gay rights face dim future\". news.bbc.co.uk.\u00a0\n  124. Jump up ^ Whitaker, Raymond (22 June 2008). \"Zimbabwe election violence spreads to Harare\". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 7 December 2008.\u00a0\n  125. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Unbowed Tsvangirai urges defiance\". BBC. 14 March 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007.\u00a0\n  126. ^ Jump up to: a b The Herald, Zimbabwe (14 March 2007). \"Opposition protesters' case not heard\". Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007.\u00a0\n  127. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers Press Reference, 2006.\n  128. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe newspaper bombed\". BBC News. 28 January 2001. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ Wines, Michael (7 February 2004). \"Zimbabwe: Newspaper Silenced\". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  130. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe lifts reporting ban on BBC and CNN\", The Daily Telegraph, 30 July 2009.\n  131. Jump up ^ Nkosi, Milton (1 April 2005). \"Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?\". BBC News. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  132. Jump up ^ \"Al Jazeera kicked out of Zimbabwe\". Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2016.\u00a0, zimbabwemetro.com, 22 June 2008.\n  133. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Ministry of Defence\". Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2007.\u00a0\n  134. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Defence Forces News\". ZDF News. Retrieved 17 April 2009.\u00a0\n  135. Jump up ^ Chari, Freeman Forward (24 December 2007). \"MILITARISATION OF ZIMBABWE: Does the opposition stand a chance?\". zimbabwejournalists.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2008.\u00a0\n  136. Jump up ^ Godwin, Peter (1996). Mukiwa \u2013 A White Boy in Africa. London, UK: Macmillan. ISBN\u00a00-333-67150-3.\u00a0\n  137. Jump up ^ \"Ministry of Defence, Zimbabwe\". Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2007.\u00a0\n  138. Jump up ^ \"5th Brigade gets new commander\". Zimbabwe Defence Forces News. 22 February 2006. Retrieved 18 April 2009.\u00a0\n  139. Jump up ^ \"Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Parliament of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  140. Jump up ^ \"Provincial Councils and Administration Act (Chapter 29:11)\" (PDF). Parliament of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  141. Jump up ^ \"Rural District Councils Act (Chapter 29:13)\" (PDF). Parliament of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  142. Jump up ^ \"Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17)\" (PDF). Parliament of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  143. Jump up ^ \"Country Profile \u2013 Zimbabwe\". Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2007. Since the country is well endowed with natural resources such as minerals, arable land and wildlife, many opportunities lie in resource-based activities such as mining, agriculture and tourism and their downstream industrial activities.\u00a0\n  144. ^ Jump up to: a b c Madslien, Jorn (14 April 2008). \"No quick fix for Zimbabwe's economy\". BBC. Retrieved 19 December 2008.\u00a0\n  145. Jump up ^ \"Diamond company in trouble with Harare MPs\", Independent Online, South Africa, 2 February 2010.\n  146. Jump up ^ \"Diamonds in the rough, report by Human Rights Watch\". Human Rights Watch. 26 June 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  147. Jump up ^ \"Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production\", Kitco, 20 August 2013.\n  148. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe-South Africa economic relations since 2000\". Africa News. 31 October 2007. Archived from the original on 1 January 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2007. Zimbabwe remains South Africa's most important trading partner in Africa.\u00a0\n  149. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Economy: Facts, Data, & Analysis on Economic Freedom\". Heritage.org. 12 January 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  150. Jump up ^ \"FACTBOX: Zimbabwe's meltdown in figures\". Reuters. 29 June 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2010.\u00a0\n  151. Jump up ^ Wadhams, Nick (1 August 2007). \"Zimbabwe's Wildlife Decimated by Economic Crisis\". Nairobi: National Geographic News. Retrieved 5 August 2007.\u00a0\n  152. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Ranked Fastest growing Internet Market. Biztechafrica.com (10 August 2011); retrieved 4 July 2013.\n  153. Jump up ^ Why ICT is critical in \u2018illiterate\u2019 Africa|BiztechAfrica Business, Telecom, Technology & IT News Africa. Biztechafrica.com (3 December 2012); retrieved 4 July 2013.\n  154. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Democracy And Economic Recovery Act of 2001 at Govtrack.us News\". 18 October 2011.\u00a0\n  155. Jump up ^ Boucher, Richard (2 March 2004). \"Zimbabwe: Sanctions Enhancement\" (Press release). United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 June 2006.\u00a0\n  156. Jump up ^ Richardson, Craig J. \"The loss of property rights and the collapse of Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Cato Journal. 25: 541\u2013565. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2010.\u00a0\n  157. Jump up ^ \"Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe in 1999\". Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2007.\u00a0CS1 maint: Unfit url (link) , Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum (1999).\n  158. Jump up ^ Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness Book of Records 2014. p.\u00a0123. ISBN\u00a09781908843159.\u00a0\n  159. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe President Mugabe labels white farmers 'enemies'\". Archived from the original on 29 June 2006. Retrieved 20 September 2007.\u00a0CS1 maint: Unfit url (link) . CNN (18 April 2000).\n  160. Jump up ^ Robinson, Simon (18 February 2002). \"A Tale of Two Countries\", Time; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  161. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe forbids white farmers to harvest\". USA Today. 24 June 2002. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  162. Jump up ^ \"White farmers under siege in Zimbabwe\". BBC News. 15 August 2002. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  163. Jump up ^ Mugabe Interview: The Full Transcript, News.sky.com (24 May 2004); retrieved 4 July 2013.\n  164. Jump up ^ Clemens, Michael; Moss, Todd (20 July 2005). Costs and Causes of Zimbabwe's Crisis (Report). Center for Global Development. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  165. Jump up ^ Meldrum, Andrew (21 May 2005). \"As country heads for disaster, Zimbabwe calls for return of white farmers\". The Guardian. London, UK. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  166. Jump up ^ Timberg, Craig (6 January 2007). \"White Farmers Given Leases in Zimbabwe\". The Washington Post. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  167. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe threatens white farmers\". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 5 February 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  168. Jump up ^ Chinaka, Cris (8 August 2007). \"Zimbabwe threatens white farmers on evictions\". Reuters. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  169. Jump up ^ \"How to stay alive when it all runs out\". The Economist. 12 July 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  170. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe inflation hits 11,200,000 percent\". CNN. 19 August 2008. Retrieved 4 May 2016.\u00a0\n  171. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe introduces 100-billion-dollar note\". Agence France-Presse. 19 July 2008. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2010.\u00a0\n  172. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe abandons its currency\". BBC News. 29 January 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  173. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Suspends Use of Own Currency\". VOA News. 12 April 2009.\u00a0\n  174. Jump up ^ Giokos, Eleni (29 February 2016). \"This country has nine currencies\". CNNMoney. Retrieved 8 January 2017.\u00a0\n  175. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f \"Zimbabwe Overview\". The World Bank. World Bank Group. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.\u00a0\n  176. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe economy buoyant, more reform needed: IMF\". Reuters. 8 November 2010.\u00a0\n  177. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe economy growing: IMF\". talkzimbabwe.co. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 12 November 2010.\u00a0\n  178. Jump up ^ Chitiyo, Know; Vines, Alex; Vandome, Christopher (September 2016). \"The Domestic and External Implications of Zimbabwe's Economic Reform and Re-engagement Agenda\" (PDF). Chatham House. Royal Institute for International Affairs. Retrieved 8 January 2017.\u00a0\n  179. Jump up ^ Dube, Jennifer (3 April 2011). \"Zimplats ignores seizure threat\". The Standard. Harare, Zimbabwe. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  180. Jump up ^ \"IMARA: Global investors get upbeat briefing on Zim prospects\" (Press release). IMARA. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\u00a0\n  181. Jump up ^ Kitsepile, Nyathi (30 January 2013) Zimbabwe has only $217 in the bank, says finance minister: News, Africareview.com; retrieved 4 July 2013.\n  182. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Claims Its Accounts Are Bare. Newsmax.com (30 January 2013); retrieved 4 July 2013.\n  183. ^ Jump up to: a b Marawanyika, Godfrey, Biggest Zimbabwe Gold Miner to Rule on London Trade by March, Bloomberg News, 17 October 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2016.\n  184. Jump up ^ Mumera, Wisdom (9 Jan 2016). \"Zimbabwe`s Coffee Production Declines\". newsofhesouth.com.\u00a0\n  185. Jump up ^ Conservation agriculture and microdosing in Zimbabwe, WRENmedia, January 2013\n  186. ^ Jump up to: a b Machipisa, Lewis (14 March 2001). \"Sun sets on Zimbabwe tourism\". BBC News. Retrieved 16 November 2007.\u00a0\n  187. Jump up ^ \"Travel and tourism: Economic impact 2017 Zimbabwe\" (PDF). March 2017.\u00a0\n  188. Jump up ^ Berger, Sebastien (29 October 2007). \"British Airways abandons flights to Zimbabwe\". The Daily Telegraph. London, UK. Archived from the original on 30 November 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007.\u00a0\n  189. Jump up ^ Sibanda, Tichaona (23 February 2012). \"Zimbabwe: Air Zimbabwe Vanishes From the Skies Indefinitely\". allAfrica.com. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  190. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Tourism Authority\". Archived from the original on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007.\u00a0\n  191. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: The Spirit of Matobo\". zimbabwe.safari.co.za. Archived from the original on 1 November 2013.\u00a0\n  192. Jump up ^ \"Exposure Data by Country\", World Health Organization; accessed 19 October 2014.\n  193. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe AMCOW. Collaboratively published report circa 2010, wsp.org; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  194. Jump up ^ [http:\/\/ www.hrw.org\/sites\/default\/files\/reports\/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf \"Troubled Water Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe\u2019s Capital\"], Human Rights Watch (2013).\n  195. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lemarchand, Guillermo A.; Schneegans, Susan (eds) (2014). Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. pp.\u00a0Volume 2. GO\u2013SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation. ISBN\u00a0978-92-3-100034-8.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  196. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2015. pp.\u00a0535\u2013555. ISBN\u00a0978-92-3-100129-1.\u00a0\n  197. Jump up ^ \"WHO \u2013 Zimbabwe\". Retrieved 17 January 2015.\u00a0\n  198. Jump up ^ Thornycroft, Peta (10 April 2006). \"In Zimbabwe, life ends before 40\". The Sydney Morning Herald. Harare. Retrieved 10 April 2006.\u00a0\n  199. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe\". UNAIDS. Retrieved 16 January 2011.\u00a0\n  200. Jump up ^ \"HIV Prevalence Rates Fall in Zimbabwe\". UNESCO. Retrieved 3 December 2007.\u00a0\n  201. Jump up ^ MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007.\u00a0\n  202. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe\". Retrieved 22 January 2008.\u00a0\n  203. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe \u2013 International Religious Freedom Report 2005\". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 3 December 2007. An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim.\u00a0\n  204. Jump up ^ \"The People of Zimbabwe\". Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007.\u00a0\n  205. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ethnicity\/Race of Zimbabwe\". Retrieved 6 January 2008.\u00a0\n  206. Jump up ^ Wiley, David and Isaacman, Allen F. (1981). Southern Africa: society, economy, and liberation. Michigan State University, University of Minnesota. p. 55\n  207. Jump up ^ Quarterly Digest Of Statistics, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office, 1999.\n  208. Jump up ^ Quarterly Digest of Statistics, 1998, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office.\n  209. ^ Jump up to: a b Zimbabwe Population Census 2012 Archived 1 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine., zimstat.co.zw; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  210. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Profile based on the 2002 Population Census Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.. zimstat.co.zw\n  211. Jump up ^ Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 2005\u201306 Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine., zimstat.co.zw; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  212. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2016.\u00a0, gapadventures.com; accessed 4 May 2016.\n  213. Jump up ^ Mother Tongue: Interviews with Musaemura B. Zimunya and Solomon Mutswairo University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\n  214. Jump up ^ Meldrum, Andrew (1 July 2007). \"Refugees flood from Zimbabwe The Observer\". The Guardian. London, UK. Retrieved 6 April 2010.\u00a0\n  215. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwean refugees suffer in Botswana and South Africa\". Sokwanele Civic Action Group. 20 July 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.\u00a0\n  216. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Internal displacement in Zimbabwe\".\u00a0\n  217. Jump up ^ \"The Many Faces of Displacement: IDPs in Zimbabwe\" (PDF). Geneva: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2010.\u00a0\n  218. Jump up ^ Tibaijuka, A.K. (2005). \"Report of the Fact-Finding Mission to Zimbabwe to assess the Scope and Impact of Operation Murambatsvina\" (PDF). Geneva: UN Special Envoy on Human Settlements Issues in Zimbabwe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2005. Retrieved 13 April 2009.\u00a0\n  219. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe in PEW-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project\".\u00a0\n  220. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe in ARDA\".\u00a0\n  221. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe at \"International Religious Freedom Report\", USA Departament of State\".\u00a0\n  222. Jump up ^ Berliner, Paul (June 1993). The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe. University of Chicago Press. ISBN\u00a09780226043791.\u00a0\n  223. Jump up ^ Owomoyela, Oyekan (2002). Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p.\u00a077. ISBN\u00a00-313-31583-3.\u00a0\n  224. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Celebrates 25 years of Independence\". Konrad Adenauer Stiftung. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 6 January 2008.\u00a0\n  225. Jump up ^ \"Charles Mungoshi\". Zimbabwe \u2013 Poetry International Web. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007.\u00a0\n  226. Jump up ^ \"Tribute to Cathy Buckle\". Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2007.\u00a0\n  227. Jump up ^ \"Cultural Origins of art\". Archived from the original on 1 October 2000. Retrieved 6 January 2008.\u00a0\n  228. Jump up ^ \"African theatre - Southern and South Africa | art\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-01-19.\u00a0\n  229. Jump up ^ \"Sadza ne Nyama: A Shona Staple Dish\". Zambuko.com. Retrieved 3 November 2007.\u00a0\n  230. Jump up ^ Stephanie Hanes (20 September 2006). \"Biltong: much more than just a snack\". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 3 October 2006.\u00a0\n  231. Jump up ^ worldrugby.org. \"World Rugby\".\u00a0\n  232. Jump up ^ \"2004 Olympic Games swimming results\". CNN. Archived from the original on 9 May 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2007.\u00a0\n  233. Jump up ^ \"Montreal 2005 Results\". Archived from the original on 28 January 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.\u00a0\n  234. Jump up ^ \"12th FINA World Championships\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.\u00a0\n  235. Jump up ^ \"BBC Sport Commonwealth Games 2002 Statistics\". BBC News. Retrieved 29 August 2007.\u00a0\n  236. Jump up ^ Gold, Jack Of (29 May 2012). \"Africa punching above it's [sic] weight in golf\". Free TV 4 Africa. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  237. Jump up ^ \"From Zimbabwe to Hull FC: Masimbaashe Matongo's 'dream' journey is just beginning\". Hull Daily Mail. 17 November 2015. Archived from the original on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2017.\u00a0\n  238. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe teenager Judah Mazive signs contract to play rugby in England\". Zimbabwe Today. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.\u00a0\n  239. Jump up ^ \"South Africa's Marinos appointed new SANZAR CEO \u2013 Super Rugby \u2013 Super 18 Rugby and Rugby Championship News, Results and Fixtures from Super XV Rugby\". Retrieved 18 February 2017.\u00a0\n  240. Jump up ^ \"Supreme Court strikes down repressive media legislation\". Committee to Protect Journalist.\u00a0\n  241. Jump up ^ Williams, Jon (29 July 2009). \"Resuming operations in Zimbabwe\". BBC.\u00a0\n  242. Jump up ^ Banya, Nelson (26 May 2010). \"Zimbabwe licenses new private newspapers\". Reuters.\u00a0\n  243. Jump up ^ \"independent dailies allowed to resume publishing\", International Freedom of Expression Exchange, 28 May 2010.\n  244. Jump up ^ Chinaka, Cris (4 June 2010). \"Zimbabwe gets first private daily newspaper in years\". Reuters.\u00a0\n  245. Jump up ^ \"Finally, Zimbabwe's 'private' radio station goes on air\". zimeye.org. 26 June 2012. Archived from the original on 25 July 2014.\u00a0\n  246. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Reporters without Borders Press Freedom Index\". Reports Without Borders. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2010.\u00a0\n  247. Jump up ^ Ruzengwe, Blessing (17 March 2005) \"The nine lives of Wilf Mbanga\", The London Globe via Metrovox.\n  248. Jump up ^ \"Freedom House 2007 Map of Press Freedom: Zimbabwe\". Freedomhouse.org. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  249. Jump up ^ Burnham, Frederick Russell (1926). Scouting on Two Continents. Doubleday, Page & company. p.\u00a02; Chapters 3 & 4. OCLC\u00a0407686.\u00a0\n  250. Jump up ^ van Wyk, Peter (2003). Burnham: King of Scouts. Trafford Publishing. ISBN\u00a01-4122-0028-8.\u00a0\n  251. Jump up ^ Jeal, Tim (1989). Baden-Powell. London: Hutchinson. ISBN\u00a00-09-170670-X.\u00a0\n  252. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe Scouts celebrate their centenary in a park that Baden-Powell had visited in 1936\". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2009.\u00a0\n  253. Jump up ^ Huffman, Thomas N. (1985). \"The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe\". African Arts. 18 (3): 68\u201373, 99\u2013100. doi:10.2307\/3336358. JSTOR\u00a03336358.\u00a0\n  254. Jump up ^ Sinclair, Paul (2001). \"Review: The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe Symbols of a Nation by Edward Matenga\". The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 56 (173\/174): 105\u2013106. doi:10.2307\/3889033. JSTOR\u00a03889033.\u00a0\n  255. Jump up ^ Landow, George P. \"Great Zimbabwe\". Brown University. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007.\u00a0\n  256. Jump up ^ \"Balancing Rocks\". Archived from the original on 17 August 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2007.\u00a0\n  257. Jump up ^ Davies, R. and Sanders, D. (1998). \"Adjustment policies and the welfare of children: Zimbabwe, 1980\u20131985\". In: Cornia, G.A., Jolly, R. and Stewart, F. (eds.) Adjustment with a human face, Vol. II: country case studies. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 272\u201399; ISBN\u00a00198286112.\n  258. Jump up ^ Dugbatey, K. (1999). \"National health policies: sub-Saharan African case studies (1980\u20131990)\". Soc. Sci. Med. 49 (2): 223\u2013239. doi:10.1016\/S0277-9536(99)00110-0. PMID\u00a010414831.\u00a0\n  259. Jump up ^ Marquette, C.M. (1997). \"Current poverty, structural adjustment, and drought in Zimbabwe\". World Development. 25 (7): 1141\u20131149. doi:10.1016\/S0305-750X(97)00019-3.\u00a0\n  260. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe in 10 numbers\". BBC News. 2017-11-18. Retrieved 2017-11-18.\u00a0\n  261. Jump up ^ \"United Nations Statistics Division\". Retrieved 7 December 2008.\u00a0\n  262. Jump up ^ Hungwe, Brian (7 November 2008). \"The death throes of Harare's hospitals\". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2008.\u00a0\n  263. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: coping with the cholera outbreak\". 26 November 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008.\u00a0\n  264. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500\". BBC. 2 December 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2008.\u00a0\n  265. Jump up ^ \"PM urges Zimbabwe cholera action\". BBC News. 6 December 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012.\u00a0\n  266. Jump up ^ \"Miliband backs African calls for end of Mugabe\", The Times, 5 December 2008.\n  267. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe declares national emergency over cholera\". Reuters. 4 December 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008.\u00a0\n  268. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe declares cholera outbreak a national emergency\". Agence France-Presse. 4 December 2008. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2008.\u00a0\n  269. ^ Jump up to: a b On the cholera frontline. IRIN. 9 March 2009\n  270. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe says cholera epidemic may spread with rain\". Reuters. 30 November 2008. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008.\u00a0\n  271. Jump up ^ \"The State of the World's Midwifery\". United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 1 June 2016.\u00a0\n  272. Jump up ^ \"Ranking of African Countries By Literacy Rate: Zimbabwe No. 1\". The African Economist.\u00a0\n  273. Jump up ^ \"Unlicensed and outdoors or no school at all\" Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine., irinnews.org, 23 July 2010.\n  274. Jump up ^ \"Zimbabwe: Country Leads in Africa Literacy Race\", AllAfrica.com, 14 July 2010.\n  275. Jump up ^ Poverty Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey 2011\/12 Report (Report). Zimstat. 2013. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013.\u00a0\n  276. Jump up ^ Nkepile Mabuse (28 September 2009). \"Zimbabwe schools begin fightback\". CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2009.\u00a0\n  277. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Zimbabwe US Embassy\". Archived from the original on 18 November 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2007.\u00a0\n  278. Jump up ^ \"BBC report on 40 years in Zimbabwe's schools\". BBC News. 19 April 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2007.\u00a0\n\nSources[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Parsons, Neil (1993). A New History of Southern Africa (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. ISBN\u00a00-84195319-8.\u00a0\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Barclay, Philip (2010), Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair\u00a0.\n  \u2022 Bourne, Richard. Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? (2011); 302 pages.\n  \u2022 McGregor, JoAnn; Primorac, Ranka, eds. (2010), Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival, Berghahn Books\u00a0, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse.\n  \u2022 Meredith, Martin. Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future (2007) excerpt and text search.\n  \u2022 Orner, Peter; Holmes, Annie (2011), Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives, Voice of witness\u00a0.\n  \u2022 Smith, Ian Douglas. Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence (2008) excerpt and text search.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nFind more aboutZimbabweat Wikipedia's sister projects\n  \u2022 Definitions from Wiktionary\n  \u2022 Media from Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 News from Wikinews\n  \u2022 Quotations from Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Texts from Wikisource\n  \u2022 Textbooks from Wikibooks\n  \u2022 Travel guide from Wikivoyage\n  \u2022 Learning resources from Wikiversity\n  \u2022 Parliament of Zimbabwe\u2014official government site\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe Government Online official government mirror site\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe at Curlie (based on DMOZ)\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe profile from the BBC News\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Atlas of Zimbabwe\n  \u2022 \"Zimbabwe\". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe from UCB Libraries GovPubs\n  \u2022 Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe from International Futures\n  \u2022 World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nZimbabwe\u00a0articles\n1890\u20131923: Company rule; 1923\u201380: Southern Rhodesia; 1953\u201363: Federation; 1965\u201379: Rhodesia under UDI; 1979: Zimbabwe Rhodesia under UDI; 1980\u2013present: Zimbabwe\nHistory\nChronology\n  \u2022 Pre-colonial\n  \u2022 Rudd Concession\n  \u2022 Company rule\n    \u2022 Pioneer Column\n    \u2022 First Matabele War\n    \u2022 Shangani Patrol\n    \u2022 Second Matabele War\n    \u2022 Second Boer War\n    \u2022 First World War\n  \u2022 Southern Rhodesia\n    \u2022 colonial history\n    \u2022 Second World War\n    \u2022 Rhodesia\u2013Nyasaland federation\n    \u2022 Malayan Emergency involvement\n  \u2022 Unilateral Declaration of Independence\n    \u2022 Rhodesia\n    \u2022 Bush War\n    \u2022 1975 Victoria Falls Conference\n    \u2022 1976 Geneva Conference\n    \u2022 Internal Settlement\n    \u2022 Zimbabwe Rhodesia\n    \u2022 Lancaster House Agreement\n  \u2022 Gukurahundi\n  \u2022 2008\u201309 cholera outbreak\n  \u2022 2016\u201317 protests\n  \u2022 2017 coup d'\u00e9tat\nBy topic\n  \u2022 Constitutional\n  \u2022 Cricket (to 1992)\n  \u2022 Cricket (1992\u20132006)\n  \u2022 Cricket crisis (2003\u20132007)\n  \u2022 Military\nGeography\n  \u2022 Chimanimani District\n  \u2022 Cities and towns\n  \u2022 Districts\n  \u2022 Great Zimbabwe\n  \u2022 Place name renaming\n  \u2022 Provinces\n  \u2022 Rivers\n    \u2022 Limpopo\n    \u2022 Zambezi\n  \u2022 Wards (municipalities)\n  \u2022 Wildlife\nPolitics\n  \u2022 Elections\n    \u2022 Electoral Commission\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\n  \u2022 Human rights\n    \u2022 LGBT\n  \u2022 Land reform\n  \u2022 Military\n  \u2022 Parliament\n    \u2022 Senate\n    \u2022 House of Assembly\n  \u2022 Political parties\n  \u2022 Presidents\n    \u2022 Vice-President\n  \u2022 Prime Minister\n  \u2022 2007 political crisis\nEconomy\n  \u2022 Central bank\n  \u2022 Dollar (suspended currency)\n  \u2022 Stock Exchange\n  \u2022 Telecommunications\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transportation\nCulture\n  \u2022 Art\n  \u2022 Media\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Public holidays\n  \u2022 Sex work\nDemographics\nEthnic groups\n(diaspora)\nBlack\n  \u2022 Hungwe\n  \u2022 Kunda\n  \u2022 Lemba\n  \u2022 Manyika\n  \u2022 Ndebele\n  \u2022 Rusape Jews\n  \u2022 Shona\n  \u2022 Tokaleya\n  \u2022 Tonga\nWhite\n  \u2022 Afrikaners\n  \u2022 British\n  \u2022 Greeks\n  \u2022 Jews\n  \u2022 \"Rhodies\"\nOthers\n  \u2022 Coloureds (Goffals)\n  \u2022 Indians\nLanguages\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 English (South African)\n  \u2022 Shona\n  \u2022 Sindebele\nSymbols\n  \u2022 Animal\n  \u2022 Anthem\n  \u2022 Coat of arms\n  \u2022 Emblem\n  \u2022 Flag\n  \u2022 Flower\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Book\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Portal\n[show]\nGeographic locale\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCountries and territories of Africa\nSovereign states\nentirely\/mostly\nin Africa\n  \u2022 Algeria\n  \u2022 Angola\n  \u2022 Benin\n  \u2022 Botswana\n  \u2022 Burkina Faso\n  \u2022 Burundi\n  \u2022 Cameroon\n  \u2022 Cape Verde\n  \u2022 Central African Republic\n  \u2022 Chad\n  \u2022 Comoros\n  \u2022 Democratic Republic of the Congo\n  \u2022 Republic of the Congo\n  \u2022 Djibouti\n  \u2022 Egypt\n  \u2022 Equatorial Guinea\n  \u2022 Eritrea\n  \u2022 Ethiopia\n  \u2022 Gabon\n  \u2022 The Gambia\n  \u2022 Ghana\n  \u2022 Guinea\n  \u2022 Guinea-Bissau\n  \u2022 Ivory Coast (C\u00f4te d'Ivoire)\n  \u2022 Kenya\n  \u2022 Lesotho\n  \u2022 Liberia\n  \u2022 Libya\n  \u2022 Madagascar\n  \u2022 Malawi\n  \u2022 Mali\n  \u2022 Mauritania\n  \u2022 Mauritius\n  \u2022 Morocco\n  \u2022 Mozambique\n  \u2022 Namibia\n  \u2022 Niger\n  \u2022 Nigeria\n  \u2022 Rwanda\n  \u2022 S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe\n  \u2022 Senegal\n  \u2022 Seychelles\n  \u2022 Sierra Leone\n  \u2022 Somalia\n  \u2022 South Africa\n  \u2022 South Sudan\n  \u2022 Sudan\n  \u2022 Swaziland\n  \u2022 Tanzania\n  \u2022 Togo\n  \u2022 Tunisia\n  \u2022 Uganda\n  \u2022 Zambia\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe\npartly\nin Africa\n  \u2022 France\n    \u2022 Mayotte\n    \u2022 R\u00e9union\n  \u2022 Italy\n    \u2022 Pantelleria\n    \u2022 Pelagie Islands\n  \u2022 Portugal\n    \u2022 Madeira\n  \u2022 Spain\n    \u2022 Canary Islands\n    \u2022 Ceuta\n    \u2022 Melilla\n    \u2022 Plazas de soberan\u00eda\n  \u2022 Yemen\n    \u2022 Socotra\nOrthographic projection of Africa\nTerritories and\ndependencies\n  \u2022 \u00celes \u00c9parses\n    \u2022 France\n  \u2022 Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha\n    \u2022 UK\n  \u2022 Southern Provinces (Western Sahara)1\nStates with limited\nrecognition\n  \u2022 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic\n  \u2022 Somaliland\n1 Unclear sovereignty.\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSubdivisions of Zimbabwe\nProvinces\n  \u2022 Bulawayo\n  \u2022 Harare Province\n  \u2022 Manicaland\n  \u2022 Mashonaland Central\n  \u2022 Mashonaland East\n  \u2022 Mashonaland West\n  \u2022 Masvingo\n  \u2022 Matabeleland North\n  \u2022 Matabeleland South\n  \u2022 Midlands\nDistricts\n  \u2022 Beitbridge\n  \u2022 Bikita\n  \u2022 Bindura\n  \u2022 Binga\n  \u2022 Bubi\n  \u2022 Buhera\n  \u2022 Bulawayo\n  \u2022 Bulilimamangwe\n  \u2022 Chegutu\n  \u2022 Chikomba\n  \u2022 Chimanimani\n  \u2022 Chipinge\n  \u2022 Chiredzi\n  \u2022 Chirumhanzu\n  \u2022 Chivi\n  \u2022 Gokwe North\n  \u2022 Gokwe South\n  \u2022 Goromonzi\n  \u2022 Guruve\n  \u2022 Gutu\n  \u2022 Gwanda\n  \u2022 Gweru\n  \u2022 Harare\n  \u2022 Hurungwe\n  \u2022 Hwange\n  \u2022 Hwedza\n  \u2022 Insiza\n  \u2022 Kadoma\n  \u2022 Kariba\n  \u2022 Kwekwe\n  \u2022 Lupane\n  \u2022 Makonde\n  \u2022 Makoni\n  \u2022 Marondera\n  \u2022 Masvingo\n  \u2022 Matobo\n  \u2022 Mazowe\n  \u2022 Mberengwa\n  \u2022 Mount Darwin\n  \u2022 Mudzi\n  \u2022 Mukumbura\n  \u2022 Murehwa\n  \u2022 Mutare\n  \u2022 Mutasa\n  \u2022 Mutoko\n  \u2022 Muzarabani\n  \u2022 Mwenezi\n  \u2022 Nkayi\n  \u2022 Nyanga\n  \u2022 Rushinga\n  \u2022 Seke\n  \u2022 Shamva\n  \u2022 Shurugwi\n  \u2022 Tsholotsho\n  \u2022 Umguza\n  \u2022 Umzingwane\n  \u2022 Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe\n  \u2022 Wedza\n  \u2022 Zaka\n  \u2022 Zvimba\n  \u2022 Zvishavane\nWards\n  \u2022 Wards of Zimbabwe\nLargest cities\n  \u2022 Harare\n  \u2022 Bulawayo\n  \u2022 Chitungwiza\n  \u2022 Mutare\n  \u2022 Gweru\n  \u2022 Kwekwe\n  \u2022 Kadoma\n  \u2022 Masvingo\n  \u2022 Chinhoyi\n  \u2022 Marondera\n[show]\nInternational membership\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNations in the Group of 15 (G-15)\nSummits\n  \u2022 1990\n  \u2022 1991\n  \u2022 1992\n  \u2022 1994\n  \u2022 1995\n  \u2022 1996\n  \u2022 1997\n  \u2022 1998\n  \u2022 1999\n  \u2022 2000\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2012\nMembers\n  \u2022 Algeria\n  \u2022 Argentina\n  \u2022 Brazil\n  \u2022 Chile\n  \u2022 Egypt\n  \u2022 India\n  \u2022 Indonesia\n  \u2022 Iran\n  \u2022 Jamaica\n  \u2022 Kenya\n  \u2022 Malaysia\n  \u2022 Mexico\n  \u2022 Nigeria\n  \u2022 Senegal\n  \u2022 Sri Lanka\n  \u2022 Venezuela\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSouthern African Development Community (SADC)\nMember states\n  \u2022 Angola\n  \u2022 Botswana\n  \u2022 Democratic Republic of the Congo\n  \u2022 Lesotho\n  \u2022 Madagascar\n  \u2022 Malawi\n  \u2022 Mauritius\n  \u2022 Mozambique\n  \u2022 Namibia\n  \u2022 Seychelles\n  \u2022 South Africa\n  \u2022 Swaziland\n  \u2022 Tanzania\n  \u2022 Zambia\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe\nLeaders\nChairpersons\n  \u2022 Levy Mwanawasa\n  \u2022 Kgalema Motlanthe\nSecretaries-General\n  \u2022 Kaire Mbuende\n  \u2022 Prega Ramsamy\n  \u2022 Tomaz Salom\u00e3o\nSee also\n  \u2022 Southern African Development Coordination Conference (forerunner)\n  \u2022 Southern African Customs Union (SACU)\n  \u2022 Common Monetary Area (CMA)\n  \u2022 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAfrican Union (AU)\nHistory\n  \u2022 Pan-Africanism\n  \u2022 Casablanca Group\n  \u2022 Monrovia Group\n  \u2022 Abuja Treaty\n  \u2022 Sirte Declaration\n  \u2022 Lome Summit\nOrganisation of African Unity\n  \u2022 Chairperson\n  \u2022 Secretary General\nMap of African Union\nGeography\n  \u2022 Borders\n  \u2022 Extreme points\n  \u2022 Member states\n  \u2022 Regions\nOrgans\n  \u2022 Executive Council\n  \u2022 Permanent Representatives' Committee\n  \u2022 Specialized Technical Committees\nAssembly\n  \u2022 Chairperson\nCommission\n  \u2022 Chairperson\n  \u2022 Deputy Chairperson\n  \u2022 AUCC\nPan-African Parliament\n  \u2022 Bureau\n  \u2022 Secretariat\n  \u2022 Gallagher Estate\nAfrican Court of Justice\n  \u2022 African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights\nECOSOCC Committees\n  \u2022 Peace and Security\n  \u2022 Political Affairs\n  \u2022 Infrastructure and Energy\n  \u2022 Social Affairs and Health\n  \u2022 HR, Sciences and Technology\n  \u2022 Trade and Industry\n  \u2022 Rural Economy and Agriculture\n  \u2022 Economic Affairs\n  \u2022 Women and Gender\n  \u2022 Cross-Cutting Programs\nFinancial Institutions\n  \u2022 AFRA Commission\n  \u2022 African Central Bank\n  \u2022 African Monetary Fund\n  \u2022 African Investment Bank\nPeace and Security Council\n  \u2022 ACIRC\n  \u2022 African Standby Force\n  \u2022 Panel of the Wise\n  \u2022 UNAMID\n  \u2022 AMIB\n  \u2022 AMIS\n  \u2022 AMISOM\n  \u2022 MISCA\nPolitics\n  \u2022 APRM\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\n  \u2022 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights\n  \u2022 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights\n  \u2022 Enlargement\nSymbols\n  \u2022 Anthem\n  \u2022 Emblem\n  \u2022 Flag\nEconomy\n  \u2022 Currencies\n  \u2022 Development Bank\n  \u2022 African Economic Community\n  \u2022 NEPAD\n  \u2022 African Continental Free Trade Area\n  \u2022 Single African Air Transport Market\nCulture\n  \u2022 Africa Day\n  \u2022 Languages\nTheory\n  \u2022 Afro\n  \u2022 United States of Africa\n  \u2022 United States of Latin Africa\n  \u2022 Category Category\n[show]\nHistory\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nBritish Empire\nLegend\nCurrent territory\nFormer territory\n*\u00a0Now a Commonwealth realm\nNow a member of the Commonwealth of Nations\nHistorical flags of the British Empire\n[show]\nEurope\n  \u2022 1542\u20131800 Ireland (integrated into UK)\n  \u2022 1708\u20131757, 1763\u20131782 and 1798\u20131802 Minorca\n  \u2022 Since 1713 Gibraltar\n  \u2022 1800\u20131813 Malta (Protectorate)\n  \u2022 1813\u20131964 Malta (Colony)\n  \u2022 1807\u20131890 Heligoland\n  \u2022 1809\u20131864 Ionian Islands\n  \u2022 1878\u20131960 Cyprus\n  \u2022 1921\u20131937 Irish Free State\n[show]\nNorth America\n17th century and before 18th century 19th and 20th century\n  \u2022 1579 New Albion\n  \u2022 1583\u20131907 Newfoundland\n  \u2022 1605\u20131979 *Saint Lucia\n  \u2022 1607\u20131776 Virginia\n  \u2022 Since 1619 Bermuda\n  \u2022 1620\u20131691 Plymouth\n  \u2022 1623\u20131883 Saint Kitts\n  \u2022 1624\u20131966 *Barbados\n  \u2022 1625\u20131650 Saint Croix\n  \u2022 1627\u20131979 *Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\n  \u2022 1628\u20131883 Nevis\n  \u2022 1629\u20131691 Massachusetts Bay\n  \u2022 1632\u20131776 Maryland\n  \u2022 since 1632 Montserrat\n  \u2022 1632\u20131860 Antigua\n  \u2022 1635\u20131644 Saybrook\n  \u2022 1636\u20131776 Connecticut\n  \u2022 1636\u20131776 Rhode Island\n  \u2022 1637\u20131662 New Haven\n  \u2022 1643\u20131860 Bay Islands\n  \u2022 Since 1650 Anguilla\n  \u2022 1655\u20131850 Mosquito Coast\n  \u2022 1655\u20131962 *Jamaica\n  \u2022 1663\u20131712 Carolina\n  \u2022 1664\u20131776 New York\n  \u2022 1665\u20131674 and 1702\u20131776 New Jersey\n  \u2022 Since 1666 Virgin Islands\n  \u2022 Since 1670 Cayman Islands\n  \u2022 1670\u20131973 *Bahamas\n  \u2022 1670\u20131870 Rupert's Land\n  \u2022 1671\u20131816 Leeward Islands\n  \u2022 1674\u20131702 East Jersey\n  \u2022 1674\u20131702 West Jersey\n  \u2022 1680\u20131776 New Hampshire\n  \u2022 1681\u20131776 Pennsylvania\n  \u2022 1686\u20131689 New England\n  \u2022 1691\u20131776 Massachusetts Bay\n  \u2022 1701\u20131776 Delaware\n  \u2022 1712\u20131776 North Carolina\n  \u2022 1712\u20131776 South Carolina\n  \u2022 1713\u20131867 Nova Scotia\n  \u2022 1733\u20131776 Georgia\n  \u2022 1754\u20131820 Cape Breton Island\n  \u2022 1762\u20131974 *Grenada\n  \u2022 1763\u20131978 Dominica\n  \u2022 1763\u20131873 Prince Edward Island\n  \u2022 1763\u20131791 Quebec\n  \u2022 1763\u20131783 East Florida\n  \u2022 1763\u20131783 West Florida\n  \u2022 1784\u20131867 New Brunswick\n  \u2022 1791\u20131841 Lower Canada\n  \u2022 1791\u20131841 Upper Canada\n  \u2022 Since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands\n  \u2022 1818\u20131846 Columbia District\/Oregon Country1\n  \u2022 1833\u20131960 Windward Islands\n  \u2022 1833\u20131960 Leeward Islands\n  \u2022 1841\u20131867 Canada\n  \u2022 1849\u20131866 Vancouver Island\n  \u2022 1853\u20131863 Queen Charlotte Islands\n  \u2022 1858\u20131866 British Columbia\n  \u2022 1859\u20131870 North-Western Territory\n  \u2022 1860\u20131981 *British Antigua and Barbuda\n  \u2022 1862\u20131863 Stickeen\n  \u2022 1866\u20131871 British Columbia\n  \u2022 1867\u20131931 *Dominion of Canada2\n  \u2022 1871\u20131964 Honduras\n  \u2022 1882\u20131983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis\n  \u2022 1889\u20131962 Trinidad and Tobago\n  \u2022 1907\u20131949 Newfoundland3\n  \u2022 1958\u20131962 West Indies Federation\n  \u2022 1.\u00a0Occupied jointly with the United States.\n  \u2022 2.\u00a0In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of Canada.\n  \u2022 3.\u00a0Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.\n[show]\nSouth America\n  \u2022 1631\u20131641 Providence Island\n  \u2022 1651\u20131667 Willoughbyland\n  \u2022 1670\u20131688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4\n  \u2022 1831\u20131966 Guiana\n  \u2022 Since 1833 Falkland Islands5\n  \u2022 Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5\n  \u2022 4.\u00a0Now a department of Colombia.\n  \u2022 5.\u00a0Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April\u2013June 1982.\n[show]\nAfrica\n17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century\n  \u2022 Since 1658 Saint Helena14\n  \u2022 1792\u20131961 Sierra Leone\n  \u2022 1795\u20131803 Cape Colony\n  \u2022 Since 1815 Ascension Island14\n  \u2022 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14\n  \u2022 1806\u20131910 Cape of Good Hope\n  \u2022 1807\u20131808 Madeira\n  \u2022 1810\u20131968 Mauritius\n  \u2022 1816\u20131965 The Gambia\n  \u2022 1856\u20131910 Natal\n  \u2022 1862\u20131906 Lagos\n  \u2022 1868\u20131966 Basutoland\n  \u2022 1874\u20131957 Gold Coast\n  \u2022 1882\u20131922 Egypt\n  \u2022 1884\u20131900 Niger Coast\n  \u2022 1884\u20131966 Bechuanaland\n  \u2022 1884\u20131960 Somaliland\n  \u2022 1887\u20131897 Zululand\n  \u2022 1890\u20131962 Uganda\n  \u2022 1890\u20131963 Zanzibar\n  \u2022 1891\u20131964 Nyasaland\n  \u2022 1891\u20131907 Central Africa\n  \u2022 1893\u20131968 Swaziland\n  \u2022 1895\u20131920 East Africa\n  \u2022 1899\u20131956 Sudan\n  \u2022 1900\u20131914 Northern Nigeria\n  \u2022 1900\u20131914 Southern Nigeria\n  \u2022 1900\u20131910 Orange River\n  \u2022 1900\u20131910 Transvaal\n  \u2022 1903\u20131976 Seychelles\n  \u2022 1910\u20131931 South Africa\n  \u2022 1914\u20131960 Nigeria\n  \u2022 1915\u20131931 South-West Africa\n  \u2022 1919\u20131961 Cameroons6\n  \u2022 1920\u20131963 Kenya\n  \u2022 1922\u20131961 Tanganyika6\n  \u2022 1923\u20131965 and 1979\u20131980 Southern Rhodesia7\n  \u2022 1924\u20131964 Northern Rhodesia\n  \u2022 6.\u00a0League of Nations mandate.\n  \u2022 7.\u00a0Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.\n[show]\nAsia\n17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century\n  \u2022 1685\u20131824 Bencoolen\n  \u2022 1702\u20131705 Pulo Condore\n  \u2022 1757\u20131947 Bengal\n  \u2022 1762\u20131764 Manila and Cavite\n  \u2022 1781\u20131784 and 1795\u20131819 Padang\n  \u2022 1786\u20131946 Penang\n  \u2022 1795\u20131948 Ceylon\n  \u2022 1796\u20131965 Maldives\n  \u2022 1811\u20131816 Java\n  \u2022 1812\u20131824 Banka and Billiton\n  \u2022 1819\u20131826 Malaya\n  \u2022 1824\u20131948 Burma\n  \u2022 1826\u20131946 Straits Settlements\n  \u2022 1839\u20131967 Aden\n  \u2022 1839\u20131842 Afghanistan\n  \u2022 1841\u20131997 Hong Kong\n  \u2022 1841\u20131946 Sarawak\n  \u2022 1848\u20131946 Labuan\n  \u2022 1858\u20131947 India\n  \u2022 1874\u20131963 Borneo\n  \u2022 1879\u20131919 Afghanistan (protectorate)\n  \u2022 1882\u20131963 North Borneo\n  \u2022 1885\u20131946 Unfederated Malay States\n  \u2022 1888\u20131984 Brunei\n  \u2022 1891\u20131971 Muscat and Oman\n  \u2022 1892\u20131971 Trucial States\n  \u2022 1895\u20131946 Federated Malay States\n  \u2022 1898\u20131930 Weihai\n  \u2022 1878\u20131960 Cyprus\n  \u2022 1907\u20131949 Bhutan (protectorate)\n  \u2022 1918\u20131961 Kuwait\n  \u2022 1920\u20131932 Mesopotamia8\n  \u2022 1921\u20131946 Transjordan8\n  \u2022 1923\u20131948 Palestine8\n  \u2022 1945\u20131946 South Vietnam\n  \u2022 1946\u20131963 North Borneo\n  \u2022 1946\u20131963 Sarawak\n  \u2022 1946\u20131963 Singapore\n  \u2022 1946\u20131948 Malayan Union\n  \u2022 1948\u20131957 Federation of Malaya\n  \u2022 Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus)\n  \u2022 Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles)\n8\u00a0League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty\n[show]\nOceania\n18th and 19th\u00a0centuries 20th\u00a0century\n  \u2022 1788\u20131901 New South Wales\n  \u2022 1803\u20131901 Van Diemen's Land\/Tasmania\n  \u2022 1807\u20131863 Auckland Islands9\n  \u2022 1824\u20131980 New Hebrides\n  \u2022 1824\u20131901 Queensland\n  \u2022 1829\u20131901 Swan River\/Western Australia\n  \u2022 1836\u20131901 South Australia\n  \u2022 since 1838 Pitcairn Islands\n  \u2022 1841\u20131907 New Zealand\n  \u2022 1851\u20131901 Victoria\n  \u2022 1874\u20131970 Fiji10\n  \u2022 1877\u20131976 Western Pacific Territories\n  \u2022 1884\u20131949 Papua\n  \u2022 1888\u20131901 Rarotonga\/Cook Islands9\n  \u2022 1889\u20131948 Union Islands9\n  \u2022 1892\u20131979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11\n  \u2022 1893\u20131978 Solomon Islands12\n  \u2022 1900\u20131970 Tonga\n  \u2022 1900\u20131974 Niue9\n  \u2022 1901\u20131942 *Australia\n  \u2022 1907\u20131947 *New Zealand\n  \u2022 1919\u20131942 and 1945\u20131968 Nauru\n  \u2022 1919\u20131949 New Guinea\n  \u2022 1949\u20131975 Papua and New Guinea13\n  \u2022 9.\u00a0Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.\n  \u2022 10.\u00a0Suspended member.\n  \u2022 11.\u00a0Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.\n  \u2022 12.\u00a0Now the *Solomon Islands.\n  \u2022 13.\u00a0Now *Papua New Guinea.\n[show]\nAntarctica and South Atlantic\n  \u2022 Since 1658 Saint Helena14\n  \u2022 Since 1815 Ascension Island14\n  \u2022 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14\n  \u2022 Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15\n  \u2022 1841\u20131933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)\n  \u2022 1841\u20131947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)\n  \u2022 14.\u00a0Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922\u2013) and Tristan da Cunha (1938\u2013) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.\n  \u2022 15.\u00a0Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nZimbabwe Languages of Zimbabwe\nOfficial languages\n  \u2022 Chewa\n  \u2022 Chibarwe\n  \u2022 English\n  \u2022 Kalanga\n  \u2022 Koisan\n  \u2022 Nambya\n  \u2022 Ndau\n  \u2022 Ndebele\n  \u2022 Shona\n  \u2022 Sotho\n  \u2022 Tonga\n  \u2022 Tsonga\n  \u2022 Tswana\n  \u2022 Venda\n  \u2022 Xhosa\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe Sign\nUnofficial languages\n  \u2022 Dombe\n  \u2022 Fanagalo\n  \u2022 Kunda\n  \u2022 Lozi\n  \u2022 Manyika\n  \u2022 Ndau\n  \u2022 Tsoa\n  \u2022 Tswa\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 BNF: cb11933830b (data)\n  \u2022 GND: 4049850-5\n  \u2022 HDS: 3476\n  \u2022 LCCN: n80089993\n  \u2022 NARA: 10035795\n  \u2022 NDL: 00569590\n  \u2022 SUDOC: 029018455\n  \u2022 VIAF: 128940544\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Zimbabwe&oldid=843668086\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe\n  \u2022 1980 establishments in Zimbabwe\n  \u2022 Bantu countries and territories\n  \u2022 English-speaking countries and territories\n  \u2022 Former British colonies\n  \u2022 G15 nations\n  \u2022 Landlocked countries\n  \u2022 Member states of the African Union\n  \u2022 Member states of the United Nations\n  \u2022 Republics\n  \u2022 Southeast African countries\n  \u2022 States and territories established in 1980\n  \u2022 Countries in Africa\n  \u2022 Military dictatorships\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages with reference errors\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Pages with broken reference names\n  \u2022 CS1 errors: dates\n  \u2022 Pages containing links to subscription-only content\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Unfit url\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Use South African English from April 2013\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles written in South African English\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from February 2017\n  \u2022 Coordinates on Wikidata\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from May 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015\n  \u2022 Articles containing Shona-language text\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2014\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from August 2017\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018\n  \u2022 Articles containing Northern Ndebele-language text\n  \u2022 Free-content attribution\n  \u2022 Free content from UNESCO\n  \u2022 Articles with Curlie links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikinews\n  \u2022 Wikivoyage\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 Alemannisch\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u00c6nglisc\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Arpetan\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 Bamanankan\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 Bahasa Banjar\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u092d\u094b\u091c\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0940\n  \u2022 Bikol Central\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Chavacano de Zamboanga\n  \u2022 Chi-Chewa\n  \u2022 ChiShona\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Davvis\u00e1megiella\n  \u2022 Deitsch\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u078b\u07a8\u0788\u07ac\u0780\u07a8\u0784\u07a6\u0790\u07b0\n  \u2022 Dolnoserbski\n  \u2022 \u0f47\u0f7c\u0f44\u0f0b\u0f41\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Estreme\u00f1u\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 E\u028begbe\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fiji Hindi\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 Gaelg\n  \u2022 Gagauz\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 G\u0129k\u0169y\u0169\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u0425\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0433\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Hausa\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hornjoserbsce\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Igbo\n  \u2022 Ilokano\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09bf\u09b7\u09cd\u09a3\u09c1\u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09ae\u09a3\u09bf\u09aa\u09c1\u09b0\u09c0\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Interlingua\n  \u2022 Interlingue\n  \u2022 \u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d\n  \u2022 IsiZulu\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 Kapampangan\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kernowek\n  \u2022 Kinyarwanda\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 Kongo\n  \u2022 Krey\u00f2l ayisyen\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u044b\n  \u2022 \u041b\u0435\u0437\u0433\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0644\u06ca\u0631\u06cc \u0634\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0644\u06cc\n  \u2022 Latga\u013cu\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Ligure\n  \u2022 Limburgs\n  \u2022 Ling\u00e1la\n  \u2022 Livvinkarjala\n  \u2022 La .lojban.\n  \u2022 Luganda\n  \u2022 Lumbaart\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Malagasy\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Malti\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304\n  \u2022 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\n  \u2022 \u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\n  \u2022 N\u0101huatl\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d\n  \u2022 Nordfriisk\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Novial\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 \u0b13\u0b21\u0b3c\u0b3f\u0b06\n  \u2022 Oromoo\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 \u092a\u093e\u0932\u093f\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 Papiamentu\n  \u2022 \u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648\n  \u2022 Patois\n  \u2022 Piemont\u00e8is\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Qaraqalpaqsha\n  \u2022 Q\u0131r\u0131mtatarca\n  \u2022 Ripoarisch\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 Runa Simi\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0442\u044b\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d\n  \u2022 S\u00e4ng\u00f6\n  \u2022 Sardu\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Seeltersk\n  \u2022 Sesotho\n  \u2022 Sesotho sa Leboa\n  \u2022 Setswana\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Sicilianu\n  \u2022 \u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0633\u0646\u068c\u064a\n  \u2022 SiSwati\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u015al\u016fnski\n  \u2022 Soomaaliga\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Basa Sunda\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 Taqbaylit\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u1275\u130d\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n  \u2022 Tsets\u00eahest\u00e2hese\n  \u2022 Tshivenda\n  \u2022 \u0ca4\u0cc1\u0cb3\u0cc1\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrkmen\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u0434\u043c\u0443\u0440\u0442\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 \u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u06d5 \/ Uyghurche\n  \u2022 V\u00e8neto\n  \u2022 Veps\u00e4n kel\u2019\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Volap\u00fck\n  \u2022 V\u00f5ro\n  \u2022 \u6587\u8a00\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 Wolof\n  \u2022 \u5434\u8bed\n  \u2022 Xitsonga\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 Yor\u00f9b\u00e1\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Zazaki\n  \u2022 Ze\u00eauws\n  \u2022 \u017demait\u0117\u0161ka\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\n  \u2022 \u0921\u094b\u091f\u0947\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 Kab\u0269y\u025b\n  \u2022 Lingua Franca Nova\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 17:11.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5216012236245177138","title":"Hectare","text":"Hectare\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nHectare\nUnit system non-SI metric system\nUnit\u00a0of Area\nSymbol ha\u2002\nIn SI base units: 1 ha = 104 m2\n\nThe hectare (\/\u02c8h\u025bkt\u025b\u0259r, -t\u0251\u02d0r\/; SI symbol: ha) is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares (10,000\u00a0m2) or 1 square hectometre (hm2) and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre.[1] An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres.\n\nIn 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the \"are\" was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare (\"hecto-\" + \"are\") was thus 100 \"ares\" or \u200b1\u2044100\u00a0km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units (SI), the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, mentioned in Section 4.1 of the SI Brochure as a unit whose use is \"expected to continue indefinitely\".[1]\n\nComparison of area units\nUnit SI\n1 ca 1 m2\n1 a 100 m2\n1 ha 10,000 m2\n100 ha 1,000,000 m2\n1\u00a0km2\nnon-SI comparisons\nnon-SI metric\n0.3861 sq mi 1\u00a0km2\n2.471 acre 1 ha\n107,639 sq\u00a0ft 1 ha\n1 sq mi 259.0 ha\n1 acre 0.4047 ha\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Units\n    \u2022 2.1 Centiare\n    \u2022 2.2 Deciare\n    \u2022 2.3 Are\n    \u2022 2.4 Decare\n    \u2022 2.5 Hectare\n  \u2022 3 Conversions\n  \u2022 4 Visualising a hectare\n    \u2022 4.1 International rugby pitch\n    \u2022 4.2 Statue of Liberty\n    \u2022 4.3 Interior of all-weather athletics track\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 Notes\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. The law of 18 Germinal, Year III (7 April 1795) defined five units of measure:[2]\n\n  \u2022 The metre for length\n  \u2022 The are (100\u00a0m2) for area [of land]\n  \u2022 The st\u00e8re\u00a0(1\u00a0m3) for volume of stacked firewood[3]\n  \u2022 The litre\u00a0(1\u00a0dm3) for volumes of liquid\n  \u2022 The gram for mass\n\nAlthough the law defined the length of the metre, there was no practical way of accurately measuring the metre (and hence the are) until 1799 when the first standard metre was manufactured and adopted.\n\nThe standard metre remained in the custody of successive French governments until 1875 when, under the Convention of the Metre, its supervision passed into international control under the auspices of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM). At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London[4] was adopted, the are and hectare were automatically redefined.\n\nIn 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units (SI), the are did not receive international recognition. The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) makes no mention of the are in the current (2006) definition of the SI, but classifies the hectare as a \"Non-SI unit accepted for use with the International System of Units\"[5]\n\nIn 1972, the European Economic Community (EEC) passed directive 71\/354\/EEC,[6] which catalogued the units of measure that might be used within the Community. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, supplemented by a few other units including the are (and implicitly the hectare) whose use was limited to the measurement of land.\n\nMany UK farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official (especially European Union) paperwork. Farm fields can have very long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as \"the six acre field\" stretching back hundreds of years and across generations of family farmers. Some younger agricultural workers are now beginning to think in hectares as their \"first language\", though this is more typical of professional consultants and managers than of traditional farming and land-owning families, and in some circles may be viewed as a social class indicator.\n\nUnits[edit]\n\nDefinition of a hectare and of an are.\n\nThe names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the original base unit of area, the are.\n\nCentiare[edit]\n\nThe centiare is one square metre.\n\nDeciare[edit]\n\nThe deciare is ten square metres.\n\nAre[edit]\n\nThe are (\/\u0251\u02d0r\/[7] or \/\u025b\u0259r\/[8]) is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres (10 m \u00d7 10 m), used for measuring land area. It was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside the modern International System of Units (SI).[9] It is still commonly used in colloquial speech to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in various European countries.\n\nIn Russian and other languages of the former Soviet Union, the are is called sotka (Russian: \u0441\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430: 'a hundred', i.e. 100\u00a0m2). It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large.\n\nEtymologically, the word are finds its roots in the Talmudic Aramaic word \u05d0\u05e8\u05e2\u05d0 (araa), meaning \"land\".[citation needed]\n\nDecare[edit]\n\nThe decare (\/\u02c8d\u025bk\u0251\u02d0r, -\u025b\u0259r\/) is derived from deca and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway[10] and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East and the Balkans (Bulgaria)[11] as a measure of land area. Instead of the name \"decare\", the names of traditional land measures are usually used, redefined as one decare:\n\n  \u2022 Stremma in Greece[12]\n  \u2022 Dunam, dunum, donum, or d\u00f6n\u00fcm in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey[13]\n  \u2022 M\u00e5l is sometimes used for decare in Norway, from the old measure of about the same area.\n\nHectare[edit]\n\nTrafalgar Square has an area of about one hectare.[14]\n\nThe hectare (\/\u02c8h\u025bkt\u025b\u0259r, -t\u0251\u02d0r\/[15]), although not a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI.[16] In practice the hectare is fully derived from the SI, being equivalent to a square hectometre. It is widely used throughout the world for the measurement of large areas of land, and it is the legal unit of measure in domains concerned with land ownership, planning, and management, including law (land deeds), agriculture, forestry, and town planning throughout the European Union.[17] The United Kingdom,[18] United States, Burma,[19][20] and to some extent Canada use the acre instead.[citation needed]\n\nSome countries that underwent a general conversion from traditional measurements to metric measurements (e.g. Canada) required a resurvey when units of measure in legal descriptions relating to land were converted to metric units.[citation needed] Others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly \"when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation\".[21]\n\nIn many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units. The following legacy units of area have been redefined as being equal to one hectare:[22]\n\n  \u2022 Jerib in Iran\n  \u2022 Djerib in Turkey[23]\n  \u2022 Gong Qing (\u516c\u9803\/\u516c\u9877 \u2013 g\u014dngq\u01d0ng) in Hong Kong \/ mainland China\n  \u2022 Manzana in Argentina\n  \u2022 Bunder in The Netherlands (until 1937)[24][25]\n\nConversions[edit]\n\nMetric and imperial\/US customary comparisons\nUnit Symbol Metric equivalents Imperial\/US customary equivalents\ncentiare ca 1 m2 0.01 a 1.19599 sq\u00a0yd\nare a[26] 100 ca 100 m2 0.01 ha 3.95369 perches\ndecare daa 10 a 1,000 m2 0.1 ha 0.98842 roods\nhectare ha[1] 100 a 10,000 m2 0.01\u00a0km2 2.471 acres[27]\nsquare kilometre km2 100 ha 1,000,000 m2 0.38610 sq\u00a0mi\n\nThe most commonly used units are in bold.\n\nOne hectare is also equivalent to:\n\n  \u2022 1 square hectometre\n  \u2022 15 m\u01d4 or 0.15 q\u01d0ng[28]\n  \u2022 10 dunam or d\u00f6n\u00fcm (Middle East)[29]\n  \u2022 10 stremmata (Greece)\n  \u2022 6.25 rai (Thailand)[30]\n  \u2022 \u2248 1.008 ch\u014d (Japan)\n  \u2022 \u2248 2.381 feddan (Egypt)\n\nVisualising a hectare[edit]\n\nInternational rugby pitch[edit]\n\nWaikato Stadium\u00a0\u2013 Hamilton, New Zealand\nThe maximum playing area of an international-sized rugby union pitch is about one hectare\n\nOn an international rugby union field the goal lines are up to 100 metres apart. Behind the goal line is the in-goal area (which is also a playing area). This area extends between 10 and 22 metres behind the goal line, giving a maximum length of 144 metres for the playing area. The maximum width of the pitch is 70 metres, giving a maximum playing area of 10,080 square metres or 1.008 hectares.[31]\n\nStatue of Liberty[edit]\n\nThe Statue of Liberty\u00a0\u2013 New York Harbor\nThe Statue of Liberty occupies a square of land with an area of one hectare\n\n40\u00b041\u203221\u2033N 74\u00b02\u203240\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff40.68917\u00b0N 74.04444\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 40.68917; -74.04444\ufeff (Statue of Liberty)\n\nThe Statue of Liberty, a gift from the French people to the American people dedicated on 28 October 1886 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the French and American Revolutions, is located on Liberty Island at the entrance to New York Harbor. Its base is built on eighteenth-century fortifications.\n\nThe distance between the apex of the bastions in the front of the base to those at the back (where the entrance to the statue is located) is approximately 100\u00a0m while the distance between the apexes of the left-hand and right-hand bastions is a little under 100\u00a0m. Thus, if a square were to enscribe the bastions, it would have sides of approximately 100\u00a0m, giving it an area of one hectare.\n\nInterior of all-weather athletics track[edit]\n\nHansen Field at Western Illinois University in Macomb, Illinois incorporates an all-weather running track\nThe grass in the centre of a standard athletic track is a little over one hectare in extent\n\nAthletics tracks are found in almost every country of the world. Although many tracks consist of markings on a field of suitable size, where funds permit, specialist all-weather tracks have a rubberized artificial running surface with a grass interior (as shown in the picture and diagram). The perimeter of the inside kerb of the track is a little under 400\u00a0metres, as the actual length of the track is measured 300\u00a0mm from the inside kerb.[32] The IAAF specifications state that the radius of the kerb is 36.5\u00a0m, from which it can be calculated that the area inside the kerb is 1.035\u00a0ha.[a]\n\nThe soccer field often found inside is normally 105\u00d770 m, that is 0.73 hectares.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Conversion of units\n  \u2022 Hecto-\n  \u2022 Hectometre\n  \u2022 Order of magnitude\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ This is a standard high school problem in geometry\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c BIPM (2014). \"SI Brochure, Table 6\". Retrieved 17 November 2014.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"La loi du 18 Germinal an 3 \" la mesure [r\u00e9publicaine] de superficie pour les terrains, \u00e9gale \u00e0 un carr\u00e9 de dix m\u00e8tres de c\u00f4t\u00e9\u00a0\u00bb\" [The law of 18 Germanial year 3 \"The [Republican] measure of land area equivalent to a ten-metre square\"] (in French). Le CIV (Centre d'Instruction de Vilg\u00e9nis)\u00a0\u2013 Forum des Anciens. Retrieved 2 March 2010.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Thierry Thomasset. \"Le st\u00e8re\" (PDF). Tout sur les unit\u00e9s de mesure [All the units of measure] (in French). Universit\u00e9 de Technologie de Compi\u00e8gne. Retrieved 21 March 2011.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ F J Smith. \"Standard Kilogram Weights\u00a0\u2013 A Story of Precision Fabrication\" (PDF). Platinum Metals Rev., 1973, 17, (2). Retrieved 5 March 2010.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"SI brochure (Chapter 4; Table 6)\". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 2006. Archived from the original on 1 October 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2010.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Council Directive of 18 October 1971 on the approximation of laws of the member states relating to units of measurement, (71\/354\/EEC)\". Retrieved 7 February 2009.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"are\". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 24 December 2010.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"are\u00a0\u2013 definition. American English definition of are by Macmillan Dictionary\". Macmillandictionary.com. Retrieved 20 May 2012.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"SI brochure (8th edition)\". BIPM. March 2006.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Decrease in total grain yield\". Grain and oil seeds, area and production, 2002. Statistics Norway. Retrieved 16 November 2010.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Market of agricultural land in Bulgaria\". BNR Radio Bulgaria. 5 October 2010. Archived from the original on 22 October 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \u039b\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2 \u039d\u03b5\u03bf\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c2 (Dictionary of Modern Greek), \u0399\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf \u039d\u03b5\u03bf\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd \u03a3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03ce\u03bd, \u0398\u03b5\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03ba\u03b7, 1998. ISBN\u00a0960-231-085-5\n  13. Jump up ^ El-Eini, Roza I.M. (2006). \"Currency and Measures\". Mandated landscape: British imperial rule in Palestine, 1929\u20131948. Routledge. p.\u00a0xxiii. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7146-5426-3. Retrieved 5 May 2009.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"DEPARTMENT FOR ENVIRONMENT, FOOD AND RURAL AFFAIRS, AND RURAL PAYMENTS AGENCY; The Delays in Administering the 2005 Single Payment Scheme in England\" (PDF). National Audit Office. 18 October 2006. p.\u00a027.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"hectare\". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 24 December 2010.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Bureau international des poids et mesures (2006). \"The International System of Units (SI)\" (PDF). 8th ed. Retrieved 13 February 2008.\u00a0 Chapter 5.\n  17. Jump up ^ The Council of the European Communities (27 May 2009). \"Council Directive 80\/181\/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71\/354\/EEC\". Retrieved 29 January 2010.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Weights and Measures Act 1985\" (PDF). British Government. 1985. Retrieved 17 December 2016.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Appendix G\u00a0\u2013 Weights and Measures\". The World Factbook. CIA. 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ MYA\/01\/008 Agriculture Sectore Review, Working Paper No. 6 \u2013 Agroindustry in Myanmar Archived 15 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Instructions for the Conversions of Areas to Metric\". Law Society of South Africa. November 2007. Retrieved 21 January 2011.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Britannica, unit of measurement, accessed 30 October 2009\n  23. Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh (1911). The Encyclop\u00e6dia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information. The Encyclop\u00e6dia britannica company. p.\u00a0442. Retrieved 15 March 2012.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Oscar van Vlijmen (11 September 2006). \"Oppervlakte\" [Area]. Eenheden, constanten en conversies [Units, constants and conversion] (in Dutch). Retrieved 15 January 2011.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Jacob de Gelder (1824). Allereerste Gronden der Cijferkunst [Introduction to Numeracy] (in Dutch). 's-Gravenhage and Amsterdam: de Gebroeders van Cleef. p.\u00a0156. Retrieved 19 September 2012.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ BS350:Part 1:1974 Conversion factors and tables Part 1. Basis of tables. Conversion factors. British Standards Institution. 1974. p.\u00a07.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ 2.4710439 U.S. survey acres or 2.4710538 international acres\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Chinese Measurements\u00a0\u2013 Units of Area\". On-line Chinese Tools. Retrieved 24 December 2010.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Fran\u00e7ois Cardarelli (2003). Encyclopaedia of scientific units, weights, and measures: their SI equivalences and origins. London, Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. p.\u00a097. ISBN\u00a01-85233-682-X. Retrieved 29 March 2011.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Thailand Property Conversion\". Siam Legal (Thailand) Co., Ltd. Retrieved 24 December 2010.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Law 1\u00a0\u2013 The Ground\". Laws of the Game\u00a0\u2013 Rugby Union 2010. International Rugby Board (IRB). Retrieved 19 December 2010.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"IAAF 400 Metre Standard Track Marking Plan\". IAAF. 2008. p.\u00a035. Retrieved 11 February 2013.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Hectare.\nLook up hectare in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n  \u2022 Official SI website: Table 6. Non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSI units\nAuthority: International System of Units (BIPM)\nBase units\n  \u2022 ampere\n  \u2022 candela\n  \u2022 kelvin\n  \u2022 kilogram\n  \u2022 metre\n  \u2022 mole\n  \u2022 second\nSI base unit\nDerived units with special names\n  \u2022 becquerel\n  \u2022 coulomb\n  \u2022 degree Celsius\n  \u2022 farad\n  \u2022 gray\n  \u2022 henry\n  \u2022 hertz\n  \u2022 joule\n  \u2022 katal\n  \u2022 lumen\n  \u2022 lux\n  \u2022 newton\n  \u2022 ohm\n  \u2022 pascal\n  \u2022 radian\n  \u2022 siemens\n  \u2022 sievert\n  \u2022 steradian\n  \u2022 tesla\n  \u2022 volt\n  \u2022 watt\n  \u2022 weber\nOther accepted units\n  \u2022 astronomical unit\n  \u2022 bar\n  \u2022 dalton\n  \u2022 day\n  \u2022 decibel\n  \u2022 degree of arc\n  \u2022 electronvolt\n  \u2022 hectare\n  \u2022 hour\n  \u2022 litre\n  \u2022 minute\n  \u2022 minute of arc\n  \u2022 neper\n  \u2022 second of arc\n  \u2022 tonne\n  \u2022 atomic units\n  \u2022 natural units\nSee also\n  \u2022 Conversion of units\n  \u2022 Metric prefixes\n  \u2022 Proposed redefinitions\n  \u2022 Systems of measurement\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Hectare&oldid=817449462\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Units of area\n  \u2022 Non-SI metric units\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 French-language sources (fr)\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)\n  \u2022 Articles containing Russian-language text\n  \u2022 Articles containing Aramaic-language text\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2010\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from June 2016\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 Alemannisch\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Dolnoserbski\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Furlan\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hornjoserbsce\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u0418\u0440\u043e\u043d\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Limburgs\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Nedersaksies\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0442\u044b\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 Soomaaliga\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0422\u044b\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u044b\u043b\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u06d5 \/ Uyghurche\n  \u2022 V\u00e8neto\n  \u2022 Veps\u00e4n kel\u2019\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u6587\u8a00\n  \u2022 West-Vlams\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Ze\u00eauws\n  \u2022 \u017demait\u0117\u0161ka\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 December 2017, at 12:56.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-3080940078245937981","title":"Grand Slam (tennis)","text":"Grand Slam (tennis)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other uses, see Grand Slam.\nTennis\n  \u2022 Grand Slam tournaments\n  \u2022 ATP World Tour Finals\n  \u2022 WTA Tour Championships\n  \u2022 ATP Masters 1000\n  \u2022 WTA Premier tournaments\n  \u2022 Summer Olympics\n  \u2022 ATP 500 series\n  \u2022 ATP 250 series\n  \u2022 WTA International tournaments\n  \u2022 ATP Challenger Tour Finals\n  \u2022 ATP Challenger\n  \u2022 WTA 125s\n  \u2022 ITF Men's Circuit\n  \u2022 ITF Women's Circuit\n  \u2022 Wheelchair Tennis Masters\n  \u2022 Summer Paralympics\n    \u2022 No ATP\/WTA Rankings\n      \u2022 Davis Cup\n      \u2022 Fed Cup\n      \u2022 World Team Cup\n      \u2022 Hopman Cup\nGrand Slam (tennis) is located in Earth\nAustralian Open\nAustralian Open\nFrench Open\nFrench Open\nWimbledon\nWimbledon\nUS Open\nUS Open\nLocation of the four major tennis championships\n\nThe Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points,[1] prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of \"best of\" sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in July, and the US Open in August and September. Each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on hard courts,[a] the French on clay, and Wimbledon on grass. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, and the Australian in 1905. However, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924\u201325, when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments. Skipping Grand Slam tournaments\u2014especially the Australian Open because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year's Day) and the low prize money\u2014was not unusual before 1982, which was the start of the norm of counting Grand Slam titles.\n\nGrand Slam tournaments are not operated by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or the Women's Tennis Association (WTA), which were formally founded in 1972 and 1973 respectively, though the ATP and WTA do award ranking points based on a player's performance at a major.[2][3]\n\nThe term Grand Slam, without qualification, and also originally, refers to the achievement of winning all four major championships within a single calendar year within one of the five events: men's and women's singles; men's, women's, and mixed doubles. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners.[4][5][6]\n\nWinning the four majors in consecutive tournaments but not in the same year is known as a Non-Calendar Year Grand Slam, while winning all four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a Career Grand Slam. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in one calendar year is known as a \"Golden Grand Slam\" or more commonly the \"Golden Slam\". Also, winning the Year-End Championship (known as ATP Finals for men's singles and doubles disciplines, and WTA Finals for both women's disciplines) in the same period is known as a \"Super Slam\". Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines (singles, doubles, and mixed doubles) are called a \"boxed set\" of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all twelve events in one calendar year, although a \"career boxed set\" has been achieved by three female players.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Origin of the term \"Grand Slam\"\n  \u2022 2 History\n  \u2022 3 Tournament details\n  \u2022 4 Winners\n    \u2022 4.1 Grand Slam champions\n    \u2022 4.2 Players who completed the Grand Slam\n      \u2022 4.2.1 Chronological\n      \u2022 4.2.2 Per player\n  \u2022 5 Non-calendar year Grand Slam\n    \u2022 5.1 Controversy over terminology\n    \u2022 5.2 Achievements and near misses\n  \u2022 6 Career Grand Slam\n    \u2022 6.1 Men's singles\n    \u2022 6.2 Women's singles\n    \u2022 6.3 Men's doubles\n    \u2022 6.4 Women's doubles\n    \u2022 6.5 Mixed doubles\n    \u2022 6.6 Boys' singles\n    \u2022 6.7 Boys' doubles\n    \u2022 6.8 Men's wheelchair doubles\n    \u2022 6.9 Women's wheelchair doubles\n  \u2022 7 Most consecutive Grand Slam tournament titles\n    \u2022 7.1 Men's singles\n    \u2022 7.2 Women's singles\n    \u2022 7.3 Men's doubles\n    \u2022 7.4 Women's doubles\n    \u2022 7.5 Mixed doubles\n    \u2022 7.6 Men's wheelchair singles\n    \u2022 7.7 Women's wheelchair singles\n    \u2022 7.8 Men's wheelchair doubles\n    \u2022 7.9 Women's wheelchair doubles\n  \u2022 8 Most consecutive Grand Slam singles finals\n    \u2022 8.1 Men\n    \u2022 8.2 Women\n    \u2022 8.3 Most Grand Slam singles titles without a loss\n    \u2022 8.4 Most Grand Slam mixed doubles titles without a loss\n  \u2022 9 Golden Slam\n    \u2022 9.1 Non-calendar year Golden Slam\n    \u2022 9.2 Career Golden Slam\n  \u2022 10 Super Slam\n    \u2022 10.1 Non-calendar year Super Slam\n    \u2022 10.2 Career Super Slam\n  \u2022 11 Three Major tournament titles in a year\n  \u2022 12 Triple Crown\n  \u2022 13 Boxed Set\n    \u2022 13.1 Career Boxed Set\n  \u2022 14 Multiple Career Grand Slams\n  \u2022 15 Pro Slam\n  \u2022 16 See also\n  \u2022 17 Notes\n  \u2022 18 References\n  \u2022 19 External links\n\nOrigin of the term \"Grand Slam\"[edit]\n\nThe term Glossary of contract bridge terms slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games (see also whist terms) is attested from early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one, dates from early in the 19th century.[7] This use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930.\n\nGrand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, two British and two American tournaments. Although John F. Kieran of The New York Times is widely credited with first applying the term \"grand slam\" to tennis to describe the winning of all four major tennis tournaments in a calendar year,[8] sports columnist Alan Gould had used the term in that connection almost two months before Kieran.[9]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe possibility of being the reigning champion of all the current four Majors did not exist until 1924\u201325, when the International Lawn Tennis Federation designated the Australasian, French (before 1925 only open to members of French tennis clubs), British and American championship tournaments as the four Majors. Before that time only three events: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (held in Paris & once in Brussels) and the World Covered Court Championships (held in various locations) were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF.[10][11] Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those earlier majors in one year: 1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925. It was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French opens due to the Second World War, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles, and 1986 when there was no Australian Open at all.\n\nPhil Dent has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments\u2014especially the Australian Open\u2014was not unusual then, before counting major titles became the norm.[12] Thus, many players had never played the Austral(as)ian amateur or open championships: the Doherty brothers, William Larned, Maurice McLoughlin, Beals Wright, Bill Johnston, Bill Tilden, Ren\u00e9 Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Bobby Riggs, Jack Kramer, Ted Schroeder, Pancho Gonzales, Budge Patty, Manuel Santana, Jan Kode\u0161 and others, while Brookes, Ellsworth Vines, Jaroslav Drobn\u00fd, Manuel Orantes, Ilie N\u0103stase (at 35 years old) and Bj\u00f6rn Borg came just once. Beginning in 1969, when the first Australian Open was held on the Milton Courts at Brisbane, the tournament was open to all players, including professionals, who at that point were prohibited from playing the traditional circuit.[13] Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year's Day) and the low prize money. In 1970, George MacCall's National Tennis League, which employed Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, Andr\u00e9s Gimeno, Pancho Gonzales, Roy Emerson and Fred Stolle, prevented its players from entering the tournament because the guarantees were insufficient. The tournament was won by Arthur Ashe.[14]\n\nIn terms of the current four majors, the first to win all four in a single year was Don Budge, who completed the feat in 1938. To date, 17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. Of these players, three have won multiple Grand Slams: Rod Laver accomplished the feat twice in men's singles; Margaret Court accomplished the feat three times, in two different disciplines \u2013 once in women's singles and twice in mixed doubles; and Esther Vergeer completed a grand slam twice in Women's wheelchair doubles.\n\nThe four Junior disciplines, boys' and girls' singles and doubles, provide limited opportunities to achieve a Grand Slam. Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18-year-olds likely to hold a physical advantage. Only Stefan Edberg has completed the Grand Slam in a Junior discipline.\n\nTournament details[edit]\n\nEvent Dates Venue Current champion(s)\nMen's Singles Women's Singles Men's Doubles Women's Doubles Mixed Doubles\nAustralian Open mid\/late January Melbourne Park, Melbourne Switzerland Roger Federer United States Serena Williams Finland Henri Kontinen\nAustralia John Peers\nUnited States Bethanie Mattek-Sands\nCzech Republic Lucie \u0160af\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1\nUnited States Abigail Spears\nColombia Juan Sebasti\u00e1n Cabal\nFrench Open late May\/early June Stade Roland Garros, Paris Spain Rafael Nadal Latvia Je\u013cena Ostapenko United States Ryan Harrison\nNew Zealand Michael Venus\nUnited States Bethanie Mattek-Sands\nCzech Republic Lucie \u0160af\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1\nCanada Gabriela Dabrowski\nIndia Rohan Bopanna\nWimbledon late June\/early July All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, London Switzerland Roger Federer Spain Garbi\u00f1e Muguruza Brazil Marcelo Melo\nPoland \u0141ukasz Kubot\nRussia Ekaterina Makarova\nRussia Elena Vesnina\nSwitzerland Martina Hingis\nUnited Kingdom Jamie Murray\nUS Open late August\/early September USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, New York City Spain Rafael Nadal United States Sloane Stephens Netherlands Jean-Julien Rojer\nRomania Horia Tec\u0103u\nChinese Taipei Chan Yung-jan\nSwitzerland Martina Hingis\nSwitzerland Martina Hingis\nUnited Kingdom Jamie Murray\n\nWinners[edit]\n\nGrand Slam champions[edit]\n\nPer discipline (all-time)\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam men's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam women's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam men's doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam women's doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam mixed doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam boys' singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam boys' doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam girls' singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam girls' doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of wheelchair tennis champions\nPer tournament (Open Era only)\n  \u2022 List of Australian Open champions\n  \u2022 List of French Open champions\n  \u2022 List of Wimbledon Open Era champions\n  \u2022 List of US Open (tennis) champions\n\nPlayers who completed the Grand Slam[edit]\n\nChronological[edit]\n\n# Year Player Discipline Notes\n1 1938 United States Don Budge Men's singles Part of a total of 6 consecutive titles\n2 1951 Australia Ken McGregor\nAustralia Frank Sedgman\nMen's doubles Part of a total of 7 consecutive titles (8 consecutive for Sedgman)\n3 1953 United States Maureen Connolly Women's singles Part of 6 consecutive titles\n4 1960 Brazil Maria Bueno Women's doubles With United Kingdom Christine Truman and United States Darlene Hard\n5 1962 Australia Rod Laver Men's singles\n6 1963 Australia Margaret Court\nAustralia Ken Fletcher\nMixed doubles Part of consecutive titles (Court 7, Fletcher 6)\n7 1965 Australia Margaret Court Mixed doubles With Australia John Newcombe, Australia Ken Fletcher and Australia Fred Stolle \u2013 part of 5 consecutive titles\n8 1967 Australia Owen Davidson Mixed doubles With Australia Lesley Turner and United States Billie Jean King\n9 1969 Australia Rod Laver Men's singles Only player to complete the singles' Grand Slam twice\n10 1970 Australia Margaret Court Women's singles Six consecutive titles\n11 1983 Sweden Stefan Edberg (in junior tennis) Boys' singles Only Junior to complete a Grand Slam\n12 1984 United States Martina Navratilova\nUnited States Pam Shriver\nWomen's doubles Eight consecutive titles\n13 1988 West Germany Steffi Graf Women's singles Five consecutive titles\n14 1998 Switzerland Martina Hingis Women's doubles With Croatia Mirjana Lu\u010di\u0107 and Czech Republic Jana Novotn\u00e1\n15 2009 Netherlands Esther Vergeer\nNetherlands Korie Homan\nWomen's wheelchair doubles Part of 14 consecutive titles for Vergeer\n16 2011 Netherlands Esther Vergeer\nNetherlands Sharon Walraven\nWomen's wheelchair doubles Part of consecutive titles (Vergeer 8, Walraven 7)\n17 2013 Netherlands Aniek van Koot\nNetherlands Jiske Griffioen\nWomen's wheelchair doubles\n18 2014 France St\u00e9phane Houdet Men's wheelchair doubles With Belgium Joachim G\u00e9rard and Japan Shingo Kunieda\n19 2014 Japan Yui Kamiji\nUnited Kingdom Jordanne Whiley\nWomen's wheelchair doubles Part of 5 consecutive titles\n\nPer player[edit]\n\nPlayer Grand Slams\nSingles Doubles Mixed Total\nAustralia Margaret Court\n1\n2\n3\nAustralia Rod Laver\n2\n2\nNetherlands Esther Vergeer (wheelchair tennis)\n2\nUnited States Don Budge\n1\n1\nAustralia Ken McGregor\n1\nAustralia Frank Sedgman\n1\nUnited States Maureen Connolly\n1\nBrazil Maria Bueno\n1\nAustralia Ken Fletcher\n1\nAustralia Owen Davidson\n1\nSweden Stefan Edberg (junior tennis)\n1\nUnited States Martina Navratilova\n1\nUnited States Pam Shriver\n1\nGermany Steffi Graf\n1\nSwitzerland Martina Hingis\n1\nNetherlands Korie Homan (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nNetherlands Sharon Walraven (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nNetherlands Aniek van Koot (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nNetherlands Jiske Griffioen (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nFrance St\u00e9phane Houdet (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nJapan Yui Kamiji (wheelchair tennis)\n1\nUnited Kingdom Jordanne Whiley (wheelchair tennis)\n1\n\nNon-calendar year Grand Slam[edit]\n\nControversy over terminology[edit]\n\nIn 1982, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win four consecutive major titles, no matter the time of completion. Although groups variously identified as the Men's International Professional Tennis Council, \"abetted primarily by some British tennis writers\",[15] and \"European tennis journalists\"[16] had advocated for the ITF to change the definition of \"Grand Slam\", ITF General Secretary David Gray made it clear that this was not going to happen. In a 1983 letter to tennis journalist Paul Fein, Gray clarified:\n\nThere seems to be some confusion. The ITF's only initiative in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1m. to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously [...] In spite of all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year.\n\nThe ITF's plan was to offer the cash bonus for three years, apparently to encourage players to compete in all four major tournaments as much as to reward success at them.[17]\n\nEven before the ITF had announced their bonus, the Grand Slam controversy had taken on a life of its own. Writing in 1982, Neil Amdur claimed, \"Now the sport spins nervously under the influence of big dollars and even bigger egos, and tradition has almost gone the way of white balls and long flannels [...] If the four major tournaments want to offer a $1 million incentive for any player in the future who can sweep their titles\u2014and such talks have been rumored\u2014that bonus would be a welcome addition. But changing what the Grand Slam is all about is like a baseball player believing that he 'hit for the cycle' after slugging a single, double and triple in the first game of a doubleheader and a home run in his first time at bat in the second game.\"[18] Despite seeming clarity from the ITF, some journalists suggested that the sport's organizing body had turned its back on history and changed the \"rules\" of tennis by redefining a Grand Slam. Such confusion continued for years. For instance, when Steffi Graf completed the Grand Slam in 1988, George Vecsey wrote, \"Even the International Tennis Federation, which should have more respect for history, ruled in 1982 that winning any four straight majors constituted a Grand Slam\u2014and offered a $1 million bonus for it [...] But many tennis people, and most writers, and probably most fans, too, did not accept the new rules, and the I.T.F. has dropped the gimmick.\"[19] Vecsey was only half right: the ITF dropped the \"gimmick\" of the cash bonus, but it had never changed any rules.\n\nHowever, the ambiguous way the ITF described the Grand Slam in their Constitution led to journalists continuing to make the same assumption as Vecsey over two decades later. For instance, when Rafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, \"Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that 'players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam'.\"[20] This was true until later in 2011, when the ITF edited the description to eliminate all confusion. As it now stands, \"The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the 'Grand Slam'.\"[21]\n\nWhen Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles events, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets did, indeed, say that she had won a Grand Slam.[22] Others simply noted the ongoing controversy: \"Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it.\"[23] Although the ITF recognizes what is now unofficially known as the \"non-calendar year Grand Slam\" on its Roll of Honour, no subsequent player to win four or more majors in a row\u2014Steffi Graf, Serena Williams, or Novak Djokovic\u2014has received bonus prize money.\n\nCombining the Grand Slam and non-calendar year Grand Slam, the total number of times that players achieved the feat (of being the reigning champion in all four majors) expands to 18.\n\nAchievements and near misses[edit]\n\nThree women have won four or more consecutive major titles since 1970, with Navratilova taking six in a row in 1983\u20131984. On the men's side, Novak Djokovic was the first singles player since Rod Laver to hold all four major titles at once, which he accomplished between Wimbledon 2015 and the 2016 French Open. Prior to the Open Era, Don Budge received the same accolades in winning the French Championships in 1938, but then completed the more prestigious Grand Slam at the 1938 US Championships, giving him six majors in a row, the only male to ever win more than four consecutive major tournaments. The Bryan brothers (Bob and Mike) were the last to achieve a non-calendar year Grand Slam in men's doubles. Several players and teams came up one title short. Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde, known collectively as The Woodies, reached the final of the 1997 French Open while holding all the other three titles, but lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Daniel Vacek. In singles, Pete Sampras lost the 1994 French Open quarterfinal to fellow countryman Jim Courier, having won the previous three majors. Roger Federer in 2006 and 2007 and Novak Djokovic in 2012 repeated this, both ultimately losing the French Open final to Rafael Nadal. Nadal himself was prevented from achieving this feat by his countryman David Ferrer, who defeated him in the quarterfinal of the 2011 Australian Open, which Nadal entered holding the other three major titles. In women's doubles, Martina Hingis and Sania Mirza had won three Majors from Wimbledon 2015 to the 2016 Australian Open, but lost in the third round of the 2016 French Open to Barbora Krej\u010d\u00edkov\u00e1 and Kate\u0159ina Siniakov\u00e1. In 2017, Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Lucie \u0160af\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1 had the chance to win four consecutive titles at Wimbledon, but withdrew from their scheduled second round match following an acute knee injury suffered by Mattek-Sands in the second round of the Ladies' Singles competition.\n\nThis list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar Grand Slam, but who failed to win the Grand Slam during the same streak.\n\n  \u2022 Men's singles:\n    \u2022 Serbia Novak Djokovic (2015\u201316)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 2015 Wimbledon to 2016 French Open\n  \u2022 Women's singles:\n    \u2022 United States Martina Navratilova (1983\u20131984)\n      \u2022 Six consecutive major titles from 1983 Wimbledon to US Open 19841\n    \u2022 Germany Steffi Graf (1993\u201394)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 1993 French Open to the 1994 Australian Open\n    \u2022 United States Serena Williams (2002\u201303, 2014\u201315)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 2002 French Open to the 2003 Australian Open\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 2014 US Open to 2015 Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Men's doubles:\n    \u2022 United States Bob Bryan and United States Mike Bryan (2012\u201313)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 2012 US Open to 2013 Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Women's doubles:\n    \u2022 United States Louise Brough (1949\u201350)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from the 1949 French Championships to 1950 Australian Championships (three times with United States Margaret Osborne duPont and the 1950 Australian Championships won with United States Doris Hart)\n    \u2022 United States Pam Shriver and United States Martina Navratilova (1986\u201387)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 1986 Wimbledon to the 1987 French Open\n      \u2022 Navratilova also won the 1986 French Open with Hungary Andrea Temesv\u00e1ri, totaling 5 consecutive major titles for her[relevant? \u2013 discuss]\n    \u2022 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez and Belarus Natasha Zvereva (1992\u20131993)\n      \u2022 Six consecutive major titles from the 1992 French Open to 1993 Wimbledon\n    \u2022 Belarus Natasha Zvereva (1996\u201397)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from the 1996 US Open to 1997 Wimbledon (three times with United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez and the 1997 Australian Open won with Switzerland Martina Hingis)\n    \u2022 United States Serena Williams and United States Venus Williams (2009\u201310)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive titles from 2009 Wimbledon to the 2010 French Open\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles:\n    \u2022 United States Billie Jean King (1967\u201368)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive major titles from 1967 French Championships to the 1968 Australian Championships (three times with Australia Owen Davidson and the 1968 Australian Championships won with Australia Dick Crealy).\n  \u2022 Men's wheelchair doubles:\n    \u2022 France St\u00e9phane Houdet (2009\u201310)\n      \u2022 Five consecutive titles from the 2009 French Open to 2010 French Open (the first two with France Micha\u00ebl Jeremiasz, the 2009 US Open won with Sweden Stefan Olsson and the last two with Japan Shingo Kunieda)\n    \u2022 Japan Shingo Kunieda (2014\u201315)\n      \u2022 Four consecutive titles from the 2014 Wimbledon to 2015 French Open (the first three with France St\u00e9phane Houdet and the 2015 French Open with United Kingdom Gordon Reid)\nNote\n  1. ^ From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nCareer Grand Slam[edit]\n\nThe career achievement of all four major championships in one format is termed a Career Grand Slam in that format. Dozens of players have accomplished that (column two) and 17 have doubled it: won a second championship in each of the four majors in one format (column three). Two or more career championships in all four majors is sometimes called a \"Multiple Slam Set\". Three players have Multiple Slam Sets in two formats, one in three formats, so 22 players are counted in the table (column three). Their achievements are tabulated below.\n\nCareer Grand Slams by format\nFormat Numbers of players\nCompleted the Career GS Completed at least 2\nMen's singles 8 players (2 Golden, 1 Super) 2 players\nWomen's singles 10 players (2 Golden, 2 Super) 5 players\nMen's doubles 21 players (14 as teams) 5 players (2 as a team)\nWomen's doubles 21 players (10 as teams) 8 players (6 as teams)\nMixed doubles 17 players (7 as teams) 4 players (2 as teams)\n\nEight men and ten women have won Career Grand Slams in singles play (rows one and two); among them two men and five women have at least two Career Grand Slams in singles (column three). Since the beginning of the open era, five men and six women have achieved this (Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic; Margaret Court, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova).\n\nSeveral singles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam, grouped by the missing Grand Slam tournament:\n\n  \u2022 Australian Open: Ren\u00e9 Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Helen Wills, Althea Gibson, Tony Trabert, Margaret Osborne duPont, and Manuel Santana\n  \u2022 French Open: Frank Sedgman, Ashley Cooper, Louise Brough Clapp, Virginia Wade, Arthur Ashe, Pete Sampras, John Newcombe, Jimmy Connors, Boris Becker, Stefan Edberg, Martina Hingis, and Lindsay Davenport\n  \u2022 Wimbledon: Ken Rosewall, Hana Mandl\u00edkov\u00e1, Ivan Lendl, Monica Seles, Guillermo Vilas, Mats Wilander, Justine Henin, and Stan Wawrinka\n  \u2022 US Open: Jean Borotra, Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, and Evonne Goolagong Cawley\n\nSeveral doubles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam:\n\n  \u2022 Australian Open: John Van Ryn, Helen Wills, Elizabeth Ryan, Margaret Osborne duPont, Darlene Hard, Billie Jean King, Betty St\u00f6ve, Robert Seguso, Mahesh Bhupathi, Lindsay Davenport, Ekaterina Makarova and Elena Vesnina.\n  \u2022 French Open: John Bromwich, Nancy Richey, Arantxa S\u00e1nchez Vicario, Cara Black, and Sania Mirza\n  \u2022 Wimbledon: Vic Seixas, Ashley Cooper, Virginia Wade, Virginia Ruano Pascual, Paola Su\u00e1rez, Bethanie Mattek-Sands, and Lucie \u0160af\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1\n  \u2022 US Open: Jean Borotra, Jacques Brugnon, Jack Crawford, Althea Gibson, and Rod Laver\n\nOnly six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five female (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Court, Hart and Navratilova are the only three players to have completed a \"Career Boxed Set\", winning all four titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles; this has never been done by a male player.\n\nThe remainder of this section is a complete list, by format, of all players who have won the Career Grand Slam. Players are ordered chronologically by their completion of the Slam.\n\nMen's singles[edit]\n\nEight men have won all four grand slam tournaments. Two of the eight men achieved a double career Slam. Originally, the grand slams were held on grass (Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open) and clay (French) and the first four players achieved their grand slams on two surfaces. The US Open changed its surface from grass to clay in 1975 and then to hard court in 1978. The Australian Open changed from grass to hard court in 1988. The last four players (Agassi, Federer, Nadal, Djokovic) achieved their grand slam on three different surfaces: hard court, clay, and grass.\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 United Kingdom Fred Perry 26 1934 1935 1934 1933\n2 United States Don Budge 23 1938 1938 1937 1937\n3 Australia Rod Laver 24 1960 1962 1961 1962\n4 Australia Roy Emerson 27 1961 1963 1964 1961\n5 United States Andre Agassi 29 1995 1999 1992 1994\n6 Switzerland Roger Federer 27 2004 2009 2003 2004\n7 Spain Rafael Nadal 24 2009 2005 2008 2010\n8 Serbia Novak Djokovic 29 2008 2016 2011 2011\n\nWomen's singles[edit]\n\nEach woman's \"first wins\" in the four Majors are listed chronologically and their ages upon completion of the Slam are given in brackets. Five of the ten women achieved at least two career Slams, two of the ten have achieved three careers slams and Steffi Graf is the only player to achieve four career Slams.\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 United States Maureen Connolly 18 1953 1953 1952 1951\n2 United States Doris Hart 28 1949 1950 1951 1954\n3 United States Shirley Fry Irvin 29 1957 1951 1956 1956\n4 Australia Margaret Court 20 1960 1962 1963 1962\n5 United States Billie Jean King 28 1968 1972 1966 1967\n6 United States Chris Evert 27 1982 1974 1974 1975\n7 United States Martina Navratilova 26 1981 1982 1978 1983\n8 Germany Steffi Graf 19 1988 1987 1988 1988\n9 United States Serena Williams 21 2003 2002 2002 1999\n10 Russia Maria Sharapova 25 2008 2012 2004 2006\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMen's doubles[edit]\n\nAt Men's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including fourteen who \"slammed\" with a unique partner. The latter are listed first, as seven teams, ignoring any major wins with other partners. Five of the 21 men achieved at least a double career Slam at Men's Doubles, led by Roy Emerson and John Newcombe with triple Slams.\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 Australia Adrian Quist 26 1936 1935 1935 1939\n2 Australia Frank Sedgman 24 1951 1951 1948 1950\n3 Australia Ken McGregor 23 1951 1951 1951 1951\n4 Australia Lew Hoad 21 1953 1953 1953 1956\nAustralia Ken Rosewall 22 1953 1953 1956 1956\n6 Australia Neale Fraser 25 1957 1958 1959 1957\n7 Australia Roy Emerson 25 1962 1960 1959 1959\n8 Australia John Newcombe 23 1965 1967 1965 1967\nAustralia Tony Roche 24 1965 1967 1965 1967\n10 South Africa Bob Hewitt 37 1963 1972 1962 1977\n11 Australia John Fitzgerald 28 1982 1986 1989 1984\nSweden Anders J\u00e4rryd 29 1987 1983 1989 1987\n13 Netherlands Jacco Eltingh 28 1994 1995 1998 1994\nNetherlands Paul Haarhuis 32 1994 1995 1998 1994\n15 Australia Todd Woodbridge 29 1992 2000 1993 1995\nAustralia Mark Woodforde 34 1992 2000 1993 1989\n17 Sweden Jonas Bj\u00f6rkman 32 1998 2005 2002 2003\n18 United States Bob Bryan 28 2006 2003 2006 2005\nUnited States Mike Bryan 28 2006 2003 2006 2005\n20 Canada Daniel Nestor 35 2002 2007 2008 2004\n21 India Leander Paes 38 2012 1999 1999 2006\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nWomen's doubles[edit]\n\nAt Women's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam including ten who \"slammed\" with a unique partner. Eight of the 22 achieved at least a double career Slam at Women's Doubles, led by Martina Navratilova with seven or more titles in each Major.\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 United States Louise Brough Clapp 27 1950 1946 1946 1942\n2 United States Doris Hart 26 1949 1951 1951 1951\n3 United States Shirley Fry Irvin 30 1957 1950 1951 1951\n4 Brazil Maria Bueno 20 1960 1960 1958 1960\n5 Australia Margaret Court 22 1961 1964 1964 1963\nAustralia Lesley Turner Bowrey 21 1964 1964 1964 1961\n7 Australia Judy Tegart Dalton 32 1964 1966 1969 1970\n8 Czechoslovakia\/United States Martina Navratilova 23 1980 1975 1976 1977\n9 United States Kathy Jordan 21 1981 1980 1980 1981\nUnited States Anne Smith 21 1981 1980 1980 1981\n11 United States Pam Shriver 21 1982 1984 1981 1983\n12 Czechoslovakia Helena Sukov\u00e1 25 1990 1990 1987 1985\n13 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez 28 1993 1991 1992 1988\nSoviet Union\/Belarus Natasha Zvereva 21 1993 1989 1991 1991\n15 Czechoslovakia\/Czech Republic Jana Novotn\u00e1 25 1990 1990 1989 1994\n16 Switzerland Martina Hingis 17 1997 1998 1996 1998\n17 United States Serena Williams 19 2001 1999 2000 1999\nUnited States Venus Williams 20 2001 1999 2000 1999\n19 United States Lisa Raymond 33 2000 2006 2001 2001\n20 Italy Sara Errani 27 2013 2012 2014 2012\nItaly Roberta Vinci 31 2013 2012 2014 2012\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMixed doubles[edit]\n\nAt Mixed Doubles, a total of 17 players have won the career Slam, including seven who \"slammed\" as a pair (won all four with same partner)\u2014an odd number because Margaret Court has accomplished a career Grand Slam separately with Ken Fletcher and Marty Riessen. The other four of the seven are Doris Hart, Frank Sedgman, Leander Paes, and Martina Hingis. Also three of the 15 players have accomplished multiple career Grand Slams in mixed doubles, led by Margaret Court's quadruple Slam.\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 France Jean Borotra 29 1928 1927 1925 1926\n2 United States Doris Hart 26 1949 1951 1951 1951\nAustralia Frank Sedgman 21 1949 1951 1951 1951\n4 Australia Margaret Court 20 1963 1963 1963 1961\n5 Australia Ken Fletcher 23 1963 1963 1963 1963\n6 Australia Owen Davidson 23 1965 1967 1967 1966\n7 United States Billie Jean King 24 1968 1967 1967 1967\n8 United States Marty Riessen 33 1969 1969 1975 1969\n9 Union of South Africa Bob Hewitt 39 1961 1970 1977 1979\n10 Australia Todd Woodbridge 24 1993 1992 1994 1990\n11 Australia Mark Woodforde 27 1992 1995 1993 1992\n12 Czechoslovakia\/United States Martina Navratilova 46 2003 1974 1985 1985\n13 Slovakia Daniela Hantuchov\u00e1 22 2002 2005 2001 2005\n14 India Mahesh Bhupathi 29 2006 1997 2002 1999\n15 Zimbabwe Cara Black 30 2010 2002 2004 2008\n16 India Leander Paes 42 2003 2016 1999 2008\nSwitzerland Martina Hingis 35 2006 2016 2015 2015\n\nBoys' singles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Stefan Edberg (1983)\n\nBoys' doubles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Mark Kratzmann (1983 French Open, Wimbledon & US Open; 1984 Australian Open)\n\nMen's wheelchair doubles[edit]\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 \u00a0Kunieda, ShingoShingo Kunieda\u00a0(JPN) 24 2007 2008 2006 2007\n2 \u00a0Jeremiasz, MichaelMichael Jeremiasz\u00a0(FRA) 32 2003 2009 2009 2005\n3 \u00a0Houdet, St\u00e9phaneSt\u00e9phane Houdet\u00a0(FRA) 40 2010 2007 2009 2009\n4 \u00a0Scheffers, MaikelMaikel Scheffers\u00a0(NED) 28 2011 2008 2011 2010\n5 \u00a0Peifer, NicolasNicolas Peifer\u00a0(FRA) 25 2016 2011 2015 2011\n6 \u00a0Reid, GordonGordon Reid\u00a0(GBR) 25 2017 2015 2016 2015\n\nWomen's wheelchair doubles[edit]\n\n# Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 \u00a0Vergeer, EstherEsther Vergeer\u00a0(NED) 27 2004 2007 2009 2005\n\u00a0Homan, KorieKorie Homan\u00a0(NED) 29 2009 2009 2009 2005\n3 \u00a0Walraven, SharonSharon Walraven\u00a0(NED) 40 2011 2010 2010 2010\n4 \u00a0Griffioen, JiskeJiske Griffioen\u00a0(NED) 27 2006 2008 2012 2006\n5 \u00a0van Koot, AniekAniek van Koot\u00a0(NED) 23 2010 2013 2012 2013\n6 \u00a0Kamiji, YuiYui Kamiji\u00a0(JPN) 20 2014 2014 2014 2014\n\u00a0Whiley, JordanneJordanne Whiley\u00a0(GRB) 22 2014 2014 2014 2014\n\nMost consecutive Grand Slam tournament titles[edit]\n\nMen's singles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 6: Don Budge (from the 1937 Wimbledon to the 1938 U.S. Championships).\n\nWomen's singles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 6: Maureen Connolly (from the 1952 Wimbledon to the 1953 U.S. Championships).\n  \u2022 6: Margaret Court (from the 1969 US Open to the 1971 Australian Open).\n  \u2022 6: Martina Navratilova (from the 1983 Wimbledon to the 1984 US Open).\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nMen's doubles[edit]\n\nTeam:\n\n  \u2022 7: Ken McGregor and Frank Sedgman (from the 1951 Australian Championships to the 1952 Wimbledon)\n\nPlayer:\n\n  \u2022 8: Frank Sedgman (from the 1950 U.S. Championships to the 1952 Wimbledon)\n\nWomen's doubles[edit]\n\nTeam and Player:\n\n  \u2022 8: Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver (from the 1983 Wimbledon to the 1985 French Open)\n\nMixed doubles[edit]\n\nTeam:\n\n  \u2022 6: Margaret Court and Ken Fletcher (from the 1963 Australian Championships to the 1964 French Championships)\n\nPlayer:\n\n  \u2022 7: Margaret Court (from the 1962 US Championships to the 1964 French Championships)\n\nMen's wheelchair singles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 13: Shingo Kunieda (from the 2007 Australian Open to the 2011 French Open)\n\nWomen's wheelchair singles[edit]\n\n  \u2022 13: Esther Vergeer (from the 2005 French Open to the 2009 US Open)\n  \u2022 7: Esther Vergeer (from the 2010 French Open to the 2012 Wimbledon)\n\nMen's wheelchair doubles[edit]\n\nPlayer:\n\n  \u2022 5: St\u00e9phane Houdet (from the 2009 French Open to the 2010 French Open)\n  \u2022 5: St\u00e9phane Houdet (from the 2014 Australian Open to the 2015 Australian Open)\n\nWomen's wheelchair doubles[edit]\n\nTeam:\n\n  \u2022 7: Esther Vergeer and Sharon Walraven (from the 2010 Wimbledon to 2012 Australian Open)\n\nPlayer:\n\n  \u2022 14: Esther Vergeer (from the 2005 French Open to the 2009 US Open)\n  \u2022 8: Esther Vergeer (from the 2010 French Open to the 2012 French Open)\n\nMost consecutive Grand Slam singles finals[edit]\n\nMen[edit]\n\nRank Player Cons.\nfinals\nFrom To\n1 Switzerland Roger Federer 10 2005 Wimbledon Championships 2007 US Open\n2 Switzerland Roger Federer 8 2008 French Open 2010 Australian Open\n3 Australia Jack Crawford 7 1933 Australian Championships 1934 Wimbledon Championships\n4 United States Don Budge 6 1937 Wimbledon Championships 1938 U.S. Championships\n= Australia Rod Laver 6 1961 Wimbledon Championships 1962 U.S. Championships\n= Serbia Novak Djokovic 6 2015 Australian Open 2016 French Open\n7 United Kingdom Fred Perry 5 1934 Wimbledon Championships 1935 Wimbledon Championships\n= Australia Frank Sedgman 5 1951 U.S. Championships 1952 U.S. Championships\n= Australia Fred Stolle 5 1964 Wimbledon Championships 1965 Wimbledon Championships\n= Spain Rafael Nadal 5 2011 French Open 2012 French Open\n\nWomen[edit]\n\nRank Player Cons.\nfinals\nFrom To\n1 Germany Steffi Graf 13 1987 French Open 1990 French Open\n2 United States Martina Navratilova 11 1985 French Open 1987 US Open\n3 United States Maureen Connolly 6 1952 Wimbledon Championships 1953 US Championships\n= Australia Margaret Court 6 1969 US Open 1971 Australian Open\n= United States Martina Navratilova 6 1983 Wimbledon Championships 1984 US Open\n= United States Chris Evert 6 1984 French Open 1985 Wimbledon Championships\n= Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\/Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Monica Seles 6 1991 US Open 1993 Australian Open\n8 Australia Margaret Court 5 1963 Wimbledon Championships 1964 Wimbledon Championships\n= Australia Margaret Court 5 1965 Australian Championships 1966 Australian Championships\n= Germany Steffi Graf 5 1993 Australian Open 1994 Australian Open\n= Switzerland Martina Hingis 5 1997 Australian Open 1998 Australian Open\n\nMost Grand Slam singles titles without a loss[edit]\n\nHelen Wills Moody won all 16 of the Grand Slam singles tournaments she played beginning with the 1924 U.S. Championships and extending to the 1933 Wimbledon Championships (not counting her defaults in the 1926 French and Wimbledon Championships). During this period, she won 6 Wimbledons, 4 French Championships, and 6 U.S. Championships. She also won the 1924 Summer Olympics during this period. Moody never entered the Australian Championships.\n\nMost Grand Slam mixed doubles titles without a loss[edit]\n\nDoris Hart won all 13 of the Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments she played beginning with the 1951 French Championships and extending to the 1955 U.S. Championships. During this period, she won 5 Wimbledons, 3 French Championships, and 5 U.S. Championships.\n\nGolden Slam[edit]\n\nTennis was an Olympic sport from the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics through the 1924 Games, then was dropped for the next 64 years (except as a demonstration sport in 1968 and 1984) before returning in 1988. As there were only three Major championships designated by the International Lawn Tennis Federation before 1925, none of the tennis players who participated in the Olympics between 1896 and 1924 had a chance to complete a Golden Grand Slam. However, there was a possibility to complete a Career Golden Grand Slam by winning the 1920 Olympics or 1924 Olympics plus each of the four grand slams, all of which were present from 1925 onwards. The term Golden Slam (initially \"Golden Grand Slam\") was coined in 1988.[24]\n\nOnly one player has completed the Golden Slam:[25][26]\n\nGermany Steffi Graf (1988 Australian Open, 1988 French Open, 1988 Wimbledon Championships, 1988 US Open, and 1988 Olympic gold medal)\n\nNon-calendar year Golden Slam[edit]\n\nWinning four consecutive Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic event in the period of twelve months, although not in the same year, is called a \"Non-calendar year Golden Slam\".[27] Only Bob and Mike Bryan have achieved this by winning the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships. After they won the final at Wimbledon, this was coined the \"Golden Bryan Slam\".[28]\n\nCareer Golden Slam[edit]\n\nA player who wins all four Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympic gold medal during his or her career is said to have achieved a Career Golden Slam. Serena Williams is the only player to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles.[29]\n\n# Player Discipline Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Olympics\n1 United States Pam Shriver Women's doubles 1982 1984 1981 1983 1988\n2 Germany Steffi Graf Women's singles 1988 1987 1988 1988 1988\n3 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez Women's doubles 1993 1991 1992 1988 1992\n4 United States Andre Agassi Men's singles 1995 1999 1992 1994 1996\n5 Australia Todd Woodbridge Men's doubles 1992 2000 1993 1992 1996\nAustralia Mark Woodforde Men's doubles 1992 2000 1993 1992 1996\n7 United States Serena Williams Women's doubles 2001 1999 2000 1999 2000\nUnited States Venus Williams Women's doubles 2001 1999 2000 1999 2000\n9 Japan Shingo Kunieda Men's wheelchair doubles 2009 2008 2006 2007 2004\n10 Netherlands Korie Homan Women's wheelchair doubles 2009 2009 2009 2005 2008\n11 Netherlands Esther Vergeer Women's wheelchair doubles 2004 2007 2009 2005 2000\n12 Canada Daniel Nestor Men's doubles 2002 2007 2009 2004 2000\n13 France Micha\u00ebl Jeremiasz Men's wheelchair doubles 2003 2009 2009 2005 2008\n14 France St\u00e9phane Houdet Men's wheelchair doubles 2010 2007 2009 2009 2008\n15 Spain Rafael Nadal Men's singles 2009 2005 2008 2010 2008\n16 Netherlands Sharon Walraven Women's wheelchair doubles 2011 2011 2010 2010 2008\n17 United States Bob Bryan Men's doubles 2006 2003 2006 2005 2012\nUnited States Mike Bryan Men's doubles 2006 2003 2006 2005 2012\n19 United States Serena Williams Women's singles 2003 2002 2002 1999 2012\n20 Netherlands Aniek van Koot Women's wheelchair doubles 2010 2013 2012 2013 2016\nNetherlands Jiske Griffioen Women's wheelchair doubles 2006 2008 2012 2006 2016\n22 France Nicolas Peifer Men's wheelchair doubles 2016 2011 2015 2011 2016\n\nSuper Slam[edit]\n\nSoon after the Open Era began in 1968, the new professional tours each held a year-end championship (YEC), which are elite tournaments involving only the top performers of the given season. The subsequent return of tennis to the Olympics in 1988 gave rise to the notion of a Super Slam as a combination of Golden Slam and YEC title.[30][31][32] Eligible YECs are currently called the ATP Finals for men, WTA Finals for women, and the Wheelchair Tennis Masters.\n\nNo player has ever completed the Super Slam in a single season.\n\nNon-calendar year Super Slam[edit]\n\nOnly one player has completed the Super Slam in a period of twelve months:\n\nGermany Steffi Graf (1987 Virginia Slims Championships, 1988 Australian Open, 1988 French Open, 1988 Wimbledon Championships, 1988 US Open and 1988 Olympic gold medal)\n\nCareer Super Slam[edit]\n\n# Player Discipline Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open Olympics Year-end\n1 United States Pam Shriver Women's doubles 1982 1984 1981 1983 1988 1981\n2 Germany Steffi Graf Women's singles 1988 1987 1988 1988 1988 1987\n3 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez Women's doubles 1993 1991 1992 1988 1992 1993\n4 United States Andre Agassi Men's singles 1995 1999 1992 1994 1996 1990\n5 Australia Todd Woodbridge Men's doubles 1992 2000 1993 1992 1996 1992\nAustralia Mark Woodforde Men's doubles 1992 2000 1993 1992 1996 1992\n7 Netherlands Esther Vergeer Women's wheelchair doubles 2004 2007 2009 2005 2000 2001\n8 Netherlands Korie Homan Women's wheelchair doubles 2009 2009 2009 2005 2008 2004\n9 Canada Daniel Nestor Men's doubles 2002 2007 2009 2004 2000 2007\n10 France Micha\u00ebl Jeremiasz Men's wheelchair doubles 2003 2009 2009 2005 2008 2008\n11 France St\u00e9phane Houdet Men's wheelchair doubles 2010 2007 2009 2009 2008 2006\n12 Netherlands Sharon Walraven Women's wheelchair doubles 2011 2011 2010 2010 2008 2010\n13 United States Bob Bryan Men's doubles 2006 2003 2006 2005 2012 2003\nUnited States Mike Bryan Men's doubles 2006 2003 2006 2005 2012 2003\n15 United States Serena Williams Women's singles 2003 2002 2002 1999 2012 2001\n16 Japan Shingo Kunieda Men's wheelchair doubles 2009 2008 2006 2007 2004 2012\n17 Netherlands Aniek van Koot Women's wheelchair doubles 2010 2013 2012 2013 2016 2012\nNetherlands Jiske Griffioen Women's wheelchair doubles 2006 2008 2012 2006 2016 2004\n19 France Nicolas Peifer Men's wheelchair doubles 2016 2011 2015 2011 2016 2016\n\nThree Major tournament titles in a year[edit]\n\nPlayers who have won three of the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year. Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams won the first three events, but lost the last grand slam tournament.[b] Crawford, an asthmatic, won two of the first three sets of the 1933 U.S. Championships final against Fred Perry, then tired in the heat and lost the last two sets and the match.[33]\n\nKey\nW \u00a0F\u00a0 SF QF #R RR Q# A NH\n(W) Won; (F) finalist; (SF) semifinalist; (QF) quarterfinalist; (#R) rounds 4, 3, 2, 1; (RR) round-robin stage; (Q#) qualification round; (A) absent; (NH) not held.\nTo avoid confusion and double counting, these charts are updated either at the conclusion of a tournament, or when the player's participation in the tournament has ended.\nMen's singles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 Australia Jack Crawford 1933 W W W F\n2 United Kingdom Fred Perry 1934 W QF W W\n3 United States Tony Trabert 1955 SF W W W\n4 Australia Lew Hoad 1956 W W W F\n5 Australia Ashley Cooper 1958 W SF W W\n6 Australia Roy Emerson 1964 W QF W W\n7 United States Jimmy Connors 1974 W A[34] W W\n8 Sweden Mats Wilander 1988 W W QF W\n9 Switzerland Roger Federer 2004 W 3R W W\n10 Switzerland Roger Federer 2006 W F W W\n11 Switzerland Roger Federer 2007 W F W W\n12 Spain Rafael Nadal 2010 QF W W W\n13 Serbia Novak Djokovic 2011 W SF W W\n14 Serbia Novak Djokovic 2015 W F W W\nWomen's singles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 United States Helen Wills 1928 A W W W\n2 United States Helen Wills 1929 A W W W\n3 Australia Margaret Court 1962 W W 2R W\n4 Australia Margaret Court 1965 W F W W\n5 Australia Margaret Court 1969 W W SF W\n6 United States Billie Jean King 1972 A W W W\n7 Australia Margaret Court 1973 W W SF W\n8 United States Martina Navratilova 1983 W 4R W W\n9 United States Martina Navratilova 1984 SF W W W\n10 Germany Steffi Graf 1989 W F W W\n11 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Monica Seles 1991 W W A W\n12 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\/Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Monica Seles 1992 W W F W\n13 Germany Steffi Graf 1993 F W W W\n14 Germany Steffi Graf 1995 A W W W\n15 Germany Steffi Graf 1996 A W W W\n16 Switzerland Martina Hingis 1997 W F W W\n17 United States Serena Williams 2002 A W W W\n18 United States Serena Williams 2015 W W W SF\nMen's doubles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 France Jacques Brugnon 1928 W W W SF\n2 United States John Van Ryn 1933 SF W W W\n3 Australia Jack Crawford 1935 W W W UR\n4 Australia John Bromwich 1950 W SF W W\n5 Australia Ken McGregor 1952 W W W F\nAustralia Frank Sedgman 1952 W W W F\n7 Australia Ken Rosewall 1953 W W W UR\nAustralia Lew Hoad 1953 W W W UR\n9 Australia Ken Rosewall 1956 W A W W\nAustralia Lew Hoad 1956 W F W W\n11 Australia Tony Roche 1967 W W QF W\nAustralia John Newcombe 1967 W W QF W\n13 Australia John Newcombe 1973 W W A W\n14 Sweden Anders J\u00e4rryd 1987 W W SF W\n15 Sweden Anders J\u00e4rryd 1991 3R W W W\nAustralia John Fitzgerald 1991 3R W W W\n17 Netherlands Jacco Eltingh 1998 W W W A\n18 United States Bob Bryan 2013 W W W SF\nUnited States Mike Bryan 2013 W W W SF\n  \u2022 note: UR=Unknown Result. Please help us find this information.\nWomen's doubles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 United States Margaret Osborne duPont 1946 A W W W\nUnited States Louise Brough 1946 A W W W\n3 United States Margaret Osborne duPont 1949 A W W W\nUnited States Louise Brough 1949 A W W W\n5 United States Louise Brough 1950 W F W W\n6 United States Doris Hart 1951 A W W W\nUnited States Shirley Fry Irvin 1951 A W W W\n8 United States Doris Hart 1952 A W W W\nUnited States Shirley Fry Irvin 1952 A W W W\n10 United States Doris Hart 1953 A W W W\nUnited States Shirley Fry Irvin 1953 A W W W\n12 United States Darlene Hard 1960 A W W W\n13 Australia Lesley Turner Bowrey 1964 W W W F\n14 Australia Nancy Richey 1966 W 2R W W\n15 Netherlands Betty St\u00f6ve 1972 A W W W\n16 Australia Margaret Court 1973 W W QF W\nUnited Kingdom Virginia Wade 1973 W W QF W\n18 United States Martina Navratilova 1982 W W W SF\n19 United States Martina Navratilova 1983 W A W W\nUnited States Pam Shriver 1983 W A W W\n21 United States Martina Navratilova 1986 NH W W W\n22 United States Martina Navratilova 1987 W W QF W\nUnited States Pam Shriver 1987 W W QF W\n24 Czech Republic Helena Sukov\u00e1 1990 W W W F\nCzech Republic Jana Novotn\u00e1 1990 W W W F\n26 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez 1992 QF W W W\nBelarus Natasha Zvereva 1992 SF W W W\n28 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez 1993 W W W SF\nBelarus Natasha Zvereva 1993 W W W SF\n30 United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez 1994 W W W SF\nBelarus Natasha Zvereva 1994 W W W SF\n32 Belarus Natasha Zvereva 1997 W W W F\n33 Czech Republic Jana Novotn\u00e1 1998 A W W W\n34 Spain Virginia Ruano Pascual 2004 W W SF W\nArgentina Paola Su\u00e1rez 2004 W W SF W\n36 United States Serena Williams 2009 W 3R W W\nUnited States Venus Williams 2009 W 3R W W\nMixed doubles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 South Africa Eric Sturgess 1949 A W W W\n2 Australia Frank Sedgman 1951 A W W W\nUnited States Doris Hart 1951 A W W W\n4 Australia Frank Sedgman 1952 A W W W\nUnited States Doris Hart 1952 A W W W\n6 United States Vic Seixas 1953 A W W W\nUnited States Doris Hart 1953 A W W W\n8 Australia Margaret Court 1964 W W F W\n9 United States Billie Jean King 1967 A W W W\n10 United States Marty Riessen 1969 W W QF W\nAustralia Margaret Court 1969 W W SF W\n12 South Africa Bob Hewitt 1979 NH W W W\n13 United States Martina Navratilova 1985 NH W W W\n14 Australia Mark Woodforde 1992 W W 3R W\n15 Switzerland Martina Hingis 2015 W 2R W W\nIndia Leander Paes 2015 W 2R W W\nBoys' singles\n  \u2022 Australia Mark Kratzmann\n1984: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Venezuela Nicol\u00e1s Pereira\n1988: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 France Ga\u00ebl Monfils\n2004: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\nGirls' singles\n  \u2022 Soviet Union Natalia Zvereva\n1987: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Bulgaria Magdalena Maleeva\n1990: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\nBoys' doubles\n  \u2022 Australia Mark Kratzmann\n1983: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Australia Simon Youl\n1983: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Australia Jason Stoltenberg\n1988: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Australia Todd Woodbridge\n1988: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Australia Ben Ellwood\n1994: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 United States Brendan Evans\n2004: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 United States Scott Oudsema\n2004: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\nGirls' doubles\n  \u2022 United States Beth Herr\n1982: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 United States Corina Morariu\n1995: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\n  \u2022 Czech Republic Ludmilla Varmuzova\n1995: Australian Open, French Open, US Open\n  \u2022 Belarus Victoria Azarenka\n2005: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Russia Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova\n2006: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Poland Urszula Radwa\u0144ska\n2007: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Hungary T\u00edmea Babos\n2010: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 United States Sloane Stephens\n2010: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 United States Taylor Townsend\n2012: Australian Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Czech Republic Barbora Krej\u010d\u00edkov\u00e1\n2013: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\n  \u2022 Czech Republic Kate\u0159ina Siniakov\u00e1\n2013: French Open, Wimbledon, US Open\nMen's wheelchair singles[35][c][d]\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2007 W W NH W\n2 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2009 W W NH W\n3 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2010 W W NH W\n4 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2014 W W NH W\n5 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2015 W W NH W\nWomen's wheelchair singles[d][c]\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 Netherlands Esther Vergeer 2007 W W NH W\n2 Netherlands Esther Vergeer 2009 W W NH W\n3 Netherlands Esther Vergeer 2011 W W NH W\nMen's wheelchair doubles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 France St\u00e9phane Houdet 2009 SF W W W\n2 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2013 W W W SF\n3 Japan Shingo Kunieda 2014 W SF W W\nWomen's wheelchair doubles\n# Player Year Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n1 Netherlands Esther Vergeer 2007 W W NH W\n2 Japan Yui Kamiji 2016 W W W NH\n\nNote: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.\n\nTriple Crown[edit]\n\nWinning singles, doubles and mixed doubles titles at one Grand Slam event is called a Triple Crown.[36][37][38] It has become a rare accomplishment in tennis. This is partly because the final match in all three disciplines often takes place concurrently in the same day if not in consecutive days. Doris Hart for example attained her first Triple Crown after playing three Wimbledon final matches held in one single day.\n\nNotes:\n\n  \u2022 This list excludes the 1909 triple crown of Jeanne Matthey and the 1920, 1921, 1922 and 1923 triple crown wins of Suzanne Lenglen. The French Championship tennis tournament at the time was a domestic competition not recognized as an international major. At the time the major clay court event (actual precursor of the French Open in its current international format) was the World Hard Court Championships, where Suzanne Lenglen also attained triple championship in 1921 and 1922).\n  \u2022 Also the 1941 triple championship of Alice Weiwers is not listed due to its disputed official status: French championships held in Vichy France from 1941 to 1945 are currently not recognized by F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Fran\u00e7aise de Tennis.\nMen\nTotal Player Year Triple champion of\n3 times\nUnited States Don Budge 1937 Wimbledon\n1938 Wimbledon\n1938 US Championships\n2 times\nUnited States Bill Tilden 1922 US Championships\n1923 US Championships\nAustralia Frank Sedgman 1951 US Championships\n1952 Wimbledon\nAustralia Neale Fraser 1959 US Championships\n1960 US Championships\n1 time\nAustralia Jack Hawkes 1926 Australian Championships\nFrance Jean Borotra 1928 Australian Championships\nAustralia Jack Crawford 1932 Australian Championships\nUnited States Bobby Riggs 1939 Wimbledon\nUnited States Vic Seixas 1954 US Championships\nAustralia Ken Rosewall 1956 US Championships\nWomen\nTotal Player Year Triple champion of\n5 times\nFrance Suzanne Lenglen 1920 Wimbledon\n1922 Wimbledon\n1925 French Championships\n1925 Wimbledon\n1926 French Championships\nAustralia Margaret Court 1963 Australian Championships\n1964 French Championships\n1965 Australian Championships\n1969 Australian Open\n1970 US Open\n4 times\nUnited States Alice Marble 1938 US Championships\n1939 Wimbledon\n1939 US Championships\n1940 US Championships\nUnited States Doris Hart 1951 Wimbledon\n1952 French Championships\n1952 Wimbledon\n1954 US Championships\n3 times\nUnited States Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman 1909 US Championships\n1910 US Championships\n1911 US Championships\nUnited States Mary Browne 1912 US Championships\n1913 US Championships\n1914 US Championships\nAustralia Daphne Akhurst Cozens 1925 Australian Championships\n1928 Australian Championships\n1929 Australian Championships\nAustralia Nancye Wynne Bolton 1940 Australian Championships\n1947 Australian Championships\n1948 Australian Championships\nUnited States Louise Brough Clapp 1947 US Championships\n1948 Wimbledon\n1950 Wimbledon\nUnited States Billie Jean King 1967 Wimbledon\n1967 US Championships\n1973 Wimbledon\n2 times\nIreland Mabel Cahill 1891 US Championships\n1892 US Championships\nUnited States Helen Wills Moody 1924 US Championships\n1928 US Championships\n1 time\nUnited States Juliette Atkinson 1895 US Championships\nNorway Molla Bjurstedt Mallory 1917 US Championships\nUnited States Helen Jacobs 1934 US Championships\nFrance Simonne Mathieu 1938 French Championships\nUnited States Sarah Palfrey Cooke 1941 US Championships\nUnited States Margaret Osborne duPont 1950 US Championships\nAustralia Thelma Coyne Long 1952 Australian Championships\nUnited States Maureen Connolly 1954 French Championships\nUnited States Martina Navratilova 1987 US Open\n\nBoxed Set[edit]\n\nAnother Grand Slam-related accomplishment is winning a \"boxed set\" of Grand Slam titles \u2013 which is at least one of every possible type of Major championship available to a player: the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam events of the year. This has never been accomplished within a year or consecutively across two calendar years.\n\nCareer Boxed Set[edit]\n\nThe Career Boxed Set refers to winning one of every possible grand slam title (singles, doubles, mixed) over the course of an entire career. No male player has completed this, although Frank Sedgman came close. He only missed out on the French Open singles title. Men who participate in top\/elite level singles have played comparatively few doubles, and very few mixed doubles. So far, only three women have completed the boxed set during their careers:\n\nBoxed Sets Player Age Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n2\nAustralia Margaret Court 22\n(Pre-Open Era)\n1960 (WS)\n1961 (WD)\n1963 (XD)\n1962 (WS)\n1964 (WD)\n1963 (XD)\n1963 (WS)\n1964 (WD)\n1963 (XD)\n1962 (WS)\n1963 (WD)\n1961 (XD)\n31\n(Post-Open Era)\n1969 (WS)\n1969 (WD)\n1969 (XD)\n1969 (WS)\n1973 (WD)\n1969 (XD)\n1970 (WS)\n1969 (WD)\n1968 (XD)\n1969 (WS)\n1968 (WD)\n1969 (XD)\n1\nUnited States Doris Hart 29\n1949 (WS)\n1950 (WD)\n1949 (XD)\n1950 (WS)\n1948 (WD)\n1951 (XD)\n1951 (WS)\n1947 (WD)\n1951 (XD)\n1954 (WS)\n1951 (WD)\n1951 (XD)\n1\nUnited States Martina Navratilova 46\n1981 (WS)\n1980 (WD)\n2003 (XD)\n1982 (WS)\n1975 (WD)\n1974 (XD)\n1978 (WS)\n1976 (WD)\n1985 (XD)\n1983 (WS)\n1977 (WD)\n1985 (XD)\n\nCourt is not only unique in having two boxed sets, but is also unique in the timing of her accomplishments. Her first boxed set was completed before the start of the open era, and she has a boxed set achieved solely within the open era.\n\nMartina Hingis has come closer than any other currently active player to joining this elite group. She just needs the French Open singles, having reached the final in 1997 and 1999.[39] Prior to Hingis, it was Billie Jean King who came close at completing a career boxed set. She only needed the Australian Open women's doubles title and although she reached the final twice (in 1965 and 1969), she failed to win the title.\n\nMultiple Career Grand Slams[edit]\n\nOf the many players who have managed to win a full set of four majors, there is a small number who have gone on to win all four majors a second or more times. The completion of \"Multiple Career Grand Slams\" or sometimes called \"multiple slam sets\" (MSS) has been achieved by only 22 unique players up to the end of the 2015 Wimbledon. MSS players can be found in each of the five tennis disciplines: men's or women's singles, men's or women's doubles, mixed doubles. It can also be found in women's wheelchair doubles. Of these, five players have completed MSS in more than one discipline: Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams have MSS in two disciplines, Margaret Court has MSS in three disciplines.\n\nThis table shows each multiple occurrence of a complete MSS for each of the players who have accomplished multiple slams in a particular tennis discipline. The year shown for each of the four majors is the year that particular major win was repeated as part of that player's achievement of their second (all 22 players) and third (8 players) and fourth (4 players) and fifth through seventh (Martina Navratilova, in women's doubles) complete slam set of Major wins.[clarification needed]\n\nFor example, the fourth row shows that Margaret Court completed her third career slam set in Women's Singles\u2014winning each of the four majors three times\u2014during the 1970 Wimbledon Championships (bold). More specific, she won: Australian open 11 times, the third in 1962; French Open five times, the third in 1969; Wimbledon three times (determines the maximum of sets), the third in 1970 and finally US Open five times, the third in 1969. Grey background shades lesser achievements by the same player in the same discipline (e.g., Court in the eighth row); yellow highlights the greatest achievement in the discipline (e.g., Graf in the third row).\n\nSlam Sets completed, second and subsequent sets\n(chronological sequence in column one)\nName Country Discipline MSS Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open\n09 Emerson, RoyRoy Emerson \u00a0AUS Men's Singles 2 1963 1967 1965 1964\n13 Laver, RodRod Laver \u00a0AUS Men's Singles 2 1962 1969 1962 1969\n34 Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf \u00a0GER Women's Singles 4 1994 1995 1992 1995\n15 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Women's Singles 3 1962 1969 1970 1969\n49 Williams, SerenaSerena Williams \u00a0USA Women's Singles 3 2007 2015 2009 2008\n21 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Singles 2 1983 1984 1979 1984\n22 Evert, ChrisChris Evert \u00a0USA Women's Singles 2 1984 1975 1976 1976\n06 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Women's Singles 2 1961 1964 1965 1965\n30 Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf \u00a0FRG Women's Singles 2 1989 1988 1989 1989\n31 Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf \u00a0GER Women's Singles 3 1990 1993 1991 1993\n42 Williams, SerenaSerena Williams \u00a0USA Women's Singles 2 2005 2013 2003 2002\n16 Emerson, RoyRoy Emerson \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 3 1969 1962 1971 1965\n18 Newcombe, JohnJohn Newcombe \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 3 1971 1973 1968 1973\n01 Sedgman, FrankFrank Sedgman \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1952 1952 1951 1951\n04 Fraser, NealeNeale Fraser \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1958 1960 1961 1960\n10 Stolle, FredFred Stolle \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1964 1968 1964 1966\n14 Rosewall, KenKen Rosewall \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1956 1968 1956 1969\n43 Bryan, BobBob Bryan \u00a0USA Men's Doubles 2 2007 2013 2011 2008\n44 Bryan, MikeMike Bryan \u00a0USA Men's Doubles 2 2007 2013 2011 2008\n07 Emerson, RoyRoy Emerson \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1966 1961 1961 1960\n17 Newcombe, JohnJohn Newcombe \u00a0AUS Men's Doubles 2 1967 1969 1966 1971\n28 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 7 1988 1988 1986 1987\n29 Shriver, PamPam Shriver \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 4 1985 1988 1984 1987\n35 Zvereva, NatashaNatasha Zvereva \u00a0BLR Women's Doubles 3 1997 1993 1993 1995\n12 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Women's Doubles 2 1962 1965 1969 1968\n32 Fern\u00e1ndez, GigiGigi Fern\u00e1ndez \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 2 1994 1992 1993 1990\n36 Novotn\u00e1, JanaJana Novotn\u00e1 \u00a0CZE Women's Doubles 2 1995 1991 1990 1997\n37 Williams, SerenaSerena Williams \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 2 2003 2010 2002 2009\n38 Williams, VenusVenus Williams \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 2 2003 2010 2002 2009\n50 Hingis, MartinaMartina Hingis \u00a0\u00a0SUI Women's Doubles 2 1998 2000 1998 2015\n19 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 2 1982 1982 1979 1978\n20 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 3 1983 1984 1981 1980\n23 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 4 1984 1985 1982 1983\n25 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 5 1985 1986 1983 1984\n26 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 6 1987 1987 1984 1986\n24 Shriver, PamPam Shriver \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 2 1983 1985 1982 1984\n27 Shriver, PamPam Shriver \u00a0USA Women's Doubles 3 1984 1987 1983 1986\n33 Zvereva, NatashaNatasha Zvereva \u00a0BLR Women's Doubles 2 1994 1992 1992 1992\n11 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Mixed Doubles 4 1969 1969 1968 1964\n02 Hart, DorisDoris Hart \u00a0USA Mixed Doubles 2 1950 1952 1952 1952\n03 Sedgman, FrankFrank Sedgman \u00a0AUS Mixed Doubles 2 1950 1952 1952 1952\n40 Bhupathi, MaheshMahesh Bhupathi \u00a0IND Mixed Doubles 2 2009 2012 2005 2005\n05 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Mixed Doubles 2 1964 1964 1965 1962\n08 Court, MargaretMargaret Court \u00a0AUS Mixed Doubles 3 1965 1965 1966 1963\n41 Vergeer, EstherEsther Vergeer \u00a0NED Women's wheelchair doubles 3 2007 2009 2011 2007\n45 Griffioen, JiskeJiske Griffioen \u00a0NED Women's wheelchair doubles 2 2007 2013 2013 2007\n51 van Koot, AniekAniek van Koot \u00a0NED Women's wheelchair doubles 2 2013 2013 2013 2015\n39 Vergeer, EstherEsther Vergeer \u00a0NED Women's wheelchair doubles 2 2006 2008 2010 2006\n48 Houdet, St\u00e9phaneSt\u00e9phane Houdet \u00a0FRA Men's wheelchair doubles 3 2015 2010 2014 2014\n47 Kunieda, ShingoShingo Kunieda \u00a0JPN Men's wheelchair doubles 2 2008 2010 2013 2014\n46 Houdet, St\u00e9phaneSt\u00e9phane Houdet \u00a0FRA Men's wheelchair doubles 2 2014 2009 2013 2011\n\nBy discipline (numbers of players and table entries)\n\n  \u2022 Men's Singles (2 people; 2 entries)\n  \u2022 Women's Singles (5 people; 9 entries)\n  \u2022 Men's Doubles (8 people; 10 entries)\n  \u2022 Women's Doubles (9 people; 17 entries)\n  \u2022 Mixed Doubles (4 people, 6 entries)\n  \u2022 Men's Wheelchair Doubles (2 people; 3 entries)[d]\n  \u2022 Women's Wheelchair Doubles (3 people; 4 entries)[d]\n\nPro Slam[edit]\n\nBefore the Open Era began in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four majors. Many male top players \"went pro\" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely different events.[40] From 1927 through 1967, the three oldest pro events were considered \"majors\" of the pro tour: the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships, French Pro Championship and Wembley Championships.[41][42] A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered to achieve a \"Professional Grand Slam\", or \"Pro Slam\".[41][42] The feat was accomplished twice:\n\nAustralia Ken Rosewall in 1963;[43]\nAustralia Rod Laver in 1967.[44]\n\nThree other players won those three major trophies during their pro careers: Ellsworth Vines, Hans N\u00fcsslein and Don Budge. The pro slams did not have a women's draw.[citation needed]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconTennis portal\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam related tennis records\n  \u2022 Lists of tennis records and statistics\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The Australian Open is played on Plexicushion while the US Open is played on DecoTurf.\n  2. Jump up ^ In 1984, the Australian Open was the last event held, rather than the first.\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Until 2016, Wimbledon have never hosted singles tournament for wheelchairs.\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Notwithstanding year when the US Open did not take place due to date clashes with the Paralympics.[clarification needed]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Q. What is the points breakdown for all tournament categories?\". RANKINGS: Frequently Asked Questions (10). ATP World Tour \u2013 Official Site of Men's Professional Tennis (atpworldtour.com). Retrieved 7 March 2014.\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Overview\". ITFTennis.com. Retrieved 2017-06-11.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Sport and the Media: Managing the Nexus\". Google Books. 2016-05-12. Retrieved 2017-06-11.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ USOpen.org. Archived 1 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine.\n  5. Jump up ^ Grandslamhistory.com \"STATS\". Grand Slam History Reference Book (grandslamhistory.com). Retrieved 7 March 2014.\n  6. Jump up ^ Crowe, Jerry (22 May 1994). LA Times \"Return to Grand Slam Glory: Rod Laver Was the Last Man to Sweep Four Major Titles and Thinks It Can Be Done Again\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 7 March 2014.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Slam\". Online Etymological Dictionary (etymonline.com). Douglas Harper. Retrieved 9 January 2013.\n  8. Jump up ^ Martin, John (12 September 2015). \"Writings Offer Encyclopedic Insight on Winners of Grand Slams.\" The New York Times p. SP8. Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  9. Jump up ^ Gould, Alan (18 July 1933). \"Sports Slants: {subsection} Tennis 'Grand Slam'\u00a0\". The Reading Eagle (Reading, Pennsylvania). p. 10. Retrieved 7 March 2014.\n  10. Jump up ^ \"(6) 1912\u20131914: The first World Clay Court Championships\". Histoire du tennis: La l\u00e9gende du grand chelem (www.histoiredutennis.com). 30 April 2001. Retrieved 16 July 2012.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Robertson, Max (1974). The Encyclopedia of Tennis. The Viking Press. p.\u00a033. ISBN\u00a0067029408X.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Bonnie DeSimoneArchive (26 May 2007). \"Chris Evert owned Roland Garros like no other\". Sports.espn.go.com. Retrieved 20 April 2012.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Milton Tennis Centre\". Australian Stadiums. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2008.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Nikki Tugwell (14 January 2008). \"Hewitt chases amazing slam win\". The Daily Telegraph. news.com.au. Archived from the original on 1 February 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2008.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Fein, Paul. Tennis Confidential (2002). 218.\n  16. Jump up ^ Amdur, Neil. (17 August 1982). \"Leave Grand Slam of Tennis Alone\" The New York Times Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  17. Jump up ^ Fein, Paul. Tennis Confidential (2002). 221.\n  18. Jump up ^ Amdur, Neil. (17 August 1982). \"Leave Grand Slam of Tennis Alone\" The New York Times Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  19. Jump up ^ Vecsey, George. (11 September 1988). \"A Champion For All Seasons\" The New York Times Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  20. Jump up ^ Newman, Paul. (13 January 2011). \"Nadal: 'This will be my only shot at doing the Grand Slam'\" The Independent Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  21. Jump up ^ ITF Constitution landing page. Full text of the Memorandum, Articles of Association and Bye-laws of ITF LIMITED.\n  22. Jump up ^ Stratte-McClure, Joel (25 June 1984). \"Martina Navratilova Takes the Grand Slam and Nets a Cool Million While She's at It\". People. Retrieved 29 July 2009.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick, Curry. (18 June 1984). \"Worthy of Really High Fives\" Sports Illustrated Retrieved 14 December 2016.\n  24. Jump up ^ Tandon, Kamakshi (5 January 2009). \"Gold Standard: Graf mints Golden Slam in 1988\". TENNIS (tennis.com). Archived from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Guinness world records\". Retrieved 18 January 2015.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Steffi Graf: The Queen Returns to Centre Court \u2013 Golden Grand Slam definition.\". Retrieved 18 January 2015.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Cronin, Matt (2 July 2013). \"Bryan Twins on Verge of Golden Slam\". 10sBalls.com. Retrieved 6 July 2013.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Gibson, Owen (6 July 2013). \"Bob and Mike Bryan complete the 'Golden Bryan Slam' at Wimbledon\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 8 July 2013.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Serena Williams Blitzes To Olympic Singles Gold\". Retrieved 18 January 2015.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"#7: Andre Agassi\". Sports Illustrated. Photo Gallery: Top 10 Men's Tennis Players of All Time. p.\u00a04. Retrieved 21 December 2013.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Kay, Dimitri (22 November 2010). \"Rafael Nadal Will Bid To Emulate Andre Agassi at the World Tour Finals\". Retrieved 4 February 2014.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Nelson, Murry R., ed. (2013). American Sports: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas. Greenwood Press. p.\u00a026. ISBN\u00a09780313397523.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Vecsey, George (11 September 1988). \"Sports of The Times; A Champion For All Seasons\". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 May 2012.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Jimmy Connors at the Association of Tennis Professionals. Retrieved 19 September 2010.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Wimbledon announces Wheelchair Tennis Singles events from 2016\". www.wimbledon.com. AELTC. 12 July 2015.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"US Open \u2013 The Unbelievable, Unbreakable Records\". Archived from the original on 18 June 2014. Retrieved 17 June 2014.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Martina Navratilova\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Retrieved 17 June 2014.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"40 Important Women's Moments: 1987, Martina's Triple Crown\". Retrieved 17 June 2014.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Hingis and Paes complete career mixed slam\". rolandgarros.com. F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Fran\u00e7aise de Tennis (FFT). 3 June 2016.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Robertson, Max (1974). Encyclopedia of Tennis. pp.\u00a060\u201371.\u00a0\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b Geist, Robert (1999). Ken Rosewall: Der Grosse Meister. Austria. p.\u00a0137.\u00a0\n  42. ^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Raymond (September 2007). \"Greatest Player of All Time: A Statistical Analysis\". Tennis Week Magazine.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Craig, Hunt. \"Legends of the game # 3 \u2013 Ken Rosewall\". Tennis Sydney. Retrieved 10 January 2015.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Anderson, Dave (30 August 2009). \"The Greatest? Don't Forget Laver's Lost Years\". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 April 2014.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Grand Slam (tennis).\n  \u2022 Official website of the Australian Open\n  \u2022 Official website of the French Open\n  \u2022 Official website of Wimbledon\n  \u2022 Official website of the US Open\n  \u2022 All-times Grand Slam tournaments finals \u2013 Reference book.\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrand Slam tournaments\nOpen era (1968\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Australian Open\n  \u2022 French Open\n  \u2022 Wimbledon\n  \u2022 US Open\nPre-open era (amateur) (1924\u201367)\n  \u2022 Australian Championships\n  \u2022 French Championships\n  \u2022 Wimbledon Championships\n  \u2022 US National Championships\nPre-open era (professional) (1927\u201367)\n  \u2022 US Pro\n  \u2022 French Pro\n  \u2022 Wembley Pro\nILTF (1913\u201323)\n  \u2022 World Hard Court Championships\n  \u2022 World Grass Court Championships\n  \u2022 World Covered Court Championships\nHistory of tennis\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrand Slam tournament champions\nAustralian Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nFrench Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nWimbledon\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nUS Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nAll tournaments\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Boys' singles\n  \u2022 Girls' singles\n  \u2022 Boys' doubles\n  \u2022 Girls' doubles\n  \u2022 Grand Slam overall records\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrand Slam tournament venues\nAustralian Open\n  \u2022 Melbourne Park\n    \u2022 Rod Laver Arena\n    \u2022 Hisense Arena\n    \u2022 Margaret Court Arena\nFrench Open\n  \u2022 Stade Roland Garros\n    \u2022 Court Philippe Chatrier\n    \u2022 Court Suzanne Lenglen\n    \u2022 Court 1\nWimbledon\n  \u2022 All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club\n    \u2022 Centre Court\n    \u2022 No. 1 Court\n    \u2022 No. 2 Court\n    \u2022 No. 3 Court\nUS Open\n  \u2022 USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center\n    \u2022 Arthur Ashe Stadium\n    \u2022 Louis Armstrong Stadium\n    \u2022 Grandstand\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrand Slam \/ non-calendar year \/ career Grand Slam-winning singles\/doubles tennis players\n[show]\nGrand Slam\nMen's singles\n  \u2022 1938: United States Don Budge\n  \u2022 1962: Australia Rod Laver\n  \u2022 1969: Australia Rod Laver\nWomen's singles\n  \u2022 1953: United States Maureen Connolly\n  \u2022 1970: Australia Margaret Court\n  \u2022 1988: West Germany Steffi Graf\nMen's doubles\n  \u2022 1951: Australia Ken McGregor\/Australia Frank Sedgman\nWomen's doubles\n  \u2022 1960: Brazil Maria Bueno\n  \u2022 1984: United States Martina Navratilova\/United States Pam Shriver\n  \u2022 1998: Switzerland Martina Hingis\nMixed doubles\n  \u2022 1963: Australia Margaret Court\/Australia Ken Fletcher\n  \u2022 1965: Australia Margaret Court\n  \u2022 1967: Australia Owen Davidson\n[show]\nNon-calendar year Grand Slam\nMen's singles\n  \u2022 2015\u201316: Serbia Novak Djokovic\nWomen's singles\n  \u2022 1983\u201384: United States Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 1993\u201394: West Germany Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 2002\u201303: United States Serena Williams\n  \u2022 2014\u201315: United States Serena Williams\nMen's doubles\n  \u2022 2012\u201313: United States Bob Bryan\/United States Mike Bryan\nWomen's doubles\n  \u2022 1949\u201350: United States Louise Brough\n  \u2022 1986\u201387: United States Martina Navratilova\/United States Pam Shriver\n  \u2022 1992\u201393: United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez\/Belarus Natasha Zvereva\n  \u2022 1996\u201397: Belarus Natasha Zvereva\n  \u2022 2009\u201310: United States Serena Williams\/United States Venus Williams\nMixed doubles\n  \u2022 1967\u201368 United States Billie Jean King\n[show]\nCareer Grand Slam\nMen's singles\n  \u2022 1933-34-35: United Kingdom Fred Perry\n  \u2022 1937-38: United States Don Budge\n  \u2022 1960-61-62: Australia Rod Laver\n  \u2022 1961-63-64: Australia Roy Emerson\n  \u2022 1992-94-95-99: United States Andre Agassi\n  \u2022 2003-04-09:Switzerland Roger Federer\n  \u2022 2005-08-09-10: Spain Rafael Nadal\n  \u2022 2008-11-16: Serbia Novak Djokovic\nWomen's singles\n  \u2022 1951-52-53: United States Maureen Connolly\n  \u2022 1949-50-51-54: United States Doris Hart\n  \u2022 1951-56-57: United States Shirley Fry Irvin\n  \u2022 1960-62-63: Australia Margaret Court\n  \u2022 1966-67-68-72: United States Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 1974-75-82: United States Chris Evert\n  \u2022 1978-81-82-83: United States Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 1987-88: West Germany Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 1999-2002-03: United States Serena Williams\n  \u2022 2004-06-08-12: Russia Maria Sharapova\nMen's doubles\n  \u2022 1935-36-39: Australia Adrian Quist\n  \u2022 1948-50-51 Australia Frank Sedgman\n  \u2022 1951: Australia Ken McGregor\n  \u2022 1953\u201356: Australia Lew Hoad\/Australia Ken Rosewall\n  \u2022 1957-58-59: Australia Neale Fraser\n  \u2022 1959-60-62: Australia Roy Emerson\n  \u2022 1965\u201367: Australia John Newcombe\/Australia Tony Roche\n  \u2022 1962-64-67-77: South Africa Bob Hewitt\n  \u2022 1982-84-86-89: Australia John Fitzgerald\n  \u2022 1983-87-89: Sweden Anders J\u00e4rryd\n  \u2022 1994-95-98: Netherlands Jacco Eltingh\/Netherlands Paul Haarhuis\n  \u2022 1989-92\u201393-2000: Australia Mark Woodforde\n  \u2022 1992\u201393-95-2000: Australia Todd Woodbridge\n  \u2022 1998-2002-03-05: Sweden Jonas Bj\u00f6rkman\n  \u2022 2003-05-06: United States Bob Bryan\/United States Mike Bryan\n  \u2022 2002-04-07-08: Canada Daniel Nestor\n  \u2022 1999-2006-12: India Leander Paes\nWomen's doubles\n  \u2022 1942-46-50: United States Louise Brough Clapp\n  \u2022 1947-48-50-51: United States Doris Hart\n  \u2022 1950-51-57: United States Shirley Fry Irvin\n  \u2022 1956\u20131957: United States Althea Gibson\n  \u2022 1958\u201360: Brazil Maria Bueno\n  \u2022 1961\u201364: Australia Lesley Turner Bowrey\n  \u2022 1961-63-64: Australia Margaret Court\n  \u2022 1964-66-69-70: Australia Judy Tegart Dalton\n  \u2022 1980\u201381: United States Kathy Jordan\/United States Anne Smith\n  \u2022 1975-76-77-80: Czechoslovakia\/United States Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 1981-82-83-84: United States Pam Shriver\n  \u2022 1989-90-93: Czechoslovakia Helena Sukov\u00e1\n  \u2022 1988\u201390-91-92: United States Gigi Fern\u00e1ndez\n  \u2022 1989-90-91-93: Soviet Union\/Belarus Natasha Zvereva\n  \u2022 1989-90-94: Czech Republic Jana Novotn\u00e1\n  \u2022 1996-97-98: Switzerland Martina Hingis\n  \u2022 1999-2000-01: United States Serena Williams\/United States Venus Williams\n  \u2022 2000-01-06: United States Lisa Raymond\n  \u2022 2012-13-14: Italy Sara Errani\/Italy Roberta Vinci\nMixed doubles\n  \u2022 1925-26-27-28 France Jean Borotra\n  \u2022 1949\u201351: United States Doris Hart\/Australia Frank Sedgman\n  \u2022 1961-1963: Australia Margaret Court\n  \u2022 1962-1963: Australia Ken Fletcher\n  \u2022 1965-66-67: Australia Owen Davidson\n  \u2022 1967\u201368: United States Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 1969\u201375: United States Marty Riessen\n  \u2022 1961-70-77-79: South Africa Bob Hewitt\n  \u2022 1992\u201393-95: Australia Mark Woodforde\n  \u2022 1990-93-94-95: Australia Todd Woodbridge\n  \u2022 1974-85-2003: United States Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 2001-02-05: Slovakia Daniela Hantuchov\u00e1\n  \u2022 1997-99-2005-06: India Mahesh Bhupathi\n  \u2022 2002-04-08-10: Zimbabwe Cara Black\n  \u2022 1999-2003-08-16: India Leander Paes\n  \u2022 2006-15-16: Switzerland Martina Hingis\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nTennis records and statistics\nGrand Slam\n  \u2022 Records\n  \u2022 Champions\n    \u2022 Men's singles\n      \u2022 Chronological\n    \u2022 Women's singles\n      \u2022 Chronological\n    \u2022 Men's doubles\n    \u2022 Women's doubles\n    \u2022 Mixed doubles\n    \u2022 Boys' singles\n    \u2022 Girls' singles\n    \u2022 Boys' doubles\n    \u2022 Girls' doubles\n  \u2022 Champions by country\n    \u2022 Singles\n  \u2022 Singles finals\n  \u2022 Open Era singles\n    \u2022 Men's finals\n    \u2022 Women's finals\n    \u2022 Age of first title\nMen's\n  \u2022 Singles\n    \u2022 Open Era\n    \u2022 All-time\n    \u2022 Misc.\n  \u2022 ATP Tour\n    \u2022 Rankings\n    \u2022 Records\n    \u2022 Elite champions\n      \u2022 Singles\n      \u2022 Doubles\n    \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 No. 1 rankings\n    \u2022 ATP singles\n    \u2022 ATP doubles\n    \u2022 All-time\n  \u2022 Select players\n    \u2022 Singles\n    \u2022 Doubles\n  \u2022 Open Era\n    \u2022 Match wins\n    \u2022 Masters Series\nWomen's\n  \u2022 Singles\n    \u2022 Open Era\n    \u2022 All-time\n  \u2022 WTA Tour\n    \u2022 Rankings\n    \u2022 Records\n    \u2022 Elite champions\n    \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 No. 1 rankings\n    \u2022 WTA singles and doubles\n    \u2022 All-time\n  \u2022 Select players\nOther\n  \u2022 Notable rivalries\n  \u2022 Open Era\n    \u2022 Titles leaders\n    \u2022 Records\n  \u2022 Tournaments\n    \u2022 Singles\n    \u2022 Doubles\n    \u2022 Olympics\n  \u2022 ITF\n    \u2022 Rankings\n    \u2022 Champions\n  \u2022 Match duration\n    \u2022 Longest\n    \u2022 Shortest\n    \u2022 Tiebreaker\n    \u2022 Golden set\n  \u2022 Serving\n    \u2022 Speed\n    \u2022 Aces\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nTennis\n  \u2022 ITF\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Glossary\n  \u2022 Match types\n  \u2022 Statistics\n  \u2022 Players\n  \u2022 Umpires\n  \u2022 Women's tennis\nBasics\nGeneral\n  \u2022 Scoring system\n    \u2022 point\n  \u2022 Strategy\n    \u2022 grips\n    \u2022 serve and volley\n  \u2022 Equipment\n    \u2022 ball\n    \u2022 racket\n    \u2022 strings\n  \u2022 Official\n  \u2022 Technology\n    \u2022 electronic line judge\n    \u2022 hawk-eye\n    \u2022 cyclops\nCourts\n  \u2022 Carpet\n  \u2022 Clay\n  \u2022 Grass\n  \u2022 Hard\nShots\n  \u2022 Backhand\n  \u2022 Backspin\n  \u2022 Drop shot\n  \u2022 Flat\n  \u2022 Forehand\n  \u2022 Groundstroke\n  \u2022 Half volley\n  \u2022 Lob\n  \u2022 Passing shot\n  \u2022 Serve\n    \u2022 ace\n  \u2022 Smash\n  \u2022 Topspin\n  \u2022 Volley\nTennis Racket and Balls.jpg\nGrand Slams\nEvents\n  \u2022 Australian Open\n  \u2022 French Open\n  \u2022 Wimbledon\n  \u2022 US Open\nStats\n  \u2022 Records\n  \u2022 Singles finals\nProfessional\ntours\nMen\n  \u2022 ATP World Tour\n  \u2022 ATP Challenger Tour\n  \u2022 ITF Men's Circuit\nWomen\n  \u2022 WTA Tour\n  \u2022 WTA 125K series\n  \u2022 ITF Women's Circuit\nTeam tennis\ntournaments\nActive\n  \u2022 Davis Cup\n  \u2022 Fed Cup\n  \u2022 Hopman Cup\n  \u2022 Laver Cup\n  \u2022 World TeamTennis\n  \u2022 International Premier Tennis League\nDefunct\n  \u2022 Wightman Cup\n  \u2022 World Team Cup\n  \u2022 Champions Tennis League\nMulti-sport\nevents\nIntercontinental\n  \u2022 Olympics\n  \u2022 Youth Olympics\n  \u2022 Universiade\n  \u2022 Commonwealth\n  \u2022 Island\n  \u2022 Mediterranean\nContinental\n  \u2022 All-Africa\n  \u2022 Asian\n  \u2022 Pacific\n  \u2022 Pan American\n  \u2022 Symbol question.svg Outline\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Commons page WikiCommons\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Grand_Slam_(tennis)&oldid=803778305\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Tennis terminology\n  \u2022 Grand Slam (tennis)\n  \u2022 Tennis tournaments\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2013\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2014\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles that may have off-topic sections\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2012\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015\n  \u2022 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 4 October 2017, at 15:46.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2304587052799052065","title":"Donovan Mitchell","text":"Donovan Mitchell\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor the poet, see Donovan Mitchell (poet).\nDonovan Mitchell\nNo. 45 \u2013 Utah Jazz\nPosition Shooting guard\nLeague NBA\nPersonal information\nBorn (1996-09-07) September 7, 1996 (age\u00a021)\nElmsford, New York\nNationality American\nListed height 6\u00a0ft 3\u00a0in (1.91\u00a0m)\nListed weight 215\u00a0lb (98\u00a0kg)\nCareer information\nHigh school Brewster Academy\n(Wolfeboro, New Hampshire)\nCollege Louisville (2015\u20132017)\nNBA draft 2017 \/ Round: 1 \/ Pick: 13th overall\nSelected by the Denver Nuggets\nPlaying career 2017\u2013present\nCareer history\n2017\u2013present Utah Jazz\nCareer highlights and awards\n  \u2022 NBA All-Rookie First Team (2018)\n  \u2022 NBA Slam Dunk Contest champion (2018)\n  \u2022 First-team All-ACC (2017)\nStats at NBA.com\nStats at Basketball-Reference.com\n\nDonovan Corey Mitchell Jr. (born September 7, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Utah Jazz of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Louisville Cardinals. He was selected by the Denver Nuggets with the 13th overall pick in the 2017 NBA draft and was later traded on draft night to the Utah Jazz. During his rookie season, Mitchell was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team and won the Slam Dunk Contest.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 High school career\n  \u2022 3 College career\n  \u2022 4 Professional career\n    \u2022 4.1 Utah Jazz (2017\u2013present)\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Rookie season (2017\u201318)\n  \u2022 5 Career statistics\n    \u2022 5.1 NBA\n      \u2022 5.1.1 Regular season\n      \u2022 5.1.2 Playoffs\n    \u2022 5.2 College\n  \u2022 6 Off the court\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nDonovan Mitchell was born on September 7, 1996 to parents Donovan Mitchell Sr. and Nicole Mitchell. His father Donovan Sr. serves as director of players relations for the New York Mets. He has a younger sister named Jordan.[1][2] Mitchell was born and raised in Elmsford, New York[3] and attended Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich, Connecticut.[3][2] Mitchell played his AAU basketball for The City and Riverside Hawks programs based out of New York City.[4]\n\nHigh school career[edit]\n\nMitchell attended Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut for his sophomore year of high school[5] before transferring to Brewster Academy in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire for his junior and senior years.[6] Along with basketball, he also played baseball in high school for two years, but focused on basketball when he went to Brewster, a move which garnered him more attention from college basketball coaches.[7][8] He committed to the University of Louisville to play college basketball.[9]\n\nCollege career[edit]\n\nMitchell decided to wear the jersey number 45, showing his appreciation for Michael Jordan, as 45 is the number Jordan wore for his baseball career and during the early part of his first comeback in 1995. As a freshman at the University of Louisville, Mitchell averaged 7.4 points, 1.7 assists and 3.4 rebounds per game.[10] As a sophomore, he averaged 15.6 points, 2.7 assists and 4.9 rebounds per game. Mitchell shot 46.3 percent from the floor, 35.4 percent from behind the arc and 80.6 percent from the free-throw line.[11] He was named to the First Team All-Atlantic Coast Conference.[12] After the season, he entered the 2017 NBA draft, but did not immediately hire an agent.[13][14]\n\nProfessional career[edit]\n\nUtah Jazz (2017\u2013present)[edit]\n\nRookie season (2017\u201318)[edit]\n\nMitchell was drafted by the Denver Nuggets with the 13th overall pick in the 2017 NBA draft only to be traded to the Utah Jazz for the 24th pick (Tyler Lydon) and Trey Lyles.[15] On July 5, 2017, Mitchell signed a four-year rookie scale contract with the Jazz.[16] On July 11, 2017, Mitchell signed a multi-year shoe deal with Adidas. Later that day, Mitchell scored 37 points against the Memphis Grizzlies in the 2017 NBA Summer League in Las Vegas, the most by any player during the 2017 NBA Summer League.[17] In his NBA debut on October 18, 2017, Mitchell registered 10 points and 4 assists against the Denver Nuggets.[18] On December 1, 2017, he scored a career-high 41 points in a 114\u2013108 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. He set the Jazz scoring record for a rookie and became the first NBA rookie to score 40 points in a game since Blake Griffin in 2011.[19] He surpassed Darrell Griffith's team-record 38 in 1981.[20] Mitchell also became the seventh rookie in franchise history to have a 30-plus point game, as well as the first to have a 40-plus point game.[21] On January 4, 2018, Mitchell was named the Western Conference Rookie of the Month for December 2017 after averaging 23.1 points, 3.4 assists, 3.2 rebounds and 1.8 steals in 34.3 minutes per game during the month of December.[22] On January 15, 2018, Mitchell surpassed Karl Malone for most 20+ points games during a rookie season when he had his 19th 20+ point game.[23] On February 2, 2018 Donovan recorded his second 40 point game of his rookie season against the Phoenix Suns, becoming the first rookie guard to notch two 40-point games since Allen Iverson in 1996-97. [24] On February 5, 2018, Donovan was officially named by the NBA as an injury replacement for Orlando Magic forward Aaron Gordon (strained left hip flexor) for the 2018 NBA Slam Dunk Contest.[25] He won the contest scoring a 48 and 50 in the first round, then a 50 and 48 in the final round being the first rookie to win the contest since Zach LaVine. On March 1, 2018, Mitchell was named as the Western Conference rookie of the month for the 3rd time this season for games played in February.[26] On April 10, he set a rookie record for most three-pointers in a season with 186 three-pointers during a 119\u201379 win over the Golden State Warriors.[27] On April 12, at the end of the regular season, Mitchell was named Western Conference Rookie of the Month for March and April.[28]\n\nIn Mitchell's playoff debut against the Oklahoma City Thunder on April 15, he recorded 27 points, 10 rebounds, and 3 assists.[29] However, during the game he bruised his foot and was questionable for Game 2.[30] He ended up playing in Game 2, scoring 28 points, including 13 in the 4th quarter to lead the Jazz to a 102\u201395 win. Mitchell set a new record for points by a shooting guard in their first two postseason games with 55 points, breaking Michael Jordan's record of 53 points.[31] Mitchell led the Jazz to a 4-2 series win over the Thunder, averaging 28.5 points a game on 46.2 percent shooting.[32] His 171 points in the series were the third-most ever by a rookie in his first six playoff games, behind only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Wilt Chamberlain.[32] His 38 points in Game 6 (on 14-of-26 shooting) marked the highest scoring output by a rookie in a series-clinching win since 1980.[32] On May 22, 2018, he was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team.[33]\n\nCareer statistics[edit]\n\nLegend\n\u00a0\u00a0GP Games played \u00a0\u00a0GS\u00a0 Games started \u00a0MPG\u00a0 Minutes per game\n\u00a0FG%\u00a0 Field goal percentage \u00a03P%\u00a0 3-point field goal percentage \u00a0FT%\u00a0 Free throw percentage\n\u00a0RPG\u00a0 Rebounds per game \u00a0APG\u00a0 Assists per game \u00a0SPG\u00a0 Steals per game\n\u00a0BPG\u00a0 Blocks per game \u00a0PPG\u00a0 Points per game \u00a0Bold\u00a0 Career high\n\nNBA[edit]\n\nRegular season[edit]\n\nYear Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG\n2017\u201318 Utah 79 71 33.4 .437 .340 .805 3.7 3.7 1.5 .3 20.4\nCareer 79 71 33.4 .437 .340 .805 3.7 3.7 1.5 .3 20.4\n\nPlayoffs[edit]\n\nYear Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG\n2018 Utah 11 11 37.4 .420 .313 .907 5.9 4.2 1.5 .4 24.4\nCareer 11 11 37.4 .420 .313 .907 5.9 4.2 1.5 .4 24.4\n\nCollege[edit]\n\nYear Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG\n2015\u201316 Louisville 31 5 19.1 .442 .250 .754 3.4 1.7 .8 .1 7.4\n2016\u201317 Louisville 34 33 32.3 .408 .354 .806 4.9 2.7 2.1 .5 15.6\nCareer 65 38 26.0 .418 .329 .788 4.1 2.2 1.5 .3 11.7\n\nOff the court[edit]\n\nDuring the 2017\u201318 season Mitchell appeared on the cover of SLAM Magazine and is now starring in a documentary called \"Rookie on the Rise\".[34][35] The docu-series follows Mitchell on his race for the Rookie Of The Year. [36] The series is available for viewing on Young Hollywood TV \u2013 a digital network available on Apple TV, Amazon Channels, Amazon Fire TV, Chromecast and Roku. The series could also be viewed on younghollywood.com, Facebook Watch, Young Hollywood\u2019s YouTube page, Twitter and other social channels. [37]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Polacek, Scott (February 18, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell Talks Importance of Sister Jordan Participating in Dunk Contest\". bleacherreport.com. Retrieved April 10, 2018.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Goon, Kyle (March 24, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell has learned the value of education from his mom \u2014 that's why he's going to finish his degree\". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved April 10, 2018.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Woodyard, Eric (November 15, 2017). \"New York native Donovan Mitchell cherishes Madison Square Garden debut\". Deseret News. Retrieved February 12, 2018. His locker room nametag may read Greenwich, Connecticut, but he was actually born in Elmsford, New York\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Berman, Marc (7 June 2017). \"Mets executive's son is high on the Knicks' draft radar\". New York Post. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"DONOVAN MITCHELL\". 247sports.com. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Jones, Steve (18 January 2015). \"Donovan Mitchell preps for U of L career\". Springfield, Mass: The Courier-Journal. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Greer, Jeff (26 October 2016). \"Donovan Mitchell: Baseball star?\". cincinnati.com. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Reid, Christian (17 March 2017). \"How a baseball injury led Connecticut native Donovan Mitchell to star for Louisville hoops under Rick Pitino\". New York Daily News. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Four-star guard Donovan Mitchell commits to Louisville\". si.com. Sports Illustrated. 8 August 2014. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Greer, Jeff (10 November 2016). \"Is Donovan Mitchell Cards' next star?\". The Courier-Journal. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Varney, Dennis (22 June 2017). \"Utah Jazz take Louisville's Donovan Mitchell after draft-night trade involving former UK star\". Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Press Release (2017-03-05). \"ACC Announces All-Conference Team, Postseason Awards, All-ACC Teams\". theacc.com. Retrieved 2016-03-05.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Goodman, Jeff (22 March 2017). \"Donovan Mitchell to enter draft, but may return to Louisville\". espn.co.uk. ESPN. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Greer, Jeff (22 March 2017). \"Mitchell declares for NBA draft, won't hire agent\". The Courier-Journal. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Polacek, Scott (June 22, 2017). \"Donovan Mitchell Picked No. 13 in NBA Draft, Nuggets to Trade Him to Jazz\". bleacherreport.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Daniels, Tim (July 5, 2017). \"Donovan Mitchell Signs Utah Jazz Rookie Contract\". bleacherreport.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Aulbach, Lucas (July 11, 2017). \"Donovan Mitchell signs shoe deal with Adidas, then scores 37 points at NBA Summer League\". Courier-Journal. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Genessy, Jody (October 18, 2017). \"Donovan Mitchell's NBA career gets off to a very quick start\". deseretnews.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"NBA rookie Donovan Mitchell scores 41 points as Jazz beat Pelicans\". news.com.au. 2 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Associated Press (1 December 2017). \"Rookie Donovan Mitchell scores career-high 41, Jazz beat Pelicans\". Sportsnet.ca. Salt Lake City: Sportsnet. Retrieved 15 December 2017.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Donovan Mitchell goes for career-high 41 in Jazz victory\". ESPN.com. December 1, 2017. Retrieved December 2, 2017.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Boston Celtics' Jayson Tatum, Utah Jazz's Donovan Mitchell named Kia Rookies of Month\". NBA.com. January 4, 2018. Retrieved January 18, 2018.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Powell, Shaun (January 24, 2018). \"League taking note of Donovan Mitchell's impressive rookie campaign\". NBA.com. Retrieved 2018-02-09.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"What Donovan Mitchell's Iverson comps mean for the Jazz\". ESPN.com. Retrieved 2018-05-09.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Utah Jazz rookie Donovan Mitchell to replace Aaron Gordon in 2018 Verizon Slam Dunk\". NBA.com. February 5, 2018. Retrieved February 6, 2018.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"76ers' Ben Simmons, Jazz's Donovan Mitchell named Kia Rookies of Month for February\". NBA.com. Retrieved March 1, 2018.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"Utah Jazz guard Donovan Mitchell breaks rookie record for 3-pointers\". NBA.com. April 10, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"76ers' Ben Simmons, Jazz's Donovan Mitchell named Kia Rookies of Month for March, April\". NBA.com. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Thunder's Paul George, Jazz's Donovan Mitchell set to play Game 2\". nba.com. April 18, 2018. Retrieved April 19, 2018.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Devine, Dan (April 18, 2018). \"'I've got to be smart with it': Donovan Mitchell (left foot contusion) questionable for Game 2 vs. Thunder\". sports.yahoo.com. Retrieved April 18, 2018.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Young, Royce (April 19, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell's 55 points in his first 2 playoff games most ever by guard\". ESPN.com. Retrieved April 13, 2018.\u00a0\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Donovan Mitchell dominated the Thunder in his playoff series debut\". ESPN.com. Retrieved 2018-05-09.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Donovan Mitchell, Ben Simmons lead 2017-18 NBA All-Rookie first team\". NBA.com. May 22, 2018. Retrieved May 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Woodyard, Eric (March 21, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell becomes second Utah Jazz player to make cover of SLAM magazine\". deseretnews.com. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Lourim, Jake (March 22, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell has been a star on the court and now in a documentary series\". Louisville Courier Journal. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Brown, Sierra (April 3, 2018). \"Donovan Mitchell Gets A 'Fresh Cut' In New Web Series\". vibe.com. Retrieved April 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Exclusive release Rookie on The Rise\". vibe.com. May 5, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2018.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Map of USA and Canada, NBA, zoom.svgNational Basketball Association portal\n  \u2022 Career statistics and player information from NBA.com, or\u00a0Basketball-Reference.com\n  \u2022 Louisville Cardinals bio\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUtah Jazz current roster\n  \u2022 2 Ingles\n  \u2022 3 Rubio\n  \u2022 10 Burks\n  \u2022 11 Exum\n  \u2022 13 Bradley\n  \u2022 15 Favors\n  \u2022 18 Lyles\n  \u2022 22 Sefolosha\n  \u2022 23 O'Neale\n  \u2022 24 Allen\n  \u2022 25 Neto\n  \u2022 27 Gobert\n  \u2022 31 Niang\n  \u2022 33 Udoh\n  \u2022 45 Mitchell\n  \u2022 99 Crowder\n  \u2022 \u2013 Cavanaugh (TW)\n  \u2022 \u2013 Mitrou-Long (TW)\n  \u2022 Head coach: Snyder\n  \u2022 Assistant coaches: Bryant\n  \u2022 Jensen\n  \u2022 Jones\n  \u2022 Lang\n  \u2022 McKown\n  \u2022 Wells\n  \u2022 Watkinson\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n2017 NBA draft\nFirst round\n  \u2022 Markelle Fultz\n  \u2022 Lonzo Ball\n  \u2022 Jayson Tatum\n  \u2022 Josh Jackson\n  \u2022 De'Aaron Fox\n  \u2022 Jonathan Isaac\n  \u2022 Lauri Markkanen\n  \u2022 Frank Ntilikina\n  \u2022 Dennis Smith\n  \u2022 Zach Collins\n  \u2022 Malik Monk\n  \u2022 Luke Kennard\n  \u2022 Donovan Mitchell\n  \u2022 Bam Adebayo\n  \u2022 Justin Jackson\n  \u2022 Justin Patton\n  \u2022 D. J. Wilson\n  \u2022 T. J. Leaf\n  \u2022 John Collins\n  \u2022 Harry Giles\n  \u2022 Terrance Ferguson\n  \u2022 Jarrett Allen\n  \u2022 OG Anunoby\n  \u2022 Tyler Lydon\n  \u2022 An\u017eejs Pase\u010d\u0146iks\n  \u2022 Caleb Swanigan\n  \u2022 Kyle Kuzma\n  \u2022 Tony Bradley\n  \u2022 Derrick White\n  \u2022 Josh Hart\nSecond round\n  \u2022 Frank Jackson\n  \u2022 Davon Reed\n  \u2022 Wes Iwundu\n  \u2022 Frank Mason III\n  \u2022 Ivan Rabb\n  \u2022 Jonah Bolden\n  \u2022 Semi Ojeleye\n  \u2022 Jordan Bell\n  \u2022 Jawun Evans\n  \u2022 Dwayne Bacon\n  \u2022 Tyler Dorsey\n  \u2022 Thomas Bryant\n  \u2022 Isaiah Hartenstein\n  \u2022 Damyean Dotson\n  \u2022 Dillon Brooks\n  \u2022 Sterling Brown\n  \u2022 Ike Anigbogu\n  \u2022 Sindarius Thornwell\n  \u2022 Vlatko \u010can\u010dar\n  \u2022 Mathias Lessort\n  \u2022 Mont\u00e9 Morris\n  \u2022 Edmond Sumner\n  \u2022 Kadeem Allen\n  \u2022 Alec Peters\n  \u2022 Nigel Williams-Goss\n  \u2022 Jabari Bird\n  \u2022 Sasha Vezenkov\n  \u2022 Ognjen Jaramaz\n  \u2022 Jaron Blossomgame\n  \u2022 Alpha Kaba\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSlam Dunk Contest winners\n  \u2022 1984: Nance\n  \u2022 1985: Wilkins\n  \u2022 1986: Webb\n  \u2022 1987: Jordan\n  \u2022 1988: Jordan\n  \u2022 1989: Walker\n  \u2022 1990: Wilkins\n  \u2022 1991: Brown\n  \u2022 1992: Ceballos\n  \u2022 1993: Miner\n  \u2022 1994: Rider\n  \u2022 1995: Miner\n  \u2022 1996: Barry\n  \u2022 1997: Bryant\n  \u2022 2000: Carter\n  \u2022 2001: Mason\n  \u2022 2002: Richardson\n  \u2022 2003: Richardson\n  \u2022 2004: Jones\n  \u2022 2005: Smith\n  \u2022 2006: Robinson\n  \u2022 2007: Green\n  \u2022 2008: Howard\n  \u2022 2009: Robinson\n  \u2022 2010: Robinson\n  \u2022 2011: Griffin\n  \u2022 2012: Evans\n  \u2022 2013: Ross\n  \u2022 2014: Wall\n  \u2022 2015: LaVine\n  \u2022 2016: LaVine\n  \u2022 2017: Robinson III\n  \u2022 2018: Mitchell\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Donovan_Mitchell&oldid=854697852\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1996 births\n  \u2022 Living people\n  \u2022 African-American basketball players\n  \u2022 Basketball players from Connecticut\n  \u2022 Basketball players from New York (state)\n  \u2022 Denver Nuggets draft picks\n  \u2022 Louisville Cardinals men's basketball players\n  \u2022 People from New Milford, Connecticut\n  \u2022 Shooting guards\n  \u2022 Utah Jazz players\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Volap\u00fck\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 August 2018, at 04:56\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4560268738134985863","title":"Category:Drink companies of the Philippines","text":"Help\n\nCategory:Drink companies of the Philippines\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Beverage companies of the Philippines.\n\nSubcategories\n\nThis category has only the following subcategory.\n\nC\n\n  \u2022 \u25ba Coffee houses of the Philippines\u200e (2 P)\n\nPages in category \"Drink companies of the Philippines\"\n\nThe following 17 pages are in this category, out of 17 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).\n\nA\n\n  \u2022 Alaska Milk Corporation\n  \u2022 Asia Brewery\n\nC\n\n  \u2022 Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines\n\nG\n\n  \u2022 Ginebra San Miguel\n\nL\n\n  \u2022 LT Group\n\nM\n\n  \u2022 Macay Holdings\n  \u2022 Magnolia (Philippine company)\n  \u2022 Malagos Chocolate\n\nO\n\n  \u2022 Oishi (company)\n\nP\n\n  \u2022 Pepsi Philippines\n\nR\n\n  \u2022 RFM Corporation\n\nS\n\n  \u2022 San Miguel Brewery\n  \u2022 San Miguel Corporation\n  \u2022 San Miguel Food and Beverage\n\nT\n\n  \u2022 Tanduay\n\nU\n\n  \u2022 Universal Robina\n\nZ\n\n  \u2022 Zest-O\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Category:Drink_companies_of_the_Philippines&oldid=739214442\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Drink companies by country\n  \u2022 Food and drink companies of the Philippines\n  \u2022 Philippine drinks\n  \u2022 Manufacturing companies of the Philippines\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Commons category without a link on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 September 2016, at 12:13.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5526596992187554282","title":"British Airways destinations","text":"Page protected with pending changes level 1\n\nBritish Airways destinations\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nChanges must be reviewed before being displayed on this page.show\/hide details\nThis is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 5 April 2018.\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor the list of destinations served by British Airways regional subsidiary BA CityFlyer, see BA CityFlyer destinations.\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nBritish Airways is one of few carriers serving destinations across all six inhabited continents. Following is a list of destinations the airline flies to, as of March\u00a02017[update]; terminated destinations are also listed. The list does not include cities served solely by affiliated regional carriers, and some terminated destinations may now be served either via franchise or through codeshare agreements with other carriers. Each destination is provided with the name of the country served, the name of the airport served, and both the International Air Transport Association (IATA) three-letter designator (IATA airport code) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) four-letter designator (ICAO airport code).\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 List\n  \u2022 2 See also\n  \u2022 3 Notes and references\n    \u2022 3.1 Notes\n    \u2022 3.2 References\n  \u2022 4 External links\n\nList[edit]\n\n[Hub] Hub\n[F] Future destination\n[S] Seasonal\n[T] Terminated destination\nThis transport-related list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.\nCity Country IATA ICAO Airport Refs\nAarhus Denmark AAR EKAH Aarhus Airport [T] [1]\nAberdeen United Kingdom ABZ EGPD Aberdeen Airport\nAbidjan C\u00f4te d'Ivoire ABJ DIAP Port Bouet Airport [T] [2]:99\nAbu Dhabi United Arab Emirates AUH OMAA Abu Dhabi International Airport\nAbuja Nigeria ABV DNAA Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport\nAccra Ghana ACC DGAA Kotoka International Airport\nAddis Ababa Ethiopia ADD HAAB Bole International Airport [T] [3]\nAdelaide Australia ADL YPAD Adelaide Airport [T] [4]:60\nAgadir Morocco AGA GMAD Al Massira Airport [T] [5][6][7]\nAlexandria Egypt ALY HEAX Alexandria International Airport [T] [1]\nAlgiers Algeria ALG DAAG Houari Boumediene Airport\nAlicante Spain ALC LEAL Alicante Airport [8][9]\nAlmaty Kazakhstan ALA UAAA Almaty International Airport\u00a0[T] [10]\nAmman Jordan AMM OJAI Queen Alia International Airport [11]\nAmsterdam Netherlands AMS EHAM Amsterdam Airport Schiphol\nAnkara Turkey ESB LTAC Esenbo\u011fa International Airport [T] [12]\nAnnecy France NCY LFLP Annecy \u2013 Haute-Savoie \u2013 Mont Blanc Airport [T] [4]:60\nAntigua Antigua and Barbuda ANU TAPA V. C. Bird International Airport\nAntwerp Belgium ANR EBAW Antwerp International Airport [T] [1]\nAshgabat Turkmenistan ASB UTAA Ashgabat Airport [T] [4]:60\nAthens Greece ATH LGAV Athens International Airport\nAtlanta United States (Georgia) ATL KATL Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport ^ [13]\nAuckland New Zealand AKL NZAA Auckland Airport [T] [14]\nAustin United States (Texas) AUS KAUS Austin-Bergstrom International Airport [15]\nBaghdad Iraq BGW ORBI Baghdad International Airport [T] [12]\nBahrain Bahrain BAH OBBI Bahrain International Airport ^ [13]\nBaku Azerbaijan GYD UBBB Heydar Aliyev International Airport [T] [9][16]\nBaltimore (Washington, D.C.) United States (Maryland) BWI KBWI Baltimore\/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport [17]\nBangalore India BLR VOBL Bengaluru International Airport\nBangkok Thailand BKK VTBS Suvarnabhumi Airport\nBarbados Barbados BGI TBPB Grantley Adams International Airport\nBarcelona Spain BCN LEBL Barcelona\u2013El Prat Airport\nBari Italy BRI LIBD Bari Airport [S]\nBarra United Kingdom BRR EGPR Barra Airport [T] [1]\nBasel\nMulhouse\nFreiburg\nSwitzerland\nFrance\nGermany\nBSL\nMLH\nEAP\nLFSB EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg\nBeijing China PEK ZBAA Beijing Capital International Airport\nBeirut Lebanon BEY OLBA Beirut\u2013Rafic Hariri International Airport [11]\nBelfast United Kingdom BFS EGAA Belfast International Airport [T] [1]\nBelfast United Kingdom BHD EGAC George Best Belfast City Airport\nBelgrade Serbia BEG LYBE Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport [T] [1]\nBenbecula United Kingdom BEB EGPL Benbecula Airport [T] [1]\nBergamo Italy BGY LIME Orio al Serio Airport [T] [18]\nBergen Norway BGO ENBR Bergen Airport [5][6][19]\nBerlin Germany TXL EDDT Berlin Tegel Airport\nBermuda Bermuda BDA TXKF L.F. Wade International Airport\nBern Switzerland BRN LSZB Bern Airport [T] [2]:99\nBiarritz France BIQ LFBZ Biarritz \u2013 Anglet \u2013 Bayonne Airport [S] [20]\nBilbao Spain BIO LEBB Bilbao Airport [21]\nBillund Denmark BLL EKBI Billund Airport [22]\nBirmingham United Kingdom BHX EGBB Birmingham Airport [S] [1][23]\nBishkek Kyrgyzstan FRU UAFM Manas International Airport [T] [1]\nBlackpool United Kingdom BLK EGNH Blackpool International Airport [T] [4]:60\nBodrum Turkey BJV LTFE Milas-Bodrum Airport [S] [24]\nBogot\u00e1 Colombia BOG SKBO El Dorado International Airport [T] [4]:60\nBologna Italy BLQ LIPE Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport\nBordeaux France BOD LFBD Bordeaux\u2013M\u00e9rignac Airport\nBoston United States (Massachusetts) BOS KBOS Logan International Airport\nBournemouth United Kingdom BOH EGHH Bournemouth Airport [T] [2]:99\nBratislava Slovakia BTS LZIB Bratislava Airport [T] [4]:60\nBremen Germany BRE EDDW Bremen Airport [T] [1]\nBrindisi Italy BDS LIBR Brindisi \u2013 Salento Airport [S] [25]\nBrisbane Australia BNE YBBN Brisbane Airport [T] [1]\nBristol United Kingdom BRS EGGD Bristol Airport [T] [1]\nBrussels Belgium BRU EBBR Brussels Airport\nBucharest Romania OTP LROP Henri Coand\u0103 International Airport\nBudapest Hungary BUD LHBP Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport\nBuenos Aires Argentina EZE SAEZ Ministro Pistarini International Airport\nCagliari Italy CAG LIEE Cagliari-Elmas Airport\u00a0[S]\nCairo Egypt CAI HECA Cairo International Airport\nCalgary Canada (Alberta) YYC CYYC Calgary International Airport\nCampbeltown United Kingdom CAL EGEC Campbeltown Airport [T] [1]\nCanc\u00fan Mexico CUN MMUN Canc\u00fan International Airport\nCape Town South Africa CPT FACT Cape Town International Airport\nCaracas Venezuela CCS SVMI Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar International Airport [T] [1]\nCardiff United Kingdom CWL EGFF Cardiff Airport [T] [1]\nCasablanca Morocco CMN GMMN Mohammed V International Airport [T] [26]\nCatania Italy CTA LICC Catania Vincenzo Bellini Airport\nChamb\u00e9ry France CMF LFLB Chamb\u00e9ry Airport [S]\nChania Greece CHQ LGSA Chania International Airport [S] [27]\nCharlotte United States (North Carolina) CLT KCLT Charlotte Douglas International Airport [T] [1]\nChengdu China CTU ZUUU Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport [T] [28]\nChennai India MAA VOMM Chennai International Airport ^ [13]\nChicago United States (Illinois) ORD KORD O'Hare International Airport ^ [13]\nChristchurch New Zealand CHC NZCH Christchurch Airport [T] [29]\nCologne Germany CGN EDDK Cologne Bonn Airport [T] [13]\nColombo Sri Lanka CMB VCBI Bandaranaike International Airport [T] [30][31]\nCopenhagen Denmark CPH EKCH Copenhagen Airport\nCork Ireland ORK EICK Cork Airport [T] [1]\nDalaman Turkey DLM LTBS Dalaman Airport [S] [32]\nDallas\/Fort Worth United States (Texas) DFW KDFW Dallas\/Fort Worth International Airport\nDamascus Syria DAM OSDI Damascus International Airport [T] [1]\nDammam Saudi Arabia DMM OEDF King Fahd International Airport [T] [13]\nDar es Salaam Tanzania DAR HTDA Julius Nyerere International Airport [T] [33]\nDelhi India DEL VIDP Indira Gandhi International Airport ^ [13]\nDenver United States (Colorado) DEN KDEN Denver International Airport\nDerry[a] United Kingdom LDY EGAE Londonderry Airport [T] [1]\nDetroit United States (Michigan) DTW KDTW Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport [T] [1]\nDhahran Saudi Arabia DHA OEDR Dhahran International Airport [T] [1]\nDhaka Bangladesh DAC VGHS Shahjalal International Airport [T] [13]\nDoha Qatar DOH OTBD Doha International Airport [34]\nDoha Qatar DOH OTHH Hamad International Airport [35]\nDresden Germany DRS EDDC Dresden Airport [T] [4]:60\nDubai United Arab Emirates DXB OMDB Dubai International Airport ^ [13]\nDublin Ireland DUB EIDW Dublin Airport [36]\nDubrovnik Croatia DBV LDDU Dubrovnik Airport\nDurban South Africa DUR FADN Durban International Airport [T] [4]:60\nD\u00fcsseldorf Germany DUS EDDL D\u00fcsseldorf Airport\nEast Midlands United Kingdom EMA EGNX East Midlands Airport [T] [4]:60\nEday United Kingdom EOI EGED Eday Airport [T] [4]:60\nEdinburgh United Kingdom EDI EGPH Edinburgh Airport\nEindhoven Netherlands EIN EHEH Eindhoven Airport [T] [4]:60\nEntebbe Uganda EBB HUEN Entebbe International Airport\u00a0[T] [10]\nExeter United Kingdom EXT EGTE Exeter International Airport [T] [2]:99\nFair Isle United Kingdom FIE EGEF Fair Isle Airport [T] [1]\nFaro Portugal FAO LPFR Faro Airport\nFrankfurt Germany FRA EDDF Frankfurt Airport ^ [13]\nFort Lauderdale United States (Florida) FLL KFLL Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport [37]\nFreetown Sierra Leone FNA GFLL Lungi International Airport [T] [38]\nFriedrichshafen Germany FDH EDNY Friedrichshafen Airport [S] [4]:60[39]\nFunchal Portugal FNC LMPA Madeira Airport [1][40]\nGaborone Botswana GBE FBSK Sir Seretse Khama International Airport [T] [1]\nGeilo Norway VDB ENFG Fagernes Airport [T] [1]\nGeneva Switzerland GVA LSGG Geneva International Airport\nGenoa Italy GOA LIMJ Genoa Cristoforo Colombo Airport\nGibraltar Gibraltar GIB LXGB Gibraltar International Airport\nGlasgow United Kingdom GLA EGPF Glasgow International Airport\nGothenburg Sweden GOT ESGG G\u00f6teborg Landvetter Airport\nGrand Cayman Cayman Islands GCM MWCR Owen Roberts International Airport\nGrenoble France GNB LFLS Grenoble\u2013Is\u00e8re Airport\u00a0[S] [39]\nGuadalajara Mexico GDL MMGL Guadalajara International Airport [T] [citation needed]\nGuernsey Guernsey GCI EGJB Guernsey Airport [T] [1]\nHamburg Germany HAM EDDH Hamburg Airport\nHanover Germany HAJ EDDV Hannover Airport [5][6]\nHarare Zimbabwe HRE FVHA Harare International Airport\u00a0[T] [1]\nHassi Messaoud Algeria HME DAUH Oued Irara \u2013 Krim Belkacem Airport [T] [41][42]\nHaugesund Norway HAU ENHD Haugesund Airport [T] [4]:60\nHavana Cuba HAV MUHA Jos\u00e9 Mart\u00ed International Airport [T] [3]\nHelsingborg Sweden AGH ESTA \u00c4ngelholm-Helsingborg Airport [T] [4]:60\nHelsinki Finland HEL EFHK Helsinki Airport\nHoedspruit South Africa \u2014 FAHS Eastgate Airport [T] [1]\nHong Kong China HKG VHHH Hong Kong International Airport ^ [13]\nHouston United States (Texas) IAH KIAH George Bush Intercontinental Airport ^ [13]\nHyderabad India HYD VOHS Rajiv Gandhi International Airport\nIbiza Spain IBZ LEIB Ibiza Airport [S]\nInnsbruck Austria INN LOWI Innsbruck Airport [S]\nInverness United Kingdom INV EGPE Inverness Airport [43]\nIslamabad Pakistan ISB OPRN Benazir Bhutto International Airport [T] [1]\nIslay United Kingdom ILY EGPI Islay Airport [T] [1]\nIstanbul Turkey IST LTBA Istanbul Atat\u00fcrk Airport\nJakarta Indonesia CGK WIII Soekarno\u2013Hatta International Airport [T] [1]\nJeddah Saudi Arabia JED OEJN King Abdulaziz International Airport\nJerez de la Frontera Spain XRY LEJR Jerez Airport [T] [1]\nJersey Jersey JER EGJJ Jersey Airport\nJohannesburg South Africa JNB FAOR OR Tambo International Airport ^ [13]\nKalamata Greece KLX LGKL Kalamata International Airport [S] [27]\nKarachi Pakistan KHI OPKC Karachi International Airport [T] [44]\nKano Nigeria KAN DNKN Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport [T] [1]\nKefalonia\nbegins 15 May 2018\nGreece EFL LGKF Kefalonia International Airport [S] [45]\nKelowna Canada (British Columbia) YLW CYLW Kelowna International Airport [T] [4]:60\nKhartoum Sudan KRT HSSS Khartoum International Airport [T] [12]\nKiev Ukraine KBP UKBB Boryspil International Airport\nKingston Jamaica KIN MKJP Norman Manley International Airport\nKirkwall United Kingdom KOI EGPA Kirkwall Airport [T] [1]\nKolkata India CCU VECC Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport [T] [1]\nKrak\u00f3w Poland KRK EPKK John Paul II International Airport Krak\u00f3w-Balice [46]\nKuala Lumpur Malaysia KUL WMKK Kuala Lumpur International Airport [47]\nKuwait Kuwait KWI OKBK Kuwait International Airport\nLagos Nigeria LOS DNMM Murtala Muhammed International Airport\nLanzarote Spain ACE GCRR Lanzarote Airport [48][49]\nLarnaca Cyprus LCA LCLK Larnaca International Airport\nLas Palmas de Gran Canaria Spain LPA GCLP Gran Canaria Airport [S] [50]\nLas Vegas United States (Nevada) LAS KLAS McCarran International Airport\nLeeds United Kingdom LBA EGNM Leeds Bradford International Airport [51]\nLeipzig Germany LEJ EDDP Leipzig\/Halle Airport [T] [1]\nLilongwe Malawi LLW FWKI Lilongwe International Airport [T] [1][3]\nLima Peru LIM SPIM Jorge Chavez International Airport [S] [52][53]\nLimoges France LIG LFBL Limoges \u2013 Bellegarde Airport [54]\nLinz Austria LNZ LOWL Linz Airport [T] [4]:60\nLisbon Portugal LIS LPPT Lisbon Airport\nLiverpool United Kingdom LPL EGGP Liverpool John Lennon Airport [T] [1]\nLjubljana Slovenia LJU LJLJ Ljubljana Jo\u017ee Pu\u010dnik Airport [T] [4]:60\nLondon United Kingdom LGW EGKK Gatwick Airport [Hub]\nLondon United Kingdom LCY EGLC London City Airport\nLondon United Kingdom LHR EGLL Heathrow Airport [Primary Hub]\nLondon United Kingdom LTN EGGW London Luton Airport [T] [1]\nLondon United Kingdom STN EGSS London Stansted Airport [T] [13]\nLos Angeles United States (California) LAX KLAX Los Angeles International Airport\nLuanda Angola LAD FNLU Quatro de Fevereiro Airport\nLugano Switzerland LUG LSZA Lugano Airport [T] [4]:60\nLusaka Zambia LUN FLLS Lusaka International Airport [T] [55][56]\nLuxembourg Luxembourg LUX ELLX Findel Airport\nLuxor Egypt LXR HELX Luxor International Airport [T] [12]\nLyon France LYS LFLL Lyon-Saint Exup\u00e9ry Airport\nMadrid Spain MAD LEMD Adolfo Su\u00e1rez Madrid\u2013Barajas Airport ^ [13]\nMah\u00e9 Seychelles SEZ FSIA Seychelles International Airport [57]\nMah\u00e9bourg Mauritius MRU FIMP Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport\nM\u00e1laga Spain AGP LEMG M\u00e1laga Airport\nMal\u00e9 Maldives MLE VRMM Ibrahim Nasir International Airport [S]\nMalm\u00f6 Sweden MMX ESMS Malm\u00f6 Airport [T] [4]:60\nMalta Malta MLA LMML Malta International Airport [58]\nManchester United Kingdom MAN EGCC Manchester Airport\nManila Philippines MNL RPLL Ninoy Aquino International Airport [T] [3][59]\nManzini Swaziland MTS FDMS Matsapha Airport [T] [1]\nMarrakech Morocco RAK GMMX Marrakech-Menara Airport\nMarseille France MRS LFML Marseille Provence Airport\nMelbourne Australia MEL YMML Melbourne Airport [T] [1]\nMenorca Spain MAH LEMH Menorca Airport [S] [20]\nMexico City Mexico MEX MMMX Mexico City International Airport\nMiami United States (Florida) MIA KMIA Miami International Airport\nMilan Italy LIN LIML Linate Airport\nMilan Italy MXP LIMC Malpensa Airport\nMinsk Belarus MSQ UMMS Minsk International Airport [T] [4]:60\nMonrovia\nSuspended indefinitely\nLiberia ROB GLRB Roberts International Airport [T] [38]\nMontego Bay Jamaica MBJ MKJS Sangster International Airport [T] [1]\nMontpellier France MPL LFMT Montpellier \u2013 M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e Airport [S] [25]\nMontreal Canada (Quebec) YUL CYUL Montr\u00e9al-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport\nMoscow Russia DME UUDD Domodedovo International Airport\nMumbai India BOM VABB Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport ^ [13]\nMunich Germany MUC EDDM Munich Airport\nM\u00fcnster Germany FMO EDDG M\u00fcnster Osnabr\u00fcck International Airport [T] [4]:60\nMurcia Spain MJV LELC Murcia-San Javier Airport [1][25]\nMuscat Oman MCT OOMS Muscat International Airport\nMykonos Greece JMK LGMK Mykonos Island National Airport [S] [60]\nNagoya Japan NKM RJNA Komaki Airport [T] [1]\nNairobi Kenya NBO HKJK Jomo Kenyatta International Airport ^ [13]\nNantes France NTE LFRS Nantes Atlantique Airport [25]\nNaples Italy NAP LIRN Naples Airport\nNashville [F]\nbegins 4 May 2018\nUnited States (Tennessee) BNA KBNA Nashville International Airport [61]\nNassau Bahamas NAS MYNN Lynden Pindling International Airport\nNew Orleans United States (Louisiana) MSY KMSY Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport [62][63]\nNew York City United States (New York) JFK KJFK John F. Kennedy International Airport\nNewark (New York City) United States (New Jersey) EWR KEWR Newark Liberty International Airport\nNewcastle upon Tyne United Kingdom NCL EGNT Newcastle Airport\nNewquay United Kingdom NQY EGHQ Newquay Cornwall Airport [T] [1]\nNice France NCE LFMN Nice C\u00f4te d'Azur Airport\nNorrk\u00f6ping Sweden NRK ESSP Norrk\u00f6ping Airport [T] [4]:60\nNorth Ronaldsay United Kingdom NRL EGEN North Ronaldsay Airport [T] [1]\nNorwich United Kingdom NWI EGSH Norwich International Airport [T] [4]:60\nNuremberg Germany NUE EDDN Nuremberg Airport [T] [4]:60\nOakland United States (California) OAK KOAK Oakland International Airport [64]\nOrlando United States (Florida) MCO KMCO Orlando International Airport\nOsaka Japan KIX RJBB Kansai International Airport [T] [1]\nOslo Norway FBU ENFB Fornebu Airport [T] [1]\nOslo Norway OSL ENGM Oslo Gardermoen Airport\nOstend Belgium OST EBOS Ostend-Bruges International Airport [T] [4]:60\nPalermo Italy PMO LICJ Falcone\u2013Borsellino Airport [S] [20]\nPalma de Mallorca Spain PMI LEPA Palma de Mallorca Airport\nPapa Westray United Kingdom PPW EGEP Papa Westray Airport [T] [1]\nPaphos Cyprus PFO LCPH Paphos International Airport [S]\nParis France CDG LFPG Charles de Gaulle Airport\nParis France ORY LFPO Orly Airport [65]\nPerth Australia PER YPPH Perth Airport [T] [1]\nPhiladelphia United States (Pennsylvania) PHL KPHL Philadelphia International Airport\nPhoenix United States (Arizona) PHX KPHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport\nPisa Italy PSA LIRP Galileo Galilei Airport\nPittsburgh United States (Pennsylvania) PIT KPIT Pittsburgh International Airport [T] [1]\nPlymouth United Kingdom PLH EGHD Plymouth City Airport [T] [1]\nPort Elizabeth South Africa PLZ FAPE Port Elizabeth Airport [T] [1]\nPort of Spain Trinidad and Tobago POS TTPP Piarco International Airport\nPorto Portugal OPO LPPR Francisco de S\u00e1 Carneiro Airport [58]\nPorto Santo Portugal PXO LPPS Porto Santo Airport [T] [1]\nPrague Czech Republic PRG LKPR Prague V\u00e1clav Havel Airport\nPristina Kosovo PRN BKPR Pristina International Airport Adem Jashari\u00a0[T] [66]\nProvidenciales Turks and Caicos Islands PLS MBPV Providenciales International Airport\nPula Croatia PUY LDPL Pula Airport [S] [25]\nPunta Cana Dominican Republic PUJ MDPC Punta Cana International Airport\nReykjav\u00edk Iceland KEF BIKF Keflav\u00edk International Airport [67]\nRichards Bay South Africa RCB FARB Richards Bay Airport [T] [1]\nRiga Latvia RIX EVRA Riga International Airport [T] [1]\nRio de Janeiro Brazil GIG SBGL Rio de Janeiro-Gale\u00e3o International Airport\nRiyadh Saudi Arabia RUH OERK King Khalid International Airport\nRome Italy FCO LIRF Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport\nRotterdam Netherlands RTM EHRD Rotterdam The Hague Airport [68]\nSaarbr\u00fccken Germany SCN EDDR Saarbr\u00fccken Airport [T] [4]:60\nSaint Kitts Saint Kitts and Nevis SKB TKPK Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport\nSaint Petersburg Russia LED ULLI Pulkovo Airport\nSalzburg Austria SZG LOWS Salzburg Airport\nSan Diego United States (California) SAN KSAN San Diego International Airport\nSan Francisco United States (California) SFO KSFO San Francisco International Airport\nSan Jose United States (California) SJC KSJC San Jose International Airport [69]\nSan Jos\u00e9 de Costa Rica Costa Rica SJO MROC Juan Santamar\u00eda International Airport [4]:60[70]\nSan Juan Puerto Rico SJU TJSJ Luis Mu\u00f1oz Mar\u00edn International Airport [T] [71][72]\nSanday United Kingdom NDY EGES Sanday Airport [T] [1]\nSantiago de Chile Chile SCL SCEL Comodoro Arturo Merino Ben\u00edtez International Airport [1][73]\nSantorini Greece JTR LGSR Santorini National Airport [S] [60]\nSeattle United States (Washington) SEA KSEA Seattle-Tacoma International Airport\nSeoul South Korea GMP RKSS Gimpo International Airport\u00a0[T][nb 1] [1]\nSeoul South Korea ICN RKSI Incheon International Airport [75][76][77]\nShanghai China PVG ZSPD Shanghai Pudong International Airport ^ [13]\nShannon Ireland SNN EINN Shannon Airport [T] [1]\nSharm el-Sheikh Egypt SSH HESH Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport [T] [78]\nShetland Islands United Kingdom LSI EGPB Sumburgh Airport [T] [1]\nSingapore Singapore SIN WSSS Singapore Changi Airport\nSkopje Macedonia SKP LWSK Skopje \"Alexander the Great\" Airport [T] [2]:99\nSofia Bulgaria SOF LBSF Sofia Airport\nSouthampton United Kingdom SOU EGHI Southampton Airport [T] [1]\nSt. George Grenada GND TGPY Maurice Bishop International Airport\nStavanger Norway SVG ENZV Stavanger Airport [5][6][19]\nStockholm Sweden ARN ESSA Arlanda Airport\nStockholm Sweden BMA ESSB Bromma Airport [T] [1]\nStornoway United Kingdom SYY EGPO Stornoway Airport [T] [1]\nStronsay United Kingdom SOY EGER Stronsay Airport [T] [1]\nStuttgart Germany STR EDDS Stuttgart Airport\nSydney Australia SYD YSSY Sydney Airport\nS\u00e3o Paulo Brazil GRU SBGR S\u00e3o Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport\nTaipei Taiwan TPE RCTP Taoyuan International Airport [T] [1]\nTallinn Estonia TLL EETN Tallinn Airport [4]:60[25]\nTampa United States (Florida) TPA KTPA Tampa International Airport\nTampere Finland TMP EFTP Tampere-Pirkkala Airport [T] [4]:60\nTangier Morocco TNG GMTT Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport [T] [1]\nTashkent Uzbekistan TAS UTTT Tashkent International Airport [T] [4]:60\nTbilisi Georgia TBS UGTB Tbilisi International Airport [T] [79][80]\nTeesside United Kingdom MME EGNV Durham Tees Valley Airport [T] [4]:60\nTehran Iran IKA OIIE Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport [81]\nTel Aviv Israel TLV LLBG Ben Gurion Airport\nTenerife Spain TFS GCTS Tenerife South Airport\nThessaloniki Greece SKG LGTS Thessaloniki International Airport [S]\nThisted Denmark TED EKTS Thisted Airport [T] [4]:60\nTirana Albania TIA LATI Tirana International Airport N\u00ebn\u00eb Tereza\nTiree United Kingdom TRE EGPU Tiree Airport [T] [1]\nTobago Trinidad and Tobago TAB TTCP Arthur Napoleon Raymond Robinson International Airport\nTokyo Japan HND RJTT Haneda Airport\nTokyo Japan NRT RJAA Narita International Airport\nToronto Canada (Ontario) YYZ CYYZ Toronto Pearson International Airport\nToulouse France TLS LFBO Toulouse-Blagnac Airport\nTripoli Libya TIP HLLT Tripoli International Airport [T] [82]\nTunis Tunisia TUN DTTA Tunis-Carthage International Airport\nTurin Italy TRN LIMF Turin Caselle Airport\nTurku Finland TKU EFTU Turku Airport [T] [4]:60\nVaasa Finland VAA EFVA Vaasa Airport [T] [4]:60\nValencia Spain VLC LEVC Valencia Airport [83]\nVancouver Canada (British Columbia) YVR CYVR Vancouver International Airport\nVenice Italy VCE LIPZ Venice Marco Polo Airport\nVerona Italy VRN LIPX Verona Airport\nVictoria Falls Zimbabwe VFA FVFA Victoria Falls Airport [T] [1]\nVienna Austria VIE LOWW Vienna International Airport\nVieux-Fort Saint Lucia UVF TLPL Hewanorra International Airport\nVilnius Lithuania VNO EYVI Vilnius International Airport [T] [4]:60\nWarsaw Poland WAW EPWA Warsaw Chopin Airport\nWashington, D.C. United States (Virginia) IAD KIAD Washington Dulles International Airport\nWaterford Ireland WAT EIWF Waterford Airport [T] [4]:60\nWestray United Kingdom WRY EGEW Westray Airport [T] [1]\nWick United Kingdom WIC EGPC Wick Airport [T] [1]\nWindhoek Namibia WDH FYWH Windhoek Hosea Kutako International Airport [T] [1]\nYerevan Armenia EVN UDYZ Zvartnots International Airport [T] [4]:60\nZagreb Croatia ZAG LDZA Zagreb Airport [68]\nZakynthos Greece ZTH LGZA Zakynthos International Airport [S] [25]\nZaragoza Spain ZAZ LEZG Zaragoza Airport [T] [13]\nZurich Switzerland ZRH LSZH Zurich Airport\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 flagUnited Kingdom portal\n  \u2022 Aviation portal\n  \u2022 British Airways franchise destinations\n  \u2022 British Airways World Cargo\n  \u2022 Transport in the United Kingdom\n\nNotes and references[edit]\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ International traffic was transferred to Incheon Airport in 2001.[74]\n  1. Jump up ^ The source lists Derry as Londonderry, but per the manual of style, the city is listed as Derry.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt \"World Airline Directory \u2013 British Airways\". Flight International. 53 (4617): 57. 18\u201324 March 1998. Archived from the original on 26 March 2013.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"World Airline Directory\u00a0\u2013 British Airways\" (PDF). Flight International: 98\u00a0\u2013 99. 20 March 2001\u00a0\u2013 26 March 2001. Retrieved 24 June 2011.\u00a0 Check date values in: |date= (help)\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Route Network on 14 December 2000, British Airways\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak \"World Airline Directory\u00a0\u2013 British Airways\" (PDF). Flight International: 59\u00a0\u2013 60. 24 March 1999\u00a0\u2013 30 March 1999. Retrieved 30 August 2011.\u00a0 Check date values in: |date= (help)\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"British Airways transfers nine bmi routes to British Airways code\". Centre for Aviation. 11 May 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"bmi flights changing to have BA flight numbers\". British Airways. 10 May 2012. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"British Airways suspends London Heathrow \u2013 Agadir route from 26 October 2014\". London Air Travel. 20 May 2014. Retrieved 3 Jan 2016.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"British Airways: deux petites nouveaut\u00e9s pour l'hiver\" [British Airways: two new requests for winter] (in French). Air Journal. 19 July 2012. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2012.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b ba.com \u2013 New flight routes and destinations Archived 17 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine.\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b \"British Airways Ends Entebbe \/ Almaty Service from October 2015\". Airline Route. 24 July 2015. Archived from the original on 12 October 2015.\u00a0\u00a0\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Latest information about bmi flights\". British Airways. 3 July 2012. Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"World Airline Directory\u00a0\u2013 British Airways\" (PDF). Flight International: 67. 1 April 1989. Retrieved 25 March 2012.\u00a0\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s \"Long haul freighter schedule (Effective October\u00a02011\u00a0(2011-10))\" (PDF). British Airways World Cargo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ http:\/\/airlineroute.net\/2011\/01\/25\/ba-w85\/\n  15. Jump up ^ Mutzabaugh, Ben (3 March 2014). \"Boeing Dreamliner puts Austin on the global travel map\". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014.\u00a0\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ azernews.az - British Airways suspending Baku flights\n  17. Jump up ^ \"British Airways to start service from BWI to Heathrow\". The Baltimore Sun. 15 October 2001.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"World Airline Directory\u00a0\u2013 British Airways\" (PDF). Flight International: 74. 24 March 1993\u00a0\u2013 30 March 1993. Retrieved 30 August 2011.\u00a0 Check date values in: |date= (help)\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b British Airways - Timetables\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"British Airways to launch new summer seasonal routes from London Heathrow to Biarritz, Menorca and Palermo\". Londonairtravel.com. 21 October 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Gill, Rob (30 October 2014). \"British Airways to start Bilbao flights\". Buying Business Travel. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014.\u00a0\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"British Airways Adds London Heathrow - Billund Route from May 2016\". Airlineroute.net. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ http:\/\/mediacentre.britishairways.com\/pressrelease\/details\/86\/2017-228\/8244\n  24. Jump up ^ \"British Airways To Fly to Bodrum and Dalaman in 2015\". Fethiye Times. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"British Airways adds new Heathrow \u2013 Europe routes in S17\". Routes Online. 1 November 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"BA to scrap struggling Bmi routes\". The Telegraph. 19 July 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-12-17.\u00a0\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b Young, Kathryn M. (23 November 2015). \"Airline Routes-Nov. 23, 2015\". Air Transport World. British Airways adds London LHR-Chania and Kalamata, Greece, to its summer scheduled beginning April 30, 2016, with a mixed fleet of Airbus A319 and A320 aircraft.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.routesonline.com\/news\/38\/airlineroute\/269370\/british-airways-closes-chengdu-reservations-from-jan-2017\/\n  29. Jump up ^ Phillips, Tony (2013). With Great Foresight-The story of Christchurch International Airport. [Christchurch, N.Z.]: The Caxton Press. p.\u00a0147. ISBN\u00a09780473265403.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Duclos, Fran\u00e7ois (15 April 2013). \"British Airways est de retour au Sri Lanka\" [British Airways is back at Sri Lanka] (in French). Air Journal. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ BA to end Colombo turn Male seasonal Archived 26 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine.\n  32. Jump up ^ \"British Airways To Fly to Bodrum and Dalaman in 2015\". Fethiye Times. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Tanzania: Dons See Loss As BA Closes Shop\". AllAfrica.com. Tanzania Daily News. 18 January 2013. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Doha International Airport frontpage\". Archived from the original on 24 May 2014.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Celebrate Gulf's newest hub with discount on flights\" (Press release). Oneworld. 27 May 2014. Archived from the original on 8 June 2014.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Flights to Dublin (DUB)\". British Airways. Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"British Airways launches flights to Fort Lauderdale\". Buying Business Travel. 27 October 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.\u00a0\n  38. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ebola outbreak: BA and Whitehall pushed to restart direct flights to virus-hit countries\". The Independent. 1 February 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2015.\u00a0\n  39. ^ Jump up to: a b \"British Airways Adds London Gatwick \u2013 Friedrichshafen \/ Grenoble Winter Service from late-Dec 2014\". Airline Route. 7 April 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-04-09.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"BA New Routes\". British Airways.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ British Airways' Speedbird Club: Arret de la route Hassi Messaoud au d\u00e9part de Gatwick\n  42. Jump up ^ Aujourd'hui Le Maroc \u2013 Alger\u00a0: British Airways craint des attentats Archived 10 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.\n  43. Jump up ^ \"British Airways set for Highlands return\". The Scotsman. 4 November 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2015.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ BA history 1990s\n  45. Jump up ^ http:\/\/aviationtribune.com\/airlines\/europe\/british-airways-launches-new-route-kefalonia\/\n  46. Jump up ^ \"New flights from Krakow to UK, Netherlands\". Krakow Post. 24 April 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Alan, Alan (30 October 2015). \"IAG net profit up 39% in 3Q\". Air Transport World. Archived from the original on 31 October 2015. Growth in the quarter had come from all parts of the group; Iberia, for example, had restored some previously ditched routes, such as Madrid-Havana, and opened new ones, such as Madrid-Cali, while BA opened up London Heathrow-Kuala Lumpur.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"BA New Routes\" (Press release). British Airways. Archived from the original on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2012.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"British Airways: deux routes vers les \u00eeles Canaries\" [British Airways: two services to the Canary Islands] (in French). Air Journal. 8 November 2012. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ \"British Airways' Winter 2013 Schedule Includes New Service to Gran Canaria and Frequency Increases To Hot-spot Destinations\" (Press release). British Airways. 22 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Bmi Purchase Boosts British Airways Domestic Services From Winter 2012\" (Press release). British Airways. 27 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-08-23. Retrieved 21 October 2012.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ http:\/\/airlineroute.net\/2015\/08\/18\/ba-lim-s16\/\n  53. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.routesonline.com\/news\/38\/airlineroute\/272269\/british-airways-removes-lima-nw17-schedule\/\n  54. Jump up ^ \"New Routes\". British Airways. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2016.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Zambia's booming economy increasingly reliant on Kenya and Ethiopian Airways. A flag carrier needed?\". Centre for Aviation. 15 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-10-30.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"British Airways abandons London-Lusaka route\". The Lusaka Times. 4 September 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.routesonline.com\/news\/38\/airlineroute\/277852\/british-airways-opens-seychelles-reservation-in-w18\/\n  58. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Airline Routes\". Air Transport World. 21 April 2014. Archived from the original on 22 April 2014.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"LH Quits Manila,\" TTG Asia[dead link]\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b \"British Airways Launches Flights to Oporto, Mykonos and Santorini\" (Press release). British Airways. 16 October 2013. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.routesonline.com\/news\/38\/airlineroute\/274202\/british-airways-adds-nashville-service-from-may-2018\/\n  62. Jump up ^ \"U.S. and Britain Agree To Expand Air Service; Gatwick to Get New Service New Entrants in Market,\" The New York Times(subscription required)[not in citation given]\n  63. Jump up ^ \"British Airways Announces Services Between New Orleans and London\". EconoTimes. 20 October 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2016.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"More Choice for Bay Area Residents With New Oakland to London Service\" (Press release). British Airways. 1 November 2016. Retrieved 1 November 2016.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"BA transfers Paris Orly route from London Heathrow to City\" (Press release). London Air Travel. 18 July 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.airkosova.net\/2012\/08\/british-airways-to-farewell-pristina\/\n  67. Jump up ^ http:\/\/airlineroute.net\/2015\/05\/08\/ba-europe-w15\/\n  68. ^ Jump up to: a b \"British Airways atterrit \u00e0 Zagreb, Rotterdam\" [British Airways lands at Zagreb and Rotterdam] (in French). Air Journal. 10 December 2012. Archived from the original on 7 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"British Airways to start 787-9 flights to San Jose, California\". Air Transport World. 26 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ \"British Airways to Start Costa Rica Service from May 2016\". Airline Route. 6 August 2015. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015.\u00a0\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ Gill, Rob (7 November 2012). \"British Airways to end Puerto Rico route\". Buying Business Travel. Archived from the original on 4 April 2013.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ \"British Airways Serves San Juan\" (Press release). British Airways. 28 March 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-10-19.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ \"First direct flight from UK to Chile coming in 2017\". The Telegraph. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ Vlassis, Gus (3 April 2001). \"Olympic's privatisation again in doubt as new Athens hub opens\". Athens: Flightglobal. Flight International. Archived from the original on 7 March 2013. South Korea's new Incheon International airport opened for business on 29 March. The airport, built at a cost of $5 billion, will initially be able to handle 27 million passengers and 1.7 million tonnes of cargo annually. Some 50\u00a0km west of the capital Seoul, the airport will handle international traffic while the older Gimpo airport it replaces is to remain open for domestic traffic.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ \"British Airways Announces New Route To Asia\" (Press release). British Airways. 3 May 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ \"British Airways resumes Seoul service with more Asian destinations to come as BA integrates bmi\". Centre for Aviation. 3 May 2012. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2012.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ Tom Otley (3 May 2012). \"BA returns to Seoul\". Business Traveller. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2012.\u00a0\n  78. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/news\/2016\/06\/21\/british-airways-abandons-flights-to-egypts-sharm-el-sheikh-resor\/\n  79. Jump up ^ britishairways.com \u2013 Timetables Archived 22 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine.\n  80. Jump up ^ \"BA announces summer route and terminal changes\". 17 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2014-04-16. Retrieved 18 January 2013.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ \"British Airways Delays Tehran Resumption to Sep 2016\". routesonline. Retrieved 22 June 2016.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ \"Lufthansa, Austrian Airlines halt Libya flights indefinitely\". Reuters Africa. 7 April 2014. Archived from the original on 8 June 2014.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ http:\/\/airlineroute.net\/2015\/08\/18\/ba-vlcop-w15\/\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 British Airways' current destination list\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nInternational Airlines Group\nOperations\nDivisions and\nsubsidiaries\nIberia\n  \u2022 Iberia Cargo\n  \u2022 Iberia Express\n  \u2022 Level\nBritish Airways\n  \u2022 BA CityFlyer\n  \u2022 British Airways Engineering\n  \u2022 British Airways Maintenance Cardiff\n  \u2022 Gatwick Ground Services\n  \u2022 OpenSkies\nAer Lingus\n  \u2022 Aer Lingus Regional\nIAG Cargo\n  \u2022 Iberia Cargo\n  \u2022 British Airways World Cargo\nVueling\n  \u2022 \u2013\nFranchisees\n  \u2022 Air Nostrum\n  \u2022 Comair\n  \u2022 Sun-Air of Scandinavia\nDestinations\n  \u2022 Aer Lingus\n  \u2022 Air Nostrum\n  \u2022 British Airways\n    \u2022 franchise\n  \u2022 Iberia\nInternational Airlines Group logo.svg\nHistory\n  \u2022 History of Iberia\n  \u2022 History of British Airways\nPredecessors\nand acquisitions\n  \u2022 Aviaco\n  \u2022 Air Panam\u00e1 Internacional\n  \u2022 British Airways Ltd (1935\u20131939)\n  \u2022 British European Airways\n  \u2022 British Midland International\n    \u2022 Bmibaby\n  \u2022 British South American Airways\n  \u2022 British Overseas Airways Corporation\n  \u2022 British Airways Helicopters\n  \u2022 Compa\u00f1\u00eda Aero Mar\u00edtima Mallorquina\u00a0(de)\n  \u2022 Compa\u00f1\u00eda Espa\u00f1ola de Tr\u00e1fico A\u00e9reo\u00a0(es)\n  \u2022 Concesionaria de L\u00edneas A\u00e9reas Subvencionadas\n  \u2022 Corporaci\u00f3n Dominicana de Aviaci\u00f3n\n  \u2022 Clickair\n  \u2022 Imperial Airways\n  \u2022 Viva Air\nFormer\nfranchisees\n  \u2022 BA Connect\n  \u2022 British Airways Ltd (2012\u20132015)\n  \u2022 British Regional Airlines\n  \u2022 Brymon Airways\n  \u2022 CityFlyer Express\n  \u2022 Loganair\n  \u2022 Maersk Air UK\nIncidents\nIberia\n  \u2022 IB062\n  \u2022 IB401\n  \u2022 Madrid runway disaster\n  \u2022 1973 Nantes mid-air collision\n  \u2022 IB602\n  \u2022 IB610\nBritish Airways\n  \u2022 BA9\n  \u2022 BA38\n  \u2022 BA149\n  \u2022 BA268\n  \u2022 1976 Zagreb mid-air collision\n  \u2022 BA2276\n  \u2022 BA5390\nAer Lingus\n  \u2022 EI712\n  \u2022 EI164\nOthers\n  \u2022 Air Nostrum\n  \u2022 BMI (Stockport air disaster, Kegworth air disaster)\n  \u2022 Comair\nPeople\n  \u2022 Antonio V\u00e1zquez Romero\n  \u2022 Willie Walsh\nOther\n  \u2022 Airways Flying Club\n  \u2022 British Airways ethnic liveries\n  \u2022 Fleet\n  \u2022 Oneworld\n  \u2022 \"Speedbird\"\n  \u2022 List of airline holding companies\n  \u2022 Heathrow Terminal 5\n  \u2022 Waterside\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=British_Airways_destinations&oldid=834484747\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Lists of airline destinations\n  \u2022 Oneworld destinations\n  \u2022 British Airways\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 errors: dates\n  \u2022 CS1 French-language sources (fr)\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from May 2017\n  \u2022 Pages containing links to subscription-only content\n  \u2022 All articles with failed verification\n  \u2022 Articles with failed verification from March 2013\n  \u2022 Wikipedia pending changes protected pages\n  \u2022 EngvarB from April 2014\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from April 2014\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from June 2012\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2017\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Incomplete transport lists\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017\n  \u2022 Interlanguage link template link number\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 5 April 2018, at 23:58.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8667931873064043582","title":"Standard enthalpy of formation","text":"Standard enthalpy of formation\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nThe standard enthalpy of formation or standard heat of formation of a compound is the change of enthalpy during the formation of 1 mole of the substance from its constituent elements, with all substances in their standard states, and at a pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa). There is no standard temperature. Its symbol is \u0394fH\u2296. The superscript Plimsoll on this symbol indicates that the process has occurred under standard conditions at the specified temperature (usually 25\u00a0\u00b0C or 298.15\u00a0K). Standard states are as follows:\n\n  1. For a gas: the hypothetical state it would have assuming it obeyed the ideal gas equation at a pressure of 1 atm\n  2. For a solute present in an ideal solution: a concentration of exactly one mole per liter (1\u00a0M) at a pressure of 1\u00a0atm\n  3. For a pure substance or a solvent in a condensed state (a liquid or a solid): the standard state is the pure liquid or solid under a pressure of 1\u00a0atm\n  4. For an element: the form in which the element is most stable under 1\u00a0atm of pressure. One exception is phosphorus, for which the most stable form at 1\u00a0atm is black phosphorus, but white phosphorus is chosen as the standard reference state for zero enthalpy of formation.[1]\n\nFor example, the standard enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide would be the enthalpy of the following reaction under the conditions above:\n\nC(s, graphite) + O2(g) \u2192 CO2(g)\n\nAll elements are written in their standard states, and one mole of product is formed. This is true for all enthalpies of formation.\n\nThe standard enthalpy of formation is measured in units of energy per amount of substance, usually stated in kilojoule per mole (kJ\u00a0mol\u22121), but also in kilocalorie per mole, joule per mole or kilocalorie per gram (any combination of these units conforming to the energy per mass or amount guideline).\n\nIn physics the energy per particle is often expressed in electronvolts (eV), where 1 eV corresponds to 96.485\u00a0kJ\u00a0mol\u22121.\n\nAll elements in their standard states (oxygen gas, solid carbon in the form of graphite, etc.) have a standard enthalpy of formation of zero, as there is no change involved in their formation.\n\nThe formation reaction is a constant pressure and constant temperature process. Since the pressure of the standard formation reaction is fixed at 1 atm, the standard formation enthalpy or reaction heat is a function of temperature. For tabulation purposes, standard formation enthalpies are all given at a single temperature: 298\u00a0K, represented by the symbol \u0394fH\u2296\n298\u00a0K\n.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Hess's law\n  \u2022 2 Ionic compounds: Born-Haber cycle\n  \u2022 3 Organic compounds\n  \u2022 4 Use in calculation for other reactions\n  \u2022 5 Key concepts for doing enthalpy calculations\n  \u2022 6 Examples: standard enthalpies of formation at 25\u00a0\u00b0C\n    \u2022 6.1 Inorganic substances\n    \u2022 6.2 Aliphatic hydrocarbons\n    \u2022 6.3 Other organic compounds\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nHess's law[edit]\n\nFor many substances, the formation reaction may be considered as the sum of a number of simpler reactions, either real or fictitious. The enthalpy of reaction can then be analyzed by applying Hess's Law, which states that the sum of the enthalpy changes for a number of individual reaction steps equals the enthalpy change of the overall reaction. This is true because enthalpy is a state function, whose value for an overall process depends only on the initial and final states and not on any intermediate states. Examples are given in the following sections.\n\nIonic compounds: Born-Haber cycle[edit]\n\nStandard enthalpy change of formation in Born\u2013Haber diagram for lithium fluoride.\n\nFor ionic compounds, the standard enthalpy of formation is equivalent to the sum of several terms included in the Born\u2013Haber cycle. For example, the formation of lithium fluoride,\n\nLi(s) + \u200a1\u20442\u00a0F2(g) \u2192 LiF(s)\n\nmay be considered as the sum of several steps, each with its own enthalpy (or energy, approximately):\n\n  1. The standard enthalpy of atomization (or sublimation) of solid lithium\n  2. The first ionization energy of gaseous lithium\n  3. The standard enthalpy of atomization (or bond energy) of fluorine gas\n  4. The electron affinity of a fluorine atom\n  5. The lattice energy of lithium fluoride\n\nThe sum of all these enthalpies will give the standard enthalpy of formation of lithium fluoride.\n\n\u0394 H f = \u0394 H sub + IE Li + 1 2 B(F\u2013F) \u2212 EA F + U L {\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{f}}=\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{sub}}+{\\text{IE}}_{\\text{Li}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}{\\text{B(F\u2013F)}}-{\\text{EA}}_{\\text{F}}+{\\text{U}}_{\\text{L}}} {\\displaystyle \\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{f}}=\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{sub}}+{\\text{IE}}_{\\text{Li}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}{\\text{B(F\u2013F)}}-{\\text{EA}}_{\\text{F}}+{\\text{U}}_{\\text{L}}}\n\nIn practice, the enthalpy of formation of lithium fluoride can be determined experimentally, but the lattice energy cannot be measured directly. The equation is therefore rearranged in order to evaluate the lattice energy.[2]\n\nU L = \u0394 H sub + IE Li + 1 2 B(F\u2013F) \u2212 EA F + \u0394 H f {\\displaystyle {\\text{U}}_{\\text{L}}=\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{sub}}+{\\text{IE}}_{\\text{Li}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}{\\text{B(F\u2013F)}}-{\\text{EA}}_{\\text{F}}+\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{f}}} {\\displaystyle {\\text{U}}_{\\text{L}}=\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{sub}}+{\\text{IE}}_{\\text{Li}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}{\\text{B(F\u2013F)}}-{\\text{EA}}_{\\text{F}}+\\Delta {\\text{H}}_{\\text{f}}}\n\nOrganic compounds[edit]\n\nThe formation reactions for most organic compounds are hypothetical. For instance carbon and hydrogen will not directly react to form methane (CH4), so that the standard enthalpy of formation cannot be measured directly. However the standard enthalpy of combustion is readily mesurable using bomb calorimetry. The standard enthalpy of formation is then determined using Hess's law. The combustion of methane (CH4 + 2 O2 \u2192 CO2 + 2 H2O) is equivalent to the sum of the hypothetical decomposition into elements followed by the combustion of the elements to form carbon dioxide and water:\n\nCH4 \u2192 C + 2 H2\nC + O2 \u2192 CO2\n2 H2 + O2 \u2192 2 H2O\n\nApplying Hess's law,\n\n\u0394combH\u2296(CH4) = [\u0394fH\u2296(CO2) + 2\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(H2O)] \u2013 \u0394fH\u2296(CH4)\n\nSolving for the standard of enthalpy of formation,\n\n\u0394fH\u2296(CH4) = [\u0394fH\u2296(CO2) + 2\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(H2O)] \u2013 \u0394combH\u2296(CH4)\n\nThe value of \u0394fH\u2296(CH4) is determined to be \u201374.8 kJ mol-1. The negative sign shows that the reaction, if it were to proceed, would be exothermic; that is, it is enthalpically more stable than hydrogen gas and carbon.\n\nIt is possible to predict heats of formation for simple unstrained organic compounds with the Heat of formation group additivity method.\n\nUse in calculation for other reactions[edit]\n\nThe standard enthalpy change of any reaction can be calculated from the standard enthalpies of formation of reactants and products using Hess's law. A given reaction is considered as the decomposition of all reactants into elements in their standard states, followed by the formation of all products. The heat of reaction is then minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants (each being multiplied by its respective stoichiometric coefficient, \u03bd) plus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the products (each also multiplied by its respective stoichiometric coefficient), as shown in the equation below:\n\n\u0394rH\u2296 = \u03a3\u03bd\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(products) \u2212 \u03a3\u03bd\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(reactants)[3]\n\nIf the standard enthalpy of the products is less than the standard enthalpy of the reactants, the standard enthalpy of reaction will be negative. This implies that the reaction is exothermic. The converse is also true; the standard enthalpy of reaction will be positive for an endothermic reaction. This calculation has a tacit assumption of ideal solution between reactants and products where the enthalpy of mixing is zero.\n\nFor example, for the combustion of methane, CH4 + 2\u00a0O2 \u2192 CO2 + 2\u00a0H2O:\n\n\u0394rH\u2296 = [\u0394fH\u2296(CO2) + 2\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(H2O)] \u2013 [\u0394fH\u2296(CH4) + 2\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(O2)]\n\nHowever O2 is an element in its standard state, so that \u0394fH\u2296(O2) = 0 and the heat of reaction is simplified to\n\n\u0394rH\u2296 = [\u0394fH\u2296(CO2) + 2\u00a0\u0394fH\u2296(H2O)] \u2013 \u0394fH\u2296(CH4),\n\nwhich is the equation in the previous section for the enthalpy of combustion \u0394combH\u2296.\n\nKey concepts for doing enthalpy calculations[edit]\n\n  1. When a reaction is reversed, the magnitude of \u0394H stays the same, but the sign changes.\n  2. When the balanced equation for a reaction is multiplied by an integer, the corresponding value of \u0394H must be multiplied by that integer as well.\n  3. The change in enthalpy for a reaction can be calculated from the enthalpies of formation of the reactants and the products\n  4. Elements in their standard states make no contribution to the enthalpy calculations for the reaction since the enthalpy of an element in its standard state is zero. Allotropes of an element other than the standard state generally have non-zero standard enthalpies of formation.\n\nExamples: standard enthalpies of formation at 25\u00a0\u00b0C[edit]\n\nThermochemical properties of selected substances at 298\u00a0K and 1\u00a0atm\n\nInorganic substances[edit]\n\nSpecies Phase Chemical formula \u0394fH\u2296 \/(kJ\/mol)\nAluminium\nAluminium Solid Al 0\nAluminium chloride Solid AlCl3 \u2212705.63\nAluminium oxide Solid Al2O3 \u22121669.8\nAluminium hydroxide Solid Al(OH)3 \u22121277\nAluminium sulphate Solid Al2(SO4)3 \u22123440\nAmmonia (ammonium hydroxide) aq NH3 (NH4OH) \u221280.8\nAmmonia Gas NH3 \u221246.1\nAmmonium nitrate Solid NH4NO3 \u2212365.6\nBarium\nBarium chloride Solid BaCl2 \u2212858.6\nBarium carbonate Solid BaCO3 \u22121213\nBarium hydroxide Solid Ba(OH)2 \u2212944.7\nBarium oxide Solid BaO \u2212548.1\nBarium sulfate Solid BaSO4 \u22121473.2\nBeryllium\nBeryllium Solid Be 0\nBeryllium hydroxide Solid Be(OH)2 \u2212902.9999\nBeryllium oxide Solid BeO \u2212609.4(25)\nBoron\nBoron trichloride Solid BCl3 \u2212402.96\nBromine\nBromine Liquid Br2 0\nBromide ion Aqueous Br\u2212 \u2212121\nBromine Gas Br 111.884\nBromine Gas Br2 30.91\nBromine trifluoride Gas BrF3 \u2212255.60\nHydrogen bromide Gas HBr \u221236.29\nCadmium\nCadmium Solid Cd 0\nCadmium oxide Solid CdO \u2212258\nCadmium hydroxide Solid Cd(OH)2 \u2212561\nCadmium sulfide Solid CdS \u2212162\nCadmium sulfate Solid CdSO4 \u2212935\nCalcium\nCalcium Solid Ca 0\nCalcium Gas Ca 178.2\nCalcium(II) ion Gas Ca2+ 1925.90\nCalcium carbide Solid CaC2 \u221259.8\nCalcium carbonate (Calcite) Solid CaCO3 \u22121206.9\nCalcium chloride Solid CaCl2 \u2212795.8\nCalcium chloride Aqueous CaCl2 \u2212877.3\nCalcium phosphate Solid Ca3(PO4)2 \u22124132\nCalcium fluoride Solid CaF2 \u22121219.6\nCalcium hydride Solid CaH2 \u2212186.2\nCalcium hydroxide Solid Ca(OH)2 \u2212986.09\nCalcium hydroxide Aqueous Ca(OH)2 \u22121002.82\nCalcium oxide Solid CaO \u2212635.09\nCalcium sulfate Solid CaSO4 \u22121434.52\nCalcium sulfide Solid CaS \u2212482.4\nWollastonite Solid CaSiO3 \u22121630\nCaesium\nCaesium Solid Cs 0\nCaesium Gas Cs 76.50\nCaesium Liquid Cs 2.09\nCaesium(I) ion Gas Cs+ 457.964\nCaesium chloride Solid CsCl \u2212443.04\nCarbon\nCarbon (Graphite) Solid C 0\nCarbon (Diamond) Solid C 1.9\nCarbon Gas C 716.67\nCarbon dioxide Gas CO2 \u2212393.509\nCarbon disulfide Liquid CS2 89.41\nCarbon disulfide Gas CS2 116.7\nCarbon monoxide Gas CO \u2212110.525\nCarbonyl chloride (Phosgene) Gas COCl2 \u2212218.8\nCarbon dioxide (un\u2013ionized) Aqueous CO2(aq) \u2212419.26\nBicarbonate ion Aqueous HCO3\u2013 \u2212689.93\nCarbonate ion Aqueous CO32\u2013 \u2212675.23\nChlorine\nMonatomic chlorine Gas Cl 121.7\nChloride ion Aqueous Cl\u2212 \u2212167.2\nChlorine Gas Cl2 0\nChromium\nChromium Solid Cr 0\nCopper\nCopper Solid Cu 0\nCopper(II) oxide Solid CuO \u2212155.2\nCopper(II) sulfate Aqueous CuSO4 \u2212769.98\nFluorine\nFluorine Gas F2 0\nHydrogen\nMonatomic hydrogen Gas H 218\nHydrogen Gas H2 0\nWater Gas H2O \u2212241.818\nWater Liquid H2O \u2212285.8\nHydrogen ion Aqueous H+ 0\nHydroxide ion Aqueous OH\u2212 \u2212230\nHydrogen peroxide Liquid H2O2 \u2212187.8\nPhosphoric acid Liquid H3PO4 \u22121288\nHydrogen cyanide Gas HCN 130.5\nHydrogen bromide Liquid HBr \u221236.3\nHydrogen chloride Gas HCl \u221292.30\nHydrogen chloride Aqueous HCl \u2212167.2\nHydrogen fluoride Gas HF \u2212273.3\nHydrogen iodide Gas HI 26.5\nIodine\nIodine Solid I2 0\nIodine Gas I2 62.438\nIodine Aqueous I2 23\nIodide ion Aqueous I\u2212 \u221255\nIron\nIron Solid Fe 0\nIron carbide (Cementite) Solid Fe3C 5.4\nIron(II) carbonate (Siderite) Solid FeCO3 \u2212750.6\nIron(III) chloride Solid FeCl3 \u2212399.4\nIron(II) oxide (W\u00fcstite) Solid FeO \u2212272\nIron(II,III) oxide (Magnetite) Solid Fe3O4 \u22121118\nIron(III) oxide (Hematite) Solid Fe2O3 \u2212824.2\nIron(II) sulfate Solid FeSO4 \u2212929\nIron(III) sulfate Solid Fe2(SO4)3 \u22122583\nIron(II) sulfide Solid FeS \u2212102\nPyrite Solid FeS2 \u2212178\nLead\nLead Solid Pb 0\nLead dioxide Solid PbO2 \u2212277\nLead sulfide Solid PbS \u2212100\nLead sulfate Solid PbSO4 \u2212920\nLead(II) nitrate Solid Pb(NO3)2 \u2212452\nLead(II) sulfate Solid PbSO4 \u2212920\nMagnesium\nMagnesium Solid Mg 0\nMagnesium ion Aqueous Mg2+ \u2212466.85\nMagnesium carbonate Solid MgCO3 \u22121095.797\nMagnesium chloride Solid MgCl2 \u2212641.8\nMagnesium hydroxide Solid Mg(OH)2 \u2212924.54\nMagnesium hydroxide Aqueous Mg(OH)2 \u2212926.8\nMagnesium oxide Solid MgO \u2212601.6\nMagnesium sulfate Solid MgSO4 \u22121278.2\nManganese\nManganese Solid Mn 0\nManganese(II) oxide Solid MnO \u2212384.9\nManganese(IV) oxide Solid MnO2 \u2212519.7\nManganese(III) oxide Solid Mn2O3 \u2212971\nManganese(II,III) oxide Solid Mn3O4 \u22121387\nPermanganate Aqueous MnO\u2212\n4\n\u2212543\nMercury\nMercury(II) oxide (red) Solid HgO \u221290.83\nMercury sulfide (red, cinnabar) Solid HgS \u221258.2\nNitrogen\nAmmonia Aqueous NH3 \u221280.8\nAmmonia Gas NH3 \u221245.90\nAmmonium chloride Solid NH4Cl \u2212314.55\nNitrogen dioxide Gas NO2 33.2\nNitrous oxide Gas N2O 82.05\nNitric oxide Gas NO 90.29\nDinitrogen tetroxide Gas N2O4 9.16\nDinitrogen pentoxide Solid N2O5 \u221243.1\nDinitrogen pentoxide Gas N2O5 11.3\nOxygen\nMonatomic oxygen Gas O 249\nOxygen Gas O2 0\nOzone Gas O3 143\nPhosphorus\nWhite phosphorus Solid P4 0\nRed phosphorus Solid P \u201317.4[4]\nBlack phosphorus Solid P \u201339.3[4]\nPhosphorus trichloride Liquid PCl3 \u2212319.7\nPhosphorus trichloride Gas PCl3 \u2212278\nPhosphorus pentachloride Solid PCl5 \u2212440\nPotassium\nPotassium bromide Solid KBr \u2212392.2\nPotassium carbonate Solid K2CO3 \u22121150\nPotassium chlorate Solid KClO3 \u2212391.4\nPotassium chloride Solid KCl \u2212436.68\nPotassium fluoride Solid KF \u2212562.6\nPotassium oxide Solid K2O \u2212363\nPotassium perchlorate Solid KClO4 \u2212430.12\nSilicon\nSilicon Gas Si 368.2\nSilicon carbide Solid SiC \u221273.22\nSilicon tetrachloride Liquid SiCl4 \u2212640.1\nSilica (Quartz) Solid SiO2 \u2212910.86\nSilver\nSilver bromide Solid AgBr \u221299.5\nSilver chloride Solid AgCl \u2212127.01\nSilver iodide Solid AgI \u221262.4\nSilver oxide Solid Ag2O \u221231.1\nSilver sulfide Solid Ag2S \u221231.8\nSodium\nSodium Solid Na 0\nSodium Gas Na +107.5\nSodium bicarbonate Solid NaHCO3 \u2212950.8\nSodium carbonate Solid Na2CO3 \u22121130.77\nSodium chloride Aqueous NaCl \u2212407.27\nSodium chloride Solid NaCl \u2212411.12\nSodium chloride Liquid NaCl \u2212385.92\nSodium chloride Gas NaCl \u2212181.42\nSodium fluoride Solid NaF \u2212569.0\nSodium hydroxide Aqueous NaOH \u2212469.15\nSodium hydroxide Solid NaOH \u2212425.93\nSodium nitrate Aqueous NaNO3 \u2212446.2\nSodium nitrate Solid NaNO3 \u2212424.8\nSodium oxide Solid Na2O \u2212414.2\nSulfur\nSulfur (monoclinic) Solid S8 0.3\nSulfur (rhombic) Solid S8 0\nHydrogen sulfide Gas H2S \u221220.63\nSulfur dioxide Gas SO2 \u2212296.84\nSulfur trioxide Gas SO3 \u2212395.7\nSulfuric acid Liquid H2SO4 \u2212814\nTin\nTitanium\nTitanium Gas Ti 468\nTitanium tetrachloride Gas TiCl4 \u2212763.2\nTitanium tetrachloride Liquid TiCl4 \u2212804.2\nTitanium dioxide Solid TiO2 \u2212944.7\nZinc\nZinc Gas Zn 130.7\nZinc chloride Solid ZnCl2 \u2212415.1\nZinc oxide Solid ZnO \u2212348.0\nZinc sulfate Solid ZnSO4 \u2212980.14\n\nAliphatic hydrocarbons[edit]\n\nFormula Name \u0394fH\u2296 \/(kcal\/mol) \u0394fH\u2296 \/(kJ\/mol)\nStraight-chain\nCH4 Methane \u221217.9 \u221274.9\nC2H6 Ethane \u221220.0 \u221283.7\nC2H4 Ethylene 12.5 52.5\nC2H2 Acetylene 54.2 226.8\nC3H8 Propane \u221225.0 \u2212104.6\nC4H10 n-Butane \u221230.0 \u2212125.5\nC5H12 n-Pentane \u221235.1 \u2212146.9\nC6H14 n-Hexane \u221240.0 \u2212167.4\nC7H16 n-Heptane \u221244.9 \u2212187.9\nC8H18 n-Octane \u221249.8 \u2212208.4\nC9H20 n-Nonane \u221254.8 \u2212229.3\nC10H22 n-Decane \u221259.6 \u2212249.4\nC4 Alkane branched isomers\nC4H10 Isobutane (methylpropane) \u221232.1 \u2212134.3\nC5 Alkane branched isomers\nC5H12 Neopentane (dimethylpropane) \u221240.1 \u2212167.8\nC5H12 Isopentane (methylbutane) \u221236.9 \u2212154.4\nC6 Alkane branched isomers\nC6H14 2,2-Dimethylbutane \u221244.5 \u2212186.2\nC6H14 2,3-Dimethylbutane \u221242.5 \u2212177.8\nC6H14 2-Methylpentane (isohexane) \u221241.8 \u2212174.9\nC6H14 3-Methylpentane \u221241.1 \u2212172.0\nC7 Alkane branched isomers\nC7H16 2,2-Dimethylpentane \u221249.2 \u2212205.9\nC7H16 2,2,3-Trimethylbutane \u221249.0 \u2212205.0\nC7H16 3,3-Dimethylpentane \u221248.1 \u2212201.3\nC7H16 2,3-Dimethylpentane \u221247.3 \u2212197.9\nC7H16 2,4-Dimethylpentane \u221248.2 \u2212201.7\nC7H16 2-Methylhexane \u221246.5 \u2212194.6\nC7H16 3-Methylhexane \u221245.7 \u2212191.2\nC7H16 3-Ethylpentane \u221245.3 \u2212189.5\nC8 Alkane branched isomers\nC8H18 2,3-Dimethylhexane \u221255.1 \u2212230.5\nC8H18 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylbutane \u221253.9 \u2212225.5\nC8H18 2,2-Dimethylhexane \u221253.7 \u2212224.7\nC8H18 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (isooctane) \u221253.5 \u2212223.8\nC8H18 2,5-Dimethylhexane \u221253.2 \u2212222.6\nC8H18 2,2,3-Trimethylpentane \u221252.6 \u2212220.1\nC8H18 3,3-Dimethylhexane \u221252.6 \u2212220.1\nC8H18 2,4-Dimethylhexane \u221252.4 \u2212219.2\nC8H18 2,3,4-Trimethylpentane \u221251.9 \u2212217.1\nC8H18 2,3,3-Trimethylpentane \u221251.7 \u2212216.3\nC8H18 2-Methylheptane \u221251.5 \u2212215.5\nC8H18 3-Ethyl-3-Methylpentane \u221251.4 \u2212215.1\nC8H18 3,4-Dimethylhexane \u221250.9 \u2212213.0\nC8H18 3-Ethyl-2-Methylpentane \u221250.4 \u2212210.9\nC8H18 3-Methylheptane \u221260.3 \u2212252.5\nC8H18 4-Methylheptane \u00a0? \u00a0?\nC8H18 3-Ethylhexane \u00a0? \u00a0?\nC9 Alkane branched isomers (selected)\nC9H20 2,2,4,4-Tetramethylpentane \u221257.8 \u2212241.8\nC9H20 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylpentane \u221256.7 \u2212237.2\nC9H20 2,2,3,4-Tetramethylpentane \u221256.6 \u2212236.8\nC9H20 2,3,3,4-Tetramethylpentane \u221256.4 \u2212236.0\nC9H20 3,3-Diethylpentane \u221255.7 \u2212233.0\n\nOther organic compounds[edit]\n\nSpecies Phase Chemical formula \u0394fH\u2296 \/(kJ\/mol)\nAcetone Liquid C3H6O \u2212248.4\nBenzene Liquid C6H6 48.95\nBenzoic acid Solid C7H6O2 \u2212385.2\nCarbon tetrachloride Liquid CCl4 \u2212135.4\nCarbon tetrachloride Gas CCl4 \u221295.98\nEthanol Liquid C2H5OH \u2212277.0\nEthanol Gas C2H5OH \u2212235.3\nGlucose Solid C6H12O6 \u22121271\nIsopropanol Gas C3H7OH \u2212318.1\nMethanol (methyl alcohol) Liquid CH3OH \u2212238.4\nMethanol (methyl alcohol) Gas CH3OH \u2212201.0\nMethyl linoleate (Biodiesel) Gas C19H34O2 \u2212356.3\nSucrose Solid C12H22O11 \u22122226.1\nTrichloromethane (Chloroform) Liquid CHCl3 \u2212134.47\nTrichloromethane (Chloroform) Gas CHCl3 \u2212103.18\nVinyl chloride Solid C2H3Cl \u221294.12\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Calorimetry\n  \u2022 Enthalpy\n  \u2022 Heat of combustion\n  \u2022 Thermochemistry\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Oxtoby, David W; Pat Gillis, H; Campion, Alan (2011). Principles of Modern Chemistry. p.\u00a0547. ISBN\u00a00-8400-4931-5.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Moore, Stanitski, and Jurs. Chemistry: The Molecular Science. 3rd edition. 2008. ISBN\u00a00-495-10521-X. pages 320-321.\n  3. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.science.uwaterloo.ca\/~cchieh\/cact\/c120\/heatreac.html\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p.\u00a0392. ISBN\u00a0978-0130399137.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Zumdahl, Steven (2009). Chemical Principles (6th ed.). Boston. New York: Houghton Mifflin. pp.\u00a0384\u2013387. ISBN\u00a0978-0-547-19626-8.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 NIST Chemistry WebBook\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Standard_enthalpy_of_formation&oldid=799102911\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Enthalpy\n  \u2022 Thermochemistry\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 5 September 2017, at 17:12.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5016571946542294641","title":"The Beatles' rooftop concert","text":"The Beatles' rooftop concert\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThe Beatles' rooftop concert\nThe Beatles rooftop concert.jpg\nAerial view\nDate 30 January 1969\nVenue Apple Corps Ltd\n3 Savile Row, London, UK\nCoordinates 51\u00b030\u203237.48\u2033N 0\u00b08\u203223.13\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff51.5104111\u00b0N 0.1397583\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 51.5104111; -0.1397583\nParticipants John Lennon\nPaul McCartney\nGeorge Harrison\nRingo Starr\nBilly Preston\nLength 42 minutes[1]\nProducer George Martin\nEngineers Glyn Johns\nAlan Parsons\n\nThe Beatles' rooftop concert was the final public performance of the English rock band the Beatles. On 30 January 1969, the band, with keyboardist Billy Preston, surprised a central London office and fashion district with an impromptu concert from the roof of the headquarters of the band's multimedia corporation Apple Corps at 3 Savile Row. In a 42-minute set, the Beatles were heard playing nine takes of five songs before the Metropolitan Police Service asked them to reduce the volume. Footage from the performance was later used in the 1970 documentary film Let It Be.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Set list\n  \u2022 3 Legacy\n  \u2022 4 Personnel\n  \u2022 5 Citations\n  \u2022 6 Sources\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nAlthough the concert was unannounced, the Beatles had planned on performing live during their Get Back sessions earlier in January.[2] It is uncertain who had the idea for a rooftop concert, but the suggestion was conceived just days before the actual event.[3] George Harrison brought in keyboardist Billy Preston as an additional musician, in the hope that a talented outside observer would encourage the band to be tight and focused.[3] Ringo Starr remembered:\n\n\"There was a plan to play live somewhere. We were wondering where we could go\u2014'Oh, the Palladium or the Sahara'. But we would have had to take all the stuff, so we decided, 'Let's get up on the roof'\".[4]\n\nThe audio was recorded onto two eight-track recorders in the basement of Apple[5] by engineer Alan Parsons,[6] and film director Michael Lindsay-Hogg[7] brought in a camera crew to capture several angles of the performance\u2014including reactions from people on the street.[6]\n\nWhen the Beatles first started playing, there was some confusion from spectators watching five stories below, many of whom were on their lunch break. As the news of the event spread, crowds of onlookers began to congregate in the streets and on the roofs of local buildings. While most responded positively to the concert, the Metropolitan Police Service grew concerned about noise and traffic issues.[8] Apple employees initially refused to let police inside, ultimately reconsidering when threatened with arrest.[8]\n\nAs police ascended to the roof, the Beatles realised that the concert would eventually be shut down, but continued to play for several more minutes.[9] Paul McCartney improvised the lyrics of his song \"Get Back\" to reflect the situation, \"You've been playing on the roofs again, and you know your Momma doesn't like it, she's gonna have you arrested!\"[10] The concert came to an end with the conclusion of \"Get Back\", with John Lennon saying, \"I'd like to say thank you on behalf of the group and ourselves and I hope we've passed the audition\".[11]\n\nSet list[edit]\n\nThe rooftop concert consisted of nine takes of five Beatles songs, including:\n\n  \u2022 \"Get Back\" (three takes)\n  \u2022 \"Don't Let Me Down\" (two takes)\n  \u2022 \"I've Got a Feeling\" (two takes)\n  \u2022 \"One After 909\" (one take)\n  \u2022 \"Dig a Pony\" (one take)\n\nThe first performance of \"I've Got a Feeling\", and the recordings of \"One After 909\", and \"Dig a Pony\" were later used for the album Let It Be.[12] In 1996, a \"rooftop\" version of \"Get Back\", which was the last song of the Beatles' final live performance, was included in Anthology 3.[13] An edit of the two takes of \"Don't Let Me Down\" was included on Let It Be... Naked.[14][better\u00a0source\u00a0needed] There was also a brief jam of \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\" while the cameramen changed film.\n\nLegacy[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n3 Savile Row, London, the location of the concert\n\nThe Beatles' rooftop concert marked the end of an era for many fans. They did record one more album, Abbey Road, but by September 1969 the Beatles had unofficially disbanded.[15] Several of the rooftop performances, particularly that of \"Dig a Pony\", showed the Beatles once again in top form, if only temporarily.[16] Fans believed the rooftop concert might have been a try-out for a return to live performances and touring.[17]\n\nThe Rutles' \"Get Up and Go\" sequence in the film All You Need Is Cash mimics the footage of the rooftop concert, and uses similar camera angles.[18] In January 2009, tribute band the Bootleg Beatles attempted to stage a 40th anniversary concert in the same location, but were refused permission by Westminster City Council due to licensing problems.[19]\n\nIn The Simpsons fifth season episode \"Homer's Barbershop Quartet\", the Be Sharps (Homer, Apu, Barney and Principal Skinner) perform a rendition of one of their previous hits on a rooftop. George Harrison, who guest-starred in the episode, is shown saying dismissively \"It's been done!\" As the song ends and the credits begin, Homer repeats John Lennon's phrase about passing the audition and everyone laughs, including Barney until he says, \"I don't get it.\"[20]\n\nIn the 2007 film Across The Universe, a musical made up entirely of Beatles' music, Sadie's band performs a rooftop concert in New York City which mimics the original. It is interrupted and closed down by the New York Police Department.[21]\n\nU2 also referenced the concert in their video for \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", which featured a similar rooftop concert in Los Angeles.\n\nMcCartney played a surprise mini-concert in midtown Manhattan on 15 July 2009 from the top of the marquee of the Ed Sullivan Theater, where he was recording a performance for Late Show with David Letterman. News of the event spread via Twitter and word of mouth, and nearby street corners were closed off to accommodate fans for the set, which duplicated the original Beatles gig.\n\nPersonnel[edit]\n\n  \u2022 John Lennon\u00a0\u2013 vocals, guitar\n  \u2022 Paul McCartney\u00a0\u2013 vocals, bass guitar\n  \u2022 George Harrison\u00a0\u2013 vocals, guitar\n  \u2022 Ringo Starr\u00a0\u2013 drums\n  \u2022 Billy Preston\u00a0\u2013 electric piano\n\nCitations[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"20 Things You Need To Know About The Beatles' Rooftop Concert\". mojo4music.com. 30 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2016.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1992, pp.\u00a0306\u2013307.\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn 1992, p.\u00a0307.\n  4. Jump up ^ The Beatles 2000, p.\u00a0321.\n  5. Jump up ^ Ryan, Kevin; Kehew, Brian (2006). Recording the Beatles: the studio equipment and techniques used to create their classic albums. Curvebender. p.\u00a0518. ISBN\u00a0978-0-9785200-0-7.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Perone 2005, p.\u00a05.\n  7. Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p.\u00a0216.\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Beatles rooftop birthday:It's 40 years since the fab four's last ever concert\". BBC. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 12 December 2013.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Perone 2005, pp.\u00a05\u20136.\n  10. Jump up ^ Lifton, Dave. \"44 YEARS AGO: THE BEATLES PERFORM LIVE FOR THE LAST TIME, ON A LONDON ROOFTOP\". Ultimate Classic Rock. Retrieved 12 December 2013.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p.\u00a0222.\n  12. Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p.\u00a0219.\n  13. Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p.\u00a0334.\n  14. Jump up ^ Beatles Bible\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Paul McCartney: 'I Want to Live in Peace'\". Life Magazine. 7 November 1969.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p.\u00a0331.\n  17. Jump up ^ Perone 2005, p.\u00a06.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Ladies and Gentlemen\u00a0: The Rutles!\". CD Review. 12 (1\u20139): 80.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Banerjee, Subhajit (30 January 2009). \"The Beatles rooftop concert: It was 40 years ago today\". The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 December 2013.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Suebsaeng, Asawin (30 January 2012). \"8 Videos to Commemorate the Beatles' Final Concert, 43 Years Later\". Mother Jones. Retrieved 30 January 2014.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (2009). Roger Ebert's Movie Yearbook 2010. Andrews McMeel Publishing. p.\u00a01. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7407-9218-2.\u00a0\n\nSources[edit]\n\n  \u2022 The Beatles (2000). The Beatles Anthology (1st ed.). Chronicle Books. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8118-3636-4.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology. Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-512941-0.\u00a0\n  \u2022 MacDonald, Ian (2005). Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (3rd (2007) ed.). Chicago Review Press. ISBN\u00a0978-1-55652-733-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Lewisohn, Mark (1992). The Complete Beatles Chronicle:The Definitive Day-By-Day Guide To the Beatles' Entire Career (2010 ed.). Chicago Review Press. ISBN\u00a0978-1-56976-534-0.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Perone, James E (2005). Woodstock: An Encyclopedia of the Music and Art Fair\u00a0\u2013 American history through music. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN\u00a0978-0-313-33057-5.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Don't Let Me Down from the rooftop\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nLet It Be\n  \u2022 Let It Be (film)\n  \u2022 Let It Be... Naked\nSongs\nSide one\n  \u2022 \"Two of Us\"\n  \u2022 \"Dig a Pony\"\n  \u2022 \"Across the Universe\"\n  \u2022 \"I Me Mine\"\n  \u2022 \"Dig It\"\n  \u2022 \"Let It Be\"\n  \u2022 \"Maggie Mae\"\nSide two\n  \u2022 \"I've Got a Feeling\"\n  \u2022 \"One After 909\"\n  \u2022 \"The Long and Winding Road\"\n  \u2022 \"For You Blue\"\n  \u2022 \"Get Back\"\nNon-album B-side\n  \u2022 \"Don't Let Me Down\"\nOuttakes\n  \u2022 \"All Things Must Pass\"\n  \u2022 \"Another Day\"\n  \u2022 \"The Back Seat of My Car\"\n  \u2022 \"Gimme Some Truth\"\n  \u2022 \"Hear Me Lord\"\n  \u2022 \"Let It Down\"\n  \u2022 \"Teddy Boy\"\n  \u2022 \"Watching Rainbows\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Rooftop concert\n  \u2022 Billy Preston\n  \u2022 Phil Spector\n  \u2022 Let It Be (Laibach album)\n  \u2022 Kum Back\n  \u2022 Let It Be (musical)\n  \u2022 Let It Be...Naked\n  \u2022 The Beatles discography\n  \u2022 Please Please Me\n  \u2022 With the Beatles\n  \u2022 A Hard Day's Night\n  \u2022 Beatles for Sale\n  \u2022 Help!\n  \u2022 Rubber Soul\n  \u2022 Revolver\n  \u2022 Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\n  \u2022 Magical Mystery Tour\n  \u2022 The Beatles (White Album)\n  \u2022 Yellow Submarine\n  \u2022 Abbey Road\n  \u2022 Let It Be\n  \u2022 Past Masters\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Beatles\n  \u2022 John Lennon\n  \u2022 Paul McCartney\n  \u2022 George Harrison\n  \u2022 Ringo Starr\n  \u2022 Stuart Sutcliffe\n  \u2022 Pete Best\nHistory\n  \u2022 The Quarrymen\n  \u2022 In Hamburg\n  \u2022 At The Cavern Club\n  \u2022 Decca audition\n  \u2022 Beatlemania in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 North American releases\n  \u2022 In the United States\n  \u2022 More popular than Jesus\n  \u2022 In Bangor\n  \u2022 In India\n  \u2022 Break-up\n  \u2022 Murder of John Lennon\n  \u2022 Anthology\n  \u2022 Love (Cirque du Soleil)\n  \u2022 The Beatles: Rock Band\n  \u2022 Line-ups\n  \u2022 Religious views\n  \u2022 Timeline\nLive performances\n  \u2022 1960 Johnny Gentle Tour\n  \u2022 Winter 1963 Helen Shapiro UK Tour\n  \u2022 1963 Roy Orbison Tour\n  \u2022 1964 world tour\n  \u2022 1965 European tour\n  \u2022 1965 US tour\n  \u2022 1965 UK tour\n  \u2022 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines\n  \u2022 1966 US tour\n  \u2022 Rooftop concert\n  \u2022 List of live performances\nAssociated places\n  \u2022 34 Montagu Square, Marylebone\n  \u2022 Abbey Road, London\n  \u2022 Abbey Road Studios\n  \u2022 The Bag O'Nails\n  \u2022 Beatlemania Hamburg\n  \u2022 Beatles Ashram\n  \u2022 Beatles-Platz\n  \u2022 Blue Angel\n  \u2022 The Casbah Coffee Club\n  \u2022 Candlestick Park\n  \u2022 The Cavern Club\n  \u2022 Kaiserkeller\n  \u2022 Kinfauns\n  \u2022 3 Savile Row\n  \u2022 The Scotch of St. James\n  \u2022 Shea Stadium\n  \u2022 Stanley Street\n  \u2022 Star-Club\n  \u2022 Strawberry Field\n  \u2022 Tittenhurst Park\n  \u2022 The Top Ten Club\n  \u2022 Wigmore Street\n  \u2022 Yellow Submarine sculpture\nAssociated companies\n  \u2022 Apple Corps\n  \u2022 Apple Records\n  \u2022 Harrisongs\n  \u2022 Lingasong Records\n  \u2022 Northern Songs\n  \u2022 Phillips' Sound Recording Services\n  \u2022 Seltaeb\n  \u2022 Startling Music\nInfluence\n  \u2022 Artists who have covered the Beatles\n  \u2022 Beatlemania\n  \u2022 Beatlesque\n  \u2022 British Invasion\n  \u2022 Cultural impact\n  \u2022 The Fest for Beatles Fans\n  \u2022 The Rutles\n  \u2022 Tributes\nLists\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 Bootlegs\n  \u2022 Cover songs\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Instruments\n  \u2022 Performers\n  \u2022 Post-breakup collaborations\n  \u2022 Recording sessions\n  \u2022 Songs\n  \u2022 Sgt. Pepper cover\nRelated media\n  \u2022 Around the Beatles\n  \u2022 Beat Bugs\n  \u2022 The Beatles (TV series)\n  \u2022 The Beatles: The Authorised Biography\n  \u2022 The Beatles Anthology (book)\n  \u2022 The Beatles at Abbey Road\n  \u2022 The Beatles Channel\n  \u2022 The Beatles Illustrated Lyrics\n  \u2022 The Beeb's Lost Beatles Tapes\n  \u2022 The Beatles Tapes from the David Wigg Interviews\n  \u2022 Everyday Chemistry\n  \u2022 In My Life\n  \u2022 Let It Be (musical)\n  \u2022 Rain: A Tribute to the Beatles\n  \u2022 Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (film)\n  \u2022 The Twelfth Album\n  \u2022 Up Against It\nOther topics\n  \u2022 Apple Corps v Apple Computer\n  \u2022 Apple scruffs\n  \u2022 Beatle boots\n  \u2022 Beatles Day\n  \u2022 Fifth Beatle\n  \u2022 Lennon\u2013McCartney\n  \u2022 Jeff Lynne and the Beatles\n  \u2022 Paul is dead\n  \u2022 Recording technology\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Beatles%27_rooftop_concert&oldid=836267537\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 The Beatles\n  \u2022 1969 in British music\n  \u2022 1969 in London\n  \u2022 Concerts in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 January 1969 events\n  \u2022 20th century in the City of Westminster\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from December 2013\n  \u2022 Use British English from November 2016\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox event with blank parameters\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from June 2017\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from June 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 April 2018, at 18:19.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8156487533476340696","title":"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds","text":"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis name uses Spanish naming customs: the first or paternal family name is Sol\u00eds\u00a0and the second or maternal family name is Rivera.\nLuis Guillermo Sol\u00eds\nPresident Luis Guillermo Solis.jpg\n47th President of Costa Rica\nIncumbent\nAssumed office\n8 May 2014\nPreceded by Laura Chinchilla\nFirst Vice President Helio Fallas Venegas\nSecond Vice President Ana Helena Chac\u00f3n Echeverr\u00eda\nPersonal details\nBorn (1958-04-25) 25 April 1958 (age\u00a059)\nSan Jos\u00e9, Costa Rica\nPolitical party National Liberation Party\n(Before 2005)\nCitizens' Action Party\n(2009\u2013present)\nSpouse(s) Nancy Richards (1987\u20132006)\nDomestic partner Mercedes Pe\u00f1as Domingo (2006\u2013Present)[1]\nChildren 6(5 with Richards)\nAlma mater University of Costa Rica\nTulane University\nUniversity of Michigan, Ann\nArbor\n\nLuis Guillermo Sol\u00eds Rivera (born 25 April 1958) is a Costa Rican politician who has been President of Costa Rica since 2014. He is a member of the center-left Citizens' Action Party (PAC). Sol\u00eds led the field in the 2014 presidential election, and he was effectively handed the presidency after the runner-up in the first round, San Jos\u00e9 mayor Johnny Araya Monge, ceased active campaigning. Sol\u00eds has a long academic and political career, culminating in his election as the first President of Costa Rica to be a member of the PAC.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Early life, education, and academic career\n  \u2022 2 Political beginnings\n  \u2022 3 2014 presidential campaign\n  \u2022 4 Presidency\n    \u2022 4.1 Economic issues\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Liquidity problems\n  \u2022 5 Political, economic, and social philosophy\n  \u2022 6 Personal life\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nEarly life, education, and academic career[edit]\n\nSol\u00eds was born in San Jos\u00e9, Costa Rica, to Vivienne Rivera Allen, an educator, and Freddy Sol\u00eds Avenda\u00f1o, an uneducated shoemaker. Both his parents lived in Turrialba, and as such many residents consider him Turrialban.[2] His family has Afro-Caribbean and Chinese roots, coming from Jamaica to Costa Rica in the early 1900s.[3] Sol\u00eds grew up in San Pedro de Montes de Oca and Curridabat, neighborhoods of San Jos\u00e9. He attended Methodist High School in San Jos\u00e9, where he was president of the student body, before studying history at the University of Costa Rica, where he earned a degree with academic honors in 1979.[4] He earned a master's degree in Latin American Studies at Tulane University in New Orleans.[5]\n\nSol\u00eds has held various academic and consulting positions. Between 1981 and 1987, he was an associate professor at the University of Costa Rica. In addition, he was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Michigan from 1983 to 1985. During this time, Sol\u00eds worked with the Arias administration and eventually became director of the Center for Peace and Reconciliation (CPR for its Spanish initials).[4] From 1992 to 1995, Sol\u00eds worked with the Academic Council of the United Nations System. Starting in 1999, Sol\u00eds worked for Florida International University as coordinator in the Center for the Administration of Justice and as a researcher for the Latin American and Caribbean Center, where he analyzed political and social events in Latin America.[4]\n\nA writer and editorial writer, Sol\u00eds has published numerous essays and books about national and international affairs. In the 1990s, he wrote for La Rep\u00fablica, a daily newspaper based in San Jos\u00e9. His writing has been published by Foreign Affairs Latinoam\u00e9rica, Frontera Norte, Espacios and Global Governance. His writing has focused on civil society, international relations, and trade.[4]\n\nPolitical beginnings[edit]\n\nWhile still at UCR, Sol\u00eds joined the National Liberation Party (PLN for its Spanish initials) in 1977.[4] Sol\u00eds was an adviser to \u00d3scar Arias in the Foreign Ministry, working on the Esquipulas Peace Agreement for which Arias would later win a Nobel Peace Prize. Sol\u00eds served as Director of International Relations for the PLN.[4] During Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Figueres Olsen's time in office, Sol\u00eds was ambassador of Central American Affairs.[5]\n\nIn 2002, Sol\u00eds followed Rolando Gonz\u00e1lez Ulloa as General Secretary of the PLN, a position he resigned from the following year,[4] citing his disappointment with the Alcatel-Lucent bribery scandal that many PLN leaders were involved in. In 2005, he denounced the PLN for irregularities and corruption during party elections, along with a host of former PLN members.[6] Sol\u00eds went as far as to call the PLN leadership \"Napoleonic\" and \"anti-democratic\".[4] He officially renounced his affiliation with the party and returned to academics.\n\nAfter the 2006 election, Sol\u00eds' name began to come up in PAC circles, particularly at meetings of the \"ungroup,\" an informal gathering of PAC officials, led by former deputy and former Vice President of the National University of Costa Rica Alberto Salom Echeverr\u00eda.[7] Ott\u00f3n Sol\u00eds, one of PAC's founders and three-time presidential candidate, suggested that Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds run as a vice presidential candidate in 2010. Luis Guillermo Solis rejected the offer because he was working for the General Secretariat of Ibero-America (SEGIB for its Spanish initials), and employees of SEGIB were not allowed to participate in elections.[7]\n\nIn 2009, Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds began his official affiliation with PAC.[4] He began attending meetings of the \"ungroup\" in 2010. Within the party, PAC leader Mar\u00eda Eugenia Venegas recognized Sol\u00eds' potential and pushed for him to be elevated within the party. Sol\u00eds undertook several trips around the country to meet with national and provincial PAC leaders.[7]\n\n2014 presidential campaign[edit]\n\nSol\u00eds announced his candidacy for president on 27 November 2012. In the PAC's primary, he ran against Epsy Campbell Barr, Juan Carlos Mendoza Garc\u00eda, and Ronald Sol\u00eds Bola\u00f1os, winning with 35 percent of the vote,[4] only 110 votes more than Juan Carlos Mendoza Garc\u00eda.[7]\n\nIn October 2013, he chose Helio Fallas and Ana Helena Chac\u00f3n Echeverr\u00eda as his Vice-Presidential running mates.[8] Among his aims, Sol\u00eds claimed he would clean up corruption, create major investments in infrastructure, and shore up Costa Rica's universal health care and social security system.[3] He also promised to continue initiatives to keep Costa Rica environmentally friendly.[9] He said that he would \"put the brakes\" on new free trade agreements and would begin correctly administrating current free trade agreements.[10] As such, Sol\u00eds received a tremendous amount of political support from the country's trade unions. [11]\n\nOn 2 February 2014, Sol\u00eds won the most votes in the election with 30.95 percent. PLN candidate Johnny Araya came second with 29.95 percent of the vote.[12] Most of Sol\u00eds' support came from the Central Valley provinces of San Jos\u00e9, Alajuela, Heredia and Cartago.[13]\n\nPAC supporters wave their traditional colors to celebrate Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds' victory on 6 April 2014\n\nBecause no candidate exceeded 40 percent of the vote, a runoff was scheduled for 6 April, as required by the constitution. However, on 5 March, Araya announced that he would abandon his campaign after polls showed him far behind Sol\u00eds; one poll showed him losing by over 43 percent.[14] However, under Costa Rican law the runoff still had to take place, and Sol\u00eds won with over 77 percent of the vote, the largest margin ever recorded for a free election in Costa Rica.[15][16][17] Unlike the first round, Sol\u00eds earned a majority in every province, including Puntarenas, Lim\u00f3n, and Guanacaste.[18] When he took office on 8 May, he was the first president in 66 years not to come from the PLN or what is now the PUSC.[18]\n\nImmediately after the election, Sol\u00eds thanked Costa Rican voters. He received congratulatory notes from world leaders, including US Secretary of State John Kerry, Ecuadoran President Rafael Correa, Mexican President Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto, Venezuelan President Nicol\u00e1s Maduro, Bolivian President Evo Morales, and the spokesperson from the French Ministry of International Affairs.[19] For his part, Araya congratulated Sol\u00eds on his victory, calling for national unity.[20]\n\nPresidency[edit]\n\nSol\u00eds speaking in 2014\n\nA little over a week before taking office, in April 2014, Sol\u00eds announced the creation of his cabinet. His cabinet consists of mostly PAC members or non-aligned citizens. However, two PUSC members were also added: Mar\u00eda del Roc\u00edo S\u00e1enz, Abel Pacheco's former health minister, heads the Costa Rican Social Security System (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social). Delia Villalobos, another former health minister, heads the Social Protection Council (Consejo de Seguridad).[21]\n\nSol\u00eds took office on 8 May 2014,[22] amid festive fanfare.[23] Delegations from more than 80 countries attended his inauguration at La Sabana Metropolitan Park, including Prince Felipe de Borb\u00f3n of Spain, Evo Morales of Bolivia, Rafael Correa of Ecuador, and the Secretary General of the Organization of American States, Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza.[24] Sol\u00eds said, in Costa Rican vernacular, that he is taking over a \"weed farm\" (finca encharralada),[22] pointing out growing income inequality and poverty, as well as a national teachers' strike.[25]\n\nEconomic issues[edit]\n\nIn 2014, President Sol\u00eds presented a budget with an increase in spending of 19% for 2015, an increase of 0.5% for 2016 and an increase of 12% for 2017.[26] When the 2017 budget was finally proposed, it totaled US$15.9 billion. Debt payments account for one-third of that amount. Of greater concern is the fact that a full 46% of the budget will require financing, a step that will increase the debt owed to foreign entities.[27]\n\nThe country's credit rating was reduced by Moody's Investors Service in early 2017 to Ba2 from Ba1, with a negative outlook on the rating. The agency particularly cited the \"rising government debt burden and persistently high fiscal deficit, which was 5.2% of GDP in 2016\". Moody's was also concerned about the \"lack of political consensus to implement measures to reduce the fiscal deficit [which] will result in further pressure on the government's debt ratios\".[28] In late July 2017, the Costa Rica Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country's GDP.[29]\n\nA 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government. Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit.[30]\n\nLiquidity problems[edit]\n\nIn early August 2017, the President promised admitted that the country was facing a \"liquidity crisis\" and promised that a higher VAT tax and higher income tax rates were being considered by his government. Such steps are essential, Sol\u00eds told the nation, because it was facing difficulties in paying its obligations and guaranteeing the provision of services.\"[31] \"Despite all the public calls and efforts we have made since the start of my administration to contain spending and increase revenues, there is still a gap that we must close with fresh resources,\" he said. The crisis was occurring in spite of growth, low inflation and continued moderate interest rates, Sol\u00eds concluded.[32]\n\nHe explained that the Treasury will prioritize payments on the public debt first, then salaries, and then pensions. The subsequent priorities include transfers to institutions \"according to their social urgency.\" All other payments will be made only if funds are available.[33]\n\nPolitical, economic, and social philosophy[edit]\n\nThe past generated two different economies: one very dynamic, modern and generally oriented toward international markets, with limited possibilities for new sources of employment, and the other, traditional, which created many jobs with low pay where small and medium-sized businesses concentrated.\nLuis Guillermo Sol\u00eds, Plan Rescate, 2014-2018\n\nLike most members of PAC, Sol\u00eds identifies himself as a progressivist. His Plan Rescate, or Rescue Plan, outlines his political beliefs. This plan focused on three central issues: anti-corruption, economic growth, and reducing income inequality.[34]\n\nSol\u00eds claims that economic neoliberalism has created too much income inequality for Costa Rica.[34] Past governments have avoided collecting taxes on large companies and high-income earners, leading to budget deficits which Sol\u00eds claims his administration will fix through better enforcement.[34] Banks should not encourage exports at the expense of income growth among the poor, according to Sol\u00eds.[34] He believes that economic liberalization has generally harmed women more than men because they have traditionally had less access to higher-income jobs. Part of that liberalization, he claims, included ignoring the financial and growth needs of the agricultural industry.[35]\n\nSol\u00eds supports environmental protections, which he believes Costa Rica has forgotten.[9] As such, Sol\u00eds believes that water must be safeguarded from private development and mismanagement, something that has caused water shortages in many of the country's municipalities. Sol\u00eds claims that he will prosecute violators of the Water Resources Management Bill.[34]\n\nIn addition, Sol\u00eds supports increased rights for rights for lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transsexuals. In May 2014, he ordered that a rainbow flag be flown over the Presidential House as a show of solidarity with gays on International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia.[36]\n\nSol\u00eds is a Catholic.[35] As a presidential candidate, he visited the basilica of Our Lady of Angels, home to the Costa Rican patron saint La Negrita, a traditional pilgrimage for many Costa Ricans and tourists.[35] He supports the separation of church and state despite Catholicism being the country's official religion.[37] With regard to ethical issues, he also supports civil unions, and in-vitro fertilization.[35]\n\nPersonal life[edit]\n\nSolis has ten children from his previous marriage to his first wife, Nancy Olive Worsfold Richards (1987\u20132006): Monica, Cristina, Beatriz, Charlie, Carly, Jennifer, John, Carlos, Diego and Ignacio.[38][1]\n\nSol\u00eds is not married to Mercedes Pe\u00f1as Domingo, but she is altogether considered the First Lady of Costa Rica.[39] He and Pe\u00f1as, who began dating in 2006, have one daughter, In\u00e9s.[1][38] Pe\u00f1as said that she hopes to be active as an adviser to Sol\u00eds, who called her \"Jiminy Cricket.\"[39] Saying that some of her duties as First Lady are machista, she will nevertheless greet dignitaries and perform other obligations.[39] In addition to public service and academics, Sol\u00eds enjoys farming.[35]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c Romo, Jose Luis (2015-03-15). \"Mercedes Pe\u00f1as, la primera dama espa\u00f1ola y at\u00edpica de Costa Rica\". El Mundo. Retrieved 2016-06-14.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Hern\u00e1ndez, Josu\u00e9 (24 March 2014). \"'He vuelto una vez m\u00e1s a la tierra de mis padres', dijo Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds en Turrialba\" [\"I'm back again in the land of my parents\", said Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds in Turrialba]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9, Costa Rica. Retrieved 27 March 2014.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Dyer, Zach (3 November 2013). \"Costa Rican presidential candidate Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds: 'It's not going to be business as usual'\". The Tico Times. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Ortiz de Z\u00e1rate (editor), Roberto (March 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds Rivera, CIDOB\" (in Spanish). Barcelona: Barcelona Centre for International Affairs. Retrieved 1 April 2014.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Biograf\u00eda\" [Biography]. Campaign web site (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Guer\u00e9n Catepill\u00e1n, Pablo (18 January 2005). \"Corrales dice adi\u00f3s a Liberaci\u00f3n\" [Corrales says goodbye to the National Liberation Party]. Al D\u00eda (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Oviedo, Estaban (8 April 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds: El profesor desconocido que, en tres a\u00f1os, lleg\u00f3 a ser el presidente\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds: The unknown professor who, in three years, became president]. La Naci\u00f3n (San Jose) (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 8 April 2014.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Murillo, \u00c1lvaro (13 October 2013). \"PAC completa su f\u00f3rmula presidencial con el exministro Helio Fallas\" [PAC completes presidential ticket with ex-minister Helio Fallas]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 25 March 2014.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b D\u00edaz, Luis Edo. (27 January 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds llama a sus seguidores a 'cambiar la historia' patria\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds calls on his supporters to 'change history' for the country]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Sequeira, Aaron (20 February 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds propone evitar firma de nuevos tratados comerciales\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds proposes avoiding the signing of new free trade agreements]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 20 February 2014.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ name=optimism>Kane, Corey (1 May 2014). \"Labor voices optimism over new administration, takes parting shots at Costa Rica's Chinchilla\". The Tico Times. San Jose. Retrieved 4 May 2014.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Mapa de Resultados Elecciones Costa Rica\" [Costa Rican Map of Electoral Results]. RESULTADOS ELECTORALES EN MAPA ELECTORAL (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9: La Naci\u00f3n. Retrieved 20 February 2014.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Oviedo, Esteban (3 February 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds sorprende y entra a segunda ronda con Johnny Araya\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds surprises and enters second round with Johnny Araya]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 3 February 2014.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Costa Rica government's presidential candidate withdraws\". BBC. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Sol\u00eds advierte que a\u00fan no es presidente a pesar de retirada de Araya\" [Sol\u00eds warns that he is not yet president despite Araya's withdrawal]. Prensa Libre (in Spanish). Guatemala City. AFP. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Live Costa Rica presidential election results The Tico Times, 2014-04-06.\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Mapa de Resultados Elecciones Costa Rica Abril 2014\" [Costa Rican Map of April 2014 Electoral Results]. RESULTADOS ELECTORALES EN MAPA SEGUNDA RONDA ELECTORAL (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9: La Naci\u00f3n. Retrieved 7 April 2014.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Berm\u00fadez Aguilar, Andr\u00e9s; Efr\u00e9n L\u00f3pez Madrigal (7 April 2014). \"PAC gan\u00f3 elecciones con m\u00e1s de un mill\u00f3n de votos\" [PAC wins election with more than one million votes]. La Prensa Libre (Costa Rica) (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 7 April 2014.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Ag\u00fcero R., Mercedes; \u00c1lvaro Murillo (8 April 2014). \"Gobiernos amigos desean \u00e9xitos y ofrecen apoyo a Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds\" [Friendly goverernments wish success and offer help to Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds]. La Nacion (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 8 April 2014.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Ag\u00fcero R., Mercedes; David Delgado (7 April 2013). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds gana con 1,3 millones de votos\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds wins 1.3 million votes]. La Naci\u00f3n (in Spanish). San Jos\u00e9. Retrieved 8 April 2014.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Oviedo, Esteban; Esteban Mata (29 April 2014). \"Sol\u00eds conf\u00eda a exministros del PUSC dos cargos clave\". La Nacion (Costa Rica) (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 29 April 2014.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b Oviedo, Esteban (8 May 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds recibe una econom\u00eda estable pero amenazada\". La Nacion (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 8 May 2014.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Guevara, Paula Ruiz (0 May 2014). \"Fiesta democr\u00e1tica se vivi\u00f3 desde las gradas del Nacional\". La Nacion (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 9 May 2014.\u00a0 Check date values in: |date= (help)\n  24. Jump up ^ Arias, L. (8 May 2014). \"Representatives from 80 countries to attend Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds\u2019 inauguration on Thursday\". The Tico Times. San Jose. Retrieved 8 May 2014.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Fonseca, Graciela (8 May 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds: \"Hay un poco de nerviosismo, pero es normal\"\". Costa Rica Hoy (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 8 May 2014.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ http:\/\/qcostarica.com\/costa-rica-government-faces-liquidity-problems\/\n  27. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.ticotimes.net\/2016\/09\/05\/costa-rica-national-budget-2017\n  28. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.moodys.com\/research\/Moodys-downgrades-Costa-Ricas-government-bond-rating-to-Ba2-continued--PR_361770\n  29. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/hoy-san-diego\/news\/\n  30. Jump up ^ http:\/\/news.co.cr\/costa-rica-playing-fire-delaying-fiscal-reform-says-intl-expert\/63565\/\n  31. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/hoy-san-diego\/news\/\n  32. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.efe.com\/efe\/english\/business\/costa-rica-will-have-trouble-paying-bills-president-says\/50000265-3342508#\n  33. Jump up ^ http:\/\/qcostarica.com\/costa-rica-government-faces-liquidity-problems\/\n  34. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kane, Corey (9 April 2014). \"President-elect Solis\u2019 plan: Balance the budget and protect the environment without raising taxes\". The Tico Times. Retrieved 10 April 2014.\u00a0\n  35. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jim\u00e9nez Badilla, Eillyn (16 October 2013). \"Me gusta sembrar chayotes, por eso soy sensible al campo\" [I like growing chayotes, because of that I'm a simple farmer]. Diario Extra (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 11 April 2014.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Dyer, Zach (16 May 2014). \"Social conservative lawmakers incensed over LGBT flag at Casa Presidencial\". The Tico Times. San Jose. Retrieved 19 May 2014.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Mata, Esteban (8 April 2014). \"Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds impulsar\u00e1 Estado laico desde nuevo Gobierno\" [Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds to push for secular state with new government]. La Nacion (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 11 April 2014.\u00a0\n  38. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Meet Costa Rica's future First Lady, Mercedes Pe\u00f1as Domingo\". Inside Costa Rica. 2014-04-15. Retrieved 2016-06-14.\u00a0\n  39. ^ Jump up to: a b c Murillo, \u00c1lvaro (11 May 2014). \"La primera dama, Mercedes Pe\u00f1as: \u2018Me pondr\u00e9 las tenis y estar\u00e9 en el terreno\u2019\". La Nacion (in Spanish). San Jose. Retrieved 12 May 2014.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds.\n  \u2022 Biography by CIDOB (in Spanish)\nPolitical offices\nPreceded\u00a0by\nLaura Chinchilla\nPresident of Costa Rica\n2014\u2013present\nIncumbent\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPresidents and heads of state of Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Juan Mora Fern\u00e1ndez\n  \u2022 Gallegos\n  \u2022 Carrillo\n  \u2022 Joaqu\u00edn Mora\n  \u2022 Aguilar\n  \u2022 Carrillo\n  \u2022 Moraz\u00e1n\n  \u2022 Pinto\n  \u2022 Alfaro\n  \u2022 Oreamuno\n  \u2022 Gallegos\n  \u2022 Alfaro\n  \u2022 Castro\n  \u2022 Miguel Mora\n  \u2022 Juan Mora Porras\n  \u2022 Montealegre\n  \u2022 Jim\u00e9nez Zamora\n  \u2022 Castro\n  \u2022 Jim\u00e9nez Zamora\n  \u2022 Carranza\n  \u2022 Guardia\n  \u2022 Esquivel S\u00e1enz\n  \u2022 Herrera\n  \u2022 Guardia\n  \u2022 Lizano\n  \u2022 Fern\u00e1ndez\n  \u2022 Soto\n  \u2022 Rodr\u00edguez Zeled\u00f3n\n  \u2022 Yglesias\n  \u2022 Esquivel Ibarra\n  \u2022 Gonz\u00e1lez V\u00edquez\n  \u2022 Jim\u00e9nez Oreamuno\n  \u2022 Gonz\u00e1lez Flores\n  \u2022 Tinoco\n  \u2022 Quir\u00f3s\n  \u2022 Aguilar\n  \u2022 Acosta\n  \u2022 Jim\u00e9nez Oreamuno\n  \u2022 Gonz\u00e1lez V\u00edquez\n  \u2022 Jim\u00e9nez Oreamuno\n  \u2022 Cort\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Calder\u00f3n Guardia\n  \u2022 Picado\n  \u2022 Figueres Ferrer\n  \u2022 Ulate\n  \u2022 Figueres Ferrer\n  \u2022 Echandi\n  \u2022 Orlich\n  \u2022 Trejos\n  \u2022 Figueres Ferrer\n  \u2022 Oduber\n  \u2022 Carazo\n  \u2022 Monge\n  \u2022 Arias\n  \u2022 Calder\u00f3n Fournier\n  \u2022 Figueres Olsen\n  \u2022 Rodr\u00edguez Echeverr\u00eda\n  \u2022 Pacheco\n  \u2022 Arias\n  \u2022 Chinchilla\n  \u2022 Sol\u00eds\nState flag of Costa Rica\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCurrent heads of state in Central American countries\n  \u2022 Elizabeth II (Belize)\n  \u2022 Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds (Costa Rica)\n  \u2022 Salvador S\u00e1nchez Cer\u00e9n (El Salvador)\n  \u2022 Jimmy Morales (Guatemala)\n  \u2022 Juan Orlando Hern\u00e1ndez (Honduras)\n  \u2022 Daniel Ortega (Nicaragua)\n  \u2022 Juan Carlos Varela (Panama)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCitizens' Action Party\nPartido Acci\u00f3n Ciudadana\nNational Executive Committee\n  \u2022 Olivier P\u00e9rez Gonz\u00e1lez (President)\n  \u2022 Olga Marta S\u00e1nchez Oviedo (Secretary General)\n  \u2022 Leda Zamora Chaves (Treasurer)\n2014-2018 Deputies\n(13 \/ 57)\nSan Jos\u00e9\n  \u2022 Epsy Campbell Barr\n  \u2022 Ott\u00f3n Sol\u00eds\n  \u2022 V\u00edctor Hugo Morales Zapata\n  \u2022 Marcela Guerrero Campos\n  \u2022 Ruperto Marvin Atencio Delgado\nAlajuela\n  \u2022 Nidia Mar\u00eda Jim\u00e9nez V\u00e1squez\n  \u2022 Javier Francisco Cambronero Arguedas\n  \u2022 Franklin Corella Vargas\nCartago\n  \u2022 Emilia Molina Cruz\n  \u2022 Marco Vinicio Redondo Quir\u00f3s\nHeredia\n  \u2022 Henry Mora Jim\u00e9nez\n  \u2022 Marlene Madrigal Flores\nPuntarenas\n  \u2022 Laura Mar\u00eda Garro S\u00e1nchez\nNotable Members\n  \u2022 Luis Guillermo Sol\u00eds\n  \u2022 Helio Fallas\n  \u2022 Ana Helena Chac\u00f3n Echeverr\u00eda\n  \u2022 Ott\u00f3n Sol\u00eds\n  \u2022 Epsy Campbell Barr\n  \u2022 Guido Miranda\n  \u2022 Juan Carlos Mendoza Garc\u00eda\n  \u2022 Elizabeth Fonseca Corrales\n  \u2022 Juan Manuel Villasuso\n  \u2022 Wilfrido Blanco\n  \u2022 V\u00edctor Morales Mora\n  \u2022 Jorge Antonio Salas Bonilla\n  \u2022 Alberto Salom Echeverr\u00eda\n  \u2022 Alberto Ca\u00f1as Escalante\n  \u2022 Hern\u00e1n Solano\n  \u2022 Gloria Valer\u00edn Rodr\u00edguez\n  \u2022 Ronald Sol\u00eds Bola\u00f1os\nIssues and beliefs\n  \u2022 Christian socialism\n  \u2022 Social democracy\n  \u2022 Progressivism\n  \u2022 Portal:Politics\n  \u2022 List of political parties\n  \u2022 Politics of Costa Rica\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 189160567\n  \u2022 LCCN: n87939039\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0001 0467 6401\n  \u2022 GND: 13384739X\n  \u2022 SUDOC: 129603198\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Luis_Guillermo_Sol\u00eds&oldid=800228897\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Citizens' Action Party politicians\n  \u2022 1958 births\n  \u2022 Catholicism in Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Costa Rican people of Chinese descent\n  \u2022 Costa Rican people of Jamaican descent\n  \u2022 Costa Rican Roman Catholics\n  \u2022 Fulbright Scholars\n  \u2022 Government ministers of Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Living people\n  \u2022 People from San Jos\u00e9, Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Costa Rican politicians of Chinese descent\n  \u2022 Presidents of Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Tulane University alumni\n  \u2022 University of Michigan alumni\n  \u2022 University of Costa Rica alumni\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list\n  \u2022 CS1 errors: dates\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox officeholder with an atypical party value\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox officeholder with unknown parameters\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 S\u00e1megiella\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 12 September 2017, at 06:06.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-366213285678987857","title":"The Song of Roland","text":"The Song of Roland\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor the 1978 film starring Klaus Kinski, see The Song of Roland (film).\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThe eight phases of The Song of Roland in one picture.\n\nThe Song of Roland (French: La Chanson de Roland) is an epic poem (Chanson de geste) based on the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French literature and exists in various manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries.\n\nThe date of composition is put in the period between 1040 and 1115: an early version beginning around 1040 with additions and alterations made up until about 1115. The final text has about 4,000 lines of poetry. The epic poem is the first[1] and, along with The Poem of the Cid, one of the most outstanding examples of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the 11th and 15th centuries and celebrated legendary deeds.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Manuscripts and dating\n    \u2022 1.1 AOI\n  \u2022 2 Critical opinions\n    \u2022 2.1 Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions\n  \u2022 3 Plot\n  \u2022 4 Form\n  \u2022 5 Characters\n    \u2022 5.1 Principal characters\n    \u2022 5.2 Secondary characters\n  \u2022 6 Durandal\n  \u2022 7 Historical adaptations\n  \u2022 8 Modern adaptations\n  \u2022 9 See also\n  \u2022 10 Notes\n  \u2022 11 Further reading\n  \u2022 12 External links\n\nManuscripts and dating[edit]\n\nBodleian Library, MS Digby 23, Part 2\n\nSet in the Carolingian era, it was written much later. There is a single extant manuscript of the Song of Roland in Old French, held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford.[2] This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman.[3] There are also eight further manuscripts, and three fragments, of other poems on the subject of Roland.[4]\n\nSome scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold (Turoldus in the manuscript itself), between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so based upon what they interpret as brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade.\n\nIn the poem, the term d'oltre mer or l'oltremarin comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from oltre mer to fight in Spain and France. Oltre mer, modern French Outremer, literally \"oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea\", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots ultra = \"beyond\" and mare = \"sea\". The name was commonly used by the Crusaders to refer to Palestine.[citation needed]\n\nThe occurrence of this term in the poem cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades in the poem; on the contrary, the way it is used in the poem, in which it is simply a Muslim land, indicates that the author of the poem was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before the Crusades began meaning the far side of the Mediterranean Sea. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started.\n\nAfter two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837.[5]\n\nAOI[edit]\n\nDetail of manuscript showing \"AOI\"\n\nCertain lines of the Oxford manuscript end with the letters \"AOI\". The meaning of this word or annotation is unclear. Scholars have hypothesized that the marking may have played a role in public performances of the text, such as indicating a place where a jongleur would change the tempo.[6]\n\nCritical opinions[edit]\n\nOral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions[edit]\n\nScholarly consensus has long accepted that the Song of Roland differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions.\n\nEarly editors of the Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes,[7] \"[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic\".\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nThe death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux, from an illuminated manuscript c.1455\u20131460.\n\nCharlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa, held by the Muslim King Marsile. Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin, who councils him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to France.\n\nCharlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears to be murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter France through the mountain passes.\n\nAs Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to \"elephant\", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to France. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them.\n\nThe Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise.\n\nWhen Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro, where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant, the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in France.\n\nThe Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, partially out of fear of Ganelon's friend Pinabel who threatens to fight anyone who judges Ganelon guilty, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal.\n\nPinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat. By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged. Bramimonde converts to Christianity, her name changing to Juliana. While sleeping, Charlemagne is told by Gabriel to ride to help King Vivien and bemoans his life.\n\nForm[edit]\n\nCharlemagne finds Roland dead (14th-century miniature).\n\nThe poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza.\n\nOn a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant.[8] Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel.\n\nThe narrator gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive.\n\nThe narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad.\n\nThe story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.\n\nCharacters[edit]\n\nPrincipal characters[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Andriodos, helpless boy; despite the honor came from King Charlemagne.\n  \u2022 Baligant, emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne.\n  \u2022 Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism\n  \u2022 Bassalt, came from the name of rocks that are solid and may occur in the second phrase of the poem; captured the horse of the king.\n  \u2022 Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, King Marsile's wife; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls.\n  \u2022 Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.\n  \u2022 Ganelon, treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French army.\n  \u2022 King Marsile, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.\n  \u2022 Naimon, Charlemagne's trusted adviser.\n  \u2022 Oliver, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom.\n  \u2022 Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; bursts his temples by blowing his olifant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies facing the enemy's land.\n  \u2022 Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, represents the force of the Church.\n\nSecondary characters[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Aude, the fianc\u00e9e of Roland and Oliver's sister\n  \u2022 Basan, French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile.\n  \u2022 B\u00e9rengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile's troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne.\n  \u2022 Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered.\n  \u2022 Geboin, guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.\n  \u2022 Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne's defender against Pinabel.\n  \u2022 Grandoyne, fighter on Marsile's side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.\n  \u2022 Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.\n  \u2022 Lorant, French commander of one of the first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.\n  \u2022 Milon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.\n  \u2022 Ogier, a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.\n  \u2022 Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.\n  \u2022 Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.\n  \u2022 Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.\n\nDurandal[edit]\n\nAccording to the Song of Roland, the legendary sword called Durandal was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th-century legend from the French town of Rocamadour, Roland threw the sword into a cliffside.[citation needed] You can still see a sword there, allegedly Durandal, embedded into the cliff-face.[citation needed]\n\nHistorical adaptations[edit]\n\nA Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as \"The Pseudo-Turpin\") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe[8] (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century.\n\nIt was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of Ronsasvals, which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagn\u00fas saga, and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando Furioso, which deals largely with characters first described in the Song of Roland.\n\nThere is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named \"Runtsivalstr\u00ed\u00f0i\u00f0\" (Battle of Roncevaux).[9] The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing.\n\nModern adaptations[edit]\n\nThe Chanson de Roland has an important place in the background of Graham Greene's The Confidential Agent, published in 1939. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of \"Roland\". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: \"Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne \u2013 but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge \u2013 because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves \u2013 the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics\".[10]\n\nIt is also adapted by Stephen King, in the Dark Tower series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King.\n\nThe Song of Roland is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain), and related to Orlando Furioso. The names Roland and Orlando are cognates.\n\nEmanuelle Luzzati's animated short film, I paladini di Francia, together with Giulio Gianini, in 1960, was turned into the children's picture-story book, with verse narrative, I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz, which translates literally as \u201cThe Paladins of France or the treachery of Gano of Maganz\u201d (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as Ronald and the Wizard Calico (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books.\n\nLuzatti's original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore \u2013 White Flower, or Blanchefleur \u2013 and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins \u2013 the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors \u2013 North African Muslims and Arabs \u2013 and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland's cowardly step-father, is Ganelon \u2013 very likely the inspiration for Luzzati's traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando's cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff.\n\nOn July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel \u2033The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland,\" inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screenplay written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as \"Song of Roland\" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066.[11]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 La Br\u00e8che de Roland\n  \u2022 Matter of France\n  \u2022 Herzog Ernst\n  \u2022 Lamprecht\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"The Song of Roland\". FordhamUniversity.edu. Archived from the original on 2015-02-04. Retrieved 2015-02-04.\n  2. Jump up ^ (in French) La Chanson de Roland on Dictionnaire \u00c9tymologique de l'Ancien Fran\u00e7ais\n  3. Jump up ^ Short, Ian (1990). Introduction. France: Le Livre de Poche. pp.\u00a05\u201320.\n  4. Jump up ^ La Chanson de Roland on Archives de litt\u00e9rature du Moyen \u00c2ge\n  5. Jump up ^ Gaunt, Simon; Pratt, Karen (2016). The Song of Roland, and Other Poems of Charlemagne (1st ed.). New York, NY 10016, United States of America: Oxford University Press. p.\u00a0xi. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-965554-0.\n  6. Jump up ^ Love, Nathan (1984). \"AOI in the Chanson de Roland: A divergent hypothesis\". Olifant. 10 (4). Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Rencesvals.\n  7. Jump up ^ Taylor, Andrew, \"Was There a Song of Roland?\" Speculum 76 (January 2001): 28-65\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Brault, Gerard J., Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary, Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN\u00a09780271039145\n  9. Jump up ^ Part of Runtsivalstr\u00ed\u00f0i\u00f0 with Dansifelagi\u00f0 \u00ed Havn\n  10. Jump up ^ \"The Confidential Agent\", Part 1, Ch. 2, quoted in \"Graham Greene: an approach to the novels\" by Robert Hoskins, p. 122 [1]\n  11. Jump up ^ Author's Notes, The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland, iUniverse, July 2017 (http:\/\/www.iuniverse.com\/Bookstore\/BookDetail.aspx?BookId=SKU-000995830)\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Brault, Gerard J. Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition: Introduction and Commentary (Penn State Press, 2010).\n  \u2022 DiVanna, Isabel N. \"Politicizing national literature: the scholarly debate around La chanson de Roland in the nineteenth century.\" Historical Research 84.223 (2011): 109-134.\n  \u2022 Jones, George Fenwick. The ethos of the song of Roland (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963).\n  \u2022 Vance, Eugene. Reading the Song of Roland (1970).\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikisource has original text related to this article:\nThe Song of Roland\nFrench Wikisource has original text related to this article:\nLa Chanson de Roland\nWikiquote has quotations related to: The Song of Roland\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Chanson de Roland.\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland at Project Gutenberg (English translation of Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff)\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland--(Dorothy L. Sayers) at Faded Page (Canada)\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland public domain audiobook at LibriVox\n  \u2022 La Chanson de Roland (Old French)\n  \u2022 The Romance of the Middle Ages: The Song of Roland, discussion of Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23, audio clip, and discussion of the manuscript's provenance.\n  \u2022 Earliest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland, readable online images of the complete original, Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Digby 23 (Pt 2) La Chanson de Roland, in Anglo-Norman, 12th century,\u00a0? 2nd quarter\".\n  \u2022 Old French Audio clips of a reading of The Song of Roland in Old French\n  \u2022 Timeless Myths: Song of Roland\n  \u2022 Wikisource-logo.svg\u00a0\"Roland, The Song of\". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nKing Charlemagne and the Matter of France\nKey people\n  \u2022 Charlemagne\n  \u2022 Roland\n  \u2022 Ganelon\n  \u2022 Naimon\n  \u2022 Oliver\n  \u2022 Renaud de Montauban\nPaladins and other characters\n  \u2022 Agolant\n  \u2022 Albracca\n  \u2022 Angelica\n  \u2022 Astolfo\n  \u2022 Atlantes\n  \u2022 Aude\n  \u2022 Aymon\n  \u2022 Baligant\n  \u2022 Blancandrin\n  \u2022 Bradamante\n  \u2022 Bramimonde\n  \u2022 Brandimarte\n  \u2022 Brunello\n  \u2022 Charlot\n  \u2022 Doon de Mayence\n  \u2022 Ferragut\n  \u2022 Fierabras\n  \u2022 Garin de Monglane\n  \u2022 Girart de Roussillon\n  \u2022 Huon of Bordeaux\n  \u2022 Marfisa\n  \u2022 Marsile\n  \u2022 Maugris\n  \u2022 Melissa\n  \u2022 Ogier the Dane\n  \u2022 Pinabel\n  \u2022 Rodomonte\n  \u2022 Ruggiero\n  \u2022 Sacripante\n  \u2022 Turpin\n  \u2022 William of Gellone\n  \u2022 Zerbino\nHorses and other animals\n  \u2022 Barbamouche\n  \u2022 Bayard\n  \u2022 Gaignun\n  \u2022 Gramimond\n  \u2022 Hippogriff\n  \u2022 Marmorie\n  \u2022 Passecerf\n  \u2022 Rabicano\n  \u2022 Sautperdu\n  \u2022 Sorel\n  \u2022 Tach\u00ebbrun\n  \u2022 Tencendur\n  \u2022 Veillantif\nSwords and other objects\n  \u2022 Almace\n  \u2022 Curtana\n  \u2022 Durendal\n  \u2022 Hauteclere\n  \u2022 Joyeuse\n  \u2022 Murgleys\n  \u2022 Olifant\n  \u2022 Pr\u00e9cieuse\nPlaces\n  \u2022 Aachen\n  \u2022 La Br\u00e8che de Roland\n  \u2022 Roncevaux Pass\nChansons de geste and other works\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland\n  \u2022 Le P\u00e8lerinage de Charlemagne\n  \u2022 Chanson de Guillaume\n  \u2022 Gormond et Isembart\n  \u2022 The Four Sons of Aymon\n  \u2022 Karlamagn\u00fas saga\n  \u2022 Orlando Innamorato\n  \u2022 Orlando Furioso\n  \u2022 Morgante\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Song of Roland\nSource\n  \u2022 Battle of Roncevaux Pass\nFilms\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland (1978)\nOther versions\n  \u2022 Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis\n  \u2022 Historia Caroli Magni\n  \u2022 Karlamagn\u00fas saga\n  \u2022 The Dark Tower\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Baligant\n  \u2022 Blancandrin\n  \u2022 Bramimonde\n  \u2022 Charlemagne\n  \u2022 Ganelon\n  \u2022 King Marsile\n  \u2022 Naimon\n  \u2022 Oliver\n  \u2022 Roland\n  \u2022 Turpin\n  \u2022 Aude\n  \u2022 Ogier\n  \u2022 Pinabel\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 BNF: cb12008442d (data)\n  \u2022 NKC: unn2010568621\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Song_of_Roland&oldid=865446055\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Chansons de geste\n  \u2022 Matter of France\n  \u2022 French folklore\n  \u2022 French poems\n  \u2022 Epic poems in French\n  \u2022 Anglo-Norman folklore\n  \u2022 The Song of Roland\n  \u2022 Works of unknown authorship\n  \u2022 Cultural depictions of Charlemagne\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with French-language external links\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from December 2014\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Articles containing French-language text\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018\n  \u2022 Articles with Project Gutenberg links\n  \u2022 Articles with LibriVox links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Wikisource\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u044b\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u5434\u8bed\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\n  \u2022 Lingua Franca Nova\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 24 October 2018, at 00:51\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"6745241833639665449","title":"Power Rangers","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nPower Rangers\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other uses, see Power Rangers (disambiguation).\nPower Rangers\nPower rangers logo.png\nThe current logo for the Power Rangers franchise\nCreated by Haim Saban\nShuki Levy[not verified in body]\nOriginal work Mighty Morphin Power Rangers\nPrint publications\nNovel(s) Power Rangers: The Official Movie Novel\nComics Mighty Morphin Power Rangers\nMMPR: Pink\nPower Rangers: Aftershock\nGo Go Power Rangers\nJustice League\/Power Rangers\nFilms and television\nFilm(s) Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie\nTurbo: A Power Rangers Movie\nSaban's Power Rangers\nTelevision series See below\nTheatrical presentations\nPlay(s) Mighty Morphin Power Rangers World Tour Live on Stage\nGames\nTraditional Power Rangers Collectible Card Game\nVideo game(s) See list\nAudio\nSoundtrack(s) Mighty Morphin Power Rangers The Album: A Rock Adventure\nPower Rangers - Original Motion Picture Soundtrack\nOriginal music \"Go Go Power Rangers\"\n\"Power Rangers: The Official Single\"\n\nPower Rangers is an American entertainment and merchandising franchise built around a live action superhero television series. Produced first by Saban Entertainment, later by BVS Entertainment, and today by SCG Power Rangers, the television series takes much of its footage from the Japanese tokusatsu Super Sentai, produced by Toei Company.[1] The first Power Rangers entry, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, debuted on August 28, 1993, and helped launch the Fox Kids programming block of the 1990s, during which it catapulted into popular culture along with a line of action figures and other toys by Bandai.[2] As of 2001[update], the media franchise has generated over $6 billion in retail sales worldwide.[3]\n\nDespite initial criticism that its action violence targeted child audiences, the franchise has continued, and as of 2017[update] the show consists of 24 television seasons of 20 different themed series and three theatrical films released in 1995, 1997 and 2017. In 2010, Haim Saban, creator of the series, regained ownership of the franchise after seven years under The Walt Disney Company.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Premise\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 Adapting the Super Sentai series\n    \u2022 2.2 Broadcast history\n  \u2022 3 Television series\n    \u2022 3.1 The Saban Era\n    \u2022 3.2 The Disney Era\n    \u2022 3.3 The Neo-Saban Era\n  \u2022 4 Feature films\n  \u2022 5 Distribution\n    \u2022 5.1 Home media\n  \u2022 6 Broadcast\n  \u2022 7 Video games\n  \u2022 8 See also\n  \u2022 9 Notes\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nPremise\n\nFurther information: List of Power Rangers characters and List of Power Rangers villains\n\nSince Power Rangers derives most of its footage from the Super Sentai series, it features many hallmarks that distinguish it from other superhero series. Each series revolves around a team of youths recruited and trained by a mentor to morph into the eponymous Power Rangers, able to utilize special powers and pilot immense assault machines, called Zords, to overcome the periodic antagonists. In the original series Mighty Morphin, the wizard Zordon recruits \"teenagers with attitude\" against Rita Repulsa.[4]\n\nWhen \"morphed,\" the rangers become powerful superheroes wearing color-coded skin-tight spandex suits and helmets with opaque visors; identical except in individual rangers' color and helmet design. Morphed Rangers generally possess enhanced strength, durability, agility and combat prowess. Some possess superhuman or psychic abilities such as super-speed, element manipulation, extra-sensory perception or invisibility.[5] In addition, each individual ranger has a unique weapon, as well as common weaponry used for ground fighting.[note 1] When enemies grow to incredible size (as nearly all do), Rangers utilize individual Zords that combine into a larger Megazord.\n\nRangers teams operate in teams of five or three, with more Rangers joining the team later. Each team of Rangers, with a few exceptions, obeys a general set of conventions, outlined at the beginning of Mighty Morphin and implied by mentors throughout many of the other series: Power Rangers may not use their Ranger powers for personal gain or for escalating a fight (unless the enemy does so), nor may the Power Rangers disclose their identities to the general public.[note 2] The penalty for disobeying these rules, in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, is the loss of their power.\n\nAs in Super Sentai, the color palette of each Power Rangers team changes every series.[note 3] Only Red and Blue appear in every Ranger team, while a Yellow Ranger has been present in every season except Power Rangers Dino Charge. Other colors and designations also appear throughout the series.[note 4] A Rangers' color designation also influences their wardrobe throughout the series: civilian clothing often matches Ranger color.[note 5]\n\nHistory\n\nAdapting the Super Sentai series\n\n[icon]\nThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2009)\n\nProduction of Power Rangers episodes involves extensive localization of and revision of original Super Sentai source material in order to incorporate American culture and conform to American television standards. Rather than making an English dub or translation of the Japanese footage, Power Rangers programs consist of scenes featuring English-speaking actors (either from the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, or the United Kingdom) spliced with scenes featuring either Japanese actors dubbed into English or the action scenes from the Super Sentai Series featuring the Rangers fighting monsters or the giant robot (Zord and Megazord) battles with English dubbing. In some series, original fight scenes are filmed to incorporate characters or items unique to the Power Rangers production.[6] Like many of Saban Entertainment previous ventures in localizing Japanese television for a Western audience, the plot, character names, and other names usually differ greatly from the source footage, though a few seasons have stayed close to the story of the original Super Sentai season.\n\nAlong with adapting the villains from the Super Sentai counterparts, most Power Rangers series also feature villains with no Sentai counterpart. Generally, the primary antagonist of a Power Rangers series (for example, Lord Zedd, Divatox, etc.) are not adapted from the Sentai. Exceptions to this includes Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Lightspeed Rescue and a few others which only use villains adapted from the Japanese shows.\n\nThe series that began the franchise, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (an American adaptation of the 1992 Japanese Super Sentai Series, Ky\u014dry\u016b Sentai Zyuranger), began broadcasting as part of the Fox Kids block of programing that aired on the FOX network. It lasted for three seasons (from 1993 to 1996).[7]\n\nBroadcast history\n\nThe Saban Entertainment run of the franchise\u2014beginning with Power Rangers in Space\u2014used this version of the Power Rangers logo (1998\u20132001).\n\nSaban Entertainment distributed the Power Rangers series from 1993 until the end of 2001, and Fox broadcast it until the fall of 2002. The Walt Disney Company purchased the franchise as part of a buyout that took place in 2001.[7][8][9][10] This resulted in Fox Family Worldwide becoming ABC Family Worldwide Inc.[10] This buyout also saw Saban Entertainment becoming BVS Entertainment in 2002, from News Corporation, Fox's parent company, and Haim Saban.[10] The show continued to air on Fox until the company replaced its Fox Kids package with \"FoxBox\" in the United States. Since September 2002, all Power Rangers shows had aired on various Disney-owned networks (ABC Kids, Toon Disney and Jetix channels worldwide).[7] When Wild Force ended, Disney moved production of the franchise from Los Angeles to New Zealand. This resulted in the closure of MMPR Productions and the dismissal of many members of the production. From Ninja Storm to date, Power Rangers is produced in New Zealand. ABC Family, another Disney-owned network, also used to air Power Rangers until it did away with its Jetix timeslot after August 31, 2006. On February 12, 2009, Toon Disney ended in the wake of Disney XD, ending cable airings of Power Rangers in certain areas of the United States. Several ABC affiliate broadcasting groups declined to air most of the Power Rangers series since 2006 due to the lack of FCC-compliant educational and informational content in the programs.[11]\n\nThe Saban era seasons, starting with In Space, have gone under the \"Saban's Power Rangers\" moniker, up until Time Force. Since the re-acquisition of Power Rangers by Saban in 2010, this practice has continued once again starting with Samurai.\n\nStarting in 2005, up until 2007, during its run on Jetix, Power Rangers reruns were aired under the moniker Power Rangers Generations, showcasing select episodes from Mighty Morphin through Dino Thunder.\n\nAn article in The New Zealand Herald published on March 7, 2009, identified Power Rangers RPM as the last season of the Power Rangers run. Production manager Sally Campbell stated in an interview, \"...at this stage we will not be shooting another season.\"[12][13] A September 1, 2009, revision to Disney A to Z: The Official Encyclopedia by Disney's head archivist Dave Smith states that \"production of new episodes [of Power Rangers] ceased in 2009\".[14] Production of Power Rangers ceased and the last[update] series by BVS Entertainment, RPM, ended on December 26, 2009.[12]\n\nOn October 1, 2009, Bandai released a press release that Disney would re-broadcast Mighty Morphin Power Rangers starting in January 2010 on ABC Kids in lieu of a new series utilizing footage from the 2009 Super Sentai television series. A new toy line accompanied the series and appeared in stores in the later part of 2009.[7][15][16] ABC's over-the air telecasts ended on August 28, 2010, and turned the hour back to affiliates.\n\nOn May 12, 2010, Haim Saban bought back the Power Rangers franchise from Disney for $43 million and announced plans to produce a new season of the television series.[17][18][19] The eighteenth season, Samurai, began airing on Nickelodeon on February 7, 2011,[18][20] with the previous episodes beginning rebroadcast on Nicktoons later that year.[20][21][22] It was also announced that Saban plans to make a new Power Rangers movie.[23]\n\nOn July 2, 2012, it was announced that Saban Brands would launch a Saturday morning cartoon block on The CW, called Vortexx, on August 25, 2012, that would air Power Rangers Lost Galaxy.[24][25][26][27][28] To commemorate the series' 20th anniversary, Nickelodeon began airing Power Rangers Megaforce on February 2, 2013, featuring all of the past rangers from the series' 20-year history. On October 1, 2013, Saban Brands announced that it had extended agreements with Nickelodeon and Bandai America Incorporated through 2016 for its globally recognized Power Rangers franchise.[29] In January 2016, Saban and Nickelodeon extended their broadcast partnership through 2018.[30]\n\nThe 90s Are All That aired Mighty Morphin Power Rangers as part of Mighty Morphin Weekend in 2013.\n\nTelevision series\n\nMain article: List of Power Rangers episodes\nVariations of Power Rangers throughout the franchise unite.\n\nThe first series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers through In Space followed a story arc called \"The Zordon Era\" with a gradually changing cast and characters over six years. Beginning with Lost Galaxy, although it had ties with the previous story arc, each Power Rangers series had its own self-contained storylines, independent of previous series. Crossover episodes between different series featuring rangers, villains, and other characters from past seasons also began with Lost Galaxy, with a few exceptions.\n\nThe Saban Era\n\nThe Saban Era is seasons 1-10 that includes Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1993-1996) to Power Rangers Wild Force (2002). These series aired on Fox during the Fox Kids programming block. The Zordon Era is Mighty Morphin Power Rangers to Power Rangers in Space.\n\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1993\u20131996)\n    \u2022 Season 1: When the evil witch Rita Repulsa and her minions Goldar, Squatt, Baboo, and Finster, are freed from their imprisonment on the Moon, the wizard Zordon, with the help of his assistant Alpha 5, enlists five teenagers\u2014Jason Lee Scott, Trini Kwan, Billy Cranston, Kimberly Hart, and Zack Taylor\u2014to become the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers to battle Rita's invasion of the Earth, using their Power Coins and Dinozords to combat her monsters. Rita soon creates her own evil Power Ranger by brainwashing a recent transfer student Tommy Oliver, but the Power Rangers are able to free him from her control and he joins their side. This season uses footage from Ky\u014dryu Sentai Zyuranger.\n    \u2022 Season 2: Rita's superior Lord Zedd returns to the Earth to take over for Rita's incompetence, imprisoning her once more. His new monsters prove too powerful for the Dinozords, leading Zordon to empower them into the Thunderzords. Jason, Trini, and Zack leave to join a youth conference in Switzerland, and are replaced by Rocky DeSantos, Aisha Campbell, and Adam Park, respectively, and Rita returns and marries Lord Zedd. This season uses footage from Gosei Sentai Dairanger.\n    \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie (1995): When the evil wizard Ivan Ooze is freed by construction work, he takes revenge against Zordon for imprisoning him. As his powers are too strong for the Power Rangers, Alpha 5 uses the last of the Command Center's power to send them to the planet Phaedos to learn the ways of the Ninjetti from the warrior Dulcea to stop Ooze before he can conquer the universe. The movie, which does not fall into the canon of the TV series, drew inspiration from Ninja Sentai Kakuranger.\n    \u2022 Season 3: Rita's brother Rito Revolto comes to Earth and destroys the Power Rangers' Power Coins and Thunderzords. The Power Rangers seek out Ninjor, creator of the Power Coins, for new Power Coins giving them new ninja powers and the Ninjazords, and later the Shogunzords. Rita also enchants a new Australian exchange student Kat Hillard into slowly draining Kimberly of her Ranger powers, until the spell is broken; when Kimberly ultimately leaves to train for the Olympics, she entrusts Kat to be her replacement amongst the Power Rangers. This season uses footage from Ninja Sentai Kakuranger.\n    \u2022 Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers (1996): When Rita's father Master Vile comes to Earth, he turns back time, turning the Power Rangers, and many of their friends, into children. Zordon calls upon his proteges the Alien Rangers of Aquitar to protect the Earth from Master Vile's monsters and to help work on a machine that would return the child rangers to their proper ages. Unfortunately, Only Billy returns to normal as the machine which required the power coins as a power source is stolen by Rito & Goldar allowing Rita & Zedd to destroy the coins. The child rangers then travel throughout time to gather the fragments of the Zeo Crystal to bring time back to normal. During her journey in Africa, Aisha meets Tanya Sloan and realizes that she can do more help to stop the sickness plaguing the wildlife and sends Tanya back with her Zeo Crystal. This series also uses footage from Ninja Sentai Kakuranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Zeo (1996): With the Zeo Crystal restored, time brought back to normal, and Master Vile defeated, the Rangers are caught off guard when Goldar and Rito destroy their headquarters. Although Zordon reveals he is fine, he warns the Rangers that the Machine Empire is planning on conquering the Earth, and the Rangers must use the power of the Zeo Crystal to become the Zeo Rangers to battle them. Billy, who used his scientific prowess to return to his original age during Alien Rangers, decides to work on the Zeo Zords and other machinery, and his presence in the destruction of the previous Command Center leaves him unable to receive the powers of the Gold Ranger, Trey of Triforia, but Jason returns instead. Billy soon begins to age rapidly, a side effect from the regenerator, he used to return to his normal age, and leaves Earth to be healed on Aquitar. This season uses footage from Ch\u014driki Sentai Ohranger.\n  \u2022 Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie (1997): The intergalactic pirate Divatox kidnaps the wizard Lerigot to open a dimensional barrier so she can wed the demon Maligore. To stop her, Zordon gives the Rangers their new Turbo Ranger powers to stop her. Rocky, however, has been hurt, and in his stead Zordon sends Justin Stewart, a young boy who inadvertently discovers the Rangers' identities. This film drew inspiration from Gekisou Sentai Carranger and serves as a bridge to the subsequent TV season.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Turbo (1997): After Divatox's plans are foiled, she sets her sights on conquering the Earth, with the Turbo Rangers and eventually the intergalactic police officer the Blue Senturion combatting her monsters. Tommy, Adam, Tanya, and Kat soon retire from being Power Rangers, choosing T.J. Johnson, Carlos Vallerte, Ashley Hammond, and Cassie Chan as their replacements, who are also assisted by the Phantom Ranger. Zordon also leaves, putting Dimitria in his place. This season uses footage from Gekisou Sentai Carranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers in Space (1998): After Divatox succeeds in destroying the Command Center, she is called off planet to participate in Dark Specter's evil alliance in conquering the universe. T.J., Carlos, Ashley, and Cassie travel into outer space to try to stop him, and meet up with Andros, who they join to become the Space Rangers to stop Dark Specter and his protege Astronema. They eventually awaken Andros' friend Zhane, the Silver Ranger, and free Andros' sister Karone (Astronema) from Dark Specter's control and ultimately use Zordon, captured by Dark Specter, to defeat Dark Specter's armies and free the universe from his control. This season uses footage from Denji Sentai Megaranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Lost Galaxy (1999): The governments of the Earth decide to send out an experimental space colony Terra Venture, on which Leo Corbett stows away to join his brother Mike on the journey to find new planets. When it encounters a wormhole on the Moon, Leo, Mike, Kai Chen, and Kendrix Morgan go through it and encounter Maya and her planet Mirinoi which is under attack from Scorpius and his minions, led by Trakeena. After Leo, Mike, and Kendrix are stranded, Kai commandeers the Astro Megaship along with its mechanic Damon Henderson to save them. Mike, Kai, Damon, Maya, and Kendrix are chosen by the Quasar Sabers to fight Scorpius, but Mike seemingly falls to his death, leaving Leo to act as the leader of the Galaxy Rangers in his stead back on Terra Venture. Mike later returns after it is revealed the Magna Defender has been using his body as a vessel to fight Scorpius' monsters along with the Galaxy Rangers. Mid-season, Deviot revives the Psycho Rangers and the space rangers come to help. Kendrix ultimately dies while saving the Pink Space Ranger, Cassie and is replaced by Karone. They later must fight Captain Mutiny and his space pirates after they are transported to the Lost Galaxy. This season uses footage from Seijuu Sentai Gingaman.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue (2000): Carter Grayson, Chad Lee, Joel Rawlings, Kelsey Winslow, and Dana Mitchell are hired by Operation Lightspeed to protect Mariner Bay from a group of evil demons led by Queen Bansheera from taking over the world by fighting as the Lightspeed Rangers. They are later joined by Dana's long lost brother Ryan. This season uses footage from Kyuukyuu Sentai GoGoFive.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Time Force (2001): When the mutant Ransik and his daughter Nadira escape custody of the Time Force police in the year 3000 by stealing the very prison, they travel back in time to 2001, but not before seemingly killing the Red Time Force Ranger Alex. His subordinates Jen Scotts, Lucas Kendall, Katie Walker, and Trip travel back in time to 2001 and seek out Alex's ancestor Wes Collins, as his DNA unlocks the Time Force Morphers, allowing all of them to become the Time Force Power Rangers to recapture the mutants Ransik uses to thwart them and stop the Bio-Lab who ended up creating him. They are ultimately joined by Eric Myers, who uses the Quantum Morpher and Q-Rex to fight. This season uses footage from Mirai Sentai Timeranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Wild Force (2002): Jungle man Cole Evans, Air Force pilot Taylor Earhardt, would-be pro-bowler Max Cooper, florist Danny Delgado, and martial artist Alyssa Enril\u00e9 are chosen by Princess Shayla of the floating island Animaria to be the Wild Force Power Rangers to fight the evil Orgs. They are later joined by Merrick Baliton, one of the original Wild Force Power Rangers who used a forbidden power to defeat the Master Org 3,000 years in the past, after he is freed from the power in the present. This season uses footage from Hyakujuu Sentai Gaoranger. Wild Force featured an anniversary commemoration episode in \"Forever Red\", featuring the return of nearly every Red Ranger.\n    \u2022 Wild Force marked a shift from Saban Entertainment to BVS Entertainment in production and distribution and was the last season to be filmed in the United States.\n\nThe Disney Era\n\nThe Disney Era is seasons 11-17 that includes Power Rangers Ninja Storm (2003) to Power Rangers RPM (2009). These series aired on various Disney television networks.\n\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Ninja Storm (2003): Shane Clarke, Tori Hanson, and Dustin Brooks are bumbling students of Kanoi Watanabe's Wind Ninja Academy, but when Lothor kidnaps the other students, they are all that remain to protect the Earth from Lothor's evil space ninjas as the Wind Rangers. They are also joined in battle by adopted brothers Hunter and Blake Bradley of the rival Thunder Ninja Academy as the Thunder Rangers and Kanoi's son Cam as the Samurai Ranger. aired in 2003. This season uses footage from Ninpuu Sentai Hurricaneger.\n    \u2022 Ninja Storm is the first season to be filmed in New Zealand.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Dino Thunder (2004): When the evil Mesogog appears to bring the Earth back to the Mesozoic age, Dr. Tommy Oliver of Reefside reluctantly enlists his students Conner McKnight, Ethan James, and Kira Ford to battle him as the Dino Rangers. Tommy later joins them as a Ranger, once more, as well as Trent Fernandez-Mercer, adopted son of Tommy's once colleague Dr. Anton Mercer, who is Mesogog's alterego. This season uses footage from Bakuryuu Sentai Abaranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers S.P.D. (2005): In the year 2025, the Space Patrol Delta police force protects the galaxy from the Troobian Empire's forces. When their A-Squad of Power Rangers fall in battle, B-Squad members Sky Tate, Bridge Carson, and Syd Drew are joined by rookies Jack Landors and Z Delgado under the direction of Commander Anubis Cruger to be the S.P.D. Power Rangers. They are later joined by Sam, a young boy they save from the Troobian Empire who in the future becomes the Omega Ranger, as well as Cmdr. Cruger as the Shadow Ranger and technical expert Dr. Kat Manx as the Kat Ranger. This season uses footage from Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Mystic Force (2006): The sorceress Udonna enlists the help of Chip Thorn, Madison Rocca, Vida Rocca, Xander Bly, and new guy in town Nick Russell to become the Mystic Rangers to protect Briarwood and its nearby magical forest from the evil forces of Morticon, who plans on taking over both the magical and human worlds. They are eventually joined by Udonna's old friend Daggeron and his genie Jenji, and Udonna and her long lost husband Leanbow, who has been trapped as the evil Koragg since falling in battle 20 years prior. This season uses footage from Mahou Sentai Magiranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Operation Overdrive (2007): Wealthy adventurer Andrew Hartford tasks Will Aston, Dax Lo, Ronny Robinson, Rose Ortiz, and reluctantly his own son Mack to act as the Overdrive Rangers, searching for the jewels of the Corona Aurora before either Flurious or Moltor, and later Kamdor and the Fearcats can. They are later joined by Tyzonn, member of a search and rescue team from the planet Mercuria, who has a past with the Fearcats. This season uses footage from GoGo Sentai Boukenger. Operation Overdrive also featured an anniversary episode in \"Once a Ranger\", bringing back several characters from previous seasons.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Jungle Fury (2008): The Pai Zhua, or \"Order of the Claw\", has protected the world from the evil spirit of Dai Shi for nearly ten thousand years. When Jarrod, Lily Chilman, and Theo Martin are chosen by Master Mao to guard the container of Dai Shi's spirit, Jarrod is deemed unworthy and replaced by rookie or \"cub\" member Casey Rhodes. Angered by this slight, Jarrod attempts to steal Dai Shi's vessel, only to become possessed by his spirit. Mao, who falls in battle, entrusts in best student R.J. to lead the others as the Jungle Fury Power Rangers to stop Dai Shi from taking over the world. R.J. later joins them in battle, as does Dom Hargan, a former Pai Zhua student who went to find his path in life. This season uses footage from Juken Sentai Gekiranger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers RPM (2009): A malicious and rapidly evolving computer virus known as Venjix has ravaged the Earth, leaving the surviving members of humanity to huddle for safety in the force field protected city of Corinth. To stop Venjix's attacks, led by his humanoid warrior Tenaya, the mysterious Doctor K enlists Scott Truman, Flynn McAllistair, Summer Landsdown, and reluctantly Ziggy Grover and the apparent cyborg Dillon as the RPM Ranger Operators. They are later joined by Gem and Gemma, Doctor K's old friends. This season uses footage from Engine Sentai Go-onger.\n    \u2022 RPM was the last season to be produced by BVS Entertainment.\n  \u2022 In 2010, a re-versioned edit of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers aired. During this year, Saban Brands bought back the rights to Power Rangers.\n\nThe Neo-Saban Era\n\nThe Neo-Saban Era began in season 18 and continues to present starting with Power Rangers Samurai. These series aired on Nickelodeon.\n\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Samurai and Super Samurai (2011\u20132012): In order to prevent Master Xandred's Nighlok forces from taking over the Earth, Mentor Ji of the Shiba House trains Jayden, Kevin, Mia, Mike, and Emily in the ways of the samurai to fight as the Samurai Power Rangers. They are later joined by Jayden's childhood friend Antonio as the Gold Ranger, who is instrumental in unlocking the group's Super Mode. These two seasons use footage from Samurai Sentai Shinkenger.\n    \u2022 Samurai is the first season back under the ownership of Saban and the first season produced by SCG Power Rangers. Power Rangers continues to be produced and filmed in New Zealand.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Megaforce (2013): Zordon's protege Gosei calls on high school students Troy Burrows, Noah Carver, Jake Holling, Emma Goodall, and Gia Moran to become the Megaforce Power Rangers to battle the invasion of the Warstar Empire. They are later joined by the Robo Knight in his fight against the Toxic Mutants. This season uses footage from Tensou Sentai Goseiger.\n    \u2022 Super Megaforce (2014): With the Warstar Empire's forces increasing their invasion, Gosei gives the Rangers new morphers to assume Super Mega Mode, allowing them to call on the powers of all of the previous Power Rangers. They are joined by Orion, a citizen from the planet Andresia. Super Megaforce also features the return of several previous characters. This season uses footage from Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger.\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Dino Charge and Dino Super Charge (2015\u20132016): When an intergalactic bounty hunter comes to Earth looking for the Energems, entrusted to an alien who lost them during the asteroid bombardment that resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs, the Dino Charge Power Rangers are formed to find the Energems first. These two seasons use footage from Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger.[31]\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Ninja Steel and Super Ninja Steel (2017-2018): The Power Rangers are protecting an item called the Ninja Nexus Prism from the forces of Galvanax, the champion of the universe's most popular intergalactic game show, who wants the Prism, which contains six magical Ninja Power Throwing Stars, to become invincible. The Rangers must master the arsenal of throwing stars, Zords, and Megazords, all made from the titular legendary \"ninja steel\", to stop Galvanax's warrior contestants sent to Earth to retrieve the Prism, the Steel and the Power Stars for him. This season uses footage from Shuriken Sentai Ninninger.[32][33]\n\nFeature films\n\nThe Power Rangers franchise has also generated three theatrical motion pictures. The first two are distributed by 20th Century Fox, and the third film released in 2017 by Lionsgate.\n\nFilm Release date Box office revenue Director\nUnited States Foreign Total\nTV series franchise\nMighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie[34] June 30, 1995 $38,187,431 $28,245,763 $66,433,194 Bryan Spicer\nTurbo: A Power Rangers Movie[35] March 28, 1997 $8,363,899 $1,251,941 $9,615,840 David Winning and Shuki Levy\nReboot\nSaban's Power Rangers[36] March 24, 2017 $84,350,803 $50,525,733 $134,876,536 Dean Israelite\n\nDistribution\n\nPower Rangers has long had success in international markets and continues to air in many countries, with the exception of New Zealand, where the series filming takes place as of 2009[update]. As of 2006, Power Rangers aired at least 65 times a week in more than 40 worldwide markets.[37] Many markets carry or have carried the series on their respective Fox or later Jetix\/Disney XD channels or have syndicated the program on regional children's channels or blocks, either dubbed into the local language or broadcast in the original English. Since the 2010 acquisition by Saban Brands, international television distribution rights for Power Rangers have been managed by MarVista Entertainment.[38][39][40]\n\nBroadcast in East Asian territories has been treated differently from in other international markets due to the prevalence and familiarity of 'the Super Sentai brand originating in Japan. Power Rangers was briefly banned in Malaysia for supposedly encouraging the use of drugs because it contained the word \"Morphin'\" in its title, which could be associated with morphine. The show eventually aired without the offending word.[41] In Japan, many Power Rangers television seasons and movies were dubbed into Japanese for television and video with the voice actors often pulled from past Super Sentai casts, leading to the English-dubbed action sequences being \"re-dubbed\" or \"restored\" back to Japanese as well. Power Rangers Mystic Force is the latest season to be broadcast in Japan on Toei Channel in January 2014, with the Magiranger cast voicing their counterparts. After broadcast of Power Rangers ended in South Korea with Wild Force, Bandai of Korea started airing dubbed Super Sentai series under the \ud30c\uc6cc\ub808\uc778\uc800 (Power Ranger) brand on JEI TV. Some seasons of Super Sentai broadcast in South Korea have similarly named titles as their American counterparts, such as Power Ranger Dino Thunder[42] for Abaranger in 2007 and Power Ranger S.P.D.[43] in place of Dekaranger.\n\nHome media\n\nThis article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nAs of October 2009[update], 33 Power Rangers DVD collections have been released in the United States:\n\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, 1995; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment\n  \u2022 Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, 1997; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie\/Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, 1995, 1997; 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment (DVD compilation set of both movies.)\n  \u2022 The Best of the Power Rangers: The Ultimate Rangers, 2003; BVHE (DVD compilation of episodes from five different seasons of Power Rangers. The episodes include \"Forever Red\" and \"White Light\" [Tommy's reintroduction as the White Power Ranger])\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Ninja Storm Volumes 1\u20135, 2003; BVHE\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Dino Thunder Volumes 1\u20135, 2004; BVHE\n  \u2022 Power Rangers S.P.D. Volumes 1\u20135, 2005; BVHE\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Mystic Force Volumes 1\u20133 and 'Dark Wish', 2006; BVHE\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Operation Overdrive Volumes 1\u20135, 2007; BVHE (The release of an entire season for the first time in the US.)[44][45][46]\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Jungle Fury Volumes 1 & 2, 2008; BVHE[47] (Volumes 3-5 are only available in the UK.)\n  \u2022 Power Rangers RPM Volumes 1 & 2, 2009; BVHE[48]\n  \u2022 Power Rangers RPM 'Bandai Demo DVD', 2009; BVHE (A promo DVD given away at Disney Stores. Contains the episode In or Out).[49]\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Samurai Volumes 1\u20135, 2012; Lionsgate\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Samurai \"Monster Bash\" and 2 MMPR Halloween episodes; Lionsgate\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Samurai \"Christmas Together, Samurai Forever\" and 2 MMPR Christmas episodes; Lionsgate\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Super Samurai Volumes 1\u20134 plus The Complete Series; Lionsgate\n\nInternationally, additional DVD releases have occurred (such as Lightspeed Rescue, Time Force and Wild Force in Germany) and as free DVDs attached to the Jetix magazine, published in the UK. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1, Season 2, and Season 3, Power Rangers Zeo, Power Rangers Turbo, and Power Rangers In Space have been released in Germany as well in both English and German, with Power Rangers Lost Galaxy only in German.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56] Additionally, Ninja Storm, Dino Thunder, S.P.D., Mystic Force, and Operation Overdrive saw complete boxset releases in the UK.[57][58][59][60][61] In France, Mighty Morphin Season 1 and Season 2 have been released in their entirety in 5 episode DVD volumes, and the first 25 episodes of Season 3 were released in May 2008.[62] In Italy, Mighty Morphin, Zeo, Dino Thunder and S.P.D. have appeared in their entirety. Zeo and S.P.D. were made available as commercial DVDs, while Mighty Morphin and Dino Thunder were issued as bi-weekly volumes at newsstands.\n\nThe iTunes Store previously made Power Rangers episodes available: part of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, all of Power Rangers S.P.D., and the first 26 episodes of Power Rangers Mystic Force. Subsequent seasons and episodes of the program also made their appearances in the iTunes Store, but as of July 2009[update], Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie is the only Power Rangers film available. In 2012, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 volumes 1 & 2 were released on iTunes to coincide with the DVD releases. As of February 2013, all 3 seasons of MMPR were released on iTunes.\n\nOn June 15, 2011, all episodes of Power Rangers from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers re-version were made available for instant streaming on Netflix.[63] As of 2017, all seasons through Dino Super Charge have been made available on Netflix.\n\nOn March 12, 2012, Shout! Factory announced a home video distribution deal with Saban, which includes the first 17 series of Power Rangers. Shout! Factory released the first seven seasons on DVD in August 2012,[64] seasons 8-12 on November 2013,[65] a 20-year collection on December 2013,[66] and seasons 13-17 on April 2014.[67]\n\nOn March 22, 2012 Lionsgate Home Entertainment reached a home media distribution deal with Saban to release Power Rangers Samurai to DVD and Blu-ray.[68]\n\nAs of April 2015[update], all series through Super Megaforce are available on the iTunes Store.\n\nAs of 2016[update], Dino Charge became available on iTunes.\n\nBroadcast\n\nThe series originally aired on Fox's children block, Fox Kids from 1993-2002. When Disney bought the rights to Power Rangers, it moved to ABC's Saturday morning block, ABC Kids from 2002-2010. During that time, all seasons aired on the ABC Family (now Freeform) and Toon Disney's block Jetix. When Saban bought Power Rangers back, the series aired new episodes on Nickelodeon, while previous seasons aired on Nicktoons.\n\nVideo games\n\nMain article: List of Power Rangers video games\n\nSee also\n\n  \u2022 iconTelevision in the United States portal\n  \u2022 iconFilm in the United States portal\n  \u2022 iconScience Fiction portal\n  \u2022 icon1990s portal\n  \u2022 2000s portal\n  \u2022 icon2010s portal\n  \u2022 Big Bad Beetleborgs\n  \u2022 Kamen Rider: Dragon Knight\n  \u2022 List of Power Rangers cast members\n  \u2022 Masked Rider\n  \u2022 Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog\n  \u2022 Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation\n  \u2022 Super Sentai\n  \u2022 Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad\n  \u2022 Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills\n  \u2022 VR Troopers\n  \u2022 List of the highest-grossing media franchises\n\nNotes\n\n  1. Jump up ^ As the series progresses, one or more of the Rangers will usually receive motorcycles for long-distance travel, as well as individual Zords. In many series, a Ranger is also given additional Zords or weapons. In some cases, one Ranger may receive something that other Rangers do not; an example is the Battlizer given to the Red Ranger of each series since Power Rangers in Space (until Operation Overdrive).\n  2. Jump up ^ Public servants (rescue squad, police officers, etc.) appearing as Rangers disregard this convention in Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue, Power Rangers S.P.D., Power Rangers Operation Overdrive and Power Rangers RPM.\n  3. Jump up ^ An original Power Ranger, the Titanium Ranger, was created especially for Lightspeed Rescue to add a sixth Power Ranger to the series.\n  4. Jump up ^ Other color designations include metallic colors, violet, and \"Shadow\", as well as protagonists who have powers and costumes similar to those of the Rangers but are not called \"Power Rangers\", such as the Blue Senturion and Koragg the Knight Wolf.\n  5. Jump up ^ A joke highlighted this correlation in Dino Thunder when Tommy Oliver (a former Green Ranger, White Ranger, and Red Ranger) became the new Black Ranger; he said that he had to go shopping because he did not own enough black-colored clothing.\n\nReferences\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Toei Company Profile| Toei\". Retrieved 2012-08-27.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"BANDAI Co., Ltd | Global Development\". Retrieved 2010-02-07.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Kerry, Dollan (November 26, 2001). \"Beyond Power Rangers\". Forbes. Forbes, Inc. Retrieved March 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Day of the Dumpster\". Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. Season 1. Episode 1. 1993-08-28. Fox.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Power Rangers Dino Thunder, Power Rangers S.P.D., Power Rangers Operation Overdrive, Power Rangers Jungle Fury\n  6. Jump up ^ Heffley, Lynne (November 25, 1993). \"Low-Tech Equals High Ratings\u00a0: Fox's Offbeat 'Mighty Morphin Power Rangers' Flexes Its Kidvid Muscle\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 28, 2012.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"The original \u2018Power Rangers\u2019 return in 2010\". Kung Fu Cinema. Archived from the original on 2010-04-08. Retrieved 2009-10-11.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Haim Saban\". Saban. Retrieved February 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"News Corp. and Haim Saban Reach Agreement to Sell Fox Family Worldwide to Disney for $5.3 Billion\". saban. July 23, 2001. Retrieved February 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Disney buys Fox Family for $3B\". CNNfn. www.money.cnn.com. July 23, 2001. Retrieved September 21, 2007.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Lights out for 'Power Rangers'\". New York Post. March 10, 2009. Retrieved October 8, 2009.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b \"LIGHTS OUT FOR 'POWER RANGERS'\". New York Post. 2009-03-10. Retrieved 2009-11-24.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Eriksen, Alanah May (March 6, 2009). \"'Power Rangers' defeated\". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved March 7, 2009.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Supplement to Disney A to Z: The Official Encyclopedia\" (PDF). September 1, 2009. p.\u00a087. Retrieved September 26, 2009.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"PRESS RELEASE: Bandai America Powers Up Like It\u2019s 1993; Brings Back Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in New Toy Line | Bandai America\". October 1, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"CORRECTING and REPLACING PHOTOS Bandai America Powers up Like It\u2019s 1993; Brings Back Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in New Toy Line\". October 1, 2009. Retrieved October 1, 2009.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Carugati, Anna (November 9, 2010). \"Video Interview: Saban Brands' Elie Dekel\". Retrieved November 11, 2010.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Littleton, Cynthia (2010-05-12). \"Saban re-acquires rights to 'Rangers' - Entertainment News, TV News, Media - Variety\". Retrieved May 12, 2010.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Bond, Paul (August 10, 2010). \"Disney's Q3 boosted by TV operations profit; Power Rangers sale added $43 million to coffers\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 11, 2010.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b \"\"Power Rangers Samurai\" premiering in February 2011\". Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2010.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Saban Capital Group Acquires Power Rangers from The Walt Disney Company \u00ab\u00a0 The Toy Book\". May 12, 2010. Retrieved May 12, 2010.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"SABAN BRINGS \"POWER RANGERS\" FRANCHISE TO NICKELODEON\" (PDF) (Press release). Viacom. Retrieved May 13, 2010.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Mogul Saban buys back Power Rangers from Disney\". Google News. Associated Press. May 12, 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-05-16. Retrieved May 13, 2010.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Saban Brands Partners with The CW to Launch Five-Hour Kids Television Block\" (PDF). Saban. July 2, 2012. Retrieved July 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Wallenstein, Andrew (July 2, 2012). \"Saban Brands to rebuild CW toon block\". Variety. Retrieved July 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Marcucci, Carl (July 3, 2012). \"The CW signs Saban Brands for kids block\". Radio & Television Business Report. Retrieved July 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"Saban Brands to Launch Vortexx on The CW\". PR Newswire. July 12, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Saban Brands to launch Vortexx kid shows on The CW\". Los Angeles Business. July 12, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Saban Brands Announces Extended Partnerships for Power Rangers Franchise with Nickelodeon and Bandai America Through 2016\". Business Wire. Retrieved October 2, 2013.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Dynamic New Season, Saban\u2019s Power Rangers Dino Super Charge, to Premiere Saturday, Jan. 30, at 12 p.m. (ET\/PT) on Nickelodeon\". Business Wire. January 12, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2016.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Truitt, Brian (2014-02-08). \"Exclusive: 'Power Rangers Dino Charge' coming in 2015\". USA Today. Retrieved 2014-02-09.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"24th Power Rangers Season Is Power Rangers Ninja Steel\". Anime News Network. January 13, 2016. Retrieved January 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Max Nicholson (2016-01-12). \"Power Rangers: Dino Super Charge Premiere Date and Next Iteration Revealed\". IGN. Retrieved 2016-01-12.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers (1995)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-05-05.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie (1997)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-10-18.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Lionsgate\". SABAN'S POWER RANGERS TO BEGIN PRODUCTION TODAY. 2016-02-29. Retrieved 2016-03-02.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Disney Shows Muscle with Boys Properties\" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-11-06.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Littleton, Cynthia (July 26, 2010). \"MarVista to sell 'Rangers' TV library\". Variety. Retrieved July 26, 2010.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"MarVista to Re-Introduce Power Rangers to International Market\". WorldScreen. July 26, 2010. Retrieved July 26, 2010.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Graziadio, Marissa (September 13, 2010). \"New Partners On Board for Power Rangers Samurai\". Retrieved September 20, 2010.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Malaysia: Authorities ban the hit television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers\", Reuters, December 22, 1995\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"\ud30c\uc6cc\ub808\uc778\uc800\". Archived from the original on July 16, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-05.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"\ud30c\uc6cc\ub808\uc778\uc800 S.P.D.\". Archived from the original on 2007-08-09. Retrieved 2007-08-05.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Operation Overdrive - First 2 Volumes of 'Complete Series' DVDs Planned @ TVShowsOnDVD.com\". Retrieved 2007-06-24.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Operation Overdrive - Box Art, Date, Price & Extras for Volume 3: Blue Sapphire DVD @ TVShowsOnDVD.com\". Retrieved 2007-08-25.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Operation Overdrive - Finish the Adventure in February: Final Two Volumes Kick Into Overdrive @ TVShowsOnDVD.com\". Retrieved 2007-11-10.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Jungle Fury - Disney Announces Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 DVDs for Jungle Fury @ TVShowsOnDVD.com\". 2008-09-13. Retrieved 2008-09-13.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers RPM, Vol. 2: Race for Corinth @ Amazon.com\". Retrieved 2009-07-16.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers R.P.M. - Disney Store's Promo Disc Says Volumes 3 and 4 'Coming Soon'\". Retrieved 2009-10-19.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 1 @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2008-02-13.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 2 @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2008-02-13.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Season 3 @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2008-02-13.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Zeo @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2008-05-31.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Turbo @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers In Space @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2009-05-05.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Lost Galaxy @ Amazon.de\". Retrieved 2009-05-12.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Ninja Storm @ Amazon.co.uk\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Dino Thunder @ Amazon.co.uk\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers S.P.D. @ Amazon.co.uk\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Mystic Force @ Amazon.co.uk\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Operation Overdrive @ Amazon.co.uk\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ \"Power Rangers Mighty Morphin - Volume 28 @ lcj-editions.com\". Retrieved 2008-08-01.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ Bowers, Trinnette (June 15, 2011). \"Power Rangers: At a Netflix near you\". My Fox Orlando. Archived from the original on June 21, 2011. Retrieved June 15, 2011.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin Power Rangers - 'Seasons 1-7: From Mighty Morphin to Lost Galaxy' Announced: Date, Cost, Action Figure!\". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved 2012-06-05.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Multiple Shows (5) - Power Rangers: Season 8-12\". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved 2014-11-24.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Mighty Morphin Power Rangers - Pricing is Revealed for 'Power Rangers Legacy: The First 20 Years'\". TVShowsOnDVD.com. 2013-09-04.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ \"Multiple Shows (5) - Power Rangers: Seasons 13-17\". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Retrieved 2014-11-24.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ \"Lionsgate to Distribute 'Power Rangers Samurai'\". Home Media Magazine. 2012-03-22. Retrieved 2012-06-09.\u00a0\n\nExternal links\n\n  \u2022 Official Power Rangers Website\n  \u2022 Fox Kids Official Power Rangers website (Archive)\n  \u2022 Power Rangers at Saban Brands\n  \u2022 Power Rangers at TV.com\n  \u2022 Power Rangers at Bandai\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPower Rangers\nMedia\nTV series\nSaban Entertainment\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1993\u20131995; 2010)\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\n    \u2022 2010 re-version\n  \u2022 Alien Rangers (1996)\n  \u2022 Zeo (1996)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Turbo (1997)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 in Space (1998)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Lost Galaxy (1999)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Lightspeed Rescue (2000)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Time Force (2001)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Wild Force (2002)\n    \u2022 Episodes\nDisney\n  \u2022 Ninja Storm (2003)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Dino Thunder (2004)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 S.P.D. (2005)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Mystic Force (2006)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Operation Overdrive (2007)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 Jungle Fury (2008)\n    \u2022 Episodes\n  \u2022 RPM (2009)\n    \u2022 Episodes\nSaban Brands\n  \u2022 Samurai & Super Samurai (2011\u20132012)\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n  \u2022 Megaforce & Super Megaforce (2013\u20132014)\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n  \u2022 Dino Charge & Dino Super Charge (2015\u20132016)\n    \u2022 Season 1\n    \u2022 2\n  \u2022 Ninja Steel & Super Ninja Steel (2017\u20132018)\n    \u2022 Episodes\nFilms\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie (1995)\n  \u2022 Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie (1997)\n  \u2022 Saban's Power Rangers (2017)\nVideo\ngames\n  \u2022 Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (1994)\n  \u2022 The Movie (1995)\n  \u2022 The Fighting Edition (1995)\n  \u2022 Zeo: Battle Racers (1996)\n  \u2022 Lightspeed Rescue (2000)\n  \u2022 Time Force (2001)\n  \u2022 Wild Force (2002)\n  \u2022 Ninja Storm (2003)\n  \u2022 Dino Thunder (2004)\n  \u2022 S.P.D. (2005)\n  \u2022 Super Legends (2007)\n  \u2022 Legacy Wars (2017)\nOthers\n  \u2022 \"Go Go Power Rangers\" (theme song)\n  \u2022 \"Power Rangers\" (song)\n  \u2022 A Rock Adventure\n  \u2022 World Tour Live on Stage\n  \u2022 Collectible Card Game\n  \u2022 Comics\n    \u2022 Justice League\/Power Rangers\n  \u2022 Home video\nUniverse\n  \u2022 Rangers\n  \u2022 Planets\n  \u2022 Races\n  \u2022 Villains\n  \u2022 Zords\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Cast members\n  \u2022 Power\/Rangers\n  \u2022 Super Sentai\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Dino Force Brave\n  \u2022 Power Rangers Hyperforce\nCorporate\n  \u2022 Haim Saban\n    \u2022 Saban Entertainment\n    \u2022 Saban Brands\n  \u2022 Shuki Levy\n  \u2022 Tony Oliver\n  \u2022 Bandai Namco Entertainment\n    \u2022 Bandai\nRelated Saban series\n  \u2022 VR Troopers\n  \u2022 Masked Rider\n  \u2022 Big Bad Beetleborgs\n  \u2022 Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation\n  \u2022 Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog\nRelated DIC series\n  \u2022 Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad\n  \u2022 Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills\nRelated Adness series\n  \u2022 Kamen Rider: Dragon Knight\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSuper Sentai\nIshinomori Series\n  \u2022 Gorenger (1975\u20131977)\n  \u2022 J.A.K.Q. (1977)\nSh\u014dwa Period Series\n  \u2022 Battle Fever J (1979)\n  \u2022 Denziman (1980)\n  \u2022 Sun Vulcan (1981)\n  \u2022 Goggle-V (1982)\n  \u2022 Dynaman (1983)\n  \u2022 Bioman (1984)\n  \u2022 Changeman (1985)\n  \u2022 Flashman (1986)\n  \u2022 Maskman (1987)\n  \u2022 Liveman (1988)\nHeisei Period Series (XX)\n  \u2022 Turboranger (1989)\n  \u2022 Fiveman (1990)\n  \u2022 Jetman (1991)\n  \u2022 Zyuranger (1992)\n  \u2022 Dairanger (1993)\n  \u2022 Kakuranger (1994)\n  \u2022 Ohranger (1995)\n  \u2022 Carranger (1996)\n  \u2022 Megaranger (1997)\n  \u2022 Gingaman (1998)\n  \u2022 GoGoFive (1999)\n  \u2022 Timeranger (2000)\nHeisei Period Series (XXI)\n  \u2022 Gaoranger (2001)\n  \u2022 Hurricaneger (2002)\n  \u2022 Abaranger (2003)\n  \u2022 Dekaranger (2004)\n  \u2022 Magiranger (2005)\n  \u2022 Boukenger (2006)\n  \u2022 Gekiranger (2007)\n  \u2022 Go-onger (2008)\n  \u2022 Shinkenger (2009)\n  \u2022 Goseiger (2010)\n  \u2022 Gokaiger (2011)\n  \u2022 Go-Busters (2012)\n  \u2022 Kyoryuger (2013)\n  \u2022 ToQger (2014)\n  \u2022 Ninninger (2015)\n  \u2022 Zyuohger (2016)\n  \u2022 Kyuranger (2017)\nRelated Media\n  \u2022 Ch\u014d Ninja Tai Inazuma!\n  \u2022 Akibaranger\n  \u2022 Power Rangers\n  \u2022 Sport Ranger\n  \u2022 France Five\n  \u2022 Gatchaman\n  \u2022 Kyoryuger Brave\nSee also\n  \u2022 Super Hero Time\n  \u2022 Rangers Strike\n  \u2022 Project.R\n  \u2022 Dice-O\n  \u2022 Kamen Rider\n  \u2022 Metal Hero\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nABC Kids\nDisney's\nOne Saturday Morning\n\n(1997\u20132002)\n  \u2022 101 Dalmatians: The Series\n  \u2022 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command\n  \u2022 Doug\n  \u2022 DuckTales\n  \u2022 Even Stevens\n  \u2022 Hercules\n  \u2022 Disney's House of Mouse\n  \u2022 Jungle Cubs\n  \u2022 Lizzie McGuire\n  \u2022 Lloyd in Space\n  \u2022 Mary-Kate and Ashley in Action!\n  \u2022 Mickey Mouse Works\n  \u2022 Pepper Ann\n  \u2022 Recess\n  \u2022 Sabrina: The Animated Series\n  \u2022 Science Court\n  \u2022 Teacher's Pet\n  \u2022 Teamo Supremo\n  \u2022 The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh\n  \u2022 The Bugs Bunny and Tweety Show\n  \u2022 The Weekenders\nABC Kids\n(2002\u20132011)\n  \u2022 Even Stevens (2002\u20132005)\n  \u2022 Fillmore! (2002\u20132004)\n  \u2022 Hannah Montana (2006\u20132011)\n  \u2022 Kim Possible (2002\u20132006)\n  \u2022 Lilo & Stitch: The Series (2003\u20132006)\n  \u2022 Lizzie McGuire (2002\u20132005)\n  \u2022 NBA Inside Stuff (2002\u20132004)\n  \u2022 Phil of the Future (2004\u20132006)\n  \u2022 Power Rangers (2002\u20132010)\n  \u2022 Recess (2002\u20132004)\n  \u2022 Teamo Supremo (2002\u20132003)\n  \u2022 That's So Raven (2003\u20132011)\n  \u2022 The Buzz on Maggie (2005\u20132006)\n  \u2022 The Emperor's New School (2006\u20132011)\n  \u2022 The Proud Family (2002\u20132006)\n  \u2022 The Replacements (2006\u20132011)\n  \u2022 The Suite Life of Zack & Cody (2005\u20132011)\n  \u2022 W.I.T.C.H. (2004\u20132005)\nRelated topics\n  \u2022 Children's programming on the American Broadcasting Company\n  \u2022 Disney's One Too\n  \u2022 Disney Channel Saturday Mornings (Toonin' Saturday)\n  \u2022 Jambalaya Studios\n  \u2022 Disney Television Animation\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Power_Rangers&oldid=804369097\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Power Rangers\n  \u2022 1990s American television series\n  \u2022 1993 American television series debuts\n  \u2022 2000s American television series\n  \u2022 2010s American television series\n  \u2022 ABC Kids\n  \u2022 Action figures\n  \u2022 American children's action television series\n  \u2022 American Broadcasting Company network shows\n  \u2022 American television series based on Japanese television series\n  \u2022 Bandai brands\n  \u2022 Fox network shows\n  \u2022 Jetix\n  \u2022 2010s Nickelodeon shows\n  \u2022 Superheroes\n  \u2022 Television franchises\n  \u2022 1990s toys\n  \u2022 2000s toys\n  \u2022 2010s toys\n  \u2022 Television programs adapted into films\n  \u2022 Television programs adapted into comics\n  \u2022 Television programs adapted into video games\n  \u2022 Television programs adapted into plays\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from March 2017\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2001\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017\n  \u2022 Articles to be expanded from October 2009\n  \u2022 All articles to be expanded\n  \u2022 Articles using small message boxes\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2009\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing style editing from June 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing style editing\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2009\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from July 2009\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2015\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 \u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 8 October 2017, at 15:13.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7195119017529305112","title":"ABO blood group system","text":"ABO blood group system\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"ABO\" redirects here. For other uses, see ABO (disambiguation).\n\"H substance\" redirects here. For use in inflammation, see histamine. For hydrogen atom, see hydrogen.\nABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells and IgM antibodies present in the serum\n\nThe ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of the A and B antigens on erythrocytes.[1] In human blood transfusions it is the most important of the 35 different blood type (or group) classification systems currently recognized.[2] A very rare (in modern medicine) mismatch in this, or any other serotype, can cause a serious, potentially fatal, adverse reaction after a transfusion, or a contra-indicated immune response to an organ transplant.[3] The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances, such as food, bacteria, and viruses. ABO blood types are also present in some other animals, for example rodents and apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas.[4]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History of discoveries of the blood types\n  \u2022 2 Alteration of ABO antigens for transfusion\n  \u2022 3 Genetics\n    \u2022 3.1 Subgroups\n    \u2022 3.2 Distribution and evolutionary history\n    \u2022 3.3 Origin theories\n  \u2022 4 Clinical relevance\n    \u2022 4.1 Bleeding and thrombosis (von Willebrand factor)\n    \u2022 4.2 Disease risks\n    \u2022 4.3 ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn\n    \u2022 4.4 Clinical applications\n    \u2022 4.5 Clinical marker\n  \u2022 5 Pseudoscience\n  \u2022 6 Data tables\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 Further reading\n  \u2022 10 External links\n\nHistory of discoveries of the blood types[edit]\n\nCzech serologist Jan Jansk\u00fd is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (I, II, III, IV)\n\nThe ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner, who identified the O, A, and B blood types in 1900.[5][6] Landsteiner originally described the O blood type as type \"C\", and in parts of Europe it is rendered as \"0\" (zero), signifying the lack of A or B antigen. Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for his work.[5] Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli discovered the fourth type, AB, in 1902.[7][8]\n\nUkraine marine uniform imprint, showing the wearer's blood type as \"B (III) Rh+\"\n\nIt was subsequently found that the Czech serologist Jan Jansk\u00fd had independently pioneered the classification of human blood into four groups in 1907,[9] but Landsteiner's independent discovery had been accepted by the scientific world while Jansk\u00fd remained then in relative obscurity. However, in 1921 an American medical commission acknowledged Jansk\u00fd's classification. Jan Jansk\u00fd is nowadays credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (I, II, III, IV).\n\nJansk\u00fd's classification remains in use today. In Russia and states of the former USSR, blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV.[10] The designation A and B with reference to blood groups was proposed by Ludwik Hirszfeld.\n\nIn America, W.L. Moss published his own (very similar) work in 1910.[11]\n\nLudwik Hirszfeld and E. von Dungern discovered the heritability of ABO blood groups in 1910\u201311. Felix Bernstein demonstrated the correct blood group inheritance pattern of multiple alleles at one locus in 1924.[12] Watkins and Morgan, in England, discovered that the ABO epitopes were conferred by sugars, to be specific, N-acetylgalactosamine for the A-type and galactose for the B-type.[13][14][15] After much published literature claiming that the ABH substances were all attached to glycosphingolipids, Finne et al. (1978) found that the human erythrocyte glycoproteins contain polylactosamine chains[16] that contains ABH substances attached and represent the majority of the antigens.[17][18][19] The main glycoproteins carrying the ABH antigens were identified to be the Band 3 and Band 4.5 proteins and glycophorin.[20] Later, Yamamoto's group showed the precise glycosyl transferase set that confers the A, B and O epitopes.[21]\n\nDiagram showing the carbohydrate chains that determine the ABO blood group\nStudent blood test. Three drops of blood are mixed with anti-B (left) and anti-A (right) serum. Agglutination on the right side indicates blood type A.\nThere are three basic variants of immunoglobulin antigens in humans that share a very similar chemical structure but are distinctly different. Red circles show where there are differences in chemical structure in the antigen-binding site (sometimes called the antibody-combining site) of human immunoglobulin. Notice the O-type antigen does not have a binding site.[22]\n\nAlteration of ABO antigens for transfusion[edit]\n\nIn April 2007, an international team of researchers announced in the journal Nature Biotechnology an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B, and AB blood into type O.[23] This is done by using glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the Rh blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rh positive individuals, and so blood from Rh negative donors must be used. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations.\n\nAnother approach to the blood antigen problem is the manufacture of artificial blood, which could act as a substitute in emergencies.[24]\n\nGenetics[edit]\n\nA and B are codominant, giving the AB phenotype.\n\nBlood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene (the ABO gene) with three types of alleles inferred from classical genetics: i, IA, and IB. The I designation stands for isoagglutinogen, another term for antigen.[25] The gene encodes a glycosyltransferase\u2014that is, an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens. The gene is located on the long arm of the ninth chromosome (9q34).\n\nThe IA allele gives type A, IB gives type B, and i gives type O. As both IA and IB are dominant over i, only ii people have type O blood. Individuals with IAIA or IAi have type A blood, and individuals with IBIB or IBi have type B. IAIB people have both phenotypes, because A and B express a special dominance relationship: codominance, which means that type A and B parents can have an AB child. A couple with type A and type B can also have a type O child if they are both heterozygous (IBi,IAi) The cis-AB phenotype has a single enzyme that creates both A and B antigens. The resulting red blood cells do not usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common group A1 or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently genetically impossible blood group.[26]\n\nBlood group inheritance\nBlood type O A B AB\nGenotype ii (OO) IAi (AO) IAIA (AA) IBi (BO) IBIB (BB) IAIB (AB)\nO ii (OO) O\nOO OO OO OO\nO or A\nAO OO AO OO\nA\nAO AO AO AO\nO or B\nBO OO BO OO\nB\nBO BO BO BO\nA or B\nAO BO AO BO\nA IAi (AO) O or A\nAO AO OO OO\nO or A\nAA AO AO OO\nA\nAA AA AO AO\nO, A, B or AB\nAB AO BO OO\nB or AB\nAB AB BO BO\nA, B or AB\nAA AB AO BO\nIAIA (AA) A\nAO AO AO AO\nA\nAA AO AA AO\nA\nAA AA AA AA\nA or AB\nAB AO AB AO\nAB\nAB AB AB AB\nA or AB\nAA AB AA AB\nB IBi (BO) O or B\nBO BO OO OO\nO, A, B or AB\nAB BO AO OO\nA or AB\nAB AB AO AO\nO or B\nBB BO BO OO\nB\nBB BB BO BO\nA, B or AB\nAB BB AO BO\nIBIB (BB) B\nBO BO BO BO\nB or AB\nAB BO AB BO\nAB\nAB AB AB AB\nB\nBB BO BB BO\nB\nBB BB BB BB\nB or AB\nAB BB AB BB\nAB IAIB (AB) A or B\nAO AO BO BO\nA, B or AB\nAA AO AB BO\nA or AB\nAA AA AB AB\nA, B or AB\nAB AO BB BO\nB or AB\nAB AB BB BB\nA, B, or AB\nAA AB AB BB\n\nThe table above summarizes the various blood groups that children may inherit from their parents.[27][28] Genotypes are shown in the second column and in small print for the offspring: AO and AA both test as type A; BO and BB test as type B. The four possibilities represent the combinations obtained when one allele is taken from each parent; each has a 25% chance, but some occur more than once.\n\nBlood group inheritance by phenotype only\nBlood type O A B AB\nO O O or A O or B A or B\nA O or A O or A O, A, B or AB A, B or AB\nB O or B O, A, B or AB O or B A, B or AB\nAB A or B A, B or AB A, B or AB A, B or AB\n\nHistorically, ABO blood tests were used in paternity testing, but in 1957 only 50% of American men falsely accused were able to use them as evidence against paternity.[29] Occasionally, the blood types of children are not consistent with expectations\u2014for example, a type O child can be born to an AB parent\u2014due to rare situations, such as Bombay phenotype and cis AB.[30]\n\nSubgroups[edit]\n\nThe A blood type contains about 20 subgroups, of which A1 and A2 are the most common (over 99%). A1 makes up about 80% of all A-type blood, with A2 making up almost all of the rest.[31] These two subgroups are not always interchangeable as far as transfusion is concerned, as some A2 individuals produce antibodies against the A1 antigen. Complications can sometimes arise in rare cases when typing the blood.[31]\n\nWith the development of DNA sequencing, it has been possible to identify a much larger number of alleles at the ABO locus, each of which can be categorized as A, B, or O in terms of the reaction to transfusion, but which can be distinguished by variations in the DNA sequence. There are six common alleles in white individuals of the ABO gene that produce one's blood type:[32][33]\n\nA B O\nA101 (A1)\nA201 (A2)\nB101 (B1) O01 (O1)\nO02 (O1v)\nO03 (O2)\n\nThe same study also identified 18 rare alleles, which generally have a weaker glycosylation activity. People with weak alleles of A can sometimes express anti-A antibodies, though these are usually not clinically significant as they do not stably interact with the antigen at body temperature.[34]\n\nCis AB is another rare variant, in which A and B genes are transmitted together from a single parent.\n\nDistribution and evolutionary history[edit]\n\nMain article: Blood type distribution by country\n\nThe distribution of the blood groups A, B, O and AB varies across the world according to the population. There are also variations in blood type distribution within human subpopulations.\n\nIn the UK, the distribution of blood type frequencies through the population still shows some correlation to the distribution of placenames and to the successive invasions and migrations including Norsemen, Danes, Saxons, Celts, and Normans who contributed the morphemes to the placenames and the genes to the population.[35]\n\nThe two common O alleles, O01 and O02, share their first 261 nucleotides with the group A allele A01.[36] However, unlike the group A allele, a guanosine base is subsequently deleted. A premature stop codon results from this frame-shift mutation. This variant is found worldwide, and likely predates human migration from Africa. The O01 allele is considered to predate the O02 allele.[citation needed]\n\nSome evolutionary biologists theorize that there are four main lineages of the ABO gene and that mutations creating type O have occurred at least three times in humans.[37] From oldest to youngest, these lineages comprise the following alleles: A101\/A201\/O09, B101, O02 and O01. The continued presence of the O alleles is hypothesized to be the result of balancing selection.[37] Both theories contradict the previously held theory that type O blood evolved first.[citation needed]\n\nOrigin theories[edit]\n\nIt is possible that food and environmental antigens (bacterial, viral, or plant antigens) have epitopes similar enough to A and B glycoprotein antigens. The antibodies created against these environmental antigens in the first years of life can cross-react with ABO-incompatible red blood cells that it comes in contact with during blood transfusion later in life. Anti-A antibodies are hypothesized to originate from immune response towards influenza virus, whose epitopes are similar enough to the \u03b1-D-N-galactosamine on the A glycoprotein to be able to elicit a cross-reaction. Anti-B antibodies are hypothesized to originate from antibodies produced against Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli, cross-reacting with the \u03b1-D-galactose on the B glycoprotein.[38]\n\nHowever, it is more likely that the force driving evolution of allele diversity is simply negative frequency-dependent selection; cells with rare variants of membrane antigens are more easily distinguished by the immune system from pathogens carrying antigens from other hosts. Thus, individuals possessing rare types are better equipped to detect pathogens. The high within-population diversity observed in human populations would, then, be a consequence of natural selection on individuals.[39]\n\nHIV can be neutralized in in vitro experiments using antibodies against blood group antigens specifically expressed on the HIV-producing cell lines.[40][41]\n\nClinical relevance[edit]\n\nThe carbohydrate molecules on the surfaces of red blood cells have roles in cell membrane integrity, cell adhesion, membrane transportation of molecules, and acting as receptors for extracellular ligands, and enzymes. ABO antigens are found having similar roles on epithelial cells as well as red blood cells.[42][43]\n\nBleeding and thrombosis (von Willebrand factor)[edit]\n\nThe ABO antigen is also expressed on the von Willebrand factor (vWF) glycoprotein,[44] which participates in hemostasis (control of bleeding). In fact, having type O blood predisposes to bleeding,[45] as 30% of the total genetic variation observed in plasma vWF is explained by the effect of the ABO blood group,[46] and individuals with group O blood normally have significantly lower plasma levels of vWF (and Factor VIII) than do non-O individuals.[47][48] In addition, vWF is degraded more rapidly due to the higher prevalence of blood group O with the Cys1584 variant of vWF (an amino acid polymorphism in VWF):[49] the gene for ADAMTS13 (vWF-cleaving protease) maps to the ninth chromosome (9q34), the same locus as ABO blood type. Higher levels of vWF are more common amongst people who have had ischemic stroke (from blood clotting) for the first time.[50] The results of this study found that the occurrence was not affected by ADAMTS13 polymorphism, and the only significant genetic factor was the person's blood group.\n\nDisease risks[edit]\n\nCompared to O group individuals, non-O group (A, AB, and B) individuals have a 14% reduced risk of squamous cell carcinoma and 4% reduced risk of basal cell carcinoma.[51] Conversely, type O blood is associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer.[52][53] The B antigen links with increased risk of ovarian cancer.[54] Gastric cancer has reported to be more common in blood group A and least in group O.[55]\n\nAccording to Glass, Holmgren, et al., those in the O blood group have an increased risk of infection with cholera, and those O-group individuals who are infected have more severe infections. The mechanisms behind this association with cholera are unclear in the literature.[56]\n\nABO hemolytic disease of the newborn[edit]\n\nMain article: Hemolytic disease of the newborn (ABO)\n\nABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the IgM type, which do not cross the placenta. However, in an O-type mother, IgG ABO antibodies are produced and the baby can potentially develop ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.\n\nClinical applications[edit]\n\nIn human cells, the ABO alleles and their encoded glycosyltransferases have been described in several oncologic conditions.[57] Using anti-GTA\/GTB monoclonal antibodies, it was demonstrated that a loss of these enzymes was correlated to malignant bladder and oral epithelia.[58][59] Furthermore, the expression of ABO blood group antigens in normal human tissues is dependent the type of differentiation of the epithelium. In most human carcinomas, including oral carcinoma, a significant event as part of the underlying mechanism is decreased expression of the A and B antigens.[60] Several studies have observed that a relative down-regulation of GTA and GTB occurs in oral carcinomas in association with tumor development.[60][61] More recently, a genome wide association study (GWAS) has identified variants in the ABO locus associated with susceptibility to pancreatic cancer.[62]\n\nClinical marker[edit]\n\nA multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the ABO gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmo Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT-TIMI 22).[63]\n\nPseudoscience[edit]\n\nDuring the 1930s, connecting blood groups to personality types became popular in Japan and other areas of the world.[64] Studies of this association have yet to confirm its existence definitively.[65][66]\n\nOther popular but unsupported ideas include the use of a blood type diet, claims that group A causes severe hangovers, group O is associated with perfect teeth, and those with blood group A2 have the highest IQs. Scientific evidence in support of these concepts is nonexistent.[67]\n\nData tables[edit]\n\nABO allele frequencies in Korean, Japanese and German populations.\nPopulation\nABO allele\nA(Pro) A(Leu) B O(T) O(A) O2\nKorean (n=253) 0.022a,c 0.209c 0.209c 0.360a,e 0.200b 0d\nJapanese1 (n=520) 0.071 0.216 0.178 0.273 0.262 0\nGerman2 (n=169) 0.213 0.077 0.047 0.426 0.216 0.021\naKorean versus Japanese, p<0.001. bKorean versus Japanese, p<0.01.\ncKorean versus German, p<0.001. dKorean versus German, p<0.01.\neKorean versus German, p<0.05 (Fisher's exact probability test).\n1Fukumori et al., 1996. 2Nishimukai et al., 1996.\nSource: Table 2, Page 333, Kang Sung-ha et al. (1997)[68]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Kidd blood group\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The Editors of Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (2017-07-18). \"ABO blood group system\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2017-10-26.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ ISBT (2014). \"Table of Blood Group Systems v4.0 (November)\" (PDF). International Society of Blood Transfusion. Retrieved 19 February 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Muramatsu M, Gonzalez HD, Cacciola R, Aikawa A, Yaqoob MM, Puliatti C (2014). \"ABO incompatible renal transplants: Good or bad?\". WORLD JOURNAL OF TRANSPLANTATION. 4 (1): 18\u201329. doi:10.5500\/wjt.v4.i1.18. PMC\u00a03964193\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a024669364.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN\u00a00-13-981176-1.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Tan, SY; Graham, C (May 2013). \"Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943): originator of ABO blood classification\" (PDF). Singapore medical journal. 54 (5): 243\u20134. doi:10.11622\/smedj.2013099. PMID\u00a023716146.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Landsteiner K (1900). \"Zur Kenntnis der antifermentativen, lytischen und agglutinierenden Wirkungen des Blutserums und der Lymphe\". Zentralblatt Bakteriologie. 27: 357\u201362.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ von Decastello A, Sturli A (1902). \"Ueber die Isoagglutinine im Serum gesunder und kranker Menschen\". Mfinch med Wschr. 49: 1090\u20135.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.rockefeller.edu\/our-scientists\/karl-landsteiner\/2554-nobel-prize\/\n  9. Jump up ^ Jansk\u00fd J (1907). \"Haematologick studie u. psychotiku\". Sborn. Klinick (in Czech). 8: 85\u2013139.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Erb IH (1 May 1940). \"Blood Group Classifications, a Plea for Uniformity\". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 42 (5): 418\u201321. PMC\u00a0537907\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020321693.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Moss WL (1910). \"Studies on isoagglutinins and isohemolysins\". Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital. 21: 63\u201370.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Crow J (1993). \"Felix Bernstein and the first human marker locus\". Genetics. 133 (1): 4\u20137. PMC\u00a01205297\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a08417988.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Morgan, W. T. J.; Watkins, W. M (1969). \"Genetic and biochemical aspects of human blood-group A-, B-, H-, Le-a- and Le-b-specificity\". Br. Med. Bull. 25: 30\u201334. PMID\u00a05782756.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Watkins, W. M. Advances in Human Genetics Vol. 10 (eds Harris, H. & Hirschhorn, K.) 1\u2013136 (Plenum, New York, 1980)\n  15. Jump up ^ Watkins, W. M.; Morgan, W. T. J. (1959). \"Possible Genetical Pathways for the Biosynthesis of Blood Group Mucopolysaccharides\". Vox Sang. 4: 97\u2013119. doi:10.1111\/j.1423-0410.1959.tb04023.x.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Finne; Krusius; Rauvala; Kekom\u00e4ki; Myllyl\u00e4 (1978). \"Alkali-stable blood group A- and B-active poly(glycosyl)-peptides from human erythrocyte membrane\". FEBS left. 89: 111\u2013115. doi:10.1016\/0014-5793(78)80534-1.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Krusius; Finne; Rauvala (1978). \"The Poly(glycosyl) Chains of Glycoproteins.. Characterisation of a Novel Type of Glycoprotein Saccharides from Human Erythrocyte Membrane\". Eur. J. Biochem. 92: 289\u2013300. doi:10.1111\/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12747.x.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ J\u00e4rnefelt; Rush; Li; Laine (1978). \"Erythroglycan, a high molecular weight glycopeptide with the repeating structure [galactosyl-(1 leads to 4)-2-deoxy-2-acetamido-glucosyl(1 leads to 3)] comprising more than one-third of the protein-bound carbohydrate of human erythrocyte stroma\". J. Biol. Chem. 253: 8006\u20138009. PMID\u00a0711733.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Laine and Rush in Molecular Immunology of Complex Carbohydrates (A. Wu, E. Kabat, Eds.) Plenum Publishing Corporation, N.Y. NY (1988)\n  20. Jump up ^ Finne (1980). \"Identification of the Blood-Group ABH-Active Glycoprotein Components of Human Erythrocyte Membrane\". Eur. J. Biochem. 104: 181\u2013189. doi:10.1111\/j.1432-1033.1980.tb04414.x.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Yamamoto; et al. (1990). \"Molecular genetic basis of the histo-blood group ABO system\". Nature. 345: 229\u2013233. Bibcode:1990Natur.345..229Y. doi:10.1038\/345229a0. PMID\u00a02333095.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Hara, Atsushi; Imamura, Akihiro; Ando, Hiromune; Ishida, Hideharu; Kiso, Makoto (31 December 2013). \"A New Chemical Approach to Human ABO Histo-Blood Group Type 2 Antigens\". Molecules. 19 (1): 414\u2013437. doi:10.3390\/molecules19010414.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Liu, QP; Sulzenbacher G; Yuan H; Bennett EP; Pietz G; Saunders K; Spence J; Nudelman E; Levery SB; White T; Neveu JM; Lane WS; Bourne Y; Olsson ML; Henrissat B; Clausen H (April 2007). \"Bacterial glycosidases for the production of universal red blood cells\". Nat Biotechnol. 25 (4): 454\u201364. doi:10.1038\/nbt1298. PMID\u00a017401360.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ BBC\n  25. Jump up ^ Klug, William S.; Cummings, Michael R. (1997). Concepts of Genetics (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p.\u00a083. ISBN\u00a00135310628.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Yazer M, Olsson M, Palcic M (2006). \"The cis-AB blood group phenotype: fundamental lessons in glycobiology\". Transfus Med Rev. 20 (3): 207\u201317. doi:10.1016\/j.tmrv.2006.03.002. PMID\u00a016787828.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"ABO inheritance patterns\". Inheritance patterns of blood groups. Australian Red Cross Blood Service. Retrieved 30 October 2013.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"ABO blood group system\". Abobloodtypes.webnode.com. Retrieved 2015-02-02.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Cited in \"Misattributed paternity rates and non-paternity rates\".\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Understanding genetics\". Stanford.\u00a0\n  31. ^ Jump up to: a b Blood Group A Suptypes, The Owen Foundation. Retrieved 1 July 2008.\n  32. Jump up ^ Seltsam A, Hallensleben M, Kollmann A, Blasczyk R (2003). \"The nature of diversity and diversification at the ABO locus\". Blood. 102 (8): 3035\u201342. doi:10.1182\/blood-2003-03-0955. PMID\u00a012829588.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Ogasawara K; Bannai M; Saitou N; et al. (1996). \"Extensive polymorphism of ABO blood group gene: three major lineages of the alleles for the common ABO phenotypes\". Human Genetics. 97 (6): 777\u201383. doi:10.1007\/BF02346189. PMID\u00a08641696.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Shastry, S; Bhat, S (October 2010). \"Imbalance in A2 and A2B phenotype frequency of ABO group in South India\". Blood Transfusion. 8 (4): 267\u2013270. doi:10.2450\/2010.0147-09. PMC\u00a02957492\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020967168.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Potts, WTW (1979). \"History and Blood Groups in the British Isles\". In Sawyer PH. English Medieval Settlement. St. Martin's Press. ISBN\u00a00-7131-6257-0.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Cserti, CM; Dzik, WH (2007). \"The ABO blood group system and Plasmodium falciparum malaria\". Blood. 110 (7): 2250\u20132258. doi:10.1182\/blood-2007-03-077602.\u00a0\n  37. ^ Jump up to: a b Calafell, Francesc; et al. (September 2008). \"Evolutionary dynamics of the human ABO gene\". Human Genetics. 124 (2): 123\u2013135. doi:10.1007\/s00439-008-0530-8. PMID\u00a018629539. Retrieved 24 September 2008.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Jan Van Oss, Carel (2004). \"Letter to the Editor: \"Natural\" Versus Regular Antibodies\". The Protein Journal. 23 (6): 357; author reply 359\u201360. doi:10.1023\/B:JOPC.0000039625.56296.6e. PMID\u00a015517982.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Seymour, R. M.; Allan, M. J.; Pomiankowski, A; Gustafsson, K (2004). \"Evolution of the human ABO polymorphism by two complementary selective pressures\". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 271 (1543): 1065\u20131072. doi:10.1098\/rspb.2004.2674. PMC\u00a01691687\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a015293861.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Arendrup, M; Hansen JE; Clausen H; Nielsen C; Mathiesen LR; Nielsen JO (April 1991). \"Antibody to histo-blood group A antigen neutralizes HIV produced by lymphocytes from blood group A donors but not from blood group B or O donors\". AIDS. 5 (4): 441\u20134. doi:10.1097\/00002030-199104000-00014. PMID\u00a01711864.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Neil, SJ; McKnight A; Gustafsson K; Weiss RA (2005-06-15). \"HIV-1 incorporates ABO histo-blood group antigens that sensitize virions to complement-mediated inactivation\". Blood. 105 (12): 4693\u20139. doi:10.1182\/blood-2004-11-4267. PMID\u00a015728127.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Reid, ME; Mohandas, N (2004). \"Red blood cell blood group antigens: structure and function\". Seminars in hematology. 41 (2): 93\u2013117. doi:10.1053\/j.seminhematol.2004.01.001. PMID\u00a015071789.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Mohandas, N; Narla, A (2005). \"Blood group antigens in health and disease\". Current Opinion in Hematology. 12 (2): 135\u201340. doi:10.1097\/01.moh.0000153000.09585.79. PMID\u00a015725904.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Sarode, R; Goldstein J; Sussman II; Nagel RL; Tsai HM (June 2000). \"Role of A and B blood group antigens in the expression of adhesive activity of von Willebrand factor\". Br J Haematol. 109 (4): 857\u201364. doi:10.1046\/j.1365-2141.2000.02113.x. PMID\u00a010929042.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ O'Donnell, J; Laffan MA (August 2001). \"The relationship between ABO histo-blood group, factor VIII and von Willebrand factor\". Transfus Med. 11 (4): 343\u201351. doi:10.1046\/j.1365-3148.2001.00315.x. PMID\u00a011532189.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ O'Donnell, J; Boulton FE; Manning RA; Laffan MA (2002-02-01). \"Amount of H antigen expressed on circulating von Willebrand factor is modifiedby ABO blood group genotype and is a major determinant of plasma von Willebrand factor antigen levels\". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. American Heart Association, Inc. 22 (2): 335\u201341. doi:10.1161\/hq0202.103997. PMID\u00a011834538.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Gill, JC; Endres-Brooks J; Bauer PJ; Marks WJ; Montgomery RR (June 1987). \"The effect of ABO blood group on the diagnosis of von Willebrand disease\" (abstract). Blood. 69 (6): 1691\u20135. PMID\u00a03495304.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Shima, M; Fujimura Y; et al. (1995). \"ABO blood group genotype and plasma von Willebrand factor in normal individuals\". Vox Sang. 68 (4): 236\u201340. doi:10.1111\/j.1423-0410.1995.tb02579.x. PMID\u00a07660643.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Bowen, DJ; Collins PW; et al. (March 2005). \"The prevalence of the cysteine1584 variant of von Willebrand factor is increased in type 1 von Willebrand disease: co-segregation with increased susceptibility to ADAMTS13 proteolysis but not clinical phenotype\". Br J Haematol. Blackwell Synergy. 128 (6): 830\u20136. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2141.2005.05375.x. PMID\u00a015755288.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Bongers T; de Maat M; van Goor M; et al. (2006). \"High von Willebrand factor levels increase the risk of first ischemic stroke: influence of ADAMTS13, inflammation, and genetic variability\". Stroke. 37 (11): 2672\u20137. doi:10.1161\/01.STR.0000244767.39962.f7. PMID\u00a016990571.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ Xie J, Qureshi AA, Li Y, Han J (2010). \"ABO Blood Group and Incidence of Skin Cancer\". PLoS ONE. 5 (8): e11972. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511972X. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0011972.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Wolpin, B. M.; Kraft, P.; Gross, M.; Helzlsouer, K.; Bueno-De-Mesquita, H. B.; Steplowski, E.; Stolzenberg-Solomon, R. Z.; Arslan, A. A.; Jacobs, E. J.; Lacroix, A.; Petersen, G.; Zheng, W.; Albanes, D.; Allen, N. E.; Amundadottir, L.; Anderson, G.; Boutron-Ruault, M. -C.; Buring, J. E.; Canzian, F.; Chanock, S. J.; Clipp, S.; Gaziano, J. M.; Giovannucci, E. L.; Hallmans, G.; Hankinson, S. E.; Hoover, R. N.; Hunter, D. J.; Hutchinson, A.; Jacobs, K.; Kooperberg, C. (2010). \"Pancreatic Cancer Risk and ABO Blood Group Alleles: Results from the Pancreatic Cancer Cohort Consortium\". Cancer Research. 70 (3): 1015\u20131023. doi:10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-09-2993. PMC\u00a02943735\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020103627.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Amundadottir, L.; Kraft, P.; Stolzenberg-Solomon, R. Z.; Fuchs, C. S.; Petersen, G. M.; Arslan, A. A.; Bueno-De-Mesquita, H. B.; Gross, M.; Helzlsouer, K.; Jacobs, E. J.; Lacroix, A.; Zheng, W.; Albanes, D.; Bamlet, W.; Berg, C. D.; Berrino, F.; Bingham, S.; Buring, J. E.; Bracci, P. M.; Canzian, F.; Clavel-Chapelon, F. O.; Clipp, S.; Cotterchio, M.; De Andrade, M.; Duell, E. J.; Fox Jr, J. W.; Gallinger, S.; Gaziano, J. M.; Giovannucci, E. L.; Goggins, M. (2009). \"Genome-wide association study identifies variants in the ABO locus associated with susceptibility to pancreatic cancer\". Nature Genetics. 41 (9): 986\u2013990. doi:10.1038\/ng.429. PMC\u00a02839871\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a019648918.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ Gates, MA; Wolpin, BM; Cramer, DW; Hankinson, SE; Tworoger, SS (2010). \"ABO blood group and incidence of epithelial ovarian cancer\". International Journal of Cancer. 128 (2): 482\u2013486. doi:10.1002\/ijc.25339. PMC\u00a02946962\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020309936.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ Aird, I; Bentall, HH; Roberts, JA (1953). \"A relationship between cancer of stomach and the ABO blood groups\". British Medical Journal. 1 (4814): 799\u2013801. doi:10.1136\/bmj.1.4814.799. PMC\u00a02015995\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a013032504.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ Glass, Roger; Holmgren J; Haley C; Khan M.R.; SVENERHOLM M; STOLL B; HOSSAIN K; BLACK B; Yunus M; Barua D (June 1985). \"Predisposition for cholera of individuals with O blood group. Possible evolutionary significance\". American Journal of Epidemiology. 121 (6): 791\u2013796. PMID\u00a04014172. Retrieved 20 August 2012.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ Goldman, M (2016-10-10). \"Translational Mini-Review Series on Toll-like Receptors: Toll-like receptor ligands as novel pharmaceuticals for allergic disorders\". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 147 (2): 208\u2013216. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2006.03296.x. ISSN\u00a00009-9104. PMC\u00a01810467\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a017223960.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Kay, H E (1982-11-06). \"Bone marrow transplantation: 1982\". British Medical Journal (Clinical research ed.). 285 (6351): 1296\u20131298. doi:10.1136\/bmj.285.6351.1296. ISSN\u00a00267-0623. PMC\u00a01500229\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a06812684.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ Hakomori, S. (1999-12-06). \"Antigen structure and genetic basis of histo-blood groups A, B and O: their changes associated with human cancer\". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1473 (1): 247\u2013266. doi:10.1016\/s0304-4165(99)00183-x. ISSN\u00a00006-3002. PMID\u00a010580143.\u00a0\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b Dabelsteen, E.; Gao, S. (2005-01-01). \"ABO blood-group antigens in oral cancer\". Journal of Dental Research. 84 (1): 21\u201328. doi:10.1177\/154405910508400103. ISSN\u00a00022-0345. PMID\u00a015615870.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ Dabelsteen, Erik (2002-02-01). \"ABO blood group antigens in oral mucosa. What is new?\". Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine. 31 (2): 65\u201370. doi:10.1046\/j.0904-2512.2001.00004.x. ISSN\u00a00904-2512. PMID\u00a011896825.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Amundadottir, Laufey T. (2016-01-01). \"Pancreatic Cancer Genetics\". International Journal of Biological Sciences. 12 (3): 314\u2013325. doi:10.7150\/ijbs.15001. ISSN\u00a01449-2288. PMC\u00a04753160\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a026929738.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ Mega, Jessica L.; Stitziel, Nathan O.; Smith, J. Gustav; Chasman, Daniel I.; Caulfield, Mark J.; Devlin, James J.; Nordio, Francesco; Hyde, Craig L.; Cannon, Christopher P. (2015-06-06). \"Genetic risk, coronary heart disease events, and the clinical benefit of statin therapy: an analysis of primary and secondary prevention trials\". Lancet. 385 (9984): 2264\u20132271. doi:10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61730-X. ISSN\u00a01474-547X. PMC\u00a04608367\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a025748612.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ American Red Cross, Southern California Blood Services Region (n.d.). \"Answers to Commonly Asked Questions About Blood and Blood Banking\" (PDF). Blood: the Basics: 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ Sung Il Ryu, Young Woo Sohn (2007), A Review of Sociocultural, Behavioral, Biochemical Analyses on ABO Blood-Groups Typology, The Korean Journal of Social and Personality Psychology.\n  66. Jump up ^ Hobgood, Donna K. (2011). \"Personality traits of aggression-submissiveness and perfectionism associate with ABO blood groups through catecholamine activities\". Medical Hypotheses. 77 (2): 294\u2013300. doi:10.1016\/j.mehy.2011.04.039. PMID\u00a021601990.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ Klein, Harvey G (7 March 2005). \"Why Do People Have Different Blood Types?\". Scientific American. Retrieved 16 November 2007.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ Sung-ha, Kang; et al. (1997). \"Distribution of ABO Genotypes and Allele Frequencies in a Korean Population\". Japanese Journal of Human Genetics. 42 (2): 333. doi:10.1007\/BF02766955.\u00a0CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Dean L (2005). \"Chapter 5: The ABO blood group\". Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. Retrieved 24 March 2007.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Farr A (1 April 1979). \"Blood group serology--the first four decades (1900--1939)\". Med Hist. 23 (2): 215\u201326. doi:10.1017\/s0025727300051383. PMC\u00a01082436\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a0381816.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 ABO at BGMUT Blood Group Antigen Gene Mutation Database at NCBI, NIH\n  \u2022 ABO blood groups, antibodies and antigens explained YouTube educational video\n  \u2022 Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, ABO blood group system\n  \u2022 National Blood Transfusion Service\n  \u2022 Molecular Genetic Basis of ABO\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nTransfusion medicine\nGeneral concepts\n  \u2022 Apheresis (plasmapheresis, plateletpheresis, leukapheresis)\n  \u2022 Blood transfusion\n  \u2022 Coombs test (direct and indirect)\n  \u2022 Cross-matching\n  \u2022 Exchange transfusion\n  \u2022 International Society of Blood Transfusion\n  \u2022 Intraoperative blood salvage\n  \u2022 ISBT 128\n  \u2022 Transfusion reactions\nBlood group systems\u00a0\/\nblood types\n  \u2022 ABO\n  \u2022 Chido-Rodgers\n  \u2022 Colton\n  \u2022 Cromer\n  \u2022 Diego\n  \u2022 Dombrock\n  \u2022 Duffy\n  \u2022 Er\n  \u2022 FORS\n  \u2022 Gerbich\n  \u2022 GIL\n  \u2022 GLOB\n  \u2022 Hh\n  \u2022 Ii\n  \u2022 Indian\n  \u2022 JR\n  \u2022 JMH\n  \u2022 Kell (Xk)\n  \u2022 Kidd\n  \u2022 Knops\n  \u2022 Lan\n  \u2022 Lewis\n  \u2022 Lutheran\n  \u2022 LW\n  \u2022 MNS\n  \u2022 OK\n  \u2022 P\n  \u2022 Raph\n  \u2022 Rh and RHAG\n  \u2022 Scianna\n  \u2022 T-Tn\n  \u2022 Vel\n  \u2022 Xg\n  \u2022 Yt\n  \u2022 Other\nBlood products\u00a0\/\nblood donation\n  \u2022 Whole blood\n  \u2022 Platelets\n  \u2022 Red blood cells\n  \u2022 Plasma\u00a0\/ Fresh frozen plasma\u00a0\/ PF24 (Cryoprecipitate + Cryosupernatant)\n  \u2022 Blood substitutes\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=ABO_blood_group_system&oldid=825716594\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Blood antigen systems\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al.\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from April 2014\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u078b\u07a8\u0788\u07ac\u0780\u07a8\u0784\u07a6\u0790\u07b0\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 15 February 2018, at 00:15.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2056370935420431402","title":"Beverly Hills Cop (film series)","text":"Beverly Hills Cop (film series)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nBeverly Hills Cop\nBeverly Hills Cop trilogy.jpg\nDirected by\n  \u2022 Martin Brest (I)\n  \u2022 Tony Scott (II)\n  \u2022 John Landis (III)\n  \u2022 Adil El Arbi (IV)\n  \u2022 Bilall Fallah (IV)\nProduced by\n  \u2022 Jerry Bruckheimer (I-II, IV)\n  \u2022 Don Simpson (I-II)\n  \u2022 Mace Neufeld (III)\n  \u2022 Robert Rehme (III)\n  \u2022 Eddie Murphy (IV)\nScreenplay by\n  \u2022 Daniel Petrie, Jr. (I)\n  \u2022 Larry Ferguson (II)\n  \u2022 Warren Skaaren (II)\n  \u2022 Steven E. de Souza (III)\n  \u2022 Josh Appelbaum (IV)\n  \u2022 Andr\u00e9 Nemec (IV)\nStory by\n  \u2022 Danilo Bach (I)\n  \u2022 Daniel Petrie, Jr. (I)\n  \u2022 Eddie Murphy (II)\n  \u2022 Robert D. Wachs (II)\n  \u2022 Steven E. de Souza (III)\n  \u2022 Josh Appelbaum (IV)\n  \u2022 Andr\u00e9 Nemec (IV)\nStarring\n  \u2022 Eddie Murphy\n  \u2022 Judge Reinhold\n  \u2022 John Ashton (l-ll, lV)\n  \u2022 Gil Hill (l-lll)\n  \u2022 Ronny Cox (I-II)\n  \u2022 Brandon T. Jackson (Unaired pilot)\nMusic by\n  \u2022 Harold Faltermeyer (I-II)\n  \u2022 Nile Rodgers (III)\nCinematography\n  \u2022 Bruce Surtees (I)\n  \u2022 Jeffrey L. Kimball (II)\n  \u2022 Mac Ahlberg (III)\n  \u2022 Dante Spinotti (IV)\nEdited by\n  \u2022 Billy Weber (I-II)\n  \u2022 Arthur Coburn (I)\n  \u2022 Chris Lebenzon (II)\n  \u2022 Michael Tronick (II)\n  \u2022 Dale Beldin (III)\nProduction\ncompany\n  \u2022 Simpson\/Bruckheimer (I-II)\n  \u2022 Eddie Murphy Productions (I-III)\nDistributed by Paramount Pictures\nRelease date\n1984-1994\nRunning time\n312 minutes[1][2][3]\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nBudget $85 million\nBox office $735.5 million\n\nBeverly Hills Cop is a series of American action comedy films and an unaired television pilot based on characters created by Daniel Petrie, Jr. and Danilo Bach. The films star Eddie Murphy as Axel Foley, a street-smart Detroit cop who travels to Beverly Hills, California to investigate crimes, even though it is out of his jurisdiction. There, he meets Detective Billy Rosewood (Judge Reinhold), Sergeant John Taggart (John Ashton), and Lieutenant Andrew Bogomil (Ronny Cox). Ashton and Cox do not appear in Beverly Hills Cop III. Murphy, Reinhold, and Gil Hill, who plays Axel's boss, Inspector Todd, are the only actors who appear in all three films. Harold Faltermeyer produced the now famous \"Axel F\" theme song heard throughout the series. The series as a whole have been distributed by Paramount Pictures. The films have made a total of $735,534,503[citation needed] at the worldwide box office.\n\nFollowing a failed attempt at a television series based on the films, Paramount decided to produce another film with a currently unknown release date.[4][5]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Films\n    \u2022 1.1 Overview\n    \u2022 1.2 Unaired television pilot\n    \u2022 1.3 Cast and characters\n    \u2022 1.4 Music\n    \u2022 1.5 Future\n  \u2022 2 Crew\n  \u2022 3 Reception\n    \u2022 3.1 Box office performance\n    \u2022 3.2 Critical and public reaction\n    \u2022 3.3 Accolades\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nFilms[edit]\n\nOverview[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop (1984)\n    Axel Foley (Eddie Murphy) is introduced as a Detroit cop who, after the murder of his friend, travels to California to investigate and track down the killer(s), who he believes operate an arts dealership as a cover in Beverly Hills. He teams up with two reluctant detectives, Billy Rosewood (Judge Reinhold) and John Taggart (John Ashton), from the Beverly Hills police department who were supposed to keep a watch on him, especially after seeing Foley's different approach to tackling the situations which were considered unacceptable by the chief of police.\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)\n    Axel returns to Beverly Hills, after finding out that Captain Andrew Bogomil (Ronny Cox) was shot. He once again teams up with Detective Billy Rosewood and Sgt. John Taggart, who, reluctantly and against incompetent and verbally abusive Police Chief Harold Lutz's (Allen Garfield) orders, help Foley to find out the person responsible for Bogomil's shooting. Axel, Billy, and John soon discover that the alphabet crimes, a series of felonies (robberies and Bogomil's shooting) that have been going on in the area, are masterminded by weapons kingpin Maxwell Dent (J\u00fcrgen Prochnow). With this information, Axel, Billy, and Taggart try to find Dent and his lover, Karla Fry (Brigitte Nielsen), (who had shot Bogomil).\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop III (1994)\n    Axel returns to Beverly Hills once again. During an assignment, his boss, Inspector Todd (Gil Hill) is killed, and certain evidence points towards an amusement park called \"Wonderworld\". Upon arriving in Beverly Hills, Axel looks up his old friend Billy Rosewood who has attained the title of DDOJSIOC (Deputy Director of Joint Special Inter Operational Command). Bogomil and Taggart have retired and a new detective called Jon Flint (Hector Elizondo) is Rosewood's new partner.\n\nUnaired television pilot[edit]\n\nCBS ordered a pilot with Brandon T. Jackson starring as Axel Foley's son, Aaron.[6] The hour long crime drama was produced by the critically acclaimed writer Shawn Ryan who created The Shield and The Chicago Code.[7]\n\nIn January 2013, Ryan stated, \"It's going to be a CBS procedural. We're going to solve a case every week, but we're going to do it with a lot of humor and a lot of fun. And I would say the stealth thing I would like to get in is, in a day and age when income inequality and class inequities dominate a lot of the country, this is going to be an opportunity to put a young working-class kid in Detroit in the middle of Beverly Hills, you can do a lot of stealth social commentary. My approach is to update it and make it feel modern and 2013. The pilot opens with a 4-5 minute sequence which I think is really harrowing and really dangerous, that would be something that you might have seen on Chicago Code or The Shield. I want it to feel grounded in that way. There'll be some opportunities for laughs after that. It's not a laughs come first show.\"[8]\n\nIn February 2013, Kevin Pollak was cast as Rodney Daloof, an irritating and incredibly risk-averse in-house attorney for the Beverly Hills Police Department.[9] David Denman was cast as Brad, an honest and likable but socially awkward detective, formerly a baseball player and a musician.[10] Director Barry Sonnenfeld agreed to both direct the Beverly Hills Cop pilot and serve as an executive producer.[11] In May 2013, CBS decided to pass on the Beverly Hills Cop TV series.[12] In August 2013, Brandon T. Jackson give his reason about the pass:\n\nI think we were very edgy for CBS. I think we were the edgiest as you could've went for CBS. It would have been like a 'Fresh Prince' thing on CBS, like the edgiest you can go on network TV. But it doesn't agree to our franchise man.\"[13]\n\nIn February 2015, Eddie Murphy stated that his cameo appearance in the pilot ironically doomed the show's chances: \"I was gonna be in the pilot, and they thought I should be recurring. I\u2019m not gonna do Beverly Hills Cop on TV. I remember when they tested it \u2014 they had this little knob that you turn if you like it or you don\u2019t like it. So when Axel shows up in the pilot, some people turned the knob so much, they broke it. So the network decided 'if he isn\u2019t recurring, then this isn\u2019t gonna happen.' So it didn\u2019t happen.\"[14]\n\nIn a January 2016 interview, Shawn Ryan blamed personality clashes with the network: \"The official answer is they decided they liked other pilots better. If you look at what pilots they picked up that year, I think that's kind of incredible. I would say there were a lot of 400 lb. gorillas involved in the show and sometimes the gorillas don\u2019t always get along.\". He also said that he was very proud of the pilot and loved working with Murphy.[15]\n\nDuring late Summer 2013, after CBS decided to pass on the TV series, Paramount decided to move forward with the fourth film.\n\nCast and characters[edit]\n\nCharacter Films\nBeverly Hills Cop Beverly Hills Cop II Beverly Hills Cop III\nAxel Foley Eddie Murphy\nBilly Rosewood Judge Reinhold\nJenny Summers Lisa Eilbacher\nJohn Taggart John Ashton\nAndrew Bogomil Ronny Cox\nG. Douglas Todd Gil Hill\nSerge Bronson Pinchot Bronson Pinchot\nJeffrey Friedman Paul Reiser\nJon Flint H\u00e9ctor Elizondo\n\nMusic[edit]\n\nThere is a recurring instrumental theme throughout the film series called \"Axel F\", which was composed by Harold Faltermeyer.[16] The theme became popular with audiences, and has been remixed by Crazy Frog.[17] A new version of the theme was created for Beverly Hills Cop III, with Faltermeyer not returning for the film.[18]\n\nFuture[edit]\n\nA fourth entry in the series was initially announced for release in the mid-1990s, under the production of Eddie Murphy's own production company \"Eddie Murphy Productions\", though production later fizzled out.[19] It was re-announced in 2006, when producer Jerry Bruckheimer announced his intention to resurrect the film series, though he eventually gave up his option to produce the film, instead passing production duties to Lorenzo di Bonaventura.[20][21] In September 2006 a script, an amalgamation of several earlier drafts, was presented to Murphy who was reported to be \"very happy\" with the outline which was described as an attempt to recapture the \"feel of the original\".[22][23] Murphy admitted one of his motivations for making a fourth Beverly Hills Cop film was to make up for the fact that the third film was \"horrible\" and that \"he didn't want to leave (the series) like that\".[24][25]\n\nIn May 2008, Rush Hour director Brett Ratner was officially named director, who promised the film would return under the series' standard \"R\" rating, rather than as a rumored watered down PG-13.[26][27] Michael Brandt and Derek Haas were hired as screenwriters to improve on the existing script in July 2008[28] and completed a new script, under the working title Beverly Hills Cop 2009, which would see Foley return to Beverly Hills to investigate the murder of his friend Billy Rosewood.[19] The script was eventually rejected, leaving Ratner to work on a new idea. In an interview with Empire magazine, Ratner stated \"I'm working very hard on the fourth. It's very difficult, especially since there were three before. We're trying to figure out some important things, like where do we start? Is Axel retired? Is he in Beverly Hills? Is he on vacation? Does Judge Reinhold return as the loveable Billy Rosewood? Many questions to figure out, but I'm hoping to have a script before film disappears from our existence.\"[19] Although Murphy himself committed to the project, it was unconfirmed whether the series' other principal actors, Judge Reinhold, John Ashton, Ronny Cox or Bronson Pinchot would also return,[29] though Ratner stated in late 2009 that he was trying to convince Reinhold and Ashton to reprise their roles.[30] Harold Faltermeyer's \"Axel F\", however, would definitely be returning for the proposed fourth installment, with Ratner quoted as saying \"It'll be back but it'll be a whole new interpretation.\"[31] On November 15, 2010, Ratner stated in an interview with MTV that there was still a possibility that they will make a fourth film, but that it wouldn't be \"anytime soon.\"[32]\n\nIn October 2011, Murphy discussed a possible fourth film, stating, \"They're not doing it. What I'm trying to do now is produce a TV show starring Axel Foley's son, and Axel is the chief of police now in Detroit. I'd do the pilot, show up here and there. None of the movie scripts were right; it was trying to force the premise. If you have to force something, you shouldn't be doing it. It was always a rehash of the old thing. It was always wrong.\"[33]\n\nDuring late Summer 2013, after CBS decided to pass on the TV series, Paramount decided to move forward with the fourth film. On September 13, 2013, Jerry Bruckheimer, stated he was in talks to produce. On December 6, 2013, it was announced that Eddie Murphy will again reprise the role of Axel Foley and Brett Ratner will direct.[34] On May 2, 2014, Deadline announced that screenwriters Josh Appelbaum and Andre Nemec would be penning the screenplay.[5]\n\nOn June 27, 2014, in an interview with Rolling Stone, Murphy discussed returning to the edgier type character of Axel Foley after years of making family friendly films. \"I haven't done a street guy, working class, blue-collar character in ages so maybe it's like, 'Oh, wow, I didn't remember he was able to do that,'\" Murphy said. According to studio reports on the film's plot, Foley will return to Detroit after leaving his job in Beverly Hills and he will be faced with the coldest winter on record to navigate the new rules and old enemies of one of America's most tenacious cities. The state of Michigan approved $13.5 million in film incentives, based on an estimated $56.6 million of filmmaker spending in the state. The film will be shot in and around Detroit and is estimated to provide jobs for 352 workers. The film was originally scheduled for a March 25, 2016 release,[35] but on May 6, 2015, Paramount Pictures pulled Beverly Hills Cop IV from its release schedule, due to script concerns.[36][37] On June 14, 2016, Deadline.com reported that Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah, directors of the Belgian drama Black, would direct the film.[38]\n\nIn January 2017, it was revealed that a new entry in the franchise will commence filming in June 2017 with Eddie Murphy reprising his role as Axel Foley, and Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah as directors.[39][40]\n\nCrew[edit]\n\nFilm Director Producer Writer(s) Composer Editor Cinematographer\nBeverly Hills Cop Martin Brest Don Simpson\nJerry Bruckheimer\nscreenplay: Daniel Petrie, Jr.\nstory: Danilo Bach\nDaniel Petrie, Jr.\nHarold Faltermeyer Arthur Coburn\nBilly Weber\nBruce Surtees\nBeverly Hills Cop II Tony Scott screenplay: Larry Ferguson\nstory: Eddie Murphy\nRobert D. Wachs\nChris Lebenzon\nMichael Tronick\nBilly Weber\nJeffrey L. Kimball\nBeverly Hills Cop III John Landis Mace Neufeld\nRobert Rehme\nSteven E. de Souza Nile Rodgers Dale Beldin Mac Ahlberg\nBeverly Hills Cop IV Adil El Arbi\nBilall Fallah\nJerry Bruckheimer\nEddie Murphy\nJosh Appelbaum\nAndr\u00e9 Nemec\nDante Spinotti\n\nReception[edit]\n\nBox office performance[edit]\n\nFilm Release date Box office revenue Box office ranking Budget Reference\nUnited States Foreign Worldwide All time domestic All time worldwide\nBeverly Hills Cop December 5, 1984 $234,760,478 $80,600,000 $316,360,478 #61\n#39(A)\n#193 $15,000,000 [41][42]\nBeverly Hills Cop II May 20, 1987 $153,665,036 $146,300,000 $299,965,036 #178\n#157(A)\n#216 $20,000,000 [43][44]\nBeverly Hills Cop III May 25, 1994 $42,614,912 $76,594,077 $119,208,989 #1,305 $50,000,000 [45]\nTotal $431,040,426 $304,494,077 $735,534,503 $85,000,000\nList indicator(s)\n  \u2022 (A) indicates the adjusted totals based on current ticket prices (by Box Office Mojo).\n\nCritical and public reaction[edit]\n\nFilm Rotten Tomatoes Metascore CinemaScore\nBeverly Hills Cop 83% (42 reviews)[46] 64 (10 reviews)[47] N\/A\nBeverly Hills Cop II 46% (26 reviews)[48] 48 (11 reviews)[49] A-[50]\nBeverly Hills Cop III 10% (49 reviews)[51] 16 (15 reviews)[52] B[50]\n\nAccolades[edit]\n\nBeverly Hills Cop[53]\n  \u2022 Academy Awards\n    \u2022 nominated for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) - Danilo Bach and Daniel Petrie, Jr.\n  \u2022 British Academy Film Awards\n    \u2022 Nominated for Best Score - Harold Faltermeyer\n  \u2022 Golden Globe Awards\n    \u2022 Nominated for Best Motion Picture \u2013 Musical or Comedy\n    \u2022 Nominated for Best Actor \u2013 Motion Picture Musical or Comedy - Eddie Murphy\nBeverly Hills Cop II[54]\n  \u2022 Academy Awards\n    \u2022 Nominated for Best Original Song for \"Shakedown\"[21] - Harold Faltermeyer, Keith Forsey and Bob Seger\n  \u2022 Golden Globe Awards\n    \u2022 Nominated for Best Original Song for \"Shakedown\"[55] - Harold Faltermeyer, Keith Forsey, and Bob Seger\n  \u2022 Golden Raspberry Awards\n    \u2022 Winner for Worst Original Song for \"I Want Your Sex\"[56] - George Michael\nBeverly Hills Cop III\n  \u2022 Golden Raspberry Awards\n    \u2022 Nominated for Worst Director - John Landis\n    \u2022 Nominated for Worst Remake or Sequel\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"BEVERLY HILLS COP (15)\". British Board of Film Classification. December 10, 1984. Retrieved July 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"BEVERLY HILLS COP II (15)\". British Board of Film Classification. June 4, 1987. Retrieved July 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"BEVERLY HILLS COP III (15)\". British Board of Film Classification. May 13, 1994. Retrieved July 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Eddie Murphy Resurrects Classic Character\". The Huffington Post. 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2016-07-16.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Ditzian, THE DEADLINE TEAM (May 2, 2014). \"Paramount Sets 'Beverly Hills Cop' Starring Eddie Murphy For Spring 2016\". Deadline.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (November 13, 2012). \"Brandon T. Jackson to Play Eddie Murphy's Son in CBS' 'Beverly Hills Cop'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 15, 2013.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (September 4, 2012). \"CBS Lands Shawn Ryan and Eddie Murphy's 'Beverly Hills Cop'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 15, 2013.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (2013-01-24). \"'Last Resort' co-creator Shawn Ryan on the series finale, 'Beverly Hills Cop' and more\". Hitfix. Retrieved 2013-08-15.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (February 5, 2013). \"Kevin Pollak to Co-Star in CBS' 'Beverly Hills Cop' Pilot\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 15, 2013.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 6, 2013). \"David Denman Cast In 'Beverly Hills Cop' Pilot, Donal Logue Joins 'Copper' Season 2\". Deadline. Retrieved August 15, 2013.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (2013-02-08). \"Barry Sonnenfeld To Direct CBS' 'Beverly Hills Cop' Pilot\". Deadline. Retrieved 2013-08-15.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Masters, Kim; Goldberg, Lesley (2013-05-10). \"CBS Rejects 'Beverly Hills Cop' Pilot as Producers Explore Options\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2013-08-15.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Duncan, JJ (August 7, 2013). \"Zimbio Exclusive Interview: Brandon T. Jackson Talks 'Percy Jackson,' Stand-Up, and Working with Eddie Murphy\". Zimbio. Livingly Media. Retrieved August 15, 2013.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Repanich, Jeremy (2015-02-10). \"The Playboy Conversation: Eddie Murphy\". Playboy. Retrieved 2016-09-22.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Jester McGree (2016-01-21). \"Shawn Ryan on Remaking the Best Show You've Never Heard Of << Movie & TV News and Interviews \u2013 Rotten Tomatoes\". Editorial.rottentomatoes.com. Retrieved 2016-09-22.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"'Beverly Hills Cop'soundtrack\". Soundtrack Collector. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Crazy Frog \"Axel F\"\". Fetchfido. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop III (1994) Soundtrack\". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Brett Ratner offers Beverly Hills Cop 4 Update\". Retrieved 2010-07-12.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Murphy Back for Beverly Hills Cop IV\". Coming Soon. November 30, 2006. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b McNary, Dave; McClintock, Pamela (November 29, 2006). \"Murphy back for more 'Beverly Hills Cop'\". Variety. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Davis, Erik (November 30, 2006). \"Beverly Hills Cop IV!\". Cinematical. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Morris, Clint (May 2, 2006). \"Beverly Hills Cop 4 finally underway?\". Moviehole. Archived from the original on September 19, 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-24.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Adler, Shawn (July 1, 2008). \"Eddie Murphy Quashes Retirement Rumours\". MTV Movies. MTV. Retrieved 2008-07-02.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"'The Third 'Beverly Hills Cop' Was So Horrible'\". MTV. July 1, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-02.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Morris, Clint (July 1, 2008). \"Axel to keep it real!\". Moviehole. Retrieved 2008-07-02.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Adler, Shawn (June 3, 2008). \"'Beverly Hills Cop 4' May Be Geared Towards Kids, Says Brett Ratner\". MTV Movies. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Williams, Jamie (July 31, 2008). \"Writers Attached To Beverly Hills Cop 4\". Screenrant. Retrieved 2008-09-10.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Morris, Clint (May 29, 2008). \"Axel Foley smells a rat\". Moviehole. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Morris, Clint (October 15, 2009). \"Exclusive\u00a0: Ashton in Cop 4!?\". Moviehole. Retrieved 2009-10-19.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Axel F Tune Will Be Back For Beverly Hills Cop IV\". Internet Movie Database. September 10, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-12.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Ditzian, Eric (November 15, 2010). \"Eddie Murphy, Brett Ratner Still Hoping For Fourth 'Beverly Hills Cop'\". MTV. Retrieved 2010-12-04.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Grossberg, Josh (October 26, 2011). \"Shrek's Donkey Done For? The Klumps Killed Off? Eddie Murphy Ready to Get Raw Again\". E! Online. Retrieved 2011-10-26.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (December 6, 2013). \"UPDATE: Jerry Bruckheimer And Paramount Ink First-Look Deal; Brett Ratner Attached To Direct 'Beverly Hills Cop'\". Deadline. Retrieved 2013-12-06.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Masters, Kim; Goldberg, Lesley (2014-06-27). \"Eddie Murphy Will Be Back in Detroit for 'Beverly Hills Cop 4'\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2014-06-27.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Paramount postpones 'Beverly Hills Cop 4'\". Detroit Free-Press. Gannett Company. May 7, 2015. Retrieved May 10, 2015.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Foutch, Haleigh (May 7, 2015). \"BEVERLY HILLS COP 4 Pulled From Paramount's Release Schedule\". Collider.com. Retrieved May 10, 2015.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Fleming, Jr., Mike (June 14, 2016). \"'Beverly Hills Cop' Lands Adil El Arbi & Bilall Fallah To Direct Eddie Murphy\". Deadline.com. Retrieved June 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Guglielmi, Luca (2017-01-15). \"A New Beverly Hills Cop Film Is Going Into Production This Summer\". All The Stuff You Care About. Retrieved 2017-01-19.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"'Beverly Hills Cop 4' moves forward with Eddie Murphy\". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2017-04-24.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop (1984)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop Production Budget\". The-Numbers.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop II Production Budget\". The-Numbers.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop III (1994)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop\". Rotten Tomatoes. IGN Entertainment, Inc. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop\". metacritic.com. Retrieved March 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop II\". Rotten Tomatoes. IGN Entertainment, Inc. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop II\". metacritic.com. Retrieved March 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  50. ^ Jump up to: a b \"CinemaScore\". cinemascore.com. Retrieved March 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop III\". Rotten Tomatoes. IGN Entertainment, Inc. Retrieved 2009-11-30.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop III\". metacritic.com. Retrieved March 7, 2015.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop (1984) Awards\". Internet Movie Database. 2009-05-01. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Beverly Hills Cop II (1987) Awards\". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2009-10-17.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Films in Close Race for Globe Awards\". Wilmington Morning Star. Associated Press. 1988-01-06. p.\u00a06D. Retrieved 2014-01-23.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"1987 Archive\". Razzies.com. Retrieved 2014-01-23.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nBeverly Hills Cop series\nFilms\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop (1984)\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop III (1994)\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Axel Foley\nMusic\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop\n    \u2022 \"Axel F\"\n    \u2022 \"The Heat Is On\"\n    \u2022 \"Neutron Dance\"\n    \u2022 \"New Attitude\"\n    \u2022 \"Stir It Up\"\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop II\n    \u2022 \"Cross My Broken Heart\"\n    \u2022 \"I Want Your Sex\"\n    \u2022 \"Shakedown\"\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop III\n    \u2022 \"Luv 4 Dem Gangsta'z\"\n    \u2022 \"The Right Kinda Lover\"\nOther\n  \u2022 Video game\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Beverly_Hills_Cop_(film_series)&oldid=823262000\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 English-language films\n  \u2022 Action films by series\n  \u2022 American action comedy films\n  \u2022 Beverly Hills Cop\n  \u2022 Comedy films by series\n  \u2022 Fictional portrayals of the Detroit Police Department\n  \u2022 Film series introduced in 1984\n  \u2022 Films set in Beverly Hills, California\n  \u2022 Paramount franchises\n  \u2022 American film series\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 31 January 2018, at 05:09.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7620950068545848653","title":"List of Wimbledon ladies' singles champions","text":"List of Wimbledon ladies' singles champions\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nWimbledon Ladies\u2019 Singles Champions\nLocation London\nUnited Kingdom\nVenue AELTC\nGoverning body AELTC \/ LTA\nCreated 1884 (established)\nOpen Era: 1968\n(51 editions)\nSurface Grass (1884\u2013Present)\nPrize money \u00a3 2,000,000 (2016)\nTrophy Venus Rosewater Dish\nWebsite aeltc2010.wimbledon.org\/en_GB\/about\/history\/rolls\/ladiesroll.html\nMost titles\nAmateur era 7: Dorothea Lambert Chambers\n(challenge round)\n8: Helen Wills Moody\n(regular)\nOpen era 9: Martina Navratilova\nMost consecutive titles\nAmateur era 3: Lottie Dod\nSuzanne Lenglen\n(challenge round)\n4: Helen Wills Moody\n(regular)\nOpen era 6: Martina Navratilova\nCurrent champion\nAngelique Kerber\n(1st singles title)\n\nThe Championships, Wimbledon is an annual tennis tournament first contested in 1877 and played on outdoor grass courts[a][b][1] at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club (AELTC) in the Wimbledon suburb of London, United Kingdom.[2] The Ladies' Singles was started in 1884.[3]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Champions\n    \u2022 2.1 Amateur Era\n    \u2022 2.2 Open Era\n  \u2022 3 Statistics\n    \u2022 3.1 Multiple champions\n    \u2022 3.2 Championships by country\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 Notes\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nWimbledon has historically been played in the last week of June and the first week of July (though changed to the first two weeks of July in 2017), and has been chronologically the third of the four Grand Slam tournaments of the tennis season since 1987.[2] The event was not held from 1915 to 1918 because of World War I and again from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II.[4]\n\nThe Ladies' Singles' rules have undergone several changes since the first edition. From 1886 until 1921, the event started with a knockout phase, the All Comers' Singles, whose winner then faced the defending champion in a challenge round. The All Comers' winner was automatically awarded the title six times (1887, 1891, 1895, 1907, 1908) in the absence of the previous year's champion. The challenge round system was abolished with the 1922 edition.[5] Since the first championships, all matches have been played at the best-of-three sets. Between 1877 and 1883, the winner of the next game at five games-all took the set in every match except the All Comers' final, and the challenge round, which were won with six games and a two games advantage. All sets were decided in two-game advantage format from 1884 to 1970.[5] The lingering death best-of-12 points tie-break was introduced in 1971 for the first two sets, played at eight games-all until 1978 and at six games-all since 1979.[5][6][7]\n\nThe Ladies' Singles champion receives a sterling silver salver commonly known as the \"Venus Rosewater Dish\", or simply the \"Rosewater Dish\". The salver, which is 18.75\u00a0inches (about 48\u00a0cm) in diameter, is decorated with figures from mythology.[8] New singles champions are traditionally elected honorary members of the AELTC by the club's committee.[c][9] In 2012, the Ladies' Singles winner received prize money of \u00a31,150,000.[10]\n\nThese records include the Amateur Era only, Dorothea Lambert Chambers (1903\u20131904, 1906, 1910\u20131911, 1913\u20131914) holds the record for most titles, with seven, and Lottie Dod (1891\u20131893) and Suzanne Lenglen (1919\u20131921) holds the record for most consecutive wins in the Ladies' Singles during the challenge round era, with three victories each. The record for most consecutive and most wins post challenge round during the Amateur Era is Helen Wills Moody (1927\u20131930), with four straight wins, and Moody holds the record for most victories in this era with eight (1927\u20131930, 1932\u20131933, 1935, 1938).[4]\n\nThese records only include the Open Era, since the inclusion of the professional tennis players, Martina Navratilova (1978\u20131979, 1982\u20131987, 1990) holds the record for most victories with nine. Navratilova holds the record for most consecutive victories with six (1982\u20131987).[4]\n\nThis event has been won without the loss of a set, during the Open Era of Tennis, by the following players: Billie Jean King in 1968, 1972, 1973 and 1975, Margaret Court in 1970, Evonne Goolagong Cawley in 1971 and 1980, Chris Evert in 1974 and 1981, Martina Navratilova in 1979, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, and 1990, Steffi Graf in 1992 and 1996, Jana Novotn\u00e1 in 1998, Lindsay Davenport in 1999, Venus Williams in 2000, 2007 and 2008, Serena Williams in 2002, 2009, 2010, 2015 and 2016, Maria Sharapova in 2004, Petra Kvitov\u00e1 in 2011 and 2014 and Marion Bartoli in 2013.\n\nChampions[edit]\n\nRegular competition\nAll Comers' winner, Challenge round winner\u00a0\u2021\nDefending champion, Challenge round winner\u00a0\u2020\nAll Comers' winner, no Challenge round\u00a0\u25ca\n\nAmateur Era[edit]\n\nA black and white picture, a woman is in all-white attire with a hat on, and is looking sideways to the camera\nLottie Dod was a five-time champion and is the youngest ever winner of the ladies' singles championships (15 years and 285 days).\nA black and white picture, a woman is in all-white attire with a tie on, and is looking right at the camera in the photograph with a racket in her right hand\nCharlotte Cooper Sterry was a five-time champion and is the oldest ladies\u2019 singles champion (37 year and 282 days).\nA black and white picture, a woman is in all-white attire hitting a right-handed one handed backhand with a racket in her right hand\nDorothea Lambert Chambers was a seven-time champion between 1903 and 1914.\nA woman looking at the camera with a coloured bandanna on and a white shirt, which this picture is black and white\nSuzanne Lenglen was a six-time champion.\nA woman looking away from the camera with a tennis racket in her right hand and a colored sweater on and all white clothing, which this picture is a black and white\nHelen Wills Moody was an eight-time champion between 1927 and 1938.\nA woman looking and smiling toward the camera\nMaureen Connolly competed in 1952, 1953 and 1954 and won the title on all three occasions.\nA woman looking toward the camera with a tennis racket held diagonally in front of her.\nAlthea Gibson won the title in 1957, the first tennis player of colour to do so, and successfully defended her title in 1958.\nYear[d] Country Champion Country Runner-up Score in the final[4]\n1884 \u00a0BRI[e] Maud Watson \u00a0BRI Lillian Watson 6\u20138, 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n1885 \u00a0BRI Maud Watson \u00a0BRI Blanche Bingley 6\u20131, 7\u20135\n1886 \u00a0BRI Blanche Bingley\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Maud Watson 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n1887 \u00a0BRI Lottie Dod\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Blanche Bingley 6\u20132, 6\u20130\n1888 \u00a0BRI Lottie Dod\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n1889 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Lena Rice 4\u20136, 8\u20136, 6\u20134\n1890 \u00a0BRI Lena Rice\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI May Jacks 6\u20134, 6\u20131\n1891 \u00a0BRI Lottie Dod\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard 6\u20132, 6\u20131\n1892 \u00a0BRI Lottie Dod\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard 6\u20131, 6\u20131\n1893 \u00a0BRI Lottie Dod\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard 6\u20138, 6\u20131, 6\u20134\n1894 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Edith Austin 6\u20131, 6\u20131\n1895 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Helen Jackson 7\u20135, 8\u20136\n1896 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Alice Pickering 6\u20132, 6\u20133\n1897 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper 5\u20137, 7\u20135, 6\u20132\n1898 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Louisa Martin 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1899 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper 6\u20132, 6\u20133\n1900 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Cooper 4\u20136, 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1901 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Sterry\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Blanche Hillyard 6\u20132, 6\u20132\n1902 \u00a0BRI Muriel Robb\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Sterry 7\u20135, 6\u20131\n1903 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Douglass\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Ethel Larcombe 4\u20136, 6\u20134, 6\u20132\n1904 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Douglass\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Sterry 6\u20130, 6\u20133\n1905 \u00a0USA May Sutton\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Douglass 6\u20133, 6\u20134\n1906 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Douglass\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0USA May Sutton 6\u20133, 9\u20137\n1907 \u00a0USA May Sutton\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers 6\u20131, 6\u20134\n1908 \u00a0BRI Charlotte Sterry\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Agnes Morton 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1909 \u00a0BRI Dora Boothby\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Agnes Morton 6\u20134, 4\u20136, 8\u20136\n1910 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Dora Boothby 6\u20132, 6\u20132\n1911 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Dora Boothby 6\u20130, 6\u20130\n1912 \u00a0BRI Ethel Larcombe\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Charlotte Sterry 6\u20133, 6\u20131\n1913 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers\u00a0\u25ca \u00a0BRI Winifred McNair 6\u20130, 6\u20134\n1914 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Ethel Larcombe 7\u20135, 6\u20134\n1915 No competition (due to World War I)\n1916\n1917\n1918\n1919 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen\u00a0\u2021 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers 10\u20138, 4\u20136, 9\u20137\n1920 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0BRI Dorothea Lambert Chambers 6\u20133, 6\u20130\n1921 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen\u00a0\u2020 \u00a0USA Elizabeth Ryan 6\u20132, 6\u20130\n1922 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen \u00a0USA Molla Mallory 6\u20132, 6\u20130\n1923 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen \u00a0GBR Kitty McKane 6\u20132, 6\u20132\n1924 \u00a0GBR Kitty McKane \u00a0USA Helen Wills 4\u20136, 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1925 \u00a0FRA Suzanne Lenglen \u00a0GBR Joan Fry 6\u20132, 6\u20130\n1926 \u00a0GBR Kitty Godfree \u00a0ESP Lil\u00ed \u00c1lvarez 6\u20132, 4\u20136, 6\u20133\n1927 \u00a0USA Helen Wills \u00a0ESP Lil\u00ed \u00c1lvarez 6\u20132, 6\u20134\n1928 \u00a0USA Helen Wills \u00a0ESP Lil\u00ed \u00c1lvarez 6\u20132, 6\u20133\n1929 \u00a0USA Helen Wills \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs 6\u20131, 6\u20132\n1930 \u00a0USA Helen Moody \u00a0USA Elizabeth Ryan 6\u20132, 6\u20132\n1931 \u00a0GER Cilly Aussem \u00a0GER Hilde Krahwinkel 6\u20132, 7\u20135\n1932 \u00a0USA Helen Moody \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs 6\u20133, 6\u20131\n1933 \u00a0USA Helen Moody \u00a0GBR Dorothy Round 6\u20134, 6\u20138, 6\u20133\n1934 \u00a0GBR Dorothy Round \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs 6\u20132, 5\u20137, 6\u20133\n1935 \u00a0USA Helen Moody \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs 6\u20133, 3\u20136, 7\u20135\n1936 \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs \u00a0DEN Hilde Sperling 6\u20132, 4\u20136, 7\u20135\n1937 \u00a0GBR Dorothy Round \u00a0POL Jadwiga J\u0119drzejowska 6\u20132, 2\u20136, 7\u20135\n1938 \u00a0USA Helen Moody \u00a0USA Helen Jacobs 6\u20134, 6\u20130\n1939 \u00a0USA Alice Marble \u00a0GBR Kay Stammers 6\u20132, 6\u20130\n1940 No competition (due to World War II)\n1941\n1942\n1943\n1944\n1945\n1946 \u00a0USA Pauline Betz \u00a0USA Louise Brough 6\u20132, 6\u20134\n1947 \u00a0USA Margaret Osborne \u00a0USA Doris Hart 6\u20132, 6\u20134\n1948 \u00a0USA Louise Brough \u00a0USA Doris Hart 6\u20133, 8\u20136\n1949 \u00a0USA Louise Brough \u00a0USA Margaret duPont 10\u20138, 1\u20136, 10\u20138\n1950 \u00a0USA Louise Brough \u00a0USA Margaret duPont 6\u20131, 3\u20136, 6\u20131\n1951 \u00a0USA Doris Hart \u00a0USA Shirley Fry 6\u20131, 6\u20130\n1952 \u00a0USA Maureen Connolly \u00a0USA Louise Brough 7\u20135, 6\u20133\n1953 \u00a0USA Maureen Connolly \u00a0USA Doris Hart 8\u20136, 7\u20135\n1954 \u00a0USA Maureen Connolly \u00a0USA Louise Brough 6\u20132, 7\u20135\n1955 \u00a0USA Louise Brough \u00a0USA Beverly Fleitz 7\u20135, 8\u20136\n1956 \u00a0USA Shirley Fry \u00a0GBR Angela Buxton 6\u20133, 6\u20131\n1957 \u00a0USA Althea Gibson \u00a0USA Darlene Hard 6\u20133, 6\u20132\n1958 \u00a0USA Althea Gibson \u00a0GBR Angela Mortimer 8\u20136, 6\u20132\n1959 \u00a0BRA Maria Bueno \u00a0USA Darlene Hard 6\u20134, 6\u20133\n1960 \u00a0BRA Maria Bueno \u00a0RSA Sandra Reynolds 8\u20136, 6\u20130\n1961 \u00a0GBR Angela Mortimer \u00a0GBR Christine Truman 4\u20136, 6\u20134, 7\u20135\n1962 \u00a0USA Karen Susman \u00a0TCH V\u011bra Sukov\u00e1 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1963 \u00a0AUS Margaret Smith \u00a0USA Billie Jean Moffitt 6\u20133, 6\u20134\n1964 \u00a0BRA Maria Bueno \u00a0AUS Margaret Smith 6\u20134, 7\u20139, 6\u20133\n1965 \u00a0AUS Margaret Smith \u00a0BRA Maria Bueno 6\u20134, 7\u20135\n1966 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0BRA Maria Bueno 6\u20133, 3\u20136, 6\u20131\n1967 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0GBR Ann Jones 6\u20133, 6\u20134\n\nOpen Era[edit]\n\nA brown haired women in a black jacket and white shirt\nBillie Jean King is a six-time champion overall and a four-time champion in the open era.\nA blond-haired women with a white shirt, black shorts, and white tennis shoes on about ready to serve the tennis ball in hand\nMartina Navratilova is a nine-time singles champion, an all-time Grand Slam record in the Open Era for women (Margaret Court won the Australian 11 times). She won six consecutive titles from 1982 to 1987.\nA blond-haired women wearing a white shirt\nSteffi Graf is a seven-time champion over a nine-year period from 1988 to 1996.\nA black woman wearing a white ensemble with purple accents and headband\nSerena Williams is a seven-time champion.\nA black woman is serving the ball, and is wearing a white sleeveless top and blue skirt\nVenus Williams is a five-time champion.\nYear[d] Country Champion Country Runner-up Score in the final[4]\n1968 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0AUS Judy Tegart 9\u20137, 7\u20135\n1969 \u00a0GBR Ann Jones \u00a0USA Billie Jean King 3\u20136, 6\u20133, 6\u20132\n1970 \u00a0AUS Margaret Court \u00a0USA Billie Jean King 14\u201312, 11\u20139\n1971 \u00a0AUS Evonne Goolagong \u00a0AUS Margaret Court 6\u20134, 6\u20131\n1972 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0AUS Evonne Goolagong 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n1973 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0USA Chris Evert 6\u20130, 7\u20135\n1974 \u00a0USA Chris Evert \u00a0URS Olga Morozova 6\u20130, 6\u20134\n1975 \u00a0USA Billie Jean King \u00a0AUS Evonne Goolagong Cawley 6\u20130, 6\u20131\n1976 \u00a0USA Chris Evert \u00a0AUS Evonne Goolagong Cawley 6\u20133, 4\u20136, 8\u20136\n1977 \u00a0GBR Virginia Wade \u00a0NED Betty St\u00f6ve 4\u20136, 6\u20133, 6\u20131\n1978 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova[i][11] \u00a0USA Chris Evert 2\u20136, 6\u20134, 7\u20135\n1979 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n1980 \u00a0AUS Evonne Goolagong Cawley \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd 6\u20131, 7\u20136(7\u20134)\n1981 \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd \u00a0TCH[h] Hana Mandl\u00edkov\u00e1 6\u20132, 6\u20132\n1982 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd 6\u20131, 3\u20136, 6\u20132\n1983 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Andrea Jaeger 6\u20130, 6\u20133\n1984 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd 7\u20136(7\u20135), 6\u20132\n1985 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Chris Evert Lloyd 4\u20136, 6\u20133, 6\u20132\n1986 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0TCH Hana Mandl\u00edkov\u00e1 7\u20136(7\u20131), 6\u20133\n1987 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0FRG[j] Steffi Graf 7\u20135, 6\u20133\n1988 \u00a0FRG[j] Steffi Graf \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova 5\u20137, 6\u20132, 6\u20131\n1989 \u00a0FRG Steffi Graf \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova 6\u20132, 6\u20137(1\u20137), 6\u20131\n1990 \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova \u00a0USA Zina Garrison 6\u20134, 6\u20131\n1991 \u00a0GER Steffi Graf \u00a0ARG Gabriela Sabatini 6\u20134, 3\u20136, 8\u20136\n1992 \u00a0GER Steffi Graf \u00a0YUG Monica Seles 6\u20132, 6\u20131\n1993 \u00a0GER Steffi Graf \u00a0CZE Jana Novotn\u00e1 7\u20136(8\u20136), 1\u20136, 6\u20134\n1994 \u00a0ESP Conchita Mart\u00ednez \u00a0USA Martina Navratilova 6\u20134, 3\u20136, 6\u20133\n1995 \u00a0GER Steffi Graf \u00a0ESP Arantxa S\u00e1nchez Vicario 4\u20136, 6\u20131, 7\u20135\n1996 \u00a0GER Steffi Graf \u00a0ESP Arantxa S\u00e1nchez Vicario 6\u20133, 7\u20135\n1997 \u00a0\u00a0SUI Martina Hingis \u00a0CZE Jana Novotn\u00e1 2\u20136, 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n1998 \u00a0CZE Jana Novotn\u00e1 \u00a0FRA Nathalie Tauziat 6\u20134, 7\u20136(7\u20132)\n1999 \u00a0USA Lindsay Davenport \u00a0GER Steffi Graf 6\u20134, 7\u20135\n2000 \u00a0USA Venus Williams \u00a0USA Lindsay Davenport 6\u20133, 7\u20136(7\u20133)\n2001 \u00a0USA Venus Williams \u00a0BEL Justine Henin 6\u20131, 3\u20136, 6\u20130\n2002 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0USA Venus Williams 7\u20136(7\u20134), 6\u20133\n2003 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0USA Venus Williams 4\u20136, 6\u20134, 6\u20132\n2004 \u00a0RUS Maria Sharapova \u00a0USA Serena Williams 6\u20131, 6\u20134\n2005 \u00a0USA Venus Williams \u00a0USA Lindsay Davenport 4\u20136, 7\u20136(7\u20134), 9\u20137\n2006 \u00a0FRA Am\u00e9lie Mauresmo \u00a0BEL Justine Henin 2\u20136, 6\u20133, 6\u20134\n2007 \u00a0USA Venus Williams \u00a0FRA Marion Bartoli 6\u20134, 6\u20131\n2008 \u00a0USA Venus Williams \u00a0USA Serena Williams 7\u20135, 6\u20134\n2009 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0USA Venus Williams 7\u20136(7\u20133), 6\u20132\n2010 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0RUS Vera Zvonareva 6\u20133, 6\u20132\n2011 \u00a0CZE Petra Kvitov\u00e1 \u00a0RUS Maria Sharapova 6\u20133, 6\u20134\n2012 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0POL Agnieszka Radwa\u0144ska 6\u20131, 5\u20137, 6\u20132\n2013 \u00a0FRA Marion Bartoli \u00a0GER Sabine Lisicki 6\u20131, 6\u20134\n2014 \u00a0CZE Petra Kvitov\u00e1 \u00a0CAN Eugenie Bouchard 6\u20133, 6\u20130\n2015 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0ESP Garbi\u00f1e Muguruza 6\u20134, 6\u20134\n2016 \u00a0USA Serena Williams \u00a0GER Angelique Kerber 7\u20135, 6\u20133\n2017 \u00a0ESP Garbi\u00f1e Muguruza \u00a0USA Venus Williams 7\u20135, 6\u20130\n2018 \u00a0GER Angelique Kerber \u00a0USA Serena Williams 6\u20133, 6\u20133\n\nStatistics[edit]\n\nMultiple champions[edit]\n\nTitle defended in the challenge round\nPlayer Amateur Era Open Era All-time Years\n\u00a0Martina Navratilova\u00a0(USA)[i] 0 9 9 1978, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990\n\u00a0Helen Wills Moody\u00a0(USA) 8 0 8 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933, 1935, 1938\n\u00a0Dorothea Lambert Chambers\u00a0(UK) 7 0 7 1903, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1914\n\u00a0Steffi Graf\u00a0(GER) 0 7 7 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996\n\u00a0Serena Williams\u00a0(USA) 0 7 7 2002, 2003, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2016\n\u00a0Blanche Bingley\u00a0(UK) 6 0 6 1886, 1889, 1894, 1897, 1899, 1900\n\u00a0Suzanne Lenglen\u00a0(FRA) 6 0 6 1919, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1925\n\u00a0Billie Jean King\u00a0(USA) 2 4 6 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1975\n\u00a0Charlotte Cooper Sterry\u00a0(UK) 5 0 5 1895, 1896, 1898, 1901, 1908\n\u00a0Lottie Dod\u00a0(UK) 5 0 5 1887, 1888, 1891, 1892, 1893\n\u00a0Venus Williams\u00a0(USA) 0 5 5 2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2008\n\u00a0Louise Brough Clapp\u00a0(USA) 4 0 4 1948, 1949, 1950, 1955\n\u00a0Maureen Connolly\u00a0(USA) 3 0 3 1952, 1953, 1954\n\u00a0Maria Bueno\u00a0(BRA) 3 0 3 1959, 1960, 1964\n\u00a0Margaret Court\u00a0(AUS) 2 1 3 1963, 1965, 1970\n\u00a0Chris Evert\u00a0(USA) 0 3 3 1974, 1976, 1981\n\u00a0Althea Gibson\u00a0(USA) 2 0 2 1957, 1958\n\u00a0Dorothy Round\u00a0(UK) 2 0 2 1934, 1937\n\u00a0Kitty McKane Godfree\u00a0(UK) 2 0 2 1924, 1926\n\u00a0May Sutton Bundy\u00a0(USA) 2 0 2 1905, 1907\n\u00a0Maud Watson\u00a0(UK) 2 0 2 1884, 1885\n\u00a0Evonne Goolagong Cawley\u00a0(AUS) 0 2 2 1971, 1980\n\u00a0Petra Kvitov\u00e1\u00a0(CZE) 0 2 2 2011, 2014\n\nChampionships by country[edit]\n\nA golden trophy, in the shape of a loving-cup, next to a silver plate\nThe Ladies' Singles plate (right) with the Gentlemen's Singles trophy (left).\nCountry Amateur Era Open Era All-time First title Last title\n\u00a0United States\u00a0(USA) 28 29 57 1905 2016\n\u00a0United Kingdom\u00a0(UK) 34 2 36 1884 1977\n\u00a0Germany\u00a0(GER)[j] 1 8 9 1931 2018\n\u00a0France\u00a0(FRA) 6 2 8 1919 2013\n\u00a0Australia\u00a0(AUS) 2 3 5 1963 1980\n\u00a0Brazil\u00a0(BRA) 3 0 3 1959 1964\n\u00a0Czech Republic\u00a0(CZE) 0 3 3 1998 2014\n\u00a0Spain\u00a0(ESP) 0 2 2 1994 2017\n\u00a0\u00a0Switzerland\u00a0(SUI) 0 1 1 1997 1997\n\u00a0Russia\u00a0(RUS) 0 1 1 2004 2004\n\nSee also[edit]\n\nWimbledon Open other competitions\n\n  \u2022 List of Wimbledon gentlemen's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Wimbledon gentlemen's doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Wimbledon ladies' doubles champions\n  \u2022 List of Wimbledon mixed doubles champions\n\nGrand Slam women's singles\n\n  \u2022 List of Australian Open women's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of French Open women's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of US Open women's singles champions\n  \u2022 List of Grand Slam women's singles champions\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  \u2022 a Since 2009, Centre Court features a retractable roof, allowing indoor and night-time play.[12]\n  \u2022 b Wimbledon entered the Open Era with the 1968 edition, allowing professional players to compete alongside amateurs.[3]\n  \u2022 c John McEnroe is the only player to have been denied membership in 1981, because of his on-court behaviour during the championships.[13][14]\n  \u2022 d Each year is linked to an article about that particular year's draws, but pre-1922 they did not have draws due to the challenge round system. In 1922 till the present they do have draws, but the years of 1925\u20131939 do not have draw pages with links, so it is linked to the year's articles instead.\n  \u2022 e \"British Isles\" (BRI) is used for players from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801\u20131922), distinct from \"Great Britain\" (GBR) used for players from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1922\u2013present).[4][15]\n  \u2022 f The tournament was not held from 1915 to 1918 because of World War I.[4]\n  \u2022 g The tournament was not held from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II.[4]\n  \u2022 h Czechoslovakia (TCH, 1918\u20131992) split into the Czech Republic (CZE, 1992\u2013present) and Slovakia (SVK, 1992\u2013present).\n  \u2022 i Martina Navratilova was born in Czechoslovakia, but was stripped of her citizenship in 1975 when she defected to the United States. She became a US citizen in 1981.[16]\n  \u2022 j FRG is West Germany, but after unification became just Germany (GER) after 1990.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\nGeneral\n  \u2022 \"Ladies' Singles Finals\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2017-09-18.\u00a0\n  \u2022 \"Grand Slam Tournaments - Wimbledon\" (PDF). usta.com. United States Tennis Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-20. Retrieved 2009-07-01.\u00a0\nSpecific\n  1. Jump up ^ \"FAQ - Grass Courts\" (PDF). wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2009-06-24.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Tournament profile - Wimbledon\". atpworldtour.com. ATP Tour, Inc. Retrieved 2009-07-05.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b \"About Wimbledon - History: History\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2009-06-24.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h \"Ladies' Singles Finals\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Archived from the original on 2010-04-28. Retrieved 2010-11-12.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c Barrett, John (1986). 100 Wimbledon Championships: A Celebration. Collins Willow. ISBN\u00a0978-0-00-218220-1.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Roberts, John (1998-08-05). \"Tennis: Fast, fan friendly - but full of faults\". The Independent. Retrieved 2009-06-24.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Breaking with tradition\". The Age. The Age Company Ltd. 2004-01-25. Retrieved 2009-07-27.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"About Wimbledon - History: The trophies\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2009-06-24.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"About Wimbledon - Behind the scenes: The All England Lawn Tennis Club\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Archived from the original on 2010-12-25. Retrieved 2010-11-12.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"2011 Prize Money\" (PDF). wimbledon.org. All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2011-07-03.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Ladies' Singles Finals 1884-2017\". wimbledon.com. Wimbledon Championships. Retrieved 22 July 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Harman, Neil (2009-04-22). \"No more soaked strawberries - Centre Court, Wimbledon, gets a roof\". The Times. Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 2009-07-19.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Jolly snub for McEnroe; he's refused All-England\". St. Petersburg Times. United Press International. 1981-07-10. Retrieved 2009-07-27.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Zenilman, Avi (2009-06-24). \"Back Issues: McEnroe vs. Thatcher\". The New Yorker. Cond\u00e9 Nast Publications. Retrieved 2009-07-27.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"History - Rolls of Honour: Country abbreviations\". wimbledon.org. IBM, All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Retrieved 2009-07-17.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ McCurry, Justin (11 March 2008). \"'Ashamed' Navratilove regains Czech nationality\". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 July 2016.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Wimbledon Championships.\n  \u2022 The Championships, Wimbledon official website\n  \u2022 iconTennis portal\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWimbledon women's singles drawsheets\nPre Open Era\n  \u2022 1884\n  \u2022 1885\n  \u2022 1886\n  \u2022 1887\n  \u2022 1888\n  \u2022 1889\n  \u2022 1890\n  \u2022 1891\n  \u2022 1892\n  \u2022 1893\n  \u2022 1894\n  \u2022 1895\n  \u2022 1896\n  \u2022 1897\n  \u2022 1898\n  \u2022 1899\n  \u2022 1900\n  \u2022 1901\n  \u2022 1902\n  \u2022 1903\n  \u2022 1904\n  \u2022 1905\n  \u2022 1906\n  \u2022 1907\n  \u2022 1908\n  \u2022 1909\n  \u2022 1910\n  \u2022 1911\n  \u2022 1912\n  \u2022 1913\n  \u2022 1914\n  \u2022 1915\u20131918 (WWI)\n  \u2022 1919\n  \u2022 1920\n  \u2022 1921\n  \u2022 1922\n  \u2022 1923\n  \u2022 1924\n  \u2022 1925\n  \u2022 1926\n  \u2022 1927\n  \u2022 1928\n  \u2022 1929\n  \u2022 1930\n  \u2022 1931\n  \u2022 1932\n  \u2022 1933\n  \u2022 1934\n  \u2022 1935\n  \u2022 1936\n  \u2022 1937\n  \u2022 1938\n  \u2022 1939\n  \u2022 1940\u20131945 (WWII)\n  \u2022 1946\n  \u2022 1947\n  \u2022 1948\n  \u2022 1949\n  \u2022 1950\n  \u2022 1951\n  \u2022 1952\n  \u2022 1953\n  \u2022 1954\n  \u2022 1955\n  \u2022 1956\n  \u2022 1957\n  \u2022 1958\n  \u2022 1959\n  \u2022 1960\n  \u2022 1961\n  \u2022 1962\n  \u2022 1963\n  \u2022 1964\n  \u2022 1965\n  \u2022 1966\n  \u2022 1967\nOpen Era\n  \u2022 1968\n  \u2022 1969\n  \u2022 1970\n  \u2022 1971\n  \u2022 1972\n  \u2022 1973\n  \u2022 1974\n  \u2022 1975\n  \u2022 1976\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 1978\n  \u2022 1979\n  \u2022 1980\n  \u2022 1981\n  \u2022 1982\n  \u2022 1983\n  \u2022 1984\n  \u2022 1985\n  \u2022 1986\n  \u2022 1987\n  \u2022 1988\n  \u2022 1989\n  \u2022 1990\n  \u2022 1991\n  \u2022 1992\n  \u2022 1993\n  \u2022 1994\n  \u2022 1995\n  \u2022 1996\n  \u2022 1997\n  \u2022 1998\n  \u2022 1999\n  \u2022 2000\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2002\n  \u2022 2003\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\n  \u2022 2018\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWimbledon Championships\nPre Open Era\n  \u2022 1877\n  \u2022 1878\n  \u2022 1879\n  \u2022 1880\n  \u2022 1881\n  \u2022 1882\n  \u2022 1883\n  \u2022 1884\n  \u2022 1885\n  \u2022 1886\n  \u2022 1887\n  \u2022 1888\n  \u2022 1889\n  \u2022 1890\n  \u2022 1891\n  \u2022 1892\n  \u2022 1893\n  \u2022 1894\n  \u2022 1895\n  \u2022 1896\n  \u2022 1897\n  \u2022 1898\n  \u2022 1899\n  \u2022 1900\n  \u2022 1901\n  \u2022 1902\n  \u2022 1903\n  \u2022 1904\n  \u2022 1905\n  \u2022 1906\n  \u2022 1907\n  \u2022 1908\n  \u2022 1909\n  \u2022 1910\n  \u2022 1911\n  \u2022 1912\n  \u2022 1913\n  \u2022 1914\n  \u2022 1915\n  \u2022 1916\n  \u2022 1917\n  \u2022 1918\n  \u2022 1919\n  \u2022 1920\n  \u2022 1921\n  \u2022 1922\n  \u2022 1923\n  \u2022 1924\n  \u2022 1925\n  \u2022 1926\n  \u2022 1927\n  \u2022 1928\n  \u2022 1929\n  \u2022 1930\n  \u2022 1931\n  \u2022 1932\n  \u2022 1933\n  \u2022 1934\n  \u2022 1935\n  \u2022 1936\n  \u2022 1937\n  \u2022 1938\n  \u2022 1939\n  \u2022 1940\n  \u2022 1941\n  \u2022 1942\n  \u2022 1943\n  \u2022 1944\n  \u2022 1945\n  \u2022 1946\n  \u2022 1947\n  \u2022 1948\n  \u2022 1949\n  \u2022 1950\n  \u2022 1951\n  \u2022 1952\n  \u2022 1953\n  \u2022 1954\n  \u2022 1955\n  \u2022 1956\n  \u2022 1957\n  \u2022 1958\n  \u2022 1959\n  \u2022 1960\n  \u2022 1961\n  \u2022 1962\n  \u2022 1963\n  \u2022 1964\n  \u2022 1965\n  \u2022 1966\n  \u2022 1967\nOpen Era\n  \u2022 1968\n  \u2022 1969\n  \u2022 1970\n  \u2022 1971\n  \u2022 1972\n  \u2022 1973\n  \u2022 1974\n  \u2022 1975\n  \u2022 1976\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 1978\n  \u2022 1979\n  \u2022 1980\n  \u2022 1981\n  \u2022 1982\n  \u2022 1983\n  \u2022 1984\n  \u2022 1985\n  \u2022 1986\n  \u2022 1987\n  \u2022 1988\n  \u2022 1989\n  \u2022 1990\n  \u2022 1991\n  \u2022 1992\n  \u2022 1993\n  \u2022 1994\n  \u2022 1995\n  \u2022 1996\n  \u2022 1997\n  \u2022 1998\n  \u2022 1999\n  \u2022 2000\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2002\n  \u2022 2003\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\n  \u2022 2018\n  \u2022 2019\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrand Slam tournament champions\nAustralian Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nFrench Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nWimbledon\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nUS Open\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Singles finalists (open era)\nAll tournaments\n  \u2022 Men's singles\n  \u2022 Women's singles\n  \u2022 Men's doubles\n  \u2022 Women's doubles\n  \u2022 Mixed doubles\n  \u2022 Boys' singles\n  \u2022 Girls' singles\n  \u2022 Boys' doubles\n  \u2022 Girls' doubles\n  \u2022 Grand Slam overall records\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPre Open Era Wimbledon ladies' singles champions\n  \u2022 (1884) Maud Watson\n  \u2022 (1885) Maud Watson\n  \u2022 (1886) Blanche Bingley\n  \u2022 (1887) Lottie Dod\n  \u2022 (1888) Lottie Dod\n  \u2022 (1889) Blanche Bingley Hillyard\n  \u2022 (1890) Lena Rice\n  \u2022 (1891) Lottie Dod\n  \u2022 (1892) Lottie Dod\n  \u2022 (1893) Lottie Dod\n  \u2022 (1894) Blanche Bingley Hillyard\n  \u2022 (1895) Charlotte Cooper\n  \u2022 (1896) Charlotte Cooper\n  \u2022 (1897) Blanche Bingley Hillyard\n  \u2022 (1898) Charlotte Cooper\n  \u2022 (1899) Blanche Bingley Hillyard\n  \u2022 (1900) Blanche Bingley Hillyard\n  \u2022 (1901) Charlotte Sterry\n  \u2022 (1902) Muriel Robb\n  \u2022 (1903) Dorothea Douglass\n  \u2022 (1904) Dorothea Douglass\n  \u2022 (1905) May Sutton\n  \u2022 (1906) Dorothea Lambert Chambers\n  \u2022 (1907) May Sutton\n  \u2022 (1908) Charlotte Sterry\n  \u2022 (1909) Dora Boothby\n  \u2022 (1910) Dorothea Lambert Chambers\n  \u2022 (1912) Dorethea Lambert Chambers\n  \u2022 (1913) Ethel Thomson Larcombe\n  \u2022 (1914) Dorothea Lambert Chambers\n  \u2022 (1915) Dorothea Lambert Chambers\n  \u2022 (1915-18) No competition (due to World War I)\n  \u2022 (1919) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1920) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1921) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1922) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1923) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1924) Kathleen McKane\n  \u2022 (1925) Suzanne Lenglen\n  \u2022 (1926) Kathleen McKane Godfree\n  \u2022 (1927) Helen Wills\n  \u2022 (1928) Helen Wills\n  \u2022 (1929) Helen Wills\n  \u2022 (1930) Helen Wills Moody\n  \u2022 (1931) Cilly Aussem\n  \u2022 (1932) Helen Wills Moody\n  \u2022 (1933) Helen Wills Moody\n  \u2022 (1934) Dorothy Round\n  \u2022 (1935) Helen Wills Moody\n  \u2022 (1936) Helen Jacobs\n  \u2022 (1937) Dorothy Round\n  \u2022 (1938) Helen Wills Moody\n  \u2022 (1939) Alice Marble\n  \u2022 (1940\u201345) No competition (due to World War II)\n  \u2022 (1946) Pauline Addie\n  \u2022 (1947) Margaret Osborne\n  \u2022 (1948) Louise Brough\n  \u2022 (1949) Louise Brough\n  \u2022 (1950) Louise Brough\n  \u2022 (1951) Doris Hart\n  \u2022 (1952) Maureen Connolly\n  \u2022 (1953) Maureen Connolly\n  \u2022 (1954) Maureen Connolly\n  \u2022 (1955) Louise Brough\n  \u2022 (1956) Shirley Fry\n  \u2022 (1957) Althea Gibson\n  \u2022 (1958) Althea Gibson\n  \u2022 (1959) Maria Bueno\n  \u2022 (1960) Maria Bueno\n  \u2022 (1961) Angela Mortimer\n  \u2022 (1962) Karen Hantze Susman\n  \u2022 (1963) Margaret Smith\n  \u2022 (1964) Maria Bueno\n  \u2022 (1965) Margaret Smith\n  \u2022 (1966) Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 (1967) Billie Jean King\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWimbledon (Open era) ladies' singles champions\n  \u2022 (1968) Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 (1969) Ann Haydon-Jones\n  \u2022 (1970) Margaret Court\n  \u2022 (1971) Evonne Goolagong\n  \u2022 (1972) Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 (1973) Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 (1974) Chris Evert\n  \u2022 (1975) Billie Jean King\n  \u2022 (1976) Chris Evert\n  \u2022 (1977) Virginia Wade\n  \u2022 (1978) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1979) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1980) Evonne Goolagong\n  \u2022 (1981) Chris Evert\n  \u2022 (1982) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1983) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1984) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1985) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1986) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1987) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1988) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1989) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1990) Martina Navratilova\n  \u2022 (1991) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1992) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1993) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1994) Conchita Mart\u00ednez\n  \u2022 (1995) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1996) Steffi Graf\n  \u2022 (1997) Martina Hingis\n  \u2022 (1998) Jana Novotn\u00e1\n  \u2022 (1999) Lindsay Davenport\n  \u2022 (2000) Venus Williams\n  \u2022 (2001) Venus Williams\n  \u2022 (2002) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2003) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2004) Maria Sharapova\n  \u2022 (2005) Venus Williams\n  \u2022 (2006) Am\u00e9lie Mauresmo\n  \u2022 (2007) Venus Williams\n  \u2022 (2008) Venus Williams\n  \u2022 (2009) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2010) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2011) Petra Kvitov\u00e1\n  \u2022 (2012) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2013) Marion Bartoli\n  \u2022 (2014) Petra Kvitov\u00e1\n  \u2022 (2015) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2016) Serena Williams\n  \u2022 (2017) Garbi\u00f1e Muguruza\n  \u2022 (2018) Angelique Kerber\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_Wimbledon_ladies%27_singles_champions&oldid=850241275\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Lists of Wimbledon champions\n  \u2022 Women's tennis in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Lists of female tennis players\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Yor\u00f9b\u00e1\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 14 July 2018, at 17:30\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7533151238807228720","title":"Dualism","text":"Dualism\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other uses, see Dualism (disambiguation).\n[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nWiki letter w.svg\nThis article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (December 2016)\n(Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nPart of a series on\nGod\nGeneral conceptions[show]\n  \u2022 Agnosticism\n  \u2022 Apatheism\n  \u2022 Atheism\n  \u2022 Deism\n  \u2022 Henotheism\n  \u2022 Ignosticism\n  \u2022 Monotheism\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Monolatrism\n  \u2022 Kathenotheism\n  \u2022 Omnism\n  \u2022 Panpsychism\n  \u2022 Panentheism\n  \u2022 Pantheism\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Theism\n  \u2022 Transtheism\nSpecific conceptions[show]\n  \u2022 Creator\n  \u2022 Demiurge\n  \u2022 Deus\n  \u2022 Father\n  \u2022 Great Architect\n  \u2022 Monad\n  \u2022 Mother\n  \u2022 Supreme Being\n  \u2022 Sustainer\n  \u2022 The All\n  \u2022 The Lord\n  \u2022 Trinity\n  \u2022 Tawhid\n  \u2022 Ditheism\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Personal\n  \u2022 Unitarianism\nIn particular religions[show]\nAbrahamic\n  \u2022 Judaism\n  \u2022 Christianity\n  \u2022 Islam\n  \u2022 Bah\u00e1'\u00ed\n  \u2022 Mormonism\nIndo-Iranian\n  \u2022 Hinduism\n  \u2022 Buddhism\n  \u2022 Jainism\n  \u2022 Sikhism\n  \u2022 Zoroastrianism\nChinese\n  \u2022 Tian\n  \u2022 Shangdi\n  \u2022 Hongjun Laozu\nAttributes[show]\n  \u2022 Eternalness\n  \u2022 Existence\n  \u2022 Gender\n  \u2022 Names\u00a0(\"God\")\n  \u2022 Omnibenevolence\n  \u2022 Omnipotence\n  \u2022 Omnipresence\n  \u2022 Omniscience\n  \u2022 Experiences\n  \u2022 Practices\n[show]\n  \u2022 Belief\n  \u2022 Esotericism\n  \u2022 Faith\n  \u2022 Fideism\n  \u2022 Gnosis\n  \u2022 Hermeticism\n  \u2022 Metaphysics\n  \u2022 Mysticism\n  \u2022 Prayer\n  \u2022 Revelation\n  \u2022 Worship\nRelated topics[show]\n  \u2022 Euthyphro dilemma\n  \u2022 God complex\n  \u2022 God gene\n  \u2022 Theology\n  \u2022 Ontology\n  \u2022 Problem of evil\u00a0(theodicy)\n  \u2022 Religion\n    \u2022 philosophy\n    \u2022 texts\n  \u2022 Portrayals of God in popular media\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nDualism (from the Latin word duo meaning \"two\")[1] denotes the state of two parts. The term dualism was originally coined to denote co-eternal[clarification needed] binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been more generalized in other usages to indicate a system which contains two essential parts.\n\nMoral dualism is the belief of the great complement of or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. It simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be \"moral\" and independent of how these may be represented. Moral opposites might, for example, exist in a worldview which has one god, more than one god, or none. By contrast, ditheism or bi-theism implies (at least) two gods. While bi-theism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, or light and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is a creator, and the other a destroyer.\n\nAlternatively, in ontological dualism, the world is divided into two overarching categories. The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of yin and yang is a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is an important feature of Taoism. It is also discussed in Confucianism.\n\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Moral dualism\n    \u2022 1.1 History\n  \u2022 2 Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism\n  \u2022 3 Theistic dualism\n    \u2022 3.1 In Christianity\n    \u2022 3.2 In Hinduism\n  \u2022 4 Ontological dualism\n    \u2022 4.1 In Chinese philosophy\n  \u2022 5 Soul dualism\n  \u2022 6 In Indian philosophy\n    \u2022 6.1 Buddhist philosophy\n    \u2022 6.2 Samkhya and Yogic philosophy\n  \u2022 7 In philosophy of mind\n    \u2022 7.1 History\n  \u2022 8 In other areas of philosophy\n  \u2022 9 In physics\n  \u2022 10 In cybernetics\n  \u2022 11 Political dualism\n  \u2022 12 See also\n  \u2022 13 Notes\n  \u2022 14 References\n  \u2022 15 External links\n\nMoral dualism[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nMoral dualism is the belief of the great complement or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. Like ditheism\/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of monist or monotheistic principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be \"moral\" and - unlike ditheism\/bitheism - independent of how these may be represented.\n\nFor example, Mazdaism (Mazdean Zoroastrianism) is both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist by definition) since in that philosophy God\u2014the Creator\u2014is purely good, and the antithesis\u2014which is also uncreated\u2013is an absolute one. Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Manichaeism, and Mandaeism are representative of dualistic and monist philosophies since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, Catharism, and so on. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in Hermeticism, where Nous \"thought\" \u2013 that is described to have created man \u2013 brings forth both good and evil, dependent on interpretation, whether it receives prompting from the God or from the Demon. Duality with pluralism is considered a logical fallacy.\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nMoral dualism began as a theological belief. Dualism was first seen implicitly in Egyptian religious beliefs by the contrast of the gods Set (disorder, death) and Osiris (order, life).[2] The first explicit conception of dualism came from the Ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism around the mid-fifth century BC. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that believes that Ahura Mazda is the eternal creator of all good things. Any violations of Ahura Mazda's order arise from druj, which is everything uncreated. From this comes a significant choice for humans to make. Either they fully participate in human life for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give druj power. Personal dualism is even more distinct in the beliefs of later religions.\n\nThe religious dualism of Christianity between good and evil is not a perfect dualism as God (good) will inevitably destroy Satan (evil). Early Christian dualism is largely based on Platonic Dualism (See: Neoplatonism and Christianity). There is also a personal dualism in Christianity with a soul-body distinction based on the idea of an immaterial Christian soul.[3]\n\nDuotheism, bitheism, ditheism[edit]\n\nSee also: Dualistic cosmology\n\nIn theology, dualism may refer to duotheism, bitheism, or ditheism. Although ditheism\/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism\/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not necessarily imply theism (theos = god) at all.\n\nBoth bitheism and ditheism imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary or antonymous properties; however, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, bright and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf. theodicy). In the original conception of Zoroastrianism, for example, Ahura Mazda was the spirit of ultimate good, while Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) was the spirit of ultimate evil.\n\nIn a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the two deities are not in conflict or opposition, one could be male and the other female (cf. duotheism[clarification needed]). One well-known example of a bitheistic or duotheistic theology based on gender polarity is found in the neopagan religion of Wicca. In Wicca, dualism is represented in the belief of a god and a goddess as a dual partnership in ruling the universe. This is centered on the worship of a divine couple, the Moon Goddess and the Horned God, who are regarded as lovers. However, there is also a ditheistic theme within traditional Wicca, as the Horned God has dual aspects of bright and dark - relating to day\/night, summer\/winter - expressed as the Oak King and the Holly King, who in Wiccan myth and ritual are said to engage in battle twice a year for the hand of the Goddess, resulting in the changing seasons. (Within Wicca, bright and dark do not correspond to notions of \"good\" and \"evil\" but are aspects of the natural world, much like yin and yang in Taoism.)\n\nHowever, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain\/fertility (cf. the mythology of Persephone). Marcionism, an early Christian sect, held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of different religions.[4]\n\nTheistic dualism[edit]\n\nIn theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between God and creation or God and the universe. This form of dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of Christianity and Hinduism.[5]\n\nIn Christianity[edit]\n\nThe Cathars being expelled from Carcassonne in 1209. The Cathars were denounced as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church for their dualist beliefs.\n\nThe dualism between God and Creation has existed as a central belief in multiple historical sects and traditions of Christianity, including Marcionism, Catharism, Paulicianism, and Gnostic Christianity. Christian dualism refers to the belief that God and creation are distinct, but interrelated through an indivisible bond.[5] In sects like the Cathars and the Paulicians, this is a dualism between the material world, created by an evil god, and a moral god. Historians divide Christian dualism into absolute dualism, which held that the good and evil gods were equally powerful, and mitigated dualism, which held that material evil was subordinate to the spiritual good.[6] The belief, by Christian theologians who adhere to a libertarian or compatibilist view of free will, that free will separates humankind from God has also been characterized as a form of dualism.[5] The theologian Leroy Stephens Rouner compares the dualism of Christianity with the dualism that exists in Zoroastrianism and the Samkhya tradition of Hinduism. The theological use of the word dualism dates back to 1700, in a book that describes the dualism between good and evil.[5]\n\nThe tolerance of dualism ranges widely among the different Christian traditions. As a monotheistic religion, the conflict between dualism and monism has existed in Christianity since its inception.[7] The 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia describes that, in the Catholic Church, \"the dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by side with God was of course rejected\" by the thirteenth century, but mind\u2013body dualism was not.[8] The problem of evil is difficult to reconcile with absolute monism, and has prompted some Christian sects to veer towards dualism. Gnostic forms of Christianity were more dualistic, and some Gnostic traditions posited that the Devil was separate from God as an independent deity.[7] The Christian dualists of the Byzantine Empire, the Paulicians, were seen as Manichean heretics by Byzantine theologians. This tradition of Christian dualism, founded by Constantine-Silvanus, argued that the universe was created through evil and separate from a moral God.[9]\n\nThe Cathars, a Christian sect in southern France, believed that there was a dualism between two gods, one representing good and the other representing evil. The Roman Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by Pope Innocent III in 1208 to remove the Cathars from Languedoc in France, where they were known as Albigesians. The Inquisition, which began in 1233 under Pope Gregory IX, also targeted the Cathars.[10]\n\nIn Hinduism[edit]\n\nThe Dvaita Vedanta school of Indian philosophy espouses a dualism between God and the universe by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the more important reality is that of Shiva or Sakthi or Vishnu or Brahman. Shiva or Sakthi or Vishnu is the supreme Self, God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The second reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its own separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul (Jiva), matter, etc. exist with their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy as opposed to Advaita Vedanta (monistic conclusion of Vedas) is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.[11] Because the existence of individuals is grounded in the divine, they are depicted as reflections, images or even shadows of the divine, but never in any way identical with the divine. Salvation therefore is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the Supreme.[12]\n\nOntological dualism[edit]\n\nThe yin and yang symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in the Taoist religion.\n\nAlternatively, dualism can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching categories. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it. This form of ontological dualism exists in Taoism and Confucianism, beliefs that divide the universe into the complementary oppositions of yin and yang.[13] In traditions such as classical Hinduism, Zen Buddhism or Islamic Sufism, a key to enlightenment is \"transcending\" this sort of dualistic thinking, without merely substituting dualism with monism or pluralism.\n\nIn Chinese philosophy[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nThe opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of yin and yang is a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is an important feature of Taoism, both as a philosophy and as a religion, although the concept developed much earlier. Some argue that yin and yang were originally an earth and sky god, respectively.[14] As one of the oldest principles in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang are also discussed in Confucianism, but to a lesser extent.\n\nSome of the common associations with yang and yin, respectively, are: male and female, light and dark, active and passive, motion and stillness. Some scholars recognize that the two ideas may have originally referred to two opposite sides of a mountain, facing towards and away from the sun.[14] The yin and yang symbol in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism; instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. In the yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. In Taoism, this symbolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as different aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the independent principles of yin and yang are actually dependent on one another for each other's distinguishable existence.\n\nThe complementary dualistic concept seen in yin and yang represent the reciprocal interaction throughout nature, related to a feedback loop, where opposing forces do not exchange in opposition but instead exchange reciprocally to promote stabilization similar to homeostasis. An underlying principle in Taoism states that within every independent entity lies a part of its opposite. Within sickness lies health and vice versa. This is because all opposites are manifestations of the single Tao, and are therefore not independent from one another, but rather a variation of the same unifying force throughout all of nature.\n\nSoul dualism[edit]\n\nMain article: Soul dualism\n\nIn some cultures, people (or also other beings) are believed to have two or more kinds of soul. In several cases, one of these souls is associated with body functions (and is sometimes thought to disappear after death, but not always), and the other one is able to leave the body (for example, a shaman's free-soul may be held to be able to undertake a spirit journey). The plethora of soul types may be even more complex.\n\nThe Bipartite view of theology recognizes the existence of both material and immaterial aspects of human life, typically body and soul. This is distinct from the Tripartite view that holds soul and spirit to be separate aspects of a person along with the body.\n\nIn Indian philosophy[edit]\n\nBuddhist philosophy[edit]\n\nDuring the classical era of Buddhist philosophy in India, philosophers such as Dharmakirti argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and Buddhist atoms (the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to \"the standard interpretation\" of Dharmakirti's Buddhist metaphysics.[15] Typically in Western philosophy, dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with the physical brain, and therefore also interacting with the micro-particles (basic building blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti\u2019s sense, is different in that it is not a dualism between the mind and brain, but rather between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti\u2019s philosophy involved mereological nihilism, meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of quantum physics (quarks, electrons, etc.).[citation needed]\n\nSamkhya and Yogic philosophy[edit]\n\nWhile Western philosophical traditions, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind\/body dualism; some Eastern philosophies provide an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter \u2014 where matter includes both body and mind.[16][17]\n\nIn Samkhya and Yoga schools of Indian philosophy, \"there are two irreducible, innate and independent realities 1) consciousness itself (Purusha) 2) primordial materiality (Prakriti)\". The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, contains 23 components including intellect (buddhi, mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas). Therefore, the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.[18] Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. Consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness creates thought structures that appear to be conscious.[19] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.[20] But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.[19]\n\nBy including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya-Yoga avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted causal efficacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions.[21]\n\nIn philosophy of mind[edit]\n\nMain articles: Mind\u2013body dualism and Epiphenomenalism\n\nIn philosophy of mind, dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to materialism in general, and reductive materialism in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as substance dualism which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as property dualism which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as \"mind and body\" and stands in contrast to philosophical monism, which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing.\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe first significant argument against dualism came from Thomas Hobbes's (1588\u20131679) materialist critique of the human person. Hobbes argues that all of human experience comes from biological processes contained within the body (see: The Leviathan[22]). In response to Hobbes, the French philosopher Ren\u00e9 Descartes (1596\u20131650) developed Cartesian dualism, which posits that there is a divisible, mechanical body and an indivisible, immaterial mind which interact with one another. The body perceives external inputs and the awareness of them comes from the soul. The point of interaction between the two is at the pineal gland in the brain.[23]\n\nDuring the 19th and 20th centuries, materialistic monism became the norm.[24] Still, in addition to already discussed theories of dualism (particularly the Christian and Cartesian models) there are new theories in the defense of dualism. Naturalistic dualism comes from Australian philosopher, David Chalmers (born 1966) who argues there is an explanatory gap between objective and subjective experience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the physical properties upon which it supervenes. According to Chalmers, a naturalistic account of property dualism requires a new fundamental category of properties described by new laws of supervenience; the challenge being analogous to that of understanding electricity based on the mechanistic and Newtonian models of materialism prior to Maxwell's equations.\n\nA similar defense comes from Australian philosopher Frank Jackson (born 1943) who revived the theory of epiphenomenalism which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states. Jackson argues that there are two kinds of dualism. The first is substance dualism that assumes there is second, non-corporeal form of reality. In this form, body and soul are two different substances. The second form is property dualism that says that body and soul are different properties of the same body. He claims that functions of the mind\/soul are internal, very private experiences that are not accessible to observation by others, and therefore not accessible by science (at least not yet). We can know everything, for example, about a bat's facility for echolocation, but we will never know how the bat experiences that phenomenon. In Jackson's mind experiment, he imagines a girl who grows up in a black-and-white room. She may grow up learning all about the scientific facts of colors, but has no way of experiencing colors other than black or white. When someone brings a red tomato into her room, she is stunned. She discovers a new fact: the experience of red is 'like this.' That experience is not a physical fact but a conscious one.[25]\n\nIn other areas of philosophy[edit]\n\nMain article: Epistemological dualism\nSee also: New realism (philosophy)\n\nIn the philosophy of science, dualism often refers to the dichotomy between the \"subject\" (the observer) and the \"object\" (the observed). Another dualism, in Popperian philosophy of science refers to \"hypothesis\" and \"refutation\" (for example, experimental refutation). This notion also carried to Popper's political philosophy.\n\nThe American philosopher Arthur Oncken Lovejoy in his The Revolt Against Dualism (1960) develops a critique of the modern new realism, reproposing a form of dualism based on a \"fork of human experience.\"\n\nIn physics[edit]\n\nSee also: Duality \u00a7\u00a0Physics\n\nIn physics, dualism refers to media with properties that can be associated with the mechanics of two different phenomena. Because these two phenomena's mechanics are mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to describe the possible behaviors. All matter, for example, has wave\u2013particle duality.\n\nIn cybernetics[edit]\n\nIn cybernetics, Norbert Wiener described \"Manicheaen devils\" (dualistic adversarial systems) as those systems or problems in which an intelligent adversary is attempting to exploit weaknesses of the investigator (such as in a game-playing opponent, adversarial law, evolutionary systems of predator\/parasite and prey\/host, politics\/enslavement attempts, etc.). Wiener's \"Cybernetics\" contrasted such systems with \"Augustinian devils\" that were systems or problems that, though very complex and difficult to figure out, did not feature an adversary with contrary intent. Victories or \"expansions of knowledge\" in such systems were able to be built upon incrementally, through science (experimentation expanding empirical knowledge bases). Wiener noted that temporary weaknesses (such as errors to perceive all components of a system) were not fatal in attempts to defeat \"Augustinian devils\" because another experiment could simply be pursued (and he noted that he had personally defeated many \"Augustinian devils\" with his contributions to science and engineering). Wiener further noted that temporary lapses in judgment against \"Manicheaen devils\" were more often fatal or destructive, due to the desire of the opponent to \"win\/survive at all costs,\" even going so far as to introduce any level of deception into the system (and he noted that he had been defeated by many \"Manicheaen devils,\" such as on occasions when he was temporarily careless in chess). Although this \"duality\" between \"complexity\" and \"opposition\" may seem obvious, there are deep implications in many areas of science, such as game theory, political science, computer science, network science, security science, military science, evolutionary biology, and cryptography.\n\nPolitical dualism[edit]\n\nMain article: Dualism (politics)\n\nIn politics, dualism refers to the separation of powers between the legislature and executive.\n\nIn the context of the history of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, \"dualism\" refers to the political doctrine of Austria's and Hungary's co-equality. The phrase \"during dualism\" (Hungarian: dualizmus alatt) is used in Hungarian historiography as shorthand for \"during the dual monarchy.\"\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Philosophy portal\n  \u2022 Atheism\n  \u2022 Dialectic\n  \u2022 Didache \u2013 The Two Ways\n  \u2022 Duality\n  \u2022 False dilemma\n  \u2022 Monism and dualism in international law\n    \u2022 Legal pluralism\n  \u2022 Nondualism\n  \u2022 Pluralism (philosophy)\n  \u2022 Reductionism\n  \u2022 Rhizome (philosophy)\n  \u2022 Table of Opposites\n  \u2022 Yanantin (complementary dualism in Native South American culture)\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The term dualism is recorded in English since 1785\u201395 (Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, 2001, \"dualism\").\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Egypt and Mesopotamia\"\n  3. Jump up ^ \"soul\"\n  4. Jump up ^ Enrico Riparelli, Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari, Peter Lang, Bern - Berlin - Bruxelles - Frankfurt am Main - New York - Oxford - Wien 2008, 368 pp. ISBN\u00a0978-3-03911-490-0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Rouner, Leroy (1983). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. p.\u00a0166. ISBN\u00a0978-0-664-22748-7.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Peters, Edward (2011). Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe. University of Pennsylvania Press. p.\u00a0106. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8122-0680-7.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Russell, Jeffrey (1998). A History of Heaven: The Singing Silence. Princeton University Press. p.\u00a053. ISBN\u00a0978-0-691-00684-0.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company. 1912. p.\u00a0170.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Hamilton, Janet; Hamilton, Bernard; Stoyanov, Yuri (1998). Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-c. 1450: Selected Sources. Manchester University Press. pp.\u00a01\u20132. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7190-4765-7.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Chidester, David (2001). Christianity: A Global History. HarperCollins. pp.\u00a0266\u2013268. ISBN\u00a0978-0-06-251770-8.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Etter, Christopher. A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism. iUniverse Inc. P. 59-60. ISBN\u00a00-595-39312-8.\n  12. Jump up ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. P. 340-344. ISBN\u00a01-898723-93-1.\n  13. Jump up ^ Girardot, N.J. (1988). Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun). University of California Press. p.\u00a0247. ISBN\u00a0978-0-520-06460-7.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Roberts, Jeremy. \"Yin and Yang\". Ancient and Medieval History. Facts on File. Retrieved 19 March 2017.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Georges B.J. Dreyfus, Recognizing Reality, SUNY Press 1996 (ISBN\u00a0978-0791430989)\n  16. Jump up ^ Haney, p. 17.\n  17. Jump up ^ Isaac, p. 339.\n  18. Jump up ^ Haney, p. 42.\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Isaac, p. 342.\n  20. Jump up ^ Leaman, p. 68.\n  21. Jump up ^ Leaman, p. 248.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Leviathan \u2013 Introduction\" Archived July 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. oregonstate.edu.\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Cartesian Dualism: Mind and Brain Interaction\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Materialism\"\n  25. Jump up ^ Jackson, Frank. 1990.\"Epiphenomenal Qualia,\" in 'Mind and Cognition,' W. Lycan (ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Haney, William S. Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained. Bucknell University Press (August 1, 2002). ISBN\u00a01611481724.\n  \u2022 Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu; Chakraborty, C. Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems (1997). Allied Publishers Ltd. ISBN\u00a081-7023-746-7.\n  \u2022 Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings. Routledge, 2000. ISBN\u00a00-415-17357-4.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nLook up dualism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nWikiquote has quotations related to: Dualism\nWikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica article Dualism.\n  \u2022 Duality entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology\n  \u2022 Dualism at PhilPapers\n  \u2022 \"Dualism\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Dualism at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project\n  \u2022 \"Dualism and Mind\". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Dictionary of the History of ideas: Dualism in Philosophy and Religion\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nMetaphysics\nMetaphysicians\n  \u2022 Parmenides\n  \u2022 Plato\n  \u2022 Aristotle\n  \u2022 Plotinus\n  \u2022 Duns Scotus\n  \u2022 Thomas Aquinas\n  \u2022 Francisco Su\u00e1rez\n  \u2022 Nicolas Malebranche\n  \u2022 Ren\u00e9 Descartes\n  \u2022 John Locke\n  \u2022 David Hume\n  \u2022 Thomas Reid\n  \u2022 Immanuel Kant\n  \u2022 Isaac Newton\n  \u2022 Arthur Schopenhauer\n  \u2022 Baruch Spinoza\n  \u2022 Georg W. F. Hegel\n  \u2022 George Berkeley\n  \u2022 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\n  \u2022 Henri Bergson\n  \u2022 Friedrich Nietzsche\n  \u2022 Charles Sanders Peirce\n  \u2022 Joseph Mar\u00e9chal\n  \u2022 Ludwig Wittgenstein\n  \u2022 Martin Heidegger\n  \u2022 Alfred N. Whitehead\n  \u2022 Bertrand Russell\n  \u2022 Dorothy Emmet\n  \u2022 G. E. Moore\n  \u2022 Jean-Paul Sartre\n  \u2022 Gilbert Ryle\n  \u2022 Hilary Putnam\n  \u2022 P. F. Strawson\n  \u2022 R. G. Collingwood\n  \u2022 Adolph St\u00f6hr\n  \u2022 Rudolf Carnap\n  \u2022 Saul Kripke\n  \u2022 Willard V. O. Quine\n  \u2022 G. E. M. Anscombe\n  \u2022 Donald Davidson\n  \u2022 Michael Dummett\n  \u2022 David Malet Armstrong\n  \u2022 David Lewis\n  \u2022 Alvin Plantinga\n  \u2022 Peter van Inwagen\n  \u2022 Derek Parfit\n  \u2022 more ...\nTheories\n  \u2022 Abstract object theory\n  \u2022 Action theory\n  \u2022 Anti-realism\n  \u2022 Determinism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Enactivism\n  \u2022 Essentialism\n  \u2022 Existentialism\n  \u2022 Free will\n  \u2022 Idealism\n  \u2022 Libertarianism\n  \u2022 Liberty\n  \u2022 Materialism\n  \u2022 Meaning of life\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Naturalism\n  \u2022 Nihilism\n  \u2022 Phenomenalism\n  \u2022 Realism\n  \u2022 Physicalism\n  \u2022 Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality\n  \u2022 Platonic idealism\n  \u2022 Relativism\n  \u2022 Scientific realism\n  \u2022 Solipsism\n  \u2022 Subjectivism\n  \u2022 Substance theory\n  \u2022 Type theory\nConcepts\n  \u2022 Abstract object\n  \u2022 Anima mundi\n  \u2022 Being\n  \u2022 Category of being\n  \u2022 Causality\n  \u2022 Choice\n  \u2022 Cogito ergo sum\n  \u2022 Concept\n  \u2022 Embodied cognition\n  \u2022 Entity\n  \u2022 Essence\n  \u2022 Existence\n  \u2022 Experience\n  \u2022 Hypostatic abstraction\n  \u2022 Idea\n  \u2022 Identity\n  \u2022 Identity and change\n  \u2022 Information\n  \u2022 Insight\n  \u2022 Intelligence\n  \u2022 Intention\n  \u2022 Linguistic modality\n  \u2022 Matter\n  \u2022 Meaning\n  \u2022 Memetics\n  \u2022 Mental representation\n  \u2022 Mind\n  \u2022 Motion\n  \u2022 Necessity\n  \u2022 Notion\n  \u2022 Object\n  \u2022 Pattern\n  \u2022 Perception\n  \u2022 Physical body\n  \u2022 Principle\n  \u2022 Property\n  \u2022 Qualia\n  \u2022 Quality\n  \u2022 Reality\n  \u2022 Soul\n  \u2022 Subject\n  \u2022 Substantial form\n  \u2022 Thought\n  \u2022 Time\n  \u2022 Truth\n  \u2022 Type\u2013token distinction\n  \u2022 Universal\n  \u2022 Unobservable\n  \u2022 Value\n  \u2022 more ...\nRelated topics\n  \u2022 Axiology\n  \u2022 Cosmology\n  \u2022 Epistemology\n  \u2022 Feminist metaphysics\n  \u2022 Interpretations of quantum mechanics\n  \u2022 Meta-\n  \u2022 Ontology\n  \u2022 Philosophy of mind\n  \u2022 Philosophy of psychology\n  \u2022 Philosophy of self\n  \u2022 Philosophy of space and time\n  \u2022 Teleology\n  \u2022 Theoretical physics\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPhilosophy of religion\nConcepts in religion\n  \u2022 Afterlife\n  \u2022 Euthyphro dilemma\n  \u2022 Faith\n  \u2022 Intelligent design\n  \u2022 Miracle\n  \u2022 Problem of evil\n  \u2022 Religious belief\n  \u2022 Soul\n  \u2022 Spirit\n  \u2022 Theodicy\n  \u2022 Theological veto\nConceptions of God\n  \u2022 Aristotelian view\n  \u2022 Brahman\n  \u2022 Demiurge\n  \u2022 Divine simplicity\n  \u2022 Egoism\n  \u2022 Holy Spirit\n  \u2022 Misotheism\n  \u2022 Pandeism\n  \u2022 Personal god\n  \u2022 Process theology\n  \u2022 Supreme Being\n  \u2022 Unmoved mover\nGod in\n  \u2022 Abrahamic religions\n  \u2022 Buddhism\n  \u2022 Christianity\n  \u2022 Hinduism\n  \u2022 Islam\n  \u2022 Jainism\n  \u2022 Judaism\n  \u2022 Mormonism\n  \u2022 Sikhism\n  \u2022 Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith\n  \u2022 Wicca\nExistence of God\nFor\n  \u2022 Beauty\n  \u2022 Christological\n  \u2022 Consciousness\n  \u2022 Cosmological\n    \u2022 Kalam\n    \u2022 Contingency\n  \u2022 Degree\n  \u2022 Desire\n  \u2022 Experience\n  \u2022 Fine-tuning of the Universe\n  \u2022 Love\n  \u2022 Miracles\n  \u2022 Morality\n  \u2022 Necessary existent\n  \u2022 Ontological\n  \u2022 Pascal's Wager\n  \u2022 Proper basis\n  \u2022 Reason\n  \u2022 Teleological\n    \u2022 Natural law\n    \u2022 Watchmaker analogy\n  \u2022 Transcendental\nAgainst\n  \u2022 747 gambit\n  \u2022 Atheist's Wager\n  \u2022 Evil\n  \u2022 Free will\n  \u2022 Hell\n  \u2022 Inconsistent revelations\n  \u2022 Nonbelief\n  \u2022 Noncognitivism\n  \u2022 Occam's razor\n  \u2022 Omnipotence\n  \u2022 Poor design\n  \u2022 Russell's teapot\nTheology\n  \u2022 Acosmism\n  \u2022 Agnosticism\n  \u2022 Animism\n  \u2022 Antireligion\n  \u2022 Atheism\n  \u2022 Creationism\n  \u2022 Dharmism\n  \u2022 Deism\n  \u2022 Demonology\n  \u2022 Divine command theory\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Esotericism\n  \u2022 Exclusivism\n  \u2022 Existentialism\n    \u2022 Christian\n    \u2022 Agnostic\n    \u2022 Atheistic\n  \u2022 Feminist theology\n    \u2022 Thealogy\n    \u2022 Womanist theology\n  \u2022 Fideism\n  \u2022 Fundamentalism\n  \u2022 Gnosticism\n  \u2022 Henotheism\n  \u2022 Humanism\n    \u2022 Religious\n    \u2022 Secular\n    \u2022 Christian\n  \u2022 Inclusivism\n  \u2022 Theories about religions\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Monotheism\n  \u2022 Mysticism\n  \u2022 Naturalism\n    \u2022 Metaphysical\n    \u2022 Religious\n    \u2022 Humanistic\n  \u2022 New Age\n  \u2022 Nondualism\n  \u2022 Nontheism\n  \u2022 Pandeism\n  \u2022 Panentheism\n  \u2022 Pantheism\n  \u2022 Perennialism\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Process theology\n  \u2022 Religious skepticism\n  \u2022 Spiritualism\n  \u2022 Shamanism\n  \u2022 Taoic\n  \u2022 Theism\n  \u2022 Transcendentalism\n  \u2022 more...\nReligious language\n  \u2022 Eschatological verification\n  \u2022 Language-game\n  \u2022 Logical positivism\n  \u2022 Apophatic theology\n  \u2022 Verificationism\nProblem of evil\n  \u2022 Augustinian theodicy\n  \u2022 Best of all possible worlds\n  \u2022 Euthyphro dilemma\n  \u2022 Inconsistent triad\n  \u2022 Irenaean theodicy\n  \u2022 Natural evil\n  \u2022 Theodicy\nPhilosophers\nof religion\n\n(by date active)\nAncient\nand\nMedieval\n  \u2022 Anselm of Canterbury\n  \u2022 Augustine of Hippo\n  \u2022 Avicenna\n  \u2022 Averroes\n  \u2022 Boethius\n  \u2022 Erasmus\n  \u2022 Gaunilo of Marmoutiers\n  \u2022 Pico della Mirandola\n  \u2022 Heraclitus\n  \u2022 King James VI and I\n  \u2022 Marcion of Sinope\n  \u2022 Thomas Aquinas\n  \u2022 Maimonides\nEnlightenment\n  \u2022 Augustin Calmet\n  \u2022 Ren\u00e9 Descartes\n  \u2022 Blaise Pascal\n  \u2022 Baruch Spinoza\n  \u2022 Nicolas Malebranche\n  \u2022 Gottfried W Leibniz\n  \u2022 William Wollaston\n  \u2022 Thomas Chubb\n  \u2022 David Hume\n  \u2022 Baron d'Holbach\n  \u2022 Immanuel Kant\n  \u2022 Johann G Herder\n1800\n1850\n  \u2022 Friedrich Schleiermacher\n  \u2022 Karl C F Krause\n  \u2022 Georg W F Hegel\n  \u2022 William Whewell\n  \u2022 Ludwig Feuerbach\n  \u2022 S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard\n  \u2022 Karl Marx\n  \u2022 Albrecht Ritschl\n1880\n1900\n  \u2022 Ernst Haeckel\n  \u2022 W. K. Clifford\n  \u2022 Friedrich Nietzsche\n  \u2022 Harald H\u00f8ffding\n  \u2022 William James\n  \u2022 Vladimir Solovyov\n  \u2022 Ernst Troeltsch\n  \u2022 Rudolf Otto\n  \u2022 Lev Shestov\n  \u2022 Sergei Bulgakov\n  \u2022 Pavel Florensky\n  \u2022 Ernst Cassirer\n  \u2022 Joseph Mar\u00e9chal\n1920\npostwar\n  \u2022 George Santayana\n  \u2022 Bertrand Russell\n  \u2022 Martin Buber\n  \u2022 Ren\u00e9 Gu\u00e9non\n  \u2022 Paul Tillich\n  \u2022 Karl Barth\n  \u2022 Emil Brunner\n  \u2022 Rudolf Bultmann\n  \u2022 Gabriel Marcel\n  \u2022 Reinhold Niebuhr\n  \u2022 Charles Hartshorne\n  \u2022 Mircea Eliade\n  \u2022 J L Mackie\n  \u2022 Walter Kaufmann\n  \u2022 Martin Lings\n  \u2022 Peter Geach\n  \u2022 George I Mavrodes\n  \u2022 William Alston\n  \u2022 Antony Flew\n1970\n1990\n2010\n  \u2022 William L Rowe\n  \u2022 Dewi Z Phillips\n  \u2022 Alvin Plantinga\n  \u2022 Anthony Kenny\n  \u2022 Nicholas Wolterstorff\n  \u2022 Richard Swinburne\n  \u2022 Robert Merrihew Adams\n  \u2022 Peter van Inwagen\n  \u2022 Daniel Dennett\n  \u2022 Loyal Rue\n  \u2022 Jean-Luc Marion\n  \u2022 William Lane Craig\n  \u2022 Ali Akbar Rashad\n  \u2022 Alexander Pruss\nRelated topics\n  \u2022 Criticism of religion\n  \u2022 Ethics in religion\n  \u2022 Exegesis\n  \u2022 History of religions\n  \u2022 Religion\n  \u2022 Religious language\n  \u2022 Religious philosophy\n  \u2022 Relationship between religion and science\n  \u2022 Political science of religion\n  \u2022 Faith and rationality\n  \u2022 more...\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Category Category\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPhilosophy\n[show]\nBranches\nTraditional\n  \u2022 Metaphysics\n    \u2022 Ontology\n  \u2022 Epistemology\n  \u2022 Logic\n  \u2022 Ethics\n  \u2022 Aesthetics\nPhilosophy of\n  \u2022 Action\n  \u2022 Art\n    \u2022 Culture\n    \u2022 Design\n    \u2022 Music\n    \u2022 Film\n  \u2022 Business\n  \u2022 Color\n  \u2022 Cosmos\n  \u2022 Dialogue\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Environment\n  \u2022 Futility\n  \u2022 Happiness\n  \u2022 Healthcare\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Human nature\n  \u2022 Humor\n  \u2022 Feminism\n  \u2022 Language\n  \u2022 Life\n  \u2022 Literature\n  \u2022 Mathematics\n  \u2022 Mind\n    \u2022 Pain\n    \u2022 Psychology\n  \u2022 Philosophy of psychiatry\n  \u2022 Philosophy of perception\n  \u2022 Philosophy\n  \u2022 Religion\n  \u2022 Science\n    \u2022 Physics\n    \u2022 Chemistry\n    \u2022 Biology\n    \u2022 Geography\n  \u2022 Sexuality\n  \u2022 Social science\n    \u2022 Culture\n    \u2022 Economics\n    \u2022 Justice\n    \u2022 Law\n    \u2022 Politics\n    \u2022 Society\n  \u2022 Space and time\n  \u2022 Sport\n  \u2022 Technology\n    \u2022 Artificial intelligence\n    \u2022 Computer science\n    \u2022 Engineering\n    \u2022 Information\n  \u2022 War\n[show]\nSchools of thought\nBy era\n  \u2022 Ancient\n  \u2022 Western\n    \u2022 Medieval\n    \u2022 Renaissance\n    \u2022 Early modern\n    \u2022 Modern\n    \u2022 Contemporary\nAncient\nChinese\n  \u2022 Agriculturalism\n  \u2022 Confucianism\n  \u2022 Legalism\n  \u2022 Logicians\n  \u2022 Mohism\n  \u2022 Chinese naturalism\n  \u2022 Neotaoism\n  \u2022 Taoism\n  \u2022 Yangism\n  \u2022 Zen\nGreco-Roman\n  \u2022 Aristotelianism\n  \u2022 Atomism\n  \u2022 Cynicism\n  \u2022 Cyrenaics\n  \u2022 Eleatics\n  \u2022 Eretrian school\n  \u2022 Epicureanism\n  \u2022 Hermeneutics\n  \u2022 Ionian\n    \u2022 Ephesian\n    \u2022 Milesian\n  \u2022 Megarian school\n  \u2022 Neoplatonism\n  \u2022 Peripatetic\n  \u2022 Platonism\n  \u2022 Pluralism\n  \u2022 Presocratic\n  \u2022 Pyrrhonism\n  \u2022 Pythagoreanism\n  \u2022 Neopythagoreanism\n  \u2022 Sophistic\n  \u2022 Stoicism\nIndian\n  \u2022 Samkhya\n  \u2022 Nyaya\n  \u2022 Vaisheshika\n  \u2022 Yoga\n  \u2022 M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101\n  \u2022 \u0100j\u012bvika\n  \u2022 Aj\u00f1ana\n  \u2022 C\u0101rv\u0101ka\n  \u2022 Jain\n    \u2022 Anekantavada\n    \u2022 Sy\u0101dv\u0101da\n  \u2022 Buddhist\n    \u2022 \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101\n    \u2022 Madhyamaka\n    \u2022 Yogacara\n    \u2022 Sautr\u0101ntika\n    \u2022 Svatantrika\nPersian\n  \u2022 Mazdakism\n  \u2022 Zoroastrianism\n  \u2022 Zurvanism\nMedieval\nEuropean\n  \u2022 Christian philosophy\n  \u2022 Scholasticism\n  \u2022 Thomism\n  \u2022 Renaissance humanism\nEast Asian\n  \u2022 Korean Confucianism\n  \u2022 Edo Neo-Confucianism\n  \u2022 Neo-Confucianism\nIndian\n  \u2022 Vedanta\n    \u2022 Acintya bheda abheda\n    \u2022 Advaita\n    \u2022 Bhedabheda\n    \u2022 Dvaita\n    \u2022 Dvaitadvaita\n    \u2022 Shuddhadvaita\n    \u2022 Vishishtadvaita\n  \u2022 Navya-Ny\u0101ya\nIslamic\n  \u2022 Averroism\n  \u2022 Avicennism\n  \u2022 Illuminationism\n  \u2022 \u02bfIlm al-Kal\u0101m\n  \u2022 Sufi\nJewish\n  \u2022 Judeo-Islamic\nModern\nPeople\n  \u2022 Cartesianism\n  \u2022 Kantianism\n  \u2022 Neo-Kantianism\n  \u2022 Hegelianism\n  \u2022 Marxism\n  \u2022 Spinozism\n0\n  \u2022 Anarchism\n  \u2022 Classical Realism\n  \u2022 Liberalism\n  \u2022 Collectivism\n  \u2022 Conservatism\n  \u2022 Determinism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Empiricism\n  \u2022 Existentialism\n  \u2022 Foundationalism\n  \u2022 Historicism\n  \u2022 Holism\n  \u2022 Humanism\n  \u2022 Idealism\n    \u2022 Absolute\n    \u2022 British\n    \u2022 German\n    \u2022 Objective\n    \u2022 Subjective\n    \u2022 Transcendental\n  \u2022 Individualism\n  \u2022 Kokugaku\n  \u2022 Materialism\n  \u2022 Modernism\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Naturalism\n  \u2022 Natural law\n  \u2022 Nihilism\n  \u2022 New Confucianism\n  \u2022 Neo-Scholasticism\n  \u2022 Pragmatism\n  \u2022 Phenomenology\n  \u2022 Positivism\n  \u2022 Reductionism\n  \u2022 Rationalism\n  \u2022 Social contract\n  \u2022 Socialism\n  \u2022 Transcendentalism\n  \u2022 Utilitarianism\nContemporary\nAnalytic\n  \u2022 Applied ethics\n  \u2022 Analytic feminism\n  \u2022 Analytical Marxism\n  \u2022 Communitarianism\n  \u2022 Consequentialism\n  \u2022 Critical rationalism\n  \u2022 Experimental philosophy\n  \u2022 Falsificationism\n  \u2022 Foundationalism\u00a0\/ Coherentism\n  \u2022 Generative linguistics\n  \u2022 Internalism and Externalism\n  \u2022 Logical positivism\n  \u2022 Legal positivism\n  \u2022 Normative ethics\n  \u2022 Meta-ethics\n  \u2022 Moral realism\n  \u2022 Neo-Aristotelian\n  \u2022 Quinean naturalism\n  \u2022 Ordinary language philosophy\n  \u2022 Postanalytic philosophy\n  \u2022 Quietism\n  \u2022 Rawlsian\n  \u2022 Reformed epistemology\n  \u2022 Systemics\n  \u2022 Scientism\n  \u2022 Scientific realism\n  \u2022 Scientific skepticism\n  \u2022 Contemporary utilitarianism\n  \u2022 Vienna Circle\n  \u2022 Wittgensteinian\nContinental\n  \u2022 Critical theory\n  \u2022 Deconstruction\n  \u2022 Existentialism\n  \u2022 Feminist\n  \u2022 Frankfurt School\n  \u2022 New Historicism\n  \u2022 Hermeneutics\n  \u2022 Neo-Marxism\n  \u2022 Phenomenology\n  \u2022 Postmodernism\n  \u2022 Post-structuralism\n  \u2022 Social constructionism\n  \u2022 Structuralism\n  \u2022 Western Marxism\nOther\n  \u2022 Kyoto School\n  \u2022 Objectivism\n  \u2022 Russian cosmism\n  \u2022 more...\n[show]\nPositions\nAesthetics\n  \u2022 Formalism\n  \u2022 Institutionalism\n  \u2022 Aesthetic response\nEthics\n  \u2022 Consequentialism\n  \u2022 Deontology\n  \u2022 Virtue\nFree will\n  \u2022 Compatibilism\n  \u2022 Determinism\n  \u2022 Libertarianism\nMetaphysics\n  \u2022 Atomism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Naturalism\nEpistemology\n  \u2022 Constructivism\n  \u2022 Empiricism\n  \u2022 Idealism\n  \u2022 Particularism\n  \u2022 Fideism\n  \u2022 Rationalism\u00a0\/ Reasonism\n  \u2022 Skepticism\n  \u2022 Solipsism\nMind\n  \u2022 Behaviorism\n  \u2022 Emergentism\n  \u2022 Eliminativism\n  \u2022 Epiphenomenalism\n  \u2022 Functionalism\n  \u2022 Objectivism\n  \u2022 Subjectivism\nNormativity\n  \u2022 Absolutism\n  \u2022 Particularism\n  \u2022 Relativism\n  \u2022 Nihilism\n  \u2022 Skepticism\n  \u2022 Universalism\nOntology\n  \u2022 Action\n  \u2022 Event\n  \u2022 Process\nReality\n  \u2022 Anti-realism\n  \u2022 Conceptualism\n  \u2022 Idealism\n  \u2022 Materialism\n  \u2022 Naturalism\n  \u2022 Nominalism\n  \u2022 Physicalism\n  \u2022 Realism\n[show]\n  \u2022 Philosophy by region\n  \u2022 Philosophy-related lists\n  \u2022 Miscellaneous\nBy region\n  \u2022 African\n  \u2022 Ethiopian\n  \u2022 Aztec\n  \u2022 Native America\n  \u2022 Eastern\n  \u2022 Chinese\n  \u2022 Egyptian\n  \u2022 Czech\n  \u2022 Indian\n  \u2022 Indonesian\n  \u2022 Iranian\n  \u2022 Japanese\n  \u2022 Korean\n  \u2022 Vietnam\n  \u2022 Pakistani\n  \u2022 Western\n  \u2022 American\n  \u2022 Australian\n  \u2022 British\n  \u2022 Danish\n  \u2022 French\n  \u2022 German\n  \u2022 Greek\n  \u2022 Italian\n  \u2022 Polish\n  \u2022 Romanian\n  \u2022 Russian\n  \u2022 Slovene\n  \u2022 Spanish\n  \u2022 Turkish\nLists\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Years\n  \u2022 Problems\n  \u2022 Schools\n  \u2022 Glossary\n  \u2022 Philosophers\n  \u2022 Movements\n  \u2022 Publications\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 Women in philosophy\n  \u2022 Sage (philosophy)\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nList of philosophies\n  \u2022 Abrahamism\n  \u2022 Acosmism\n  \u2022 Agnosticism\n  \u2022 Animism\n  \u2022 Antireligion\n  \u2022 Atheism\n  \u2022 Deism\n  \u2022 Dharmism\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Esotericism\n  \u2022 Feminist theology\n  \u2022 Gnosticism\n  \u2022 Henotheism\n  \u2022 Immanence\n  \u2022 Monism\n  \u2022 Monolatrism\n  \u2022 Monotheism\n  \u2022 Mysticism\n  \u2022 Neoplatonism\n  \u2022 New Age\n  \u2022 New Thought\n  \u2022 Nondualism\n  \u2022 Pandeism\n  \u2022 Pantheism\n  \u2022 Panentheism\n  \u2022 Polytheism\n  \u2022 Process theology\n  \u2022 Religious naturalism\n  \u2022 Shamanism\n  \u2022 Shramanism\n  \u2022 Taoic\n  \u2022 Theism\n  \u2022 Transcendence\n  \u2022 more\n  \u2022 iconReligion portal\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nBeliefs condemned as heretical by the Catholic Church\nAntiquity\n  \u2022 Adoptionism\n  \u2022 Apollinarism\n  \u2022 Arianism (Anomoeanism, Semi-Arianism)\n  \u2022 Audianism\n  \u2022 Docetism (Circumcellions)\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Ebionites\n  \u2022 Euchites\n  \u2022 Gnosticism (Manichaeism, Paulicianism, Priscillianism, Naassenes, Ophites, Sethianism, Valentinianism)\n  \u2022 Iconoclasm\n  \u2022 Luciferianism\n  \u2022 Macedonianism\n  \u2022 Marcionism\n  \u2022 Melchisedechians\n  \u2022 Modalism\n  \u2022 Monarchianism (Athinganoi)\n  \u2022 Monophysitism\n  \u2022 Monothelitism\n  \u2022 Montanism\n  \u2022 Nestorianism\n  \u2022 Novatianism\n  \u2022 Patripassianism\n  \u2022 Pelagianism (Semipelagianism)\n  \u2022 Pneumatomachians\n  \u2022 Psilanthropism\n  \u2022 Sabellianism\n  \u2022 Subordinationism\n  \u2022 Valentinianism\nMuenster-100725-15996-\u00dcberwasserkirche-Schl\u00fcssel.jpg\nMiddle Ages\n  \u2022 Bogomilism\n  \u2022 Bosnian Church\n  \u2022 Catharism\n  \u2022 Conciliarism\n  \u2022 Consubstantiation\n  \u2022 Fraticelli\n  \u2022 Free Spirit\n  \u2022 Henricians\n  \u2022 Hussites\n  \u2022 Impanation\n  \u2022 Lollardy\n  \u2022 Taborites\n  \u2022 Triclavianism\n  \u2022 Waldensians\nEarly Modern\n  \u2022 Anabaptism\n  \u2022 Antinomianism\n  \u2022 Febronianism\n  \u2022 Gallicanism\n  \u2022 Jansenism\n  \u2022 Josephinism\n  \u2022 Protestantism (Arminianism, Calvinism, Lutheranism)\n  \u2022 Quietism\nModern Era\n  \u2022 Americanism\n  \u2022 Community of the Lady of All Nations\n  \u2022 Feeneyism\n  \u2022 Modernism\n  \u2022 Positive Christianity\n  \u2022 Reincarnationism\n  \u2022 046CupolaSPietro.jpg Catholicism portal\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 GND: 4130223-0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Dualism&oldid=806733847\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Dualism\n  \u2022 Mind\u2013body problem\n  \u2022 Metaphysical theories\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from December 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Wikipedia introduction cleanup from December 2016\n  \u2022 All pages needing cleanup\n  \u2022 Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from December 2016\n  \u2022 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2016\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from October 2017\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from March 2017\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012\n  \u2022 Articles containing Hungarian-language text\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 23 October 2017, at 20:46.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1544803461877304972","title":"Jinx (children's game)","text":"Jinx (children's game)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nJinx is a children's game with varying rules and penalties that occur when two people unintentionally speak the same word or phrase simultaneously.[1][2]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Rules\n  \u2022 2 See also\n  \u2022 3 References\n  \u2022 4 External links\n\nRules[edit]\n\nA jinx can be initiated when at least two people say any same word or phrase at the same time.[3] One of them then calls \"jinx\" on the other.\n\nThe game ends when someone speaks the jinxee's name or the jinxee speaks. In the latter case, the jinxee loses the game, and often a penalty is exacted, typically a punch on the arm.[4]\n\nAn alternative penalty is the individual who initiates the jinx begins counting, and the individual who was jinxed is required to provide a coke for every additional number added to the count, prior to the jinx ending.\n\nIn America, if there are two people that say something at the same time, then one person can say \"Jinx, you owe me a coke\" The person who says it first gets a free coke from the other person.\n\nSome variations include 'boundaries', such as no jinxing under a roof or on top of a cloud.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconGames portal\n  \u2022 Punch buggy\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Roud, Steve (2010). The Lore of the Playground: One Hundred Years of Children's Games, Rhymes & Traditions. Random House UK. p.\u00a0379. ISBN\u00a01905211511.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Oremland, Jerome D. (1973). \"The Jinx game: A ritualized expression of separation-individuation\". The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 28: 419\u2013431. Retrieved 12 July 2013.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Rapoport, Judith (1989). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Amer Psychiatric Pub Incorporated. p.\u00a0292. ISBN\u00a00880482826.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Leonard, Henrietta L.; Goldberger, Erica A.; Rapoport, Judith L.; Cheslow, Deborah L.; Swedo, Susan E. (1990). \"Childhood Rituals: Normal Development or Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms?\". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 29 (1): 18. doi:10.1097\/00004583-199001000-00004.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Barrett, Grant (April 16, 2008). \"Jinx and padiddle\". The Star. Retrieved July 12, 2013.\u00a0\n  \u2022 McSpaden, Cheri (July 13, 2008). \"Even Johnny Depp got jinxed\". The Holland Sentinel. Retrieved July 12, 2013.\u00a0\n  \u2022 December 17, 2006 comic strip from Big Nate in which the characters play a game of Jinx\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Jinx_(children%27s_game)&oldid=812299843\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Children's games\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 27 November 2017, at 04:02.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"6333087717536579889","title":"Yahoo! Mail","text":"Yahoo! Mail\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nYahoo! Mail\nYahoo! Mail Logo.svg\nYahoo Mail desktop.png\nScreenshot of the web-based Yahoo Mail client\nType of site\nWebmail\nAvailable\u00a0in Multilingual (27)[1]\nOwner Oath Inc.\n(Verizon Communications)\nCreated\u00a0by Yahoo!\nWebsite mail.yahoo.com\nAlexa rank Increase 142,397 (July 2017[update])[2]\nCommercial Yes\nRegistration Required\nUsers 225 million active monthly users (February 2017)[3]\nLaunched October\u00a08, 1997; 21 years ago\u00a0(1997-10-08)[4]\nCurrent\u00a0status Online\nContent license\nProprietary\n\nYahoo! Mail is an email service launched in 1997 through the American parent company Yahoo. Yahoo Mail provides four different email plans: three for personal use (Basic, Plus, and Ad Free) and another for businesses.[5][6] By December 2011, Yahoo! Mail had 281 million users, making it the third largest web-based email service in the world.[7] Since 2015 its webmail client also supports managing non-Yahoo e-mail accounts.[8]\n\nAs many as three web interfaces were available at any given time. The traditional \"Yahoo! Mail Classic\" preserved the availability of their original 1997 interface until July 2013 in North America. A 2005 version included a new Ajax interface, drag-and-drop, improved search, keyboard shortcuts, address auto-completion, and tabs. However, other features were removed, such as column widths and one click delete-move-to-next. In October 2010, Yahoo! released a beta version of Yahoo! Mail,[9] which included improvements to performance, search, and Facebook integration.[10] In May 2011, this became the default interface.[11] Their current Webmail interface was introduced in 2017.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 History\n    \u2022 1.1 1997 Release\n    \u2022 1.2 2002 Updates\n    \u2022 1.3 Competition\n    \u2022 1.4 2004 Updates\n    \u2022 1.5 2011 Update\n    \u2022 1.6 2013 Updates\n    \u2022 1.7 2015 Update\n    \u2022 1.8 2017 Update\n  \u2022 2 Spam policy\n    \u2022 2.1 Filters\n    \u2022 2.2 Greylisting\n  \u2022 3 Controversy\n    \u2022 3.1 Shi Tao arrest\n    \u2022 3.2 Username bans\n    \u2022 3.3 Exploit\n    \u2022 3.4 Phishing attack\n    \u2022 3.5 Account theft\n    \u2022 3.6 Analytics\n  \u2022 4 Platforms\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\n1997 Release[edit]\n\nYahoo! made a deal with the online communications company Four11 for co-branded white pages. Marvin Gavin, who worked at Four11 as the Director of International Business Development, said \"We always had a bias about being acquired by Yahoo. They were more entrepreneurial than Microsoft. We had a great cultural fit \u2013 it made a lot of sense.\" In the end, Yahoo! acquired Four11 for $96 million. The purpose behind acquiring Four11 was the company's RocketMail webmail service, which launched in 1997. Yahoo! announced the acquisition on October 8, 1997,[12] close to the time that Yahoo! Mail was launched.[13] Yahoo! chose acquisition rather than internal platform development, because, as Healy said, \"Hotmail was growing at thousands and thousands users per week. We did an analysis. For us to build, it would have taken four to six months, and by then, so many users would have taken an email account. The speed of the market was critical.\"[This quote needs a citation]\n\nThe transition to Yahoo! Mail was not easy for many Rocketmail users.[14] On March 21, 2002, Yahoo! eliminated free software client access and introduced the $29.99 per year Mail Forwarding Service.[15] Mary Osako, a Yahoo! Spokeswoman, told CNET, \"For-pay services on Yahoo!, originally launched in February 1999, have experienced great acceptance from our base of active registered users, and we expect this adoption to continue to grow.\"[This quote needs a citation]\n\n2002 Updates[edit]\n\nYahoo! Mail logo from 2002\n\nDuring 2002, the Yahoo! network was gradually redesigned. On July 2, the company website was changed, and it was announced that Yahoo! Mail and other services would also be redesigned.[16] Along with this new design, new features were to be implemented, including drop-down menus in DHTML, different category tabs, and a new user-customizable color scheme. Yahoo! Network Services senior vice president Geoff Ralston stated that\n\n{{quote|source=|The launch of Yahoo! Mail Plus is part of Yahoo's strategic initiative to offer premium services that deliver innovative, reliable and relevant services to consumers ... In just five years, Yahoo! Mail has grown from one million to tens of millions of users, illustrating how consumers have made email an essential part of their daily lives. Through Yahoo! Mail Plus, Yahoo! continues to demonstrate leadership and innovation by offering consumers the industry's most complete and powerful email solution.[17]\n\nCompetition[edit]\n\nOn April 1, 2004, Google announced its Gmail service with 1 GB of storage, however Gmail's invitation-only accounts kept the other webmail services at the forefront. Most major webmail providers, including Yahoo! Mail, increased their mailbox storage in response. Yahoo! first announced 100 MB of storage for basic accounts and 2 GB of storage for premium users.[18] However, soon Yahoo! Mail increased its free storage quota to 1 GB, before eventually allowing unlimited storage. Yahoo! Mail had free unlimited storage from March 27, 2007 until October 8, 2013.\n\n2004 Updates[edit]\n\nOn July 9, 2004, Yahoo! acquired Oddpost, a webmail service which simulated a desktop email client. Oddpost had features such as drag-and-drop support, right-click menus, RSS feeds, a preview pane, and increased speed using email caching to shorten response time. Many of the features were incorporated into an updated Yahoo! Mail service.[19]\n\n2011 Update[edit]\n\nYahoo! Mail logo from 2009\nScreenshot of the 2011 version of Yahoo! Mail\n\nOn September 17, 2010, Yahoo! showed off a new Mail program to reporters.[20][21] Codenamed \"Minty\", the 2011 release was announced on September 16, 2010.[22] It included a new interface, enhanced performance, improved Facebook and Twitter integration, the ability to watch YouTube videos straight from email, and improved search.[23] Public beta began on October 26, 2010.[24] In May 2011, the new Yahoo! Mail became the default interface.[11] As the new interface became mandatory for users, some users of Yahoo! Mail reported slow typing speeds, contradicting Yahoo's claims of faster performance. Yahoo! offered no resolution to the problem as of September\u00a012, 2011[update]. Users also missed the ability to paste textual email addresses into the sender box. The new version disabled the use of the \"secondary\" addresses provided in the previous version. The new interface overrode the browser's right mouse button (making functions such as opening mails in new tab windows unavailable).[citation needed]\n\n2013 Updates[edit]\n\nIn 2013, Yahoo redesigned the site and removed several features, such as simultaneously opening multiple emails in tabs, sorting by sender name, and dragging mails to folders.[25][26] The new email interface was geared to give an improved user-experience for mobile devices, but was criticized for having an inferior desktop interface.[citation needed] Many users objected to the unannounced nature of the changes through an online post asking Yahoo to bring back mail tabs with one hundred thousand voting and nearly ten thousand commenting.[27] The redesign produced a problem that caused an unknown number of users to lose access to their accounts for several weeks.[28]\n\nIn December 2013, Yahoo Mail suffered a major outage where approximately one million users, one percent of the site's total users, could not access their emails for several days. Mayer publicly apologized to the site's users.[29][30][31][32]\n\nYahoo! Mail China officially announced its shutdown on April 18, 2013.[33][34] Users were warned that all emails, contacts, and account settings would be inaccessible, unless users migrated to the American version of Yahoo! Mail. Individuals who made China Yahoo! Mail accounts during the Alibaba takeover were required to create new accounts under new usernames.[35]\n\nIn January 2014, an undisclosed number of usernames and passwords were released to hackers, following a security breach that Yahoo believed had occurred through a third-party website. Yahoo contacted affected users and requested that passwords be changed.[36]\n\n2015 Update[edit]\n\nYahoo updated the mail service with a \"more subtle\" redesign in 2015, as well as improving mobile features, and introducing the Yahoo Account Key, a smartphone-based replacement for password logins.[37]\n\n2017 Update[edit]\n\nOn December 23, Yahoo introduced a new Developer update, containing not as many ads as previous versions.[38]\n\nSpam policy[edit]\n\nYahoo! Mail is often used by spammers to provide a \"remove me\" email address. Often, these addresses are used to verify the recipient's address, thus opening the door for more spam.\n\nYahoo! does not tolerate this practice and terminates accounts connected with spam-related activities without warning, causing spammers to lose access to any other Yahoo! services connected with their ID under the Terms of Service. Additionally, Yahoo! stresses that its servers are based in California and any spam-related activity which uses its servers could potentially violate that state's anti-spam laws.[39][40]\n\nIn February 2006, Yahoo! announced its decision (along with AOL) to give some organizations the option to \"certify\" mail by paying up to one cent for each outgoing message, allowing the mail in question to bypass inbound spam filters.[41]\n\nIn April 2011, Yahoo! Mail began rejecting spam reports, which involved sending a copy of the spam with full headers by email to Yahoo's abuse department, offering the use of a form instead. However, the requirement to use a form is prohibited by several Internet RFCs, and the availability of abuse at example.com (in this case abuse at yahoo.com) is required by the Invariants clause of RFC 2142, because the domain has a mail server and an MX record. Yahoo's claim was that its \"standard\" was better than the Internet standards referred to. This is the only working form through which users can report spam or misuse of the Yahoo! email service.[citation needed]\n\nFilters[edit]\n\nSee also: Scunthorpe problem\n\nIn order to prevent abuse, in 2002 Yahoo! Mail activated filters which changed certain words (that could trigger unwanted Javascript events) and word fragments into other words. \"mocha\" was changed to \"espresso\", \"expression\" became \"statement\", and \"eval\" (short for \"evaluation\") became \"review\". This resulted in many unintended corrections, such as \"prreviewent\" (prevalent), \"reviewuation\" (evaluation) and \"medireview\" (medieval).\n\nWhen asked about these changes, Yahoo! explained that the changed words were common terms used in web scripting, and were blacklisted to prevent hackers from sending damaging commands via the program's HTML function. Starting before February 7, 2006, Yahoo! Mail ended the practice, and began to add an underscore as a prefix to certain suspicious words and word fragments.[citation needed]\n\nGreylisting[edit]\n\nSee also: Greylisting\n\nIncoming mail to Yahoo! addresses can be subjected to deferred delivery as part of Yahoo's incoming spam controls. This can delay delivery of mail sent to Yahoo! addresses without the sender or recipients being aware of it. The deferral is typically of short duration, but may extend up to several hours. Yahoo! does not specifically document this policy in detail, although some information is available.[42][43]\n\nControversy[edit]\n\nShi Tao arrest[edit]\n\nIn 2004, Yahoo's Hong Kong office provided technical information to the Chinese authorities about the account of journalist Shi Tao, who was subsequently sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for \"leaking state secrets\".[44] Yahoo! was criticized by Reporters Without Borders for acting as a \"police informant\" to increase its profits.[45] In August 2007, the United States Congress began an investigation into Yahoo's handling of the case.[46] Yahoo! founder Jerry Yang testified before Congress.[47] On November 6, 2007, the congressional panel criticized Yahoo! for not giving full details to the House Foreign Affairs Committee the previous year, stating it had been \"at best inexcusably negligent\" and at worst \"deceptive\".[48] Representative Tom Lantos described its executives as moral \"pygmies\".[49] Yang stated that Yahoo! no longer controlled its Chinese operations, and was collaborating with human rights groups to formulate ethical code for technology companies.[50]\n\nIn a February 2006 hearing, Yahoo! executives swore that they had received no information about the investigation. Several months later, it was discovered that the document provided to Yahoo! China on April 22, 2004 by the Beijing State Security Bureau stated that \"Your office is in possession of the following items relating to a case of suspected illegal provision of state secrets to foreign entities.\"[51]\n\nOn November 13, 2007, Yahoo! settled with Shi for an undisclosed sum. Shi was released from prison in September 2013.\n\nUsername bans[edit]\n\nOn February 20, 2006, it was revealed that Yahoo! Mail was banning the word \"Allah\" in email usernames, both separately and as part of a user name such as linda.callahan.[52] Shortly after the news of the ban, it was lifted on February 23, 2006. Along with this action, Yahoo! also made the following statement:[53]\n\nWe continuously evaluate abuse patterns in registration usernames to help prevent spam, fraud and other inappropriate behavior. A small number of people registered for IDs using specific terms with the sole purpose of promoting hate, and then used those IDs to post content that was harmful or threatening to others, thus violating Yahoo!'s Terms of Service.\n\n'Allah' was one word being used for these purposes, with instances tied to defamatory language. We took steps to help protect our users by prohibiting use of the term in Yahoo! usernames. We recently re-evaluated the term 'Allah' and users can now register for IDs with this word because it is no longer a significant target for abuse. We regularly evaluate this type of activity and will continue to make adjustments to our registration process to help foster a positive customer experience.\n\nExploit[edit]\n\nIn November 2012, an exploit for Yahoo! Mail was sold for $700 by an Egyptian hacker, allowing hijackers to hack Yahoo! Mail user accounts and redirect users to a malicious website. The attack used cross-site scripting which let hackers steal cookies.[54][55][56] In January 2013, hacker and security researcher Shahin Ramezany pointed out another DOM-based XSS loophole that placed 400 million users at risk.[57]\n\nPhishing attack[edit]\n\nFrom 2007, Yahoo! was the email service used by New Zealand Telecom, which came under criticism in early 2013 following a spam and phishing attack that was described as the biggest to have ever hit the country.[58] Telecom and Yahoo! automatically reset \"about 60,000\" users' passwords.[59] In April, Telecom announced that despite the issue, it would retain Yahoo! as an email provider.[60]\n\nAccount theft[edit]\n\nOn October 3, 2017, Yahoo reported that all Yahoo user accounts, approximately 3 billion, were affected by the previously announced August 2013 theft of accounts.[61] This information updates the December 14, 2016, announcement that more than 1 billion user accounts were hacked in a breach that had occurred back in 2013.[62] Earlier that year in September, Yahoo! announced that an additional 500 million user accounts had been breached in 2014.[63] The company was said to have discovered about the breach that affected hundreds of millions of accounts years before their initial announcement.[64]\n\nAnalytics[edit]\n\nThe contents of Yahoo! Mail messages are scanned for the purposes of targeted advertising, in contrast to its main competitors Gmail and Outlook.com.[65][66][67]\n\nPlatforms[edit]\n\nThe mobile app for Yahoo! Mail can be downloaded from the App Store for iOS, and the Google Play Store for Android. Both versions of the app perform the same function, but are tailored to the mobile device's operating system. Some characteristics include replying to a message by opening a notification and separately archiving, deleting and starring notifications. It is available in several languages .[68]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Comparison of webmail providers\n  \u2022 List of Yahoo!-owned sites and services\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Locations\". Yahoo!. Retrieved February 13, 2017.\n  2. Jump up ^ \"gmail.com Traffic Statistics\". Alexa Internet. Retrieved December 30, 2016.\n  3. Jump up ^ Parez, Sarah (February 13, 2017). \"Yahoo Mail's mobile app now does Caller ID, syncs photos\". Tech Crunch.\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Inc. \u2013 Company Timeline\". Wayback Machine. July 13, 2008. Archived from the original on July 13, 2008. Retrieved July 19, 2016.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Business Email Plans\". Yahoo!. Retrieved April 5, 2014.\n  6. Jump up ^ Pickavet, Henry (July 23, 2014). \"Yahoo! Mail\". TechCrunch. AOL.\n  7. Jump up ^ Vascellaro, Jessica (October 31, 2012). \"Gmail finally beats Hotmail, according to third-party data\". Gigaom.com. Retrieved October 3, 2011.\n  8. Jump up ^ Condliffe, Jamie. \"Yahoo Mail Now Manages Your Entire Gmail Account Too\". gizmodo.com. Retrieved April 14, 2018.\n  9. Jump up ^ McDowell, David. \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Was Released October 2010\". Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved July 2, 2011.\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Features\". Retrieved July 5, 2011.\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Became Yahoo! Mail in May 2011\". Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved July 2, 2011.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Completes Four11 Acquisition\" (Press release). Yahoo!. October 23, 1997. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007.\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Expands Community Services with Free E-mail\" (Press release). Yahoo!. October 8, 1997. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007.\n  14. Jump up ^ Griffin, Gretchen. \"Rocketmail Slowly Gets Grounded\". Flak Magazine.\n  15. Jump up ^ Hu, Jim (March 21, 2002). \"Yahoo! tacks fees onto e-mail, storage\". CNET News. Archived from the original on July 11, 2012. Retrieved June 1, 2006.\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! unveils home page face-lift\". ZDNet. July 2, 2002. Archived from the original on June 18, 2006. Retrieved May 31, 2006.\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Introduces Yahoo! Mail Plus To Help Consumers Manage Their Growing E-Mail Needs\" (Press release). Yahoo!. November 14, 2002. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Announces \"New and Improved\" Yahoo! Mail, Introduces Major Increase in Storage Space, Makes 50 Million Additional E-Mail Addresses Available\" (Press release). Yahoo!. June 15, 2004. Archived from the original on July 1, 2007.\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Begins Public Testing of New Yahoo! Mail\" (Press release). Yahoo!. September 14, 2005. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007.\n  20. Jump up ^ Mossberg, Walter S. (August 30, 2007). \"Years in the Making, Powerful Yahoo! Yahoo Mail Is Worth the Wait\". The Wall Street Journal.\n  21. Jump up ^ \"2010 new mail program\". usatoday.com. September 16, 2010.\n  22. Jump up ^ Srivastava, Kakul. \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Was Announced On...\" Archived from the original on May 26, 2011. Retrieved May 22, 2011.\n  23. Jump up ^ David, McDowell. \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Includes...\" Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved May 22, 2011.\n  24. Jump up ^ McDowell, David. \"Yahoo! Mail Beta Launched On October 26th 2010...\" Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved May 22, 2011.\n  25. Jump up ^ Blue, Violet. \"Anger explodes at Yahoo! Mail redesign disaster: Key functions removed or broken\". ZDNet. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\n  26. Jump up ^ Brett Molina (October 15, 2013). \"Yahoo! email users not happy with redesign\". Usatoday.com. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\n  27. Jump up ^ Whitehouse, Kaja (November 11, 2013). \"Yahoo! users gripe over latest email change | New York Post\". Nypost.com. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  28. Jump up ^ Blue, Violet (December 12, 2013). \"Yahoo! forced to acknowledge Yahoo! Mail problems in worst failure yet\". ZDNet. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  29. Jump up ^ Anderson, Lessley (December 13, 2013). \"Marissa Mayer apologizes for lengthy Yahoo! Mail outage\". The Verge. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  30. Jump up ^ Murphy, David (December 14, 2013). \"Yahoo! CEO Marissa Mayer Apologizes for Yahoo! Mail Outage | News & Opinion\". PCMag.com. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! CEO Mayer Apologizes For Mail Outage That She Says Affected 1% Of Users\". TechCrunch. December 13, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  32. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Mail Outage\". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\n  33. Jump up ^ \"\u4e2d\u56fd\u96c5\u864e\u90ae\u7bb1\u4e8e2013\u5e744\u670818\u65e5\u542f\u52a8\u6574\u4f53\u8fc1\u79fb\". Yahoo.com.cn. Retrieved April 18, 2013.\n  34. Jump up ^ The China Yahoo! Mail Team. \"China Yahoo! Mail is closing\". Yahoo!. Retrieved April 18, 2013.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"China Yahoo! Mail is closing\". Yahoo!. Retrieved April 18, 2013.\n  36. Jump up ^ Mark Hachman (January 30, 2014). \"Yahoo! acknowledges Yahoo! Mail hack\". TechHive. IDG Consumer & SMB. Retrieved February 8, 2014.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Mail gets a redesign, goes \"password-free\"\". Siliconbeat.com. October 15, 2015. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo gives Mail a makeover and introduces Yahoo Mail Pro\". engadget.com. Retrieved April 14, 2018.\n  39. Jump up ^ \"How do I report Spam? \u2013 Yahoo! Abuse\". Web.archive.org. August 28, 2007. Archived from the original on August 28, 2007. Retrieved February 5, 2017.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Terms\". Info.yahoo.com. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\n  41. Jump up ^ \"AOL, Yahoo! and Goodmail: Taxing Your Email for Fun and Profit | Electronic Frontier Foundation\". Eff.org. Retrieved January 30, 2012.\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Why am I getting \"451 Message temporarily deferred\" or \"421 Message from x.x.x.x temporarily deferred\" errors when sending mail to Yahoo!?\". Yahoo!. 2007. Retrieved June 27, 2007.\n  43. Jump up ^ \"As a sender, how can I ensure uninterrupted SMTP access and prioritized delivery?\". Yahoo!. 2007. Retrieved June 27, 2007.\n  44. Jump up ^ \"EastSouthWestNorth: The Case of Shi Tao\". Retrieved January 21, 2007.\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! 'helped jail China writer'\". BBC News. September 7, 2005. Retrieved May 10, 2011.\n  46. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! faces scrutiny in China case\". MSNBC. Archived from the original on August 17, 2007. Retrieved August 8, 2007.\n  47. Jump up ^ \"\u4e2d\u6587\u65b0\u805e\u983b\u9053\". Rthk.org.hk. June 29, 2006. Retrieved January 30, 2012.\n  48. Jump up ^ \"BBC NEWS, US rebukes Yahoo! over China case\". BBC News. November 6, 2007. Retrieved January 30, 2012.\n  49. Jump up ^ Vindu Goel. \"Yahoo! may be a moral pygmy, but Congress is hardly better\". MercuryNews.com. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved January 21, 2007.\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! chief apologizes to Chinese dissidents' relatives\". MercuryNews.com. November 7, 2007. Retrieved January 21, 2007.\n  51. Jump up ^ Tom Lantos (November 6, 2007). \"Statement of Chairman Lantos at hearing, Yahoo! Inc.'s Provision of False Information to Congress\". Retrieved January 31, 2009.\n  52. Jump up ^ Oates, John (February 20, 2006). \"Yahoo!Mail bans Allah and Dirty Harry handles\". The Register. Retrieved June 27, 2007.\n  53. Jump up ^ Oates, John (February 26, 2006). \"Yahoo! unbans! Allah!\". The Register. Retrieved June 27, 2007.\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Egyptian Hackers Selling Zero-day Exploit of Yahoo! Mail For $700\". Retrieved November 29, 2012.\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Email-Stealing Exploit Fetches $700\". Retrieved November 12, 2012.\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Mail hijacking exploit selling for $700\". Retrieved November 26, 2012.\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! Mail Hit By XSS Exploit Putting 400 Million Users At Risk\". Retrieved January 13, 2013.\n  58. Jump up ^ \"Telecom rush to fix hack\". 3 News NZ. February 11, 2013.\n  59. Jump up ^ \"Telecom defends email reset operation\". 3 News NZ. February 18, 2013. Telecom is defending a move to cancel the passwords of about 60,000 Yahoo! Xtra customers which left some customers without access to their email accounts.\n  60. Jump up ^ \"Telecom sticks with Yahoo! email\". 3 News NZ. April 5, 2013.\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Exhibit\". www.sec.gov. Retrieved 2017-10-08.\n  62. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! says 1 Billion User Accounts were hacked\". The New York Times. December 14, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.\n  63. Jump up ^ Fiegerman, Seth (September 23, 2016). \"Yahoo! says 500 million accounts stolen\". CNN. Retrieved December 15, 2016.\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo! data breach casts 'cloud' over Verizon deal\". The Washington Post. September 22, 2016. Retrieved December 15, 2016.\n  65. Jump up ^ MacMillan, Douglas; Krouse, Sarah; Hagey, Keach (2018-08-28). \"Yahoo, Bucking Industry, Scans Emails for Data to Sell Advertisers\". Wall Street Journal. ISSN\u00a00099-9660. Retrieved 2018-08-28.\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Yahoo and AOL just gave themselves the right to read your emails (again)\". CNET. 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2018-08-28.\n  67. Jump up ^ Schofield, Jack (2018-04-19). \"What's the best email service that doesn't scan emails for ad-targeting?\". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-08-28.\n  68. Jump up ^ \"From Tamil to Bengali, Yahoo! Mail android app gets seven new Indian languages \u2013 The Economic Times\". M.economictimes.com. October 26, 2016. Retrieved February 5, 2017.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official website\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Yahoo!.\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nYahoo!\nWebsites\n  \u2022 Yahoo.com\n    \u2022 Entertainment\n    \u2022 Finance\n    \u2022 News\n    \u2022 Search\n    \u2022 Shopping\n    \u2022 Small Business\n    \u2022 Sports\n    \u2022 Lifestyle\n    \u2022 View\nCommunication\n  \u2022 Answers\n  \u2022 Groups\n  \u2022 Mail\n  \u2022 Tumblr\nSoftware\n  \u2022 Smart TV\n  \u2022 Together\nDevelopment\n  \u2022 Developer Network\n    \u2022 Query Language\nCorporate\n  \u2022 Verizon\n    \u2022 Oath\n  \u2022 Criticism\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Products\n  \u2022 Timeline\n  \u2022 Acquisitions\nRelated People\n  \u2022 David Filo\n  \u2022 Marissa Mayer\n  \u2022 Jerry Yang\nRelated\n  \u2022 AOL\n  \u2022 Altaba\n    \u2022 Yahoo! China\n  \u2022 Koprol\n  \u2022 Maktoob\n    \u2022 Sport4ever\n  \u2022 Yahoo7\n  \u2022 Yahoo! Japan\n  \u2022 Yahoo! Korea\n  \u2022 Yahoo!Xtra\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Yahoo!_Mail&oldid=866475736\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Yahoo! Mail\n  \u2022 Yahoo!\n  \u2022 Android (operating system) software\n  \u2022 Computer-related introductions in 1997\n  \u2022 Internet properties established in 1997\n  \u2022 IOS software\n  \u2022 Personal information managers\n  \u2022 Universal Windows Platform apps\n  \u2022 Webmail\n  \u2022 Web applications\n  \u2022 Yahoo! community websites\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from July 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from July 2017\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced quotes\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2011\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2011\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012\n  \u2022 Pages using RFC magic links\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 Tetun\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 30 October 2018, at 15:31\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5012287815934106959","title":"Who's Making Love","text":"Who's Making Love\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"Who's Making Love\"\nSingle by Johnnie Taylor\nfrom the album Who's Making Love...\nSTS-2005\nB-side \"I'm Trying\"\nReleased October 1968\u00a0(1968)\nRecorded 1968\nGenre Memphis soul\nLength 2:47\nLabel Stax\nSTA-0009\nSongwriter(s) Homer Banks\nBettye Crutcher\nDon Davis\nRaymond Jackson\nProducer(s) Don Davis\n\n\"Who's Making Love\" is a song written by Stax Records staffers Homer Banks, Bettye Crutcher, Don Davis and Raymond Jackson and recorded by singer Johnnie Taylor.\n\nReleased on the Stax label in the late summer of 1968, it became Taylor's breakthrough single, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot R&B singles chart and number five on the Billboard Hot 100.[1] It became one of the few singles Taylor would become primarily known for in the mainstream. The song featured the Stax house band, Booker T. & the M.G.'s, and Isaac Hayes (on keyboards). It was Taylor's best-selling single before the release of \"Disco Lady\" almost a decade later.\n\nAccording to Bettye Crutcher, the lyrics were inspired by the 1920s novelty song \"Who Takes Care of the Caretaker's Daughter (While the Caretaker's Busy Taking Care)\".[2]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Chart positions\n  \u2022 2 Cover versions\n  \u2022 3 References\n  \u2022 4 External links\n\nChart positions[edit]\n\nChart (1967\u201368) Peak\nposition\nU.S. Billboard Hot 100 5\nU.S. Billboard Hot R&B singles 1\n\nCover versions[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Tony Joe White covered the song on his 1968 album Black and White.\n  \u2022 The Blues Brothers released a cover version as a single in 1980, which reached number 39 on the US charts.\n  \u2022 Latvian Blues Band released a cover version on their 2013 live album Live at the Dream Factory.\n  \u2022 Christian McBride included the song in his 2013 album Out Here.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B\/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p.\u00a0568.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records, p.163\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Hey, Western Union Man\" by Jerry Butler\nBillboard Hot R&B Singles number-one single\nNovember 23, 1968 \u2013 December 7, 1968 (three weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" by Marvin Gaye\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nJohnnie Taylor\nSongs\n  \u2022 \"Who's Making Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Take Care of Your Homework\"\n  \u2022 \"Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone\"\n  \u2022 \"I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)\"\n  \u2022 \"Disco Lady\"\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Who%27s_Making_Love&oldid=808924661\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1968 singles\n  \u2022 Johnnie Taylor songs\n  \u2022 Billboard Hot R&B\/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles\n  \u2022 Songs written by Homer Banks\n  \u2022 1980 singles\n  \u2022 The Blues Brothers songs\n  \u2022 Songs written by Raymond Jackson (songwriter)\n  \u2022 Songs written by Don Davis (record producer)\n  \u2022 1968 songs\n  \u2022 Stax Records singles\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 6 November 2017, at 01:55.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"709934515264889589","title":"List of Dancing with the Stars (U.S.) competitors","text":"This is a featured list. Click here for more information.\n\nList of Dancing with the Stars (U.S.) competitors\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nDancing with the Stars is an American reality television show in which celebrity contestants and professional dance partners compete to be the best dancers, as determined by the show's judges and public voting. The series first broadcast in the 2005, and twenty-six complete seasons have aired on ABC through Spring 2018. During each season, competitors are progressively eliminated on the basis of public voting and scores received from the judges until only a few contestants remain. These finalists participate in a finale, from which a winner is determined.[1] Celebrities appearing on Dancing with the Stars include \"actors, singers, comedians, musicians, entrepreneurs, athletes, reality stars, journalists, internet personalities, newsmakers, and where-are-they-now personalities\".[2]\n\nAs of season 27, 309 celebrities have competed. Seven of those withdrew from the competition: Sara Evans of season three left the show to \"give her family full attention\" after filing for divorce; Misty May-Treanor of season seven was forced to pull out after an ankle injury; Tom DeLay of season nine reportedly withdrew \"due to stress fractures in both of his feet\"; Dorothy Hamill of season sixteen withdrew due to a previous injury that was unrelated to the competition; Billy Dee Williams of season eighteen quit due to a back injury; Kim Zolciak-Biermann of season twenty-one was forced to withdraw after suffering a mini-stroke, which although cleared her to dance, prevented her from flying to California from Atlanta; and Tamar Braxton of season twenty-one withdrew due to pulmonary embolisms in her lungs.[3][4][5] At age 14, actress Willow Shields of season twenty was the youngest contestant to compete on the show. At age 82, actress Cloris Leachman of season seven was the oldest contestant to compete on the show.[6] At age 51, singer Donny Osmond of season nine was the oldest contestant to win the competition.[7] At age 16 years, Laurie Hernandez of season twenty-three was the youngest contestant to win. The first (and, as of now, only) contestant to pass away after appearing on the show is Florence Henderson of season eleven, who died in November 2016, six years after her participation. Forty-five professional dancers have partnered with the celebrities. The twenty-six winners of the show, in chronological order, are Kelly Monaco, Drew Lachey, Emmitt Smith, Apolo Anton Ohno, H\u00e9lio Castroneves, Kristi Yamaguchi, Brooke Burke, Shawn Johnson, Donny Osmond, Nicole Scherzinger, Jennifer Grey, Hines Ward, J.R. Martinez, Donald Driver, Melissa Rycroft, Kellie Pickler, Amber Riley, Meryl Davis, Alfonso Ribeiro, Rumer Willis, Bindi Irwin, Nyle DiMarco, Laurie Hernandez, Rashad Jennings, Jordan Fisher and Adam Rippon. The fifteen professional partners who have won are Alec Mazo, Cheryl Burke (twice), Julianne Hough (twice), Mark Ballas (twice), Derek Hough (six times), Kym Johnson (twice), Karina Smirnoff, Peta Murgatroyd (twice), Tony Dovolani, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Witney Carson, Valentin Chmerkovskiy (twice), Emma Slater, Lindsay Arnold and Jenna Johnson.\n\nCompetitors[edit]\n\nIn the following list, the winner of each season is shown in gold, second place in silver and third place in bronze.\n\nContents\nSeason: 1\u00a0\u00b7 2\u00a0\u00b7 3\u00a0\u00b7 4\u00a0\u00b7 5\u00a0\u00b7 6\u00a0\u00b7 7\u00a0\u00b7 8\u00a0\u00b7 9\u00a0\u00b7 10\u00a0\u00b7 11\u00a0\u00b7 12\u00a0\u00b7 13\u00a0\u00b7 14\u00a0\u00b7 15\u00a0\u00b7 16\u00a0\u00b7 17\u00a0\u00b7 18\u00a0\u00b7 19\u00a0\u00b7 20\u00a0\u00b7 21\u00a0\u00b7 22\u00a0\u00b7 23\u00a0\u00b7 24\u00a0\u00b7 25\u00a0\u00b7 26\u00a0\u00b7 27\u00a0\u00b7 Jr.\n\n\nDrew Lachey, winner of season 2\nEmmitt Smith, winner of season 3\nApolo Anton Ohno, winner of season 4\nH\u00e9lio Castroneves, winner of season 5\nKristi Yamaguchi, winner of season 6\nBrooke Burke Charvet, winner of season 7\nShawn Johnson, winner of season 8 and runner-up of season 15\nDonny Osmond, winner of season 9\nNicole Scherzinger, winner of season 10\nJennifer Grey, winner of season 11\nHines Ward, winner of season 12\nJ.R. Martinez, winner of season 13\nDonald Driver, winner of season 14\nKellie Pickler, winner of season 16\nAmber Riley, winner of season 17\nMeryl Davis (winner) and Charlie White (5th place) from season 18\nAlfonso Ribeiro, winner of season 19\nRumer Willis, winner of season 20\nBindi Irwin, winner of season 21\nNyle DiMarco, winner of season 22\nLaurie Hernandez, winner of season 23\nRashad Jennings, winner of season 24\nJordan Fisher, winner of season 25 and host of Dancing with the Stars: Juniors\nAdam Rippon, winner of season 26\nSeason Celebrity Professional partner Finish\n1 Trista Sutter Louis van Amstel 6th\nEvander Holyfield Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 5th\nRachel Hunter Jonathan Roberts 4th\nJoey McIntyre Ashly DelGrosso 3rd\nJohn O'Hurley Charlotte J\u00f8rgensen 2nd\nKelly Monaco Alec Mazo 1st\n2 Kenny Mayne Andrea Hale 10th\nTatum O'Neal Nick Kosovich 9th\nGiselle Fernandez Jonathan Roberts 8th\nMaster P Ashly DelGrosso 7th\nTia Carrere Maksim Chmerkovskiy 6th\nGeorge Hamilton Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 5th\nLisa Rinna Louis van Amstel 4th\nStacy Keibler Tony Dovolani 3rd\nJerry Rice Anna Trebunskaya 2nd\nDrew Lachey Cheryl Burke 1st\n3 Tucker Carlson Elena Grinenko 11th\nShanna Moakler Jesse DeSoto 10th\nHarry Hamlin Ashly DelGrosso 9th\nVivica A. Fox Nick Kosovich 8th\nWilla Ford Maksim Chmerkovskiy 7th\nSara Evans Tony Dovolani 6th*\nJerry Springer Kym Johnson 5th\nMonique Coleman Louis van Amstel 4th\nJoey Lawrence Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 3rd\nMario Lopez Karina Smirnoff 2nd\nEmmitt Smith Cheryl Burke 1st\n4 Paulina Porizkova Alec Mazo 11th\nShandi Finnessey Brian Fortuna 10th\nLeeza Gibbons Tony Dovolani 9th\nClyde Drexler Elena Grinenko 8th\nHeather Mills Jonathan Roberts 7th\nJohn Ratzenberger Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 6th\nBilly Ray Cyrus Karina Smirnoff 5th\nIan Ziering Cheryl Burke 4th\nLaila Ali Maksim Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nJoey Fatone Kym Johnson 2nd\nApolo Anton Ohno Julianne Hough 1st\n5 Josie Maran Alec Mazo 12th\nAlbert Reed Anna Trebunskaya 11th\nWayne Newton Cheryl Burke 10th\nFloyd Mayweather Karina Smirnoff 9th\nMark Cuban Kym Johnson 8th\nSabrina Bryan Mark Ballas 7th\nJane Seymour Tony Dovolani 6th\nCameron Mathison Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 5th\nJennie Garth Derek Hough 4th\nMarie Osmond Jonathan Roberts 3rd\nMel B Maksim Chmerkovskiy 2nd\nH\u00e9lio Castroneves Julianne Hough 1st\n6 Penn Jillette Kym Johnson 12th\nMonica Seles Jonathan Roberts 11th\nSteve Guttenberg Anna Trebunskaya 10th\nAdam Carolla Julianne Hough 9th\nPriscilla Presley Louis van Amstel 8th\nMarlee Matlin Fabian Sanchez 7th\nShannon Elizabeth Derek Hough 6th\nMario Karina Smirnoff 5th\nMarissa Jaret Winokur Tony Dovolani 4th\nCristi\u00e1n de la Fuente Cheryl Burke 3rd\nJason Taylor Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 2nd\nKristi Yamaguchi Mark Ballas 1st\n7 Jeffrey Ross Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 13th\nTed McGinley Inna Brayer 12th\nKim Kardashian Mark Ballas 11th\nMisty May-Treanor Maksim Chmerkovskiy 10th*\nRocco DiSpirito Karina Smirnoff 9th\nToni Braxton Alec Mazo 8th\nCloris Leachman Corky Ballas 7th\nSusan Lucci Tony Dovolani 6th\nMaurice Greene Cheryl Burke 5th\nCody Linley Julianne Hough 4th\nLance Bass Lacey Schwimmer 3rd\nWarren Sapp Kym Johnson 2nd\nBrooke Burke Derek Hough 1st\n8 Belinda Carlisle Jonathan Roberts 13th\nDenise Richards Maksim Chmerkovskiy 12th\nHolly Madison Dmitry Chaplin 11th\nSteve Wozniak Karina Smirnoff 10th\nDavid Alan Grier Kym Johnson 9th\nSteve-O Lacey Schwimmer 8th\nLawrence Taylor Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 7th\nChuck Wicks Julianne Hough 6th\nLil' Kim Derek Hough 5th\nTy Murray Chelsie Hightower 4th\nMelissa Rycroft Tony Dovolani 3rd\nGilles Marini Cheryl Burke 2nd\nShawn Johnson Mark Ballas 1st\n9 Ashley Hamilton Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 16th\nMacy Gray Jonathan Roberts 15th\nKathy Ireland Tony Dovolani 14th\nTom DeLay Cheryl Burke 13th*\nDebi Mazar Maksim Chmerkovskiy 12th\nChuck Liddell Anna Trebunskaya 11th\nNatalie Coughlin Alec Mazo 10th\nMelissa Joan Hart Mark Ballas 9th\nLouie Vito Chelsie Hightower 8th\nMichael Irvin Anna Demidova 7th\nMark Dacascos Lacey Schwimmer 6th\nAaron Carter Karina Smirnoff 5th\nJoanna Krupa Derek Hough 4th\nKelly Osbourne Louis van Amstel 3rd\nM\u00fda Dmitry Chaplin 2nd\nDonny Osmond Kym Johnson 1st\n10 Shannen Doherty Mark Ballas 11th\nBuzz Aldrin Ashly DelGrosso-Costa 10th\nAiden Turner Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 9th\nKate Gosselin Tony Dovolani 8th\nJake Pavelka Chelsie Hightower 7th\nPamela Anderson Damian Whitewood 6th\nNiecy Nash Louis van Amstel 5th\nChad Ochocinco Cheryl Burke 4th\nErin Andrews Maksim Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nEvan Lysacek Anna Trebunskaya 2nd\nNicole Scherzinger Derek Hough 1st\n11 David Hasselhoff Kym Johnson 12th\nMichael Bolton Chelsie Hightower 11th\nMargaret Cho Louis van Amstel 10th\nMichael \"The Situation\" Sorrentino Karina Smirnoff 9th\nFlorence Hendersondagger Corky Ballas 8th\nAudrina Patridge Tony Dovolani 7th\nRick Fox Cheryl Burke 6th\nKurt Warner Anna Trebunskaya 5th\nBrandy Maksim Chmerkovskiy 4th\nBristol Palin Mark Ballas 3rd\nKyle Massey Lacey Schwimmer 2nd\nJennifer Grey Derek Hough 1st\n12 Mike Catherwood Lacey Schwimmer 11th\nWendy Williams Tony Dovolani 10th\nSugar Ray Leonard Anna Trebunskaya 9th\nPetra Nemcova Dmitry Chaplin 8th\nChris Jericho Cheryl Burke 7th\nKendra Wilkinson Louis van Amstel 6th\nRomeo Chelsie Hightower 5th\nRalph Macchio Karina Smirnoff 4th\nChelsea Kane Mark Ballas 3rd\nKirstie Alley Maksim Chmerkovskiy 2nd\nHines Ward Kym Johnson 1st\n13 Metta World Peace Peta Murgatroyd 12th\nElisabetta Canalis Valentin Chmerkovskiy 11th\nKristin Cavallari Mark Ballas 10th\nChynna Phillips Tony Dovolani 9th\nCarson Kressley Anna Trebunskaya 8th\nChaz Bono Lacey Schwimmer 7th\nDavid Arquette Kym Johnson 6th\nNancy Grace Tristan MacManus 5th\nHope Solo Maksim Chmerkovskiy 4th\nRicki Lake Derek Hough 3rd\nRob Kardashian Cheryl Burke 2nd\nJ.R. Martinez Karina Smirnoff 1st\n14 Martina Navratilova Tony Dovolani 12th\nJack Wagner Anna Trebunskaya 11th\nSherri Shepherd Valentin Chmerkovskiy 10th\nGavin DeGraw Karina Smirnoff 9th\nGladys Knight Tristan MacManus 8th\nJaleel White Kym Johnson 7th\nRoshon Fegan Chelsie Hightower 6th\nMelissa Gilbert Maksim Chmerkovskiy 5th\nMaria Menounos Derek Hough 4th\nWilliam Levy Cheryl Burke 3rd\nKatherine Jenkins Mark Ballas 2nd\nDonald Driver Peta Murgatroyd 1st\n15\n(All-Stars)\nPamela Anderson Tristan MacManus 13th\nJoey Fatone Kym Johnson 12th\nDrew Lachey Anna Trebunskaya 11th\nH\u00e9lio Castroneves Chelsie Hightower 10th\nBristol Palin Mark Ballas 9th\nSabrina Bryan Louis van Amstel 8th\nKirstie Alley Maksim Chmerkovskiy 7th\nGilles Marini Peta Murgatroyd 6th\nApolo Anton Ohno Karina Smirnoff 5th\nEmmitt Smith Cheryl Burke 4th\nKelly Monaco Valentin Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nShawn Johnson Derek Hough 2nd\nMelissa Rycroft Tony Dovolani 1st\n16 Dorothy Hamill Tristan MacManus 12th*\nWynonna Judd Tony Dovolani 11th\nLisa Vanderpump Gleb Savchenko 10th\nD.L. Hughley Cheryl Burke 9th\nVictor Ortiz Lindsay Arnold 8th\nAndy Dick Sharna Burgess 7th\nSean Lowe Peta Murgatroyd 6th\nIngo Rademacher Kym Johnson 5th\nAlexandra Raisman Mark Ballas 4th\nJacoby Jones Karina Smirnoff 3rd\nZendaya Valentin Chmerkovskiy 2nd\nKellie Pickler Derek Hough 1st\n17 Keyshawn Johnson Sharna Burgess 12th\nBill Nye Tyne Stecklein 11th\nValerie Harper Tristan MacManus 10th\nChristina Milian Mark Ballas 9th\nNicole \"Snooki\" Polizzi Sasha Farber 8th\nBrant Daugherty Peta Murgatroyd 7th\nElizabeth Berkley-Lauren Valentin Chmerkovskiy 6th\nLeah Remini Tony Dovolani 5th\nBill Engvall Emma Slater 4th\nJack Osbourne Cheryl Burke 3rd\nCorbin Bleu Karina Smirnoff 2nd\nAmber Riley Derek Hough 1st\n18 Diana Nyad Henry Byalikov 12th\nSean Avery Karina Smirnoff 11th\nBilly Dee Williams Emma Slater 10th*\nCody Simpson Witney Carson 9th\nDrew Carey Cheryl Burke 8th\nNeNe Leakes Tony Dovolani 7th\nDanica McKellar Valentin Chmerkovskiy 6th\nCharlie White Sharna Burgess 5th\nJames Maslow Peta Murgatroyd 4th\nCandace Cameron Bure Mark Ballas 3rd\nAmy Purdy Derek Hough 2nd\nMeryl Davis Maksim Chmerkovskiy 1st\n19 Lolo Jones Keo Motsepe 13th\nTavis Smiley Sharna Burgess 12th\nRandy Couture Karina Smirnoff 11th\nBetsey Johnson Tony Dovolani 10th\nJonathan Bennett Allison Holker 9th\nAntonio Sab\u00e0to, Jr. Cheryl Burke 8th\nMichael Waltrip Emma Slater 7th\nLea Thompson Artem Chigvintsev 6th\nTommy Chong Peta Murgatroyd 5th\nBethany Mota Derek Hough 4th\nJanel Parrish Valentin Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nSadie Robertson Mark Ballas 2nd\nAlfonso Ribeiro Witney Carson 1st\n20 Redfoo Emma Slater 12th\nCharlotte McKinney Keo Motsepe 11th\nMichael Sam Peta Murgatroyd 10th\nSuzanne Somers Tony Dovolani 9th\nPatti LaBelle Artem Chigvintsev 8th\nWillow Shields Mark Ballas 7th\nRobert Herjavec Kym Johnson 6th\nChris Soules Witney Carson 5th\nNastia Liukin Derek Hough 4th\nNoah Galloway Sharna Burgess 3rd\nRiker Lynch Allison Holker 2nd\nRumer Willis Valentin Chmerkovskiy 1st\n21 Chaka Khan Keo Motsepe 13th\nVictor Espinoza Karina Smirnoff 12th\nKim Zolciak-Biermann Tony Dovolani 11th*\nGary Busey Anna Trebunskaya 10th\nPaula Deen Louis van Amstel 9th\nHayes Grier Emma Slater 8th\nAndy Grammer Allison Holker 7th\nAlexa PenaVega Mark Ballas 6th\nTamar Braxton Valentin Chmerkovskiy 5th*\nCarlos PenaVega Witney Carson 4th\nAlek Skarlatos Lindsay Arnold 3rd\nNick Carter Sharna Burgess 2nd\nBindi Irwin Derek Hough 1st\n22 Geraldo Rivera Edyta \u015aliwi\u0144ska 12th\nMischa Barton Artem Chigvintsev 11th\nMarla Maples Tony Dovolani 10th\nDoug Flutie Karina Smirnoff 9th\nKim Fields Sasha Farber 7th\nVon Miller Witney Carson\nJodie Sweetin Keo Motsepe 6th\nAntonio Brown Sharna Burgess 4th\nWany\u00e1 Morris Lindsay Arnold\nGinger Zee Valentin Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nPaige VanZant Mark Ballas 2nd\nNyle DiMarco Peta Murgatroyd 1st\n23 Jake T. Austin Jenna Johnson 13th\nRick Perry Emma Slater 12th\nKenny \"Babyface\" Edmonds Allison Holker 11th\nVanilla Ice Witney Carson 10th\nAmber Rose Maksim Chmerkovskiy 9th\nMaureen McCormick Artem Chigvintsev 8th\nRyan Lochte Cheryl Burke 7th\nMarilu Henner Derek Hough 6th\nTerra Jol\u00e9 Sasha Farber 5th\nJana Kramer Gleb Savchenko 4th\nCalvin Johnson, Jr. Lindsay Arnold 3rd\nJames Hinchcliffe Sharna Burgess 2nd\nLaurie Hernandez Valentin Chmerkovskiy 1st\n24 Chris Kattan Witney Carson 12th\nCharo Keo Motsepe 11th\nMr. T Kym Johnson-Herjavec 10th\nErika Jayne Gleb Savchenko 9th\nHeather Morris Maksim Chmerkovskiy 8th\nNancy Kerrigan Artem Chigvintsev 6th\nNick Viall Peta Murgatroyd\nBonner Bolton Sharna Burgess 5th\nSimone Biles Sasha Farber 4th\nNormani Kordei Valentin Chmerkovskiy 3rd\nDavid Ross Lindsay Arnold 2nd\nRashad Jennings Emma Slater 1st\n25 Barbara Corcoran Keo Motsepe 13th\nDebbie Gibson Alan Bersten 12th\nDerek Fisher Sharna Burgess 11th\nSasha Pieterse Gleb Savchenko 10th\nNick Lachey Peta Murgatroyd 9th\nNikki Bella Artem Chigvintsev 7th\nVanessa Lachey Maksim Chmerkovskiy\nTerrell Owens Cheryl Burke 6th\nVictoria Arlen Valentin Chmerkovskiy 5th\nDrew Scott Emma Slater 4th\nFrankie Muniz Witney Carson 3rd\nLindsey Stirling Mark Ballas 2nd\nJordan Fisher Lindsay Arnold 1st\n26\n(Athletes)\nJamie Anderson Artem Chigvintsev 9th\nJohnny Damon Emma Slater\nKareem Abdul-Jabbar Lindsay Arnold 7th\nArike Ogunbowale Gleb Savchenko\nJennie Finch Daigle Keo Motsepe 4th\nChris Mazdzer Witney Carson\nMirai Nagasu Alan Bersten\nTonya Harding Sasha Farber 3rd\nJosh Norman Sharna Burgess 2nd\nAdam Rippon Jenna Johnson 1st\n27 Nikki Glaser Gleb Savchenko 13th\nDanelle Umstead Artem Chigvintsev 12th\nNancy McKeon Valentin Chmerkovskiy 11th\nTinashe Brandon Armstrong 10th\nMary Lou Retton Sasha Farber 9th\nJoe Amabile Jenna Johnson TBD\nBobby Bones Sharna Burgess TBD\nJuan Pablo Di Pace Cheryl Burke TBD\nEvanna Lynch Keo Motsepe TBD\nMilo Manheim Witney Carson TBD\nAlexis Ren Alan Bersten TBD\nJohn Schneider Emma Slater TBD\nDeMarcus Ware Lindsay Arnold TBD\nJuniors Tripp Johnston Palin Hailey Bills 11th\nAddison Osta Smith Lev Khmelev\nHudson West Kameron Couch 10th\nSophia Pippen Jake Monreal 9th\nAlana \"Honey Boo Boo\" Thompson Tristan Ianiero 8th\nMiles Brown Rylee Arnold TBD\nSky Brown JT Church TBD\nAriana Greenblatt Artyon Celestine TBD\nJason Maybaum Elliana Walmsley TBD\nMandla Morris Brightyn Brems TBD\nAkash Vukoti Kamri Peterson TBD\nMackenzie Ziegler Sage Rosen TBD\n*\u00a0 Indicates contestant withdrew from competition for personal\/health reasons.\ndagger Indicates contestant died after competing.\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Voting -- How It Works\". American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on October 8, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\n  2. Jump up ^ Weber, Joseph (August 17, 2009). \"Tom DeLay joins 'Dancing With the Stars'\". The Washington Times. News World Communications. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Divorce Forces Sara Evans to Quit 'Dancing with the Stars'\". Fox News Channel. October 13, 2006. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\n  4. Jump up ^ Reardanz, Karen (October 8, 2008). \"Misty May-Treanor Has Surgery for Dance Injury\". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\n  5. Jump up ^ Rizzo, Monica (October 6, 2009). \"Tom DeLay to Quit Dancing with the Stars\". People. Time Inc. Archived from the original on October 9, 2009. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\n  6. Jump up ^ Gorman, Steve (August 25, 2008). \"Cloris Leachman, 82, joins \"Dancing with Stars\"\". Reuters. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"'Dancing With The Stars' crowns a winner\". USA Today. Gannett Company. November 24, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2009.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \"Dancing With The Stars\". American Broadcasting Company. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\n  \u2022 \"\"Dancing With The Stars\" Timeline\". CBS. May 19, 2009. Retrieved October 21, 2009.\n  \u2022 Lee, Allyssa (March 1, 2010). \"'Dancing with the Stars': The Season 10 cast is revealed!\". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. Retrieved March 7, 2010.\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nDancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)\nSeasons\n  \u2022 1\n  \u2022 2\n  \u2022 3\n  \u2022 4\n  \u2022 5\n  \u2022 6\n  \u2022 7\n  \u2022 8\n  \u2022 9\n  \u2022 10\n  \u2022 11\n  \u2022 12\n  \u2022 13\n  \u2022 14\n  \u2022 15: All-Stars\n  \u2022 16\n  \u2022 17\n  \u2022 18\n  \u2022 19\n  \u2022 20\n  \u2022 21\n  \u2022 22\n  \u2022 23\n  \u2022 24\n  \u2022 25\n  \u2022 26: Athletes\n  \u2022 27\n  \u2022 Juniors\nParticipants\nList of competitors\nWinners\nCelebrity\n  \u2022 Kelly Monaco\n  \u2022 Drew Lachey\n  \u2022 Emmitt Smith\n  \u2022 Apolo Anton Ohno\n  \u2022 H\u00e9lio Castroneves\n  \u2022 Kristi Yamaguchi\n  \u2022 Brooke Burke\n  \u2022 Shawn Johnson\n  \u2022 Donny Osmond\n  \u2022 Nicole Scherzinger\n  \u2022 Jennifer Grey\n  \u2022 Hines Ward\n  \u2022 J.R. Martinez\n  \u2022 Donald Driver\n  \u2022 Melissa Rycroft\n  \u2022 Kellie Pickler\n  \u2022 Amber Riley\n  \u2022 Meryl Davis\n  \u2022 Alfonso Ribeiro\n  \u2022 Rumer Willis\n  \u2022 Bindi Irwin\n  \u2022 Nyle DiMarco\n  \u2022 Laurie Hernandez\n  \u2022 Rashad Jennings\n  \u2022 Jordan Fisher\n  \u2022 Adam Rippon\nProfessional\n  \u2022 Alec Mazo\n  \u2022 Cheryl Burke\n  \u2022 Julianne Hough\n  \u2022 Mark Ballas\n  \u2022 Derek Hough\n  \u2022 Kym Johnson\n  \u2022 Karina Smirnoff\n  \u2022 Peta Murgatroyd\n  \u2022 Tony Dovolani\n  \u2022 Maksim Chmerkovskiy\n  \u2022 Witney Carson\n  \u2022 Valentin Chmerkovskiy\n  \u2022 Emma Slater\n  \u2022 Lindsay Arnold\n  \u2022 Jenna Johnson\nGames\n  \u2022 Dancing with the Stars\n  \u2022 We Dance!\n\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_Dancing_with_the_Stars_(U.S.)_competitors&oldid=866395353\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Lists of 21st-century people\n  \u2022 Lists of reality show participants\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Featured lists\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 30 October 2018, at 02:07\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"2126001484827948953","title":"Equations of motion","text":"Equations of motion\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nClassical mechanics\nF \u2192 = m a \u2192 {\\displaystyle {\\vec {F}}=m{\\vec {a}}} {\\vec {F}}=m{\\vec {a}}\nSecond law of motion\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Timeline\nBranches[show]\n  \u2022 Applied\n  \u2022 Celestial\n  \u2022 Continuum\n  \u2022 Dynamics\n  \u2022 Kinematics\n  \u2022 Kinetics\n  \u2022 Statics\n  \u2022 Statistical\nFundamentals[show]\n  \u2022 Acceleration\n  \u2022 Angular momentum\n  \u2022 Couple\n  \u2022 D'Alembert's principle\n  \u2022 Energy\n    \u2022 kinetic\n    \u2022 potential\n  \u2022 Force\n  \u2022 Frame of reference\n  \u2022 Impulse\n  \u2022 Inertia\u00a0\/ Moment of inertia\n  \u2022 Mass\n\n  \u2022 Mechanical power\n  \u2022 Mechanical work\n\n  \u2022 Moment\n  \u2022 Momentum\n  \u2022 Space\n  \u2022 Speed\n  \u2022 Time\n  \u2022 Torque\n  \u2022 Velocity\n  \u2022 Virtual work\nFormulations[show]\n  \u2022 Newton's laws of motion\n  \u2022 Analytical mechanics\n    \u2022 Lagrangian mechanics\n    \u2022 Hamiltonian mechanics\n    \u2022 Routhian mechanics\n    \u2022 Hamilton\u2013Jacobi equation\n    \u2022 Appell's equation of motion\n    \u2022 Udwadia\u2013Kalaba equation\n    \u2022 Koopman\u2013von Neumann mechanics\nCore topics[show]\n  \u2022 Damping\u00a0(ratio)\n  \u2022 Displacement\n  \u2022 Equations of motion\n  \u2022 Euler's laws of motion\n  \u2022 Fictitious force\n  \u2022 Friction\n  \u2022 Harmonic oscillator\n  \u2022 Inertial\u00a0\/ Non-inertial reference frame\n  \u2022 Mechanics of planar particle motion\n  \u2022 Motion\u00a0(linear)\n  \u2022 Newton's law of universal gravitation\n  \u2022 Newton's laws of motion\n  \u2022 Relative velocity\n  \u2022 Rigid body\n    \u2022 dynamics\n    \u2022 Euler's equations\n  \u2022 Simple harmonic motion\n  \u2022 Vibration\nRotation[show]\n  \u2022 Circular motion\n  \u2022 Rotating reference frame\n  \u2022 Centripetal force\n  \u2022 Centrifugal force\n    \u2022 reactive\n  \u2022 Coriolis force\n  \u2022 Pendulum\n  \u2022 Tangential speed\n  \u2022 Rotational speed\n  \u2022 Angular acceleration\u00a0\/ displacement\u00a0\/ frequency\u00a0\/ velocity\nScientists[show]\n  \u2022 Galileo\n  \u2022 Newton\n  \u2022 Kepler\n  \u2022 Horrocks\n  \u2022 Halley\n  \u2022 Euler\n  \u2022 d'Alembert\n  \u2022 Clairaut\n  \u2022 Lagrange\n  \u2022 Laplace\n  \u2022 Hamilton\n  \u2022 Poisson\n  \u2022 Daniel Bernoulli\n  \u2022 Johann Bernoulli\n  \u2022 Cauchy\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nIn mathematical physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behaviour of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time.[1] More specifically, the equations of motion describe the behaviour of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of dynamic variables: normally spatial coordinates and time are used, but others are also possible, such as momentum components and time. The most general choice are generalized coordinates which can be any convenient variables characteristic of the physical system.[2] The functions are defined in a Euclidean space in classical mechanics, but are replaced by curved spaces in relativity. If the dynamics of a system is known, the equations are the solutions to the differential equations describing the motion of the dynamics.\n\nThere are two main descriptions of motion: dynamics and kinematics. Dynamics is general, since momenta, forces and energy of the particles are taken into account. In this instance, sometimes the term refers to the differential equations that the system satisfies (e.g., Newton's second law or Euler\u2013Lagrange equations), and sometimes to the solutions to those equations.\n\nHowever, kinematics is simpler as it concerns only variables derived from the positions of objects, and time. In circumstances of constant acceleration, these simpler equations of motion are usually referred to as the SUVAT equations, arising from the definitions of kinematic quantities: displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t).\n\nEquations of motion can therefore be grouped under these main classifiers of motion. In all cases, the main types of motion are translations, rotations, oscillations, or any combinations of these.\n\nA differential equation of motion, usually identified as some physical law and applying definitions of physical quantities, is used to set up an equation for the problem. Solving the differential equation will lead to a general solution with arbitrary constants, the arbitrariness corresponding to a family of solutions. A particular solution can be obtained by setting the initial values, which fixes the values of the constants.\n\nTo state this formally, in general an equation of motion M is a function of the position r of the object, its velocity (the first time derivative of r, v = dr\/dt), and its acceleration (the second derivative of r, a = d2r\/dt2), and time t. Euclidean vectors in 3D are denoted throughout in bold. This is equivalent to saying an equation of motion in r is a second order ordinary differential equation (ODE) in r,\n\nM [ r ( t ) , r \u02d9 ( t ) , r \u00a8 ( t ) , t ] = 0 , {\\displaystyle M\\left[\\mathbf {r} (t),\\mathbf {\\dot {r}} (t),\\mathbf {\\ddot {r}} (t),t\\right]=0\\,,} M\\left[\\mathbf {r} (t),\\mathbf {\\dot {r}} (t),\\mathbf {\\ddot {r}} (t),t\\right]=0\\,,\n\nwhere t is time, and each overdot denotes one time derivative. The initial conditions are given by the constant values at t = 0,\n\nr ( 0 ) , r \u02d9 ( 0 ) . {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} (0)\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {\\dot {r}} (0)\\,.} \\mathbf {r} (0)\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {\\dot {r}} (0)\\,.\n\nThe solution r(t) to the equation of motion, with specified initial values, describes the system for all times t after t = 0. Other dynamical variables like the momentum p of the object, or quantities derived from r and p like angular momentum, can be used in place of r as the quantity to solve for from some equation of motion, although the position of the object at time t is by far the most sought-after quantity.\n\nSometimes, the equation will be linear and is more likely to be exactly solvable. In general, the equation will be non-linear, and cannot be solved exactly so a variety of approximations must be used. The solutions to nonlinear equations may show chaotic behavior depending on how sensitive the system is to the initial conditions.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Kinematic equations for one particle\n    \u2022 2.1 Kinematic quantities\n    \u2022 2.2 Uniform acceleration\n      \u2022 2.2.1 Constant translational acceleration in a straight line\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Constant linear acceleration in any direction\n      \u2022 2.2.3 Applications\n      \u2022 2.2.4 Constant circular acceleration\n    \u2022 2.3 General planar motion\n    \u2022 2.4 General 3D motion\n  \u2022 3 Dynamic equations of motion\n    \u2022 3.1 Newtonian mechanics\n    \u2022 3.2 Applications\n  \u2022 4 Analytical mechanics\n  \u2022 5 Electrodynamics\n  \u2022 6 General relativity\n    \u2022 6.1 Geodesic equation of motion\n    \u2022 6.2 Spinning objects\n  \u2022 7 Analogues for waves and fields\n    \u2022 7.1 Field equations\n    \u2022 7.2 Wave equations\n    \u2022 7.3 Quantum theory\n  \u2022 8 See also\n  \u2022 9 References\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nHistorically, equations of motion first appeared in classical mechanics to describe the motion of massive objects, a notable application was to celestial mechanics to predict the motion of the planets as if they orbit like clockwork (this was how Neptune was predicted before its discovery), and also investigate the stability of the solar system.\n\nIt is important to observe that the huge body of work involving kinematics, dynamics and the mathematical models of the universe developed in baby steps \u2013 faltering, getting up and correcting itself \u2013 over three millennia and included contributions of both known names and others who have since faded from the annals of history.\n\nIn antiquity, notwithstanding the success of priests, astrologers and astronomers in predicting solar and lunar eclipses, the solstices and the equinoxes of the Sun and the period of the Moon, there was nothing other than a set of algorithms to help them. Despite the great strides made in the development of geometry made by Ancient Greeks and surveys in Rome, we were to wait for another thousand years before the first equations of motion arrive.\n\nThe exposure of Europe to the collected works by the Muslims of the Greeks, the Indians and the Islamic scholars, such as Euclid\u2019s Elements, the works of Archimedes, and Al-Khw\u0101rizm\u012b's treatises [3] began in Spain, and scholars from all over Europe went to Spain, read, copied and translated the learning into Latin. The exposure of Europe to Arabic numerals and their ease in computations encouraged first the scholars to learn them and then the merchants and invigorated the spread of knowledge throughout Europe.\n\nBy the 13th century the universities of Oxford and Paris had come up, and the scholars were now studying mathematics and philosophy with lesser worries about mundane chores of life\u2014the fields were not as clearly demarcated as they are in the modern times. Of these, compendia and redactions, such as those of Johannes Campanus, of Euclid and Aristotle, confronted scholars with ideas about infinity and the ratio theory of elements as a means of expressing relations between various quantities involved with moving bodies. These studies led to a new body of knowledge that is now known as physics.\n\nOf these institutes Merton College sheltered a group of scholars devoted to natural science, mainly physics, astronomy and mathematics, of similar in stature to the intellectuals at the University of Paris. Thomas Bradwardine, one of those scholars, extended Aristotelian quantities such as distance and velocity, and assigned intensity and extension to them. Bradwardine suggested an exponential law involving force, resistance, distance, velocity and time. Nicholas Oresme further extended Bradwardine's arguments. The Merton school proved that the quantity of motion of a body undergoing a uniformly accelerated motion is equal to the quantity of a uniform motion at the speed achieved halfway through the accelerated motion.\n\nFor writers on kinematics before Galileo, since small time intervals could not be measured, the affinity between time and motion was obscure. They used time as a function of distance, and in free fall, greater velocity as a result of greater elevation. Only Domingo de Soto, a Spanish theologian, in his commentary on Aristotle's Physics published in 1545, after defining \"uniform difform\" motion (which is uniformly accelerated motion) \u2013 the word velocity wasn't used \u2013 as proportional to time, declared correctly that this kind of motion was identifiable with freely falling bodies and projectiles, without his proving these propositions or suggesting a formula relating time, velocity and distance. De Soto's comments are shockingly correct regarding the definitions of acceleration (acceleration was a rate of change of motion (velocity) in time) and the observation that during the violent motion of ascent acceleration would be negative.\n\nDiscourses such as these spread throughout Europe and definitely influenced Galileo and others, and helped in laying the foundation of kinematics.[4] Galileo deduced the equation s = 1\/2gt2 in his work geometrically,[5] using the Merton rule, now known as a special case of one of the equations of kinematics. He couldn't use the now-familiar mathematical reasoning. The relationships between speed, distance, time and acceleration was not known at the time.\n\nGalileo was the first to show that the path of a projectile is a parabola. Galileo had an understanding of centrifugal force and gave a correct definition of momentum. This emphasis of momentum as a fundamental quantity in dynamics is of prime importance. He measured momentum by the product of velocity and weight; mass is a later concept, developed by Huygens and Newton. In the swinging of a simple pendulum, Galileo says in Discourses[6] that \"every momentum acquired in the descent along an arc is equal to that which causes the same moving body to ascend through the same arc.\" His analysis on projectiles indicates that Galileo had grasped the first law and the second law of motion. He did not generalize and make them applicable to bodies not subject to the earth's gravitation. That step was Newton's contribution.\n\nThe term \"inertia\" was used by Kepler who applied it to bodies at rest. (The first law of motion is now often called the law of inertia.)\n\nGalileo did not fully grasp the third law of motion, the law of the equality of action and reaction, though he corrected some errors of Aristotle. With Stevin and others Galileo also wrote on statics. He formulated the principle of the parallelogram of forces, but he did not fully recognize its scope.\n\nGalileo also was interested by the laws of the pendulum, his first observations was when he was a young man. In 1583, while he was praying in the cathedral at Pisa, his attention was arrested by the motion of the great lamp lighted and left swinging, referencing his own pulse for time keeping. To him the period appeared the same, even after the motion had greatly diminished, discovering the isochronism of the pendulum.\n\nMore careful experiments carried out by him later, and described in his Discourses, revealed the period of oscillation varies with the square root of length but is independent of the mass the pendulum.\n\nThus we arrive at Ren\u00e9 Descartes, Isaac Newton, Gottfried Leibniz, et al.; and the evolved forms of the equations of motion that begin to be recognized as the modern ones.\n\nLater the equations of motion also appeared in electrodynamics, when describing the motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force is the general equation which serves as the definition of what is meant by an electric field and magnetic field. With the advent of special relativity and general relativity, the theoretical modifications to spacetime meant the classical equations of motion were also modified to account for the finite speed of light, and curvature of spacetime. In all these cases the differential equations were in terms of a function describing the particle's trajectory in terms of space and time coordinates, as influenced by forces or energy transformations.[7]\n\nHowever, the equations of quantum mechanics can also be considered \"equations of motion\", since they are differential equations of the wavefunction, which describes how a quantum state behaves analogously using the space and time coordinates of the particles. There are analogs of equations of motion in other areas of physics, for collections of physical phenomena that can be considered waves, fluids, or fields.\n\nKinematic equations for one particle[edit]\n\nKinematic quantities[edit]\n\nKinematic quantities of a classical particle of mass m: position r, velocity v, acceleration a.\n\nFrom the instantaneous position r = r(t), instantaneous meaning at an instant value of time t, the instantaneous velocity v = v(t) and acceleration a = a(t) have the general, coordinate-independent definitions;[8]\n\nv = d r d t , a = d v d t = d 2 r d t 2 {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {v} }{dt}}={\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}\\,\\!} \\mathbf {v} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {v} }{dt}}={\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}\\,\\!\n\nNotice that velocity always points in the direction of motion, in other words for a curved path it is the tangent vector. Loosely speaking, first order derivatives are related to tangents of curves. Still for curved paths, the acceleration is directed towards the center of curvature of the path. Again, loosely speaking, second order derivatives are related to curvature.\n\nThe rotational analogues are the \"angular vector\" (angle the particle rotates about some axis) \u03b8 = \u03b8(t), angular velocity \u03c9 = \u03c9(t), and angular acceleration \u03b1 = \u03b1(t):\n\n\u03b8 = \u03b8 n ^ , \u03c9 = d \u03b8 d t , \u03b1 = d \u03c9 d t , {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\theta }}=\\theta {\\hat {\\mathbf {n} }}\\,,\\quad {\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}={\\frac {d{\\boldsymbol {\\theta }}}{dt}}\\,,\\quad {\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}={\\frac {d{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}}{dt}}\\,,} {\\boldsymbol {\\theta }}=\\theta {\\hat {\\mathbf {n} }}\\,,\\quad {\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}={\\frac {d{\\boldsymbol {\\theta }}}{dt}}\\,,\\quad {\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}={\\frac {d{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}}{dt}}\\,,\n\nwhere n\u0302 is a unit vector in the direction of the axis of rotation, and \u03b8 is the angle the object turns through about the axis.\n\nThe following relation holds for a point-like particle, orbiting about some axis with angular velocity \u03c9:[9]\n\nv = \u03c9 \u00d7 r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} ={\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}\\times \\mathbf {r} \\,\\!} \\mathbf {v} ={\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}\\times \\mathbf {r} \\,\\!\n\nwhere r is the position vector of the particle (radial from the rotation axis) and v the tangential velocity of the particle. For a rotating continuum rigid body, these relations hold for each point in the rigid body.\n\nUniform acceleration[edit]\n\nThe differential equation of motion for a particle of constant or uniform acceleration in a straight line is simple: the acceleration is constant, so the second derivative of the position of the object is constant. The results of this case are summarized below.\n\nConstant translational acceleration in a straight line[edit]\n\nThese equations apply to a particle moving linearly, in three dimensions in a straight line with constant acceleration.[10] Since the position, velocity, and acceleration are collinear (parallel, and lie on the same line) \u2013 only the magnitudes of these vectors are necessary, and because the motion is along a straight line, the problem effectively reduces from three dimensions to one.\n\nv = a t + v 0 [ 1 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v&=at+v_{0}\\quad [1]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}v&=at+v_{0}\\quad [1]\\\\\\end{aligned}}\nr = r 0 + v 0 t + 1 2 a t 2 [ 2 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}r&=r_{0}+v_{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{a}t^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}r&=r_{0}+v_{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{a}t^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}}\nr = r 0 + 1 2 ( v + v 0 ) t [ 3 ] v 2 = v 0 2 + 2 a ( r \u2212 r 0 ) [ 4 ] r = r 0 + v t \u2212 1 2 a t 2 [ 5 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}r&=r_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\r&=r_{0}+vt-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{a}t^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}r&=r_{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\r&=r_{0}+vt-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}{a}t^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}}\n\nwhere:\n\n  \u2022 r0 is the particle's initial position\n  \u2022 r is the particle's final position\n  \u2022 v0 is the particle's initial velocity\n  \u2022 v is the particle's final velocity\n  \u2022 a is the particle's acceleration\n  \u2022 t is the time interval\n[show]\n\u00a0\u00a0Derivation\n\nEquations [1] and [2] are from integrating the definitions of velocity and acceleration,[10] subject to the initial conditions r(t0) = r0 and v(t0) = v0;\n\nv = \u222b a d t = a t + v 0 , [ 1 ] r = \u222b ( a t + v 0 ) d t = a t 2 2 + v 0 t + r 0 , [ 2 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {v} &=\\int \\mathbf {a} dt=\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\,,\\quad [1]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\int (\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0})dt={\\frac {\\mathbf {a} t^{2}}{2}}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+\\mathbf {r} _{0}\\,,\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {v} &=\\int \\mathbf {a} dt=\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\,,\\quad [1]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\int (\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0})dt={\\frac {\\mathbf {a} t^{2}}{2}}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+\\mathbf {r} _{0}\\,,\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}\n\nin magnitudes,\n\nv = a t + v 0 , [ 1 ] r = a t 2 2 + v 0 t + r 0 . [ 2 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v&=at+v_{0}\\,,\\quad [1]\\\\r&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+v_{0}t+r_{0}\\,.\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}v&=at+v_{0}\\,,\\quad [1]\\\\r&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+v_{0}t+r_{0}\\,.\\quad [2]\\\\\\end{aligned}}\n\nEquation [3] involves the average velocity v + v0\/2. Intuitively, the velocity increases linearly, so the average velocity multiplied by time is the distance traveled while increasing the velocity from v0 to v, as can be illustrated graphically by plotting velocity against time as a straight line graph. Algebraically, it follows from solving [1] for\n\na = ( v \u2212 v 0 ) t {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {(\\mathbf {v} -\\mathbf {v} _{0})}{t}}} \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {(\\mathbf {v} -\\mathbf {v} _{0})}{t}}\n\nand substituting into [2]\n\nr = r 0 + v 0 t + t 2 ( v \u2212 v 0 ) , {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\frac {t}{2}}(\\mathbf {v} -\\mathbf {v} _{0})\\,,} \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\frac {t}{2}}(\\mathbf {v} -\\mathbf {v} _{0})\\,,\n\nthen simplifying to get\n\nr = r 0 + t 2 ( v + v 0 ) {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} _{0}+{\\frac {t}{2}}(\\mathbf {v} +\\mathbf {v} _{0})} \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} _{0}+{\\frac {t}{2}}(\\mathbf {v} +\\mathbf {v} _{0})\n\nor in magnitudes\n\nr = r 0 + ( v + v 0 2 ) t [ 3 ] {\\displaystyle r=r_{0}+\\left({\\frac {v+v_{0}}{2}}\\right)t\\quad [3]} r=r_{0}+\\left({\\frac {v+v_{0}}{2}}\\right)t\\quad [3]\n\nFrom [3],\n\nt = ( r \u2212 r 0 ) ( 2 v + v 0 ) {\\displaystyle t=\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\left({\\frac {2}{v+v_{0}}}\\right)} t=\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\left({\\frac {2}{v+v_{0}}}\\right)\n\nsubstituting for t in [1]:\n\nv = a ( r \u2212 r 0 ) ( 2 v + v 0 ) + v 0 v ( v + v 0 ) = 2 a ( r \u2212 r 0 ) + v 0 ( v + v 0 ) v 2 + v v 0 = 2 a ( r \u2212 r 0 ) + v 0 v + v 0 2 v 2 = v 0 2 + 2 a ( r \u2212 r 0 ) [ 4 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v&=a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\left({\\frac {2}{v+v_{0}}}\\right)+v_{0}\\\\v\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)&=2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)+v_{0}\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)\\\\v^{2}+vv_{0}&=2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)+v_{0}v+v_{0}^{2}\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}v&=a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\left({\\frac {2}{v+v_{0}}}\\right)+v_{0}\\\\v\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)&=2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)+v_{0}\\left(v+v_{0}\\right)\\\\v^{2}+vv_{0}&=2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)+v_{0}v+v_{0}^{2}\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2a\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\\\end{aligned}}\n\nFrom [3],\n\n2 ( r \u2212 r 0 ) \u2212 v t = v 0 t {\\displaystyle 2\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)-vt=v_{0}t} 2\\left(r-r_{0}\\right)-vt=v_{0}t\n\nsubstituting into [2]:\n\nr = a t 2 2 + 2 r \u2212 2 r 0 \u2212 v t + r 0 0 = a t 2 2 + r \u2212 r 0 \u2212 v t r = r 0 + v t \u2212 a t 2 2 [ 5 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}r&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+2r-2r_{0}-vt+r_{0}\\\\0&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+r-r_{0}-vt\\\\r&=r_{0}+vt-{\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}\\quad [5]\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}r&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+2r-2r_{0}-vt+r_{0}\\\\0&={\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}+r-r_{0}-vt\\\\r&=r_{0}+vt-{\\frac {{a}t^{2}}{2}}\\quad [5]\\end{aligned}}\n\nUsually only the first 4 are needed, the fifth is optional.\n\nHere a is constant acceleration, or in the case of bodies moving under the influence of gravity, the standard gravity g is used. Note that each of the equations contains four of the five variables, so in this situation it is sufficient to know three out of the five variables to calculate the remaining two.\n\nIn elementary physics the same formulae are frequently written in different notation as:\n\nv = u + a t [ 1 ] s = u t + 1 2 a t 2 [ 2 ] s = 1 2 ( u + v ) t [ 3 ] v 2 = u 2 + 2 a s [ 4 ] s = v t \u2212 1 2 a t 2 [ 5 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v&=u+at\\quad [1]\\\\s&=ut+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}at^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\s&={\\tfrac {1}{2}}(u+v)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=u^{2}+2as\\quad [4]\\\\s&=vt-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}at^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}v&=u+at\\quad [1]\\\\s&=ut+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}at^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\s&={\\tfrac {1}{2}}(u+v)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=u^{2}+2as\\quad [4]\\\\s&=vt-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}at^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}}\n\nwhere u has replaced v0, s replaces r, and s0 = 0. They are often referred to as the SUVAT equations, where \"SUVAT\" is an acronym from the variables: s = displacement (s0 = initial displacement), u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time.[11][12]\n\nConstant linear acceleration in any direction[edit]\n\nTrajectory of a particle with initial position vector r0 and velocity v0, subject to constant acceleration a, all three quantities in any direction, and the position r(t) and velocity v(t) after time t.\n\nThe initial position, initial velocity, and acceleration vectors need not be collinear, and take an almost identical form. The only difference is that the square magnitudes of the velocities require the dot product. The derivations are essentially the same as in the collinear case,\n\nv = a t + v 0 [ 1 ] r = r 0 + v 0 t + 1 2 a t 2 [ 2 ] r = r 0 + 1 2 ( v + v 0 ) t [ 3 ] v 2 = v 0 2 + 2 a \u22c5 ( r \u2212 r 0 ) [ 4 ] r = r 0 + v t \u2212 1 2 a t 2 [ 5 ] {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {v} &=\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\quad [1]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\left(\\mathbf {v} +\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\right)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\left(\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} t-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {v} &=\\mathbf {a} t+\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\quad [1]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\quad [2]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\left(\\mathbf {v} +\\mathbf {v} _{0}\\right)t\\quad [3]\\\\v^{2}&=v_{0}^{2}+2\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\left(\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0}\\right)\\quad [4]\\\\\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} t-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\quad [5]\\\\\\end{aligned}}}\n\nalthough the Torricelli equation [4] can be derived using the distributive property of the dot product as follows:\n\nv 2 = v \u22c5 v = ( v 0 + a t ) \u22c5 ( v 0 + a t ) = v 0 2 + 2 t ( a \u22c5 v 0 ) + a 2 t 2 {\\displaystyle v^{2}=\\mathbf {v} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} =(\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {a} t)\\cdot (\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {a} t)=v_{0}^{2}+2t(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} _{0})+a^{2}t^{2}} v^{2}=\\mathbf {v} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} =(\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {a} t)\\cdot (\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {a} t)=v_{0}^{2}+2t(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} _{0})+a^{2}t^{2}\n( 2 a ) \u22c5 ( r \u2212 r 0 ) = ( 2 a ) \u22c5 ( v 0 t + 1 2 a t 2 ) = 2 t ( a \u22c5 v 0 ) + a 2 t 2 = v 2 \u2212 v 0 2 {\\displaystyle (2\\mathbf {a} )\\cdot (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0})=(2\\mathbf {a} )\\cdot \\left(\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\right)=2t(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} _{0})+a^{2}t^{2}=v^{2}-v_{0}^{2}} {\\displaystyle (2\\mathbf {a} )\\cdot (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0})=(2\\mathbf {a} )\\cdot \\left(\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}\\right)=2t(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot \\mathbf {v} _{0})+a^{2}t^{2}=v^{2}-v_{0}^{2}}\n\u2234 v 2 = v 0 2 + 2 ( a \u22c5 ( r \u2212 r 0 ) ) {\\displaystyle \\therefore v^{2}=v_{0}^{2}+2(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0}))} \\therefore v^{2}=v_{0}^{2}+2(\\mathbf {a} \\cdot (\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{0}))\n\nApplications[edit]\n\nElementary and frequent examples in kinematics involve projectiles, for example a ball thrown upwards into the air. Given initial speed u, one can calculate how high the ball will travel before it begins to fall. The acceleration is local acceleration of gravity g. At this point one must remember that while these quantities appear to be scalars, the direction of displacement, speed and acceleration is important. They could in fact be considered as unidirectional vectors. Choosing s to measure up from the ground, the acceleration a must be in fact \u2212g, since the force of gravity acts downwards and therefore also the acceleration on the ball due to it.\n\nAt the highest point, the ball will be at rest: therefore v = 0. Using equation [4] in the set above, we have:\n\ns = v 2 \u2212 u 2 \u2212 2 g . {\\displaystyle s={\\frac {v^{2}-u^{2}}{-2g}}.} s={\\frac {v^{2}-u^{2}}{-2g}}.\n\nSubstituting and cancelling minus signs gives:\n\ns = u 2 2 g . {\\displaystyle s={\\frac {u^{2}}{2g}}.} s={\\frac {u^{2}}{2g}}.\n\nConstant circular acceleration[edit]\n\nThe analogues of the above equations can be written for rotation. Again these axial vectors must all be parallel to the axis of rotation, so only the magnitudes of the vectors are necessary,\n\n\u03c9 = \u03c9 0 + \u03b1 t \u03b8 = \u03b8 0 + \u03c9 0 t + 1 2 \u03b1 t 2 \u03b8 = \u03b8 0 + 1 2 ( \u03c9 0 + \u03c9 ) t \u03c9 2 = \u03c9 0 2 + 2 \u03b1 ( \u03b8 \u2212 \u03b8 0 ) \u03b8 = \u03b8 0 + \u03c9 t \u2212 1 2 \u03b1 t 2 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\omega &=\\omega _{0}+\\alpha t\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+\\omega _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\alpha t^{2}\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\omega _{0}+\\omega )t\\\\\\omega ^{2}&=\\omega _{0}^{2}+2\\alpha (\\theta -\\theta _{0})\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+\\omega t-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\alpha t^{2}\\\\\\end{aligned}}} {\\begin{aligned}\\omega &=\\omega _{0}+\\alpha t\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+\\omega _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\alpha t^{2}\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}(\\omega _{0}+\\omega )t\\\\\\omega ^{2}&=\\omega _{0}^{2}+2\\alpha (\\theta -\\theta _{0})\\\\\\theta &=\\theta _{0}+\\omega t-{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\alpha t^{2}\\\\\\end{aligned}}\n\nwhere \u03b1 is the constant angular acceleration, \u03c9 is the angular velocity, \u03c90 is the initial angular velocity, \u03b8 is the angle turned through (angular displacement), \u03b80 is the initial angle, and t is the time taken to rotate from the initial state to the final state.\n\nGeneral planar motion[edit]\n\nMain article: General planar motion\nPosition vector r, always points radially from the origin.\nVelocity vector v, always tangent to the path of motion.\nAcceleration vector a, not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and radial accelerations.\nKinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to 2D space, but a plane in any higher dimension.\n\nThese are the kinematic equations for a particle traversing a path in a plane, described by position r = r(t).[13] They are simply the time derivatives of the position vector in plane polar coordinates using the definitions of physical quantities above for angular velocity \u03c9 and angular acceleration \u03b1. These are instantaneous quantities which change with time.\n\nThe position of the particle is\n\nr = r ( r ( t ) , \u03b8 ( t ) ) = r e ^ r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} \\left(r(t),\\theta (t)\\right)=r\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} =\\mathbf {r} \\left(r(t),\\theta (t)\\right)=r\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}}\n\nwhere \u00ear and \u00ea\u03b8 are the polar unit vectors. Differentiating with respect to time gives the velocity\n\nv = e ^ r d r d t + r \u03c9 e ^ \u03b8 {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} =\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}{\\frac {dr}{dt}}+r\\omega \\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} =\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}{\\frac {dr}{dt}}+r\\omega \\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }}\n\nwith radial component dr\/dt and an additional component r\u03c9 due to the rotation. Differentiating with respect to time again obtains the acceleration\n\na = ( d 2 r d t 2 \u2212 r \u03c9 2 ) e ^ r + ( r \u03b1 + 2 \u03c9 d r d t ) e ^ \u03b8 {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} =\\left({\\frac {d^{2}r}{dt^{2}}}-r\\omega ^{2}\\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\left(r\\alpha +2\\omega {\\frac {dr}{dt}}\\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} =\\left({\\frac {d^{2}r}{dt^{2}}}-r\\omega ^{2}\\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\left(r\\alpha +2\\omega {\\frac {dr}{dt}}\\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }}\n\nwhich breaks into the radial acceleration d2r\/dt2, centripetal acceleration \u2013r\u03c92, Coriolis acceleration 2\u03c9dr\/dt, and angular acceleration r\u03b1.\n\nSpecial cases of motion described be these equations are summarized qualitatively in the table below. Two have already been discussed above, in the cases that either the radial components or the angular components are zero, and the non-zero component of motion describes uniform acceleration.\n\nState of motion Constant r r linear in t r quadratic in t r non-linear in t\nConstant \u03b8 Stationary Uniform translation (constant translational velocity) Uniform translational acceleration Non-uniform translation\n\u03b8 linear in t Uniform angular motion in a circle (constant angular velocity) Uniform angular motion in a spiral, constant radial velocity Angular motion in a spiral, constant radial acceleration Angular motion in a spiral, varying radial acceleration\n\u03b8 quadratic in t Uniform angular acceleration in a circle Uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, constant radial velocity Uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, constant radial acceleration Uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, varying radial acceleration\n\u03b8 non-linear in t Non-uniform angular acceleration in a circle Non-uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, constant radial velocity Non-uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, constant radial acceleration Non-uniform angular acceleration in a spiral, varying radial acceleration\n\nGeneral 3D motion[edit]\n\nMain article: Spherical coordinate system\n\nIn 3D space, the equations in spherical coordinates (r, \u03b8, \u03c6) with corresponding unit vectors \u00ear, \u00ea\u03b8 and \u00ea\u03c6, the position, velocity, and acceleration generalize respectively to\n\nr = r ( t ) = r e ^ r v = v e ^ r + r d \u03b8 d t e ^ \u03b8 + r d \u03c6 d t sin \u2061 \u03b8 e ^ \u03c6 a = ( a \u2212 r ( d \u03b8 d t ) 2 \u2212 r ( d \u03c6 d t ) 2 sin 2 \u2061 \u03b8 ) e ^ r + ( r d 2 \u03b8 d t 2 + 2 v d \u03b8 d t \u2212 r ( d \u03c6 d t ) 2 sin \u2061 \u03b8 cos \u2061 \u03b8 ) e ^ \u03b8 + ( r d 2 \u03c6 d t 2 sin \u2061 \u03b8 + 2 v d \u03c6 d t sin \u2061 \u03b8 + 2 r d \u03b8 d t d \u03c6 d t cos \u2061 \u03b8 ) e ^ \u03c6 {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} \\left(t\\right)=r\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}\\\\\\mathbf {v} &=v\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+r\\,{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }+r\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\sin \\theta \\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\varphi }\\\\\\mathbf {a} &=\\left(a-r\\left({\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\right)^{2}-r\\left({\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\right)^{2}\\sin ^{2}\\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}\\\\&+\\left(r{\\frac {d^{2}\\theta }{dt^{2}}}+2v{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}-r\\left({\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\right)^{2}\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }\\\\&+\\left(r{\\frac {d^{2}\\varphi }{dt^{2}}}\\,\\sin \\theta +2v\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\sin \\theta +2r\\,{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\cos \\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\varphi }\\end{aligned}}\\,\\!} {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {r} &=\\mathbf {r} \\left(t\\right)=r\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}\\\\\\mathbf {v} &=v\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+r\\,{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }+r\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\sin \\theta \\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\varphi }\\\\\\mathbf {a} &=\\left(a-r\\left({\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\right)^{2}-r\\left({\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\right)^{2}\\sin ^{2}\\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}\\\\&+\\left(r{\\frac {d^{2}\\theta }{dt^{2}}}+2v{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}-r\\left({\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\right)^{2}\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\theta }\\\\&+\\left(r{\\frac {d^{2}\\varphi }{dt^{2}}}\\,\\sin \\theta +2v\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\sin \\theta +2r\\,{\\frac {d\\theta }{dt}}\\,{\\frac {d\\varphi }{dt}}\\,\\cos \\theta \\right)\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{\\varphi }\\end{aligned}}\\,\\!}\n\nIn the case of a constant \u03c6 this reduces to the planar equations above.\n\nDynamic equations of motion[edit]\n\nNewtonian mechanics[edit]\n\nMain article: Newtonian mechanics\n\nThe first general equation of motion developed was Newton's second law of motion, in its most general form states the rate of change of momentum p = p(t) = mv(t) of an object equals the force F = F(x(t), v(t), t) acting on it,[14]\n\nF = d p d t {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} }{dt}}} \\mathbf {F} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} }{dt}}\n\nThe force in the equation is not the force the object exerts. Replacing momentum by mass times velocity, the law is also written more famously as\n\nF = m a {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} =m\\mathbf {a} } \\mathbf {F} =m\\mathbf {a}\n\nsince m is a constant in Newtonian mechanics.\n\nNewton's second law applies to point-like particles, and to all points in a rigid body. They also apply to each point in a mass continua, like deformable solids or fluids, but the motion of the system must be accounted for, see material derivative. In the case the mass is not constant, it is not sufficient to use the product rule for the time derivative on the mass and velocity, and Newton's second law requires some modification consistent with conservation of momentum, see variable-mass system.\n\nIt may be simple to write down the equations of motion in vector form using Newton's laws of motion, but the components may vary in complicated ways with spatial coordinates and time, and solving them is not easy. Often there is an excess of variables to solve for the problem completely, so Newton's laws are not always the most efficient way to determine the motion of a system. In simple cases of rectangular geometry, Newton's laws work fine in Cartesian coordinates, but in other coordinate systems can become dramatically complex.\n\nThe momentum form is preferable since this is readily generalized to more complex systems, generalizes to special and general relativity (see four-momentum).[14] It can also be used with the momentum conservation. However, Newton's laws are not more fundamental than momentum conservation, because Newton's laws are merely consistent with the fact that zero resultant force acting on an object implies constant momentum, while a resultant force implies the momentum is not constant. Momentum conservation is always true for an isolated system not subject to resultant forces.\n\nFor a number of particles (see many body problem), the equation of motion for one particle i influenced by other particles is[8][15]\n\nd p i d t = F E + \u2211 i \u2260 j F i j {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} _{i}}{dt}}=\\mathbf {F} _{E}+\\sum _{i\\neq j}\\mathbf {F} _{ij}\\,\\!} {\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} _{i}}{dt}}=\\mathbf {F} _{E}+\\sum _{i\\neq j}\\mathbf {F} _{ij}\\,\\!\n\nwhere pi is the momentum of particle i, Fij is the force on particle i by particle j, and FE is the resultant external force due to any agent not part of system. Particle i does not exert a force on itself.\n\nEuler's laws of motion are similar to Newton's laws, but they are applied specifically to the motion of rigid bodies. The Newton\u2013Euler equations combine the forces and torques acting on a rigid body into a single equation.\n\nNewton's second law for rotation takes a similar form to the translational case,[16]\n\n\u03c4 = d L d t , {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}={\\frac {d\\mathbf {L} }{dt}}\\,,} {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}={\\frac {d\\mathbf {L} }{dt}}\\,,\n\nby equating the torque acting on the body to the rate of change of its angular momentum L. Analogous to mass times acceleration, the moment of inertia tensor I depends on the distribution of mass about the axis of rotation, and the angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity,\n\n\u03c4 = I \u22c5 \u03b1 . {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}=\\mathbf {I} \\cdot {\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}.} {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}=\\mathbf {I} \\cdot {\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}.\n\nAgain, these equations apply to point like particles, or at each point of a rigid body.\n\nLikewise, for a number of particles, the equation of motion for one particle i is[17]\n\nd L i d t = \u03c4 E + \u2211 i \u2260 j \u03c4 i j , {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d\\mathbf {L} _{i}}{dt}}={\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}_{E}+\\sum _{i\\neq j}{\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}_{ij}\\,,} {\\frac {d\\mathbf {L} _{i}}{dt}}={\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}_{E}+\\sum _{i\\neq j}{\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}_{ij}\\,,\n\nwhere Li is the angular momentum of particle i, \u03c4ij the torque on particle i by particle j, and \u03c4E is resultant external torque (due to any agent not part of system). Particle i does not exert a torque on itself.\n\nApplications[edit]\n\nSome examples[18] of Newton's law include describing the motion of a simple pendulum,\n\n\u2212 m g sin \u2061 \u03b8 = m d 2 ( l \u03b8 ) d t 2 \u21d2 d 2 \u03b8 d t 2 = \u2212 g l sin \u2061 \u03b8 , {\\displaystyle -mg\\sin \\theta =m{\\frac {d^{2}(l\\theta )}{dt^{2}}}\\quad \\Rightarrow \\quad {\\frac {d^{2}\\theta }{dt^{2}}}=-{\\frac {g}{l}}\\sin \\theta \\,,} {\\displaystyle -mg\\sin \\theta =m{\\frac {d^{2}(l\\theta )}{dt^{2}}}\\quad \\Rightarrow \\quad {\\frac {d^{2}\\theta }{dt^{2}}}=-{\\frac {g}{l}}\\sin \\theta \\,,}\n\nand a damped, sinusoidally driven harmonic oscillator,\n\nF 0 sin \u2061 ( \u03c9 t ) = m ( d 2 x d t 2 + 2 \u03b6 \u03c9 0 d x d t + \u03c9 0 2 x ) . {\\displaystyle F_{0}\\sin(\\omega t)=m\\left({\\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}+2\\zeta \\omega _{0}{\\frac {dx}{dt}}+\\omega _{0}^{2}x\\right)\\,.} F_{0}\\sin(\\omega t)=m\\left({\\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}+2\\zeta \\omega _{0}{\\frac {dx}{dt}}+\\omega _{0}^{2}x\\right)\\,.\n\nFor describing the motion of masses due to gravity, Newton's law of gravity can be combined with Newton's second law. For two examples, a ball of mass m thrown in the air, in air currents (such as wind) described by a vector field of resistive forces R = R(r, t),\n\n\u2212 G m M | r | 2 e ^ r + R = m d 2 r d t 2 + 0 \u21d2 d 2 r d t 2 = \u2212 G M | r | 2 e ^ r + A {\\displaystyle -{\\frac {GmM}{|\\mathbf {r} |^{2}}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\mathbf {R} =m{\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}+0\\quad \\Rightarrow \\quad {\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=-{\\frac {GM}{|\\mathbf {r} |^{2}}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\mathbf {A} \\,\\!} -{\\frac {GmM}{|\\mathbf {r} |^{2}}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\mathbf {R} =m{\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}+0\\quad \\Rightarrow \\quad {\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=-{\\frac {GM}{|\\mathbf {r} |^{2}}}\\mathbf {\\hat {e}} _{r}+\\mathbf {A} \\,\\!\n\nwhere G is the gravitational constant, M the mass of the Earth, and A = R\/m is the acceleration of the projectile due to the air currents at position r and time t.\n\nThe classical N-body problem for N particles each interacting with each other due to gravity is a set of N nonlinear coupled second order ODEs,\n\nd 2 r i d t 2 = G \u2211 i \u2260 j m i m j | r j \u2212 r i | 3 ( r j \u2212 r i ) {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} _{i}}{dt^{2}}}=G\\sum _{i\\neq j}{\\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{|\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i}|^{3}}}(\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i})} {\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} _{i}}{dt^{2}}}=G\\sum _{i\\neq j}{\\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{|\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i}|^{3}}}(\\mathbf {r} _{j}-\\mathbf {r} _{i})\n\nwhere i = 1, 2, \u2026, N labels the quantities (mass, position, etc.) associated with each particle.\n\nAnalytical mechanics[edit]\n\nMain articles: Analytical mechanics, Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics\nAs the system evolves, q traces a path through configuration space (only some are shown). The path taken by the system (red) has a stationary action (\u03b4S = 0) under small changes in the configuration of the system (\u03b4q).[19]\n\nUsing all three coordinates of 3D space is unnecessary if there are constraints on the system. If the system has N degrees of freedom, then one can use a set of N generalized coordinates q(t) = [q1(t), q2(t) ... qN(t)], to define the configuration of the system. They can be in the form of arc lengths or angles. They are a considerable simplification to describe motion, since they take advantage of the intrinsic constraints that limit the system's motion, and the number of coordinates is reduced to a minimum. The time derivatives of the generalized coordinates are the generalized velocities\n\nq \u02d9 = d q d t . {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {q} }{dt}}\\,.} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {q} }{dt}}\\,.}\n\nThe Euler\u2013Lagrange equations are[2][20]\n\nd d t ( \u2202 L \u2202 q \u02d9 ) = \u2202 L \u2202 q , {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d}{dt}}\\left({\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} }}\\right)={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,,} {\\frac {d}{dt}}\\left({\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} }}\\right)={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,,\n\nwhere the Lagrangian is a function of the configuration q and its time rate of change dq\/dt (and possibly time t)\n\nL = L [ q ( t ) , q \u02d9 ( t ) , t ] . {\\displaystyle L=L\\left[\\mathbf {q} (t),\\mathbf {\\dot {q}} (t),t\\right]\\,.} L=L\\left[\\mathbf {q} (t),\\mathbf {\\dot {q}} (t),t\\right]\\,.\n\nSetting up the Lagrangian of the system, then substituting into the equations and evaluating the partial derivatives and simplifying, a set of coupled N second order ODEs in the coordinates are obtained.\n\nHamilton's equations are[2][20]\n\np \u02d9 = \u2212 \u2202 H \u2202 q , q \u02d9 = + \u2202 H \u2202 p , {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\dot {p}} =-{\\frac {\\partial H}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} =+{\\frac {\\partial H}{\\partial \\mathbf {p} }}\\,,} \\mathbf {\\dot {p}} =-{\\frac {\\partial H}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} =+{\\frac {\\partial H}{\\partial \\mathbf {p} }}\\,,\n\nwhere the Hamiltonian\n\nH = H [ q ( t ) , p ( t ) , t ] , {\\displaystyle H=H\\left[\\mathbf {q} (t),\\mathbf {p} (t),t\\right]\\,,} H=H\\left[\\mathbf {q} (t),\\mathbf {p} (t),t\\right]\\,,\n\nis a function of the configuration q and conjugate \"generalized\" momenta\n\np = \u2202 L \u2202 q \u02d9 , {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} ={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} }}\\,,} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} ={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial \\mathbf {\\dot {q}} }}\\,,}\n\nin which \u2202\/\u2202q = (\u2202\/\u2202q1, \u2202\/\u2202q2, \u2026, \u2202\/\u2202qN) is a shorthand notation for a vector of partial derivatives with respect to the indicated variables (see for example matrix calculus for this denominator notation), and possibly time t,\n\nSetting up the Hamiltonian of the system, then substituting into the equations and evaluating the partial derivatives and simplifying, a set of coupled 2N first order ODEs in the coordinates qi and momenta pi are obtained.\n\nThe Hamilton\u2013Jacobi equation is[2]\n\n\u2212 \u2202 S ( q , t ) \u2202 t = H ( q , p , t ) . {\\displaystyle -{\\frac {\\partial S(\\mathbf {q} ,t)}{\\partial t}}=H\\left(\\mathbf {q} ,\\mathbf {p} ,t\\right)\\,.} -{\\frac {\\partial S(\\mathbf {q} ,t)}{\\partial t}}=H\\left(\\mathbf {q} ,\\mathbf {p} ,t\\right)\\,.\n\nwhere\n\nS [ q , t ] = \u222b t 1 t 2 L ( q , q \u02d9 , t ) d t , {\\displaystyle S[\\mathbf {q} ,t]=\\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(\\mathbf {q} ,\\mathbf {\\dot {q}} ,t)\\,dt\\,,} S[\\mathbf {q} ,t]=\\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(\\mathbf {q} ,\\mathbf {\\dot {q}} ,t)\\,dt\\,,\n\nis Hamilton's principal function, also called the classical action is a functional of L. In this case, the momenta are given by\n\np = \u2202 S \u2202 q . {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} ={\\frac {\\partial S}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,.} {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} ={\\frac {\\partial S}{\\partial \\mathbf {q} }}\\,.}\n\nAlthough the equation has a simple general form, for a given Hamiltonian it is actually a single first order non-linear PDE, in N + 1 variables. The action S allows identification of conserved quantities for mechanical systems, even when the mechanical problem itself cannot be solved fully, because any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law, a theorem due to Emmy Noether.\n\nAll classical equations of motion can be derived from the variational principle known as Hamilton's principle of least action\n\n\u03b4 S = 0 , {\\displaystyle \\delta S=0\\,,} \\delta S=0\\,,\n\nstating the path the system takes through the configuration space is the one with the least action S.\n\nElectrodynamics[edit]\n\nLorentz force f on a charged particle (of charge q) in motion (instantaneous velocity v). The E field and B field vary in space and time.\n\nIn electrodynamics, the force on a charged particle of charge q is the Lorentz force:[21]\n\nF = q ( E + v \u00d7 B ) {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} =q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +\\mathbf {v} \\times \\mathbf {B} \\right)\\,\\!} \\mathbf {F} =q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +\\mathbf {v} \\times \\mathbf {B} \\right)\\,\\!\n\nCombining with Newton's second law gives a first order differential equation of motion, in terms of position of the particle:\n\nm d 2 r d t 2 = q ( E + d r d t \u00d7 B ) {\\displaystyle m{\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +{\\frac {d\\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\\times \\mathbf {B} \\right)\\,\\!} m{\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {r} }{dt^{2}}}=q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +{\\frac {d\\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\\times \\mathbf {B} \\right)\\,\\!\n\nor its momentum:\n\nd p d t = q ( E + p \u00d7 B m ) {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} }{dt}}=q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +{\\frac {\\mathbf {p} \\times \\mathbf {B} }{m}}\\right)\\,\\!} {\\frac {d\\mathbf {p} }{dt}}=q\\left(\\mathbf {E} +{\\frac {\\mathbf {p} \\times \\mathbf {B} }{m}}\\right)\\,\\!\n\nThe same equation can be obtained using the Lagrangian (and applying Lagrange's equations above) for a charged particle of mass m and charge q:[22]\n\nL = 1 2 m r \u02d9 \u22c5 r \u02d9 + q A \u22c5 r \u02d9 \u2212 q \u03d5 {\\displaystyle L={\\tfrac {1}{2}}m\\mathbf {\\dot {r}} \\cdot \\mathbf {\\dot {r}} +q\\mathbf {A} \\cdot {\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}-q\\phi } {\\displaystyle L={\\tfrac {1}{2}}m\\mathbf {\\dot {r}} \\cdot \\mathbf {\\dot {r}} +q\\mathbf {A} \\cdot {\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}-q\\phi }\n\nwhere A and \u03d5 are the electromagnetic scalar and vector potential fields. The Lagrangian indicates an additional detail: the canonical momentum in Lagrangian mechanics is given by:\n\nP = \u2202 L \u2202 r \u02d9 = m r \u02d9 + q A {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {P} ={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial {\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}}}=m{\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}+q\\mathbf {A} } \\mathbf {P} ={\\frac {\\partial L}{\\partial {\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}}}=m{\\dot {\\mathbf {r} }}+q\\mathbf {A}\n\ninstead of just mv, implying the motion of a charged particle is fundamentally determined by the mass and charge of the particle. The Lagrangian expression was first used to derive the force equation.\n\nAlternatively the Hamiltonian (and substituting into the equations):[20]\n\nH = ( P \u2212 q A ) 2 2 m + q \u03d5 {\\displaystyle H={\\frac {\\left(\\mathbf {P} -q\\mathbf {A} \\right)^{2}}{2m}}+q\\phi \\,\\!} H={\\frac {\\left(\\mathbf {P} -q\\mathbf {A} \\right)^{2}}{2m}}+q\\phi \\,\\!\n\ncan derive the Lorentz force equation.\n\nGeneral relativity[edit]\n\nGeodesic equation of motion[edit]\n\nGeodesics on a sphere are arcs of great circles (yellow curve). On a 2D\u2013manifold (such as the sphere shown), the direction of the accelerating geodesic is uniquely fixed if the separation vector \u03be is orthogonal to the \"fiducial geodesic\" (green curve). As the separation vector \u03be0 changes to \u03be after a distance s, the geodesics are not parallel (geodesic deviation).[23]\nMain articles: Geodesics in general relativity and Geodesic equation\n\nThe above equations are valid in flat spacetime. In curved space spacetime, things become mathematically more complicated since there is no straight line; this is generalized and replaced by a geodesic of the curved spacetime (the shortest length of curve between two points). For curved manifolds with a metric tensor g, the metric provides the notion of arc length (see line element for details), the differential arc length is given by:[24]\n\nd s = g \u03b1 \u03b2 d x \u03b1 d x \u03b2 {\\displaystyle ds={\\sqrt {g_{\\alpha \\beta }dx^{\\alpha }dx^{\\beta }}}} ds={\\sqrt {g_{\\alpha \\beta }dx^{\\alpha }dx^{\\beta }}}\n\nand the geodesic equation is a second-order differential equation in the coordinates, the general solution is a family of geodesics:[25]\n\nd 2 x \u03bc d s 2 = \u2212 \u0393 \u03bc \u03b1 \u03b2 d x \u03b1 d s d x \u03b2 d s {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d^{2}x^{\\mu }}{ds^{2}}}=-\\Gamma ^{\\mu }{}_{\\alpha \\beta }{\\frac {dx^{\\alpha }}{ds}}{\\frac {dx^{\\beta }}{ds}}} {\\frac {d^{2}x^{\\mu }}{ds^{2}}}=-\\Gamma ^{\\mu }{}_{\\alpha \\beta }{\\frac {dx^{\\alpha }}{ds}}{\\frac {dx^{\\beta }}{ds}}\n\nwhere \u0393\u2009\u03bc\u03b1\u03b2 is a Christoffel symbol of the second kind, which contains the metric (with respect to the coordinate system).\n\nGiven the mass-energy distribution provided by the stress\u2013energy tensor T\u2009\u03b1\u03b2, the Einstein field equations are a set of non-linear second-order partial differential equations in the metric, and imply the curvature of space time is equivalent to a gravitational field (see principle of equivalence). Mass falling in curved spacetime is equivalent to a mass falling in a gravitational field - because gravity is a fictitious force. The relative acceleration of one geodesic to another in curved spacetime is given by the geodesic deviation equation:\n\nD 2 \u03be \u03b1 d s 2 = \u2212 R \u03b1 \u03b2 \u03b3 \u03b4 d x \u03b1 d s \u03be \u03b3 d x \u03b4 d s {\\displaystyle {\\frac {D^{2}\\xi ^{\\alpha }}{ds^{2}}}=-R^{\\alpha }{}_{\\beta \\gamma \\delta }{\\frac {dx^{\\alpha }}{ds}}\\xi ^{\\gamma }{\\frac {dx^{\\delta }}{ds}}} {\\frac {D^{2}\\xi ^{\\alpha }}{ds^{2}}}=-R^{\\alpha }{}_{\\beta \\gamma \\delta }{\\frac {dx^{\\alpha }}{ds}}\\xi ^{\\gamma }{\\frac {dx^{\\delta }}{ds}}\n\nwhere \u03be\u03b1 = x2\u03b1 \u2212 x1\u03b1 is the separation vector between two geodesics, D\/ds (not just d\/ds) is the covariant derivative, and R\u03b1\u03b2\u03b3\u03b4 is the Riemann curvature tensor, containing the Christoffel symbols. In other words, the geodesic deviation equation is the equation of motion for masses in curved spacetime, analogous to the Lorentz force equation for charges in an electromagnetic field.[26]\n\nFor flat spacetime, the metric is a constant tensor so the Christoffel symbols vanish, and the geodesic equation has the solutions of straight lines. This is also the limiting case when masses move according to Newton's law of gravity.\n\nSpinning objects[edit]\n\nIn general relativity, rotational motion is described by the relativistic angular momentum tensor, including the spin tensor, which enter the equations of motion under covariant derivatives with respect to proper time. The Mathisson\u2013Papapetrou\u2013Dixon equations describe the motion of spinning objects moving in a gravitational field.\n\nAnalogues for waves and fields[edit]\n\nUnlike the equations of motion for describing particle mechanics, which are systems of coupled ordinary differential equations, the analogous equations governing the dynamics of waves and fields are always partial differential equations, since the waves or fields are functions of space and time. For a particular solution, boundary conditions along with initial conditions need to be specified.\n\nSometimes in the following contexts, the wave or field equations are also called \"equations of motion\".\n\nField equations[edit]\n\nEquations that describe the spatial dependence and time evolution of fields are called field equations. These include\n\n  \u2022 Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field,\n  \u2022 Poisson's equation for Newtonian gravitational or electrostatic field potentials,\n  \u2022 the Einstein field equation for gravitation (Newton's law of gravity is a special case for weak gravitational fields and low velocities of particles).\n\nThis terminology is not universal: for example although the Navier\u2013Stokes equations govern the velocity field of a fluid, they are not usually called \"field equations\", since in this context they represent the momentum of the fluid and are called the \"momentum equations\" instead.\n\nWave equations[edit]\n\nEquations of wave motion are called wave equations. The solutions to a wave equation give the time-evolution and spatial dependence of the amplitude. Boundary conditions determine if the solutions describe traveling waves or standing waves.\n\nFrom classical equations of motion and field equations; mechanical, gravitational wave, and electromagnetic wave equations can be derived. The general linear wave equation in 3D is:\n\n1 v 2 \u2202 2 X \u2202 t 2 = \u2207 2 X {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{v^{2}}}{\\frac {\\partial ^{2}X}{\\partial t^{2}}}=\\nabla ^{2}X} {\\frac {1}{v^{2}}}{\\frac {\\partial ^{2}X}{\\partial t^{2}}}=\\nabla ^{2}X\n\nwhere X = X(r, t) is any mechanical or electromagnetic field amplitude, say:[27]\n\n  \u2022 the transverse or longitudinal displacement of a vibrating rod, wire, cable, membrane etc.,\n  \u2022 the fluctuating pressure of a medium, sound pressure,\n  \u2022 the electric fields E or D, or the magnetic fields B or H,\n  \u2022 the voltage V or current I in an alternating current circuit,\n\nand v is the phase velocity. Nonlinear equations model the dependence of phase velocity on amplitude, replacing v by v(X). There are other linear and nonlinear wave equations for very specific applications, see for example the Korteweg\u2013de Vries equation.\n\nQuantum theory[edit]\n\nIn quantum theory, the wave and field concepts both appear.\n\nIn quantum mechanics, in which particles also have wave-like properties according to wave\u2013particle duality, the analogue of the classical equations of motion (Newton's law, Euler\u2013Lagrange equation, Hamilton\u2013Jacobi equation, etc.) is the Schr\u00f6dinger equation in its most general form:\n\ni \u210f \u2202 \u03a8 \u2202 t = H ^ \u03a8 , {\\displaystyle i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial \\Psi }{\\partial t}}={\\hat {H}}\\Psi \\,,} i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial \\Psi }{\\partial t}}={\\hat {H}}\\Psi \\,,\n\nwhere \u03a8 is the wavefunction of the system, \u0124 is the quantum Hamiltonian operator, rather than a function as in classical mechanics, and \u0127 is the Planck constant divided by 2\u03c0. Setting up the Hamiltonian and inserting it into the equation results in a wave equation, the solution is the wavefunction as a function of space and time. The Schr\u00f6dinger equation itself reduces to the Hamilton\u2013Jacobi equation when one considers the correspondence principle, in the limit that \u0127 becomes zero.\n\nThroughout all aspects of quantum theory, relativistic or non-relativistic, there are various formulations alternative to the Schr\u00f6dinger equation that govern the time evolution and behavior of a quantum system, for instance:\n\n  \u2022 the Heisenberg equation of motion resembles the time evolution of classical observables as functions of position, momentum, and time, if one replaces dynamical observables by their quantum operators and the classical Poisson bracket by the commutator,\n  \u2022 the phase space formulation closely follows classical Hamiltonian mechanics, placing position and momentum on equal footing,\n  \u2022 the Feynman path integral formulation extends the principle of least action to quantum mechanics and field theory, placing emphasis on the use of a Lagrangians rather than Hamiltonians.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Scalar (physics)\n  \u2022 Vector\n  \u2022 Distance\n  \u2022 Displacement\n  \u2022 Speed\n  \u2022 Velocity\n  \u2022 Acceleration\n  \u2022 Angular displacement\n  \u2022 Angular speed\n  \u2022 Angular velocity\n  \u2022 Angular acceleration\n  \u2022 Equations for a falling body\n  \u2022 Parabolic trajectory\n  \u2022 Curvilinear coordinates\n  \u2022 Orthogonal coordinates\n  \u2022 Newton's laws of motion\n  \u2022 Torricelli's equation\n  \u2022 Euler\u2013Lagrange equation\n  \u2022 Generalized forces\n  \u2022 Defining equation (physics)\n  \u2022 Newton\u2013Euler laws of motion for a rigid body\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia of Physics (second Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC Publishers, 1991, ISBN (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1 (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Analytical Mechanics, L.N. Hand, J.D. Finch, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-57572-0\n  3. Jump up ^ See History of Mathematics\n  4. Jump up ^ The Britannica Guide to History of Mathematics, ed. Erik Gregersen\n  5. Jump up ^ Discourses, Galileo\n  6. Jump up ^ Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, by Galileo Galilei; translated by Henry Crew, Alfonso De Salvio\n  7. Jump up ^ Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (2004-06-16). Fundamentals of Physics (7 Sub ed.). Wiley. ISBN\u00a00-471-23231-9.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Dynamics and Relativity, J.R. Forshaw, A.G. Smith, Wiley, 2009, ISBN\u00a0978-0-470-01460-8\n  9. Jump up ^ M.R. Spiegel; S. Lipschutz; D. Spellman (2009). Vector Analysis. Schaum's Outlines (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill. p.\u00a033. ISBN\u00a0978-0-07-161545-7.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Essential Principles of Physics, P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson, second Edition, 1978, John Murray, ISBN\u00a00-7195-3382-1\n  11. Jump up ^ Hanrahan, Val; Porkess, R (2003). Additional Mathematics for OCR. London: Hodder & Stoughton. p.\u00a0219. ISBN\u00a00-340-86960-7.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Keith Johnson (2001). Physics for you: revised national curriculum edition for GCSE (4th ed.). Nelson Thornes. p.\u00a0135. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7487-6236-1. The 5 symbols are remembered by \"suvat\". Given any three, the other two can be found.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ 3000 Solved Problems in Physics, Schaum Series, A. Halpern, Mc Graw Hill, 1988, ISBN\u00a0978-0-07-025734-4\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b An Introduction to Mechanics, D. Kleppner, R.J. Kolenkow, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 112, ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-19821-9\n  15. Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia of Physics (second Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Mechanics, D. Kleppner 2010\"\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Relativity, J.R. Forshaw 2009\"\n  18. Jump up ^ The Physics of Vibrations and Waves (3rd edition), H.J. Pain, John Wiley & Sons, 1983, ISBN\u00a00-471-90182-2\n  19. Jump up ^ R. Penrose (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage books. p.\u00a0474. ISBN\u00a00-679-77631-1.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b c Classical Mechanics (second edition), T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, 1973, ISBN\u00a00-07-084018-0\n  21. Jump up ^ Electromagnetism (second edition), I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics Series, 2008 ISBN\u00a00-471-92712-0\n  22. Jump up ^ Classical Mechanics (second Edition), T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, Mc Graw Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN\u00a00-07-084018-0.\n  23. Jump up ^ Misner, Thorne, Wheeler, Gravitation\n  24. Jump up ^ C.B. Parker (1994). McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (second ed.). p.\u00a01199. ISBN\u00a00-07-051400-3.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ C.B. Parker (1994). McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (second ed.). p.\u00a01200. ISBN\u00a00-07-051400-3.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ J.A. Wheeler; C. Misner; K.S. Thorne (1973). Gravitation. W.H. Freeman & Co. pp.\u00a034\u201335. ISBN\u00a00-7167-0344-0.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ H.D. Young; R.A. Freedman (2008). University Physics (12th ed.). Addison-Wesley (Pearson International). ISBN\u00a00-321-50130-6.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Equations_of_motion&oldid=810175763\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Classical mechanics\n  \u2022 Equations of physics\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 November 2017, at 19:29.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2243938021738632073","title":"Hickey (surname)","text":"Hickey (surname)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nHickey is a common surname of Irish origin. The original form is \u00d3 h\u00cdceadha, which is still used in Ireland. Notable people with the surname include:\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Arts and entertainment\n  \u2022 2 Sport\n  \u2022 3 Politics and law\n  \u2022 4 History and current affairs\n  \u2022 5 Religion\n  \u2022 6 Science and academia\n  \u2022 7 Fictional characters\n  \u2022 8 See also\n\nArts and entertainment[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cheryl Hickey, born 1976, entertainment reporter for the Global Television Network\n  \u2022 Dale Hickey born 1937, Australian artist\n  \u2022 Dave Hickey, American art critic, author of Air Guitar: Essays on Art & Democracy (1998)\n  \u2022 Eddie Hickey, US sportsman\n  \u2022 Emily Henrietta Hickey, Irish author and translator\n  \u2022 Ersel Hickey, rockabilly singer\n  \u2022 James Harden-Hickey, 19th-century American writer\n  \u2022 Kenny Hickey, US musician\n  \u2022 Michael Hickey, US screenwriter\n  \u2022 Rich Hickey, Creator of the Clojure programming language\n  \u2022 Tom Hickey, Irish actor, famous for his role in The Riordans\n  \u2022 Thomas Hickey, 1741\u20131842, Irish painter\n  \u2022 William Hickey (actor)\n  \u2022 William Hickey (memoirist)\n  \u2022 May Wynn, actress, born Donna Lee Hickey before taking the stage name \"May Wynn,\" after playing a character by that name in The Caine Mutiny\n\nSport[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Ambrose Hickey (1945\u20132016), Irish Gaelic footballer\n  \u2022 Anthony Hickey, born 1992, American basketball player\n  \u2022 Charlie Hickey, American college baseball coach\n  \u2022 Colin Hickey, Australian speed skater\n  \u2022 Denis Hickie, Irish international Rugby Union\n  \u2022 Jack Hickey (rugby), Australian Dual internationalist Rugby Union, Rugby league\n  \u2022 Jarrad Hickey, born 1985, Australian Rugby League player\n  \u2022 Jim Hickey (American football)\n  \u2022 Jim Hickey (baseball coach)\n  \u2022 Miriam Hickey, US Soccer player\n  \u2022 Noah Hickey, New Zealand football player\n  \u2022 Noel Hickey, Irish sportsman\n  \u2022 Pat Hickey, born 1953, Canadian Ice Hockey player\n  \u2022 Pat Hickey (sports administrator), born 1945, Irish sports administrator\n  \u2022 Red Hickey, 1917\u20132006, athlete, played American Football\n  \u2022 Reg Hickey, player and coach for Geelong in Australian rules football\n  \u2022 Thomas Hickey, professional ice hockey player, L.A. Kings\n\nPolitics and law[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bonnie Hickey, Canadian politician\n  \u2022 Eileen Hickey (New York) (1945\u20131999), New York politician\n  \u2022 Eileen M. Hickey (1886\u20131960), Northern Irish politician\n  \u2022 James Hickey (Irish politician)\n  \u2022 Jimmy Hickey Jr., American politician\n  \u2022 John J. Hickey, American politician\n  \u2022 Maggie Hickey, Australian politician\n  \u2022 Theodore M. Hickey, American politician\n  \u2022 Vivian Hickey (1916-2016), American politician and educator\n  \u2022 William J. Hickey, New York politician and judge\n\nHistory and current affairs[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Colonel James Hickey (soldier), in charge of the US Special forces team which captured Saddam Hussein\n  \u2022 Elizabeth Hickey historian and writer\n  \u2022 Jim Hickey (weather presenter)\n  \u2022 Thomas Hickey (soldier), executed for mutiny during the American Revolutionary War\n\nReligion[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Antony Hickey, born 1586, Irish Franciscan theologian\n  \u2022 David Francis Hickey (1882\u20131973), American-born Catholic bishop in Belize\n  \u2022 Rev. William Hickey (1787-1875), Irish priest, writer and philanthropist\n\nScience and academia[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Joseph Hickey (1907-1993), American ornithologist\n  \u2022 Raymond Hickey, Irish linguist\n\nFictional characters[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Earl Hickey, fictional character in the NBC show My Name Is Earl\n  \u2022 Randy Hickey, fictional character in the NBC show My Name Is Earl\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Hickey (disambiguation)\n  \u2022 \u00d3 h\u00cdceadha\n  \u2022 Irish medical families\nWPanthroponymy.svg This page lists people with the surname Hickey. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Hickey_(surname)&oldid=813665472\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Surnames\n  \u2022 Anglicised Irish-language surnames\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All set index articles\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 4 December 2017, at 16:46.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-7717804473548713538","title":"Maggie Pierce","text":"Maggie Pierce\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other people named Maggie Pierce, see Maggie Pierce (disambiguation).\nMaggie Pierce\nGrey's Anatomy character\nMaggiePierce.jpg\nThe season thirteen promotional photograph of Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce\nFirst appearance \"Everything I Try to Do, Nothing Seems to Turn Out Right\"\n10x23, May 8, 2014\n(as recurring cast)\n\"All I Could Do Was Cry\"\n11x11, February 12, 2015\n(as main cast)\nCreated by Shonda Rhimes\nPortrayed by Kelly McCreary\nInformation\nNickname(s) Maggie\nSherlock\nThe Perfect 12 year old\nMags\nThe Good Sister\nThe Crazy Sister\nThe Child-Prodigy\nLittle Maggot Pierce\nSpecies Human\nGender Female\nOccupation Attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital\nTitle Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery\nM.D.\nF.A.C.S.\nFamily Diane Pierce (adoptive mother) (deceased)\nBill Pierce (adoptive father)\nEllis Grey (biological mother, deceased)\nRichard Webber (biological father)\nMeredith Grey (biological half-sister)\nCatherine Avery (stepmother)\nJackson Avery (stepbrother)\nSignificant other(s) Dean (ex-fiance)\nEthan Boyd (ex-boyfriend)\nAndrew DeLuca (ex-boyfriend)\nRelatives Derek Shepherd (brother in-law, deceased)\nZola Grey Shepherd (half-niece)\nBailey Shepherd (half-nephew)\nEllis Shepherd (half-niece)\nNationality American\n\nMargaret \"Maggie\" Pierce, M.D. is a fictional character from the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and is portrayed by actress Kelly McCreary from the tenth season's penultimate episode onwards. It is revealed in the \"season ten finale\", Maggie's biological parents are Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) and Ellis Grey (Kate Burton), making her Meredith's half-sister. McCreary was upgraded to a series regular in the eleventh episode of the eleventh season.\n\nPierce has been described as \"perky\" and \"chatty\",[1] as well as focusing mostly on her academic career rather than social life, causing her to be socially inept at times and childlike. She graduated from high school and medical school early, and becomes the head of her department at the young age of 31 years old. McCreary was well received upon her introduction.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Storylines\n  \u2022 2 Development\n    \u2022 2.1 Casting and creation\n    \u2022 2.2 Characterization\n    \u2022 2.3 Introduction\n  \u2022 3 Reception\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nStorylines[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nMaggie is first introduced in the penultimate episode of the tenth season. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) interviews various different candidates to replace her as the head of her department in Cardiothoracic surgery. Maggie, having finished high school and medical school early, becomes head of her department at 31 years old. It is revealed in the season 10 finale \"Fear (of the Unknown)\", Maggie's biological mother was Ellis Grey.[2] Richard Webber is shocked by this, knowing he is her biological father. Throughout the eleventh season, Webber struggles to deal with the revelation and keeps it from Maggie. Maggie explains that 2 years prior, she looked for her birth mom and needed to go to the court for the records. She found out that she was dead, but got her name, and discovered that she was an amazing surgeon that worked at the Seattle Grace Hospital. She stated that that's not why she took the job, but it's \"a little bit\" why she took the interview.\n\nWhen Maggie identifies Meredith Grey, her half-sister, she attempts to bond with her. However, Meredith attempts to take charge and conflicts with her on a case. After several arguments, Maggie tells Meredith that she is her half-sister. Meredith, in disbelief, points out that she would know that her mother would be pregnant when she was five years old, as Maggie is five years younger than her. Meredith works with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) to decide whether Maggie is lying or if she is wrong. They discover she is correct. Meredith gets flashes back to the time of her mother's crisis at five years old, and remembers being at a hospital and hearing a screaming baby. After several weeks, Webber admits to Maggie that he is her father. Maggie is angry at him. Later, when he comes to apologize for not being there as a father, Maggie corrects him and says he is not her father, as she has adoptive parents she loves, and that she is only angry because of his dishonesty and making her look foolish and naive for weeks. Derek and Meredith decide to have Maggie come over to their house for dinner, to get to know Maggie better. After Maggie says yes, Derek decides it is a good idea to ask Richard as well. Richard reluctantly agrees. The night of the dinner, Maggie and Richard show up, but no-one answers. Maggie leaves him after that. Maggie develops a relationship with radiologist, Ethan Boyd. She admits her awkwardness in relationships, having ended her previous engagement to Dean, who she was unable to sleep in the same bed with. Meredith ends up in a bind with no one to watch her kids, so Maggie offers to watch them. Richard and Maggie eventually come to good terms, and Maggie's helping with Meredith's kids help her integrate into her family home more. Maggie learns about the histories of Meredith, Alex and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) as they commemorate their dead friend, George O'Malley (TR Knight).\n\nAfter Derek's death, Meredith abandons Seattle for a year, leaving Maggie a note. Maggie is shocked by this, and admits she felt abandoned by Meredith right when they were starting to become a family. She invites Webber to a Christmas party, noticing his loneliness. Meredith eventually returns home, hugging Maggie and re-integrating into her old family home. While Maggie and her colleagues are busy dealing with Keith Gardner after a tunnel collapse, Maggie gets a phone call that her parents are getting a divorce. Her mother confesses to her that she'd been having an affair with their car serviceman for eleven years and they had only stayed together for her sake, but were getting a divorce now that she was out on her own. Maggie is emotional about this, but she doesn't want to bother her colleagues about it. Later, she confides in Meredith over the issue, but feels it is silly in comparison to her husband's death. Meredith, however, says she can tell her anything and she should come to her whenever she is having a problem. After Meredith buys her house back from Alex, she invites Maggie and Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) to move in with her. They assist Meredith in caring for her kids. Maggie also often mediates between Meredith and Amelia, who frequently get into fights over little things. She often helps with Meredith's three kids, with each \"sister\" in charge of getting one kid ready for the day.\n\nIn the twelfth season, Maggie develops a relationship with intern Andrew DeLuca. Maggie sleeps with DeLuca after a short conversation and a couple of drinks at Joe's. They agree it is a one-time thing, before they have sex again. Maggie and DeLuca keep their relationship private to avoid difficulties at work. DeLuca grows frustrated with their secrecy, so Maggie abruptly decides to go public. When this happens, DeLuca becomes uncomfortable with the way he is viewed by others because he is dating an attending, and doesn't want others to think he is getting special treatment. He also feels intimidated by her authority. When she confronts him, he ends things with her. Maggie attempts to move on and develops an interest in Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson). However, she is unaware Meredith has a sexual relationship with him. She confides in Meredith about this at Amelia's wedding to Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd). In the thirteenth season, Maggie is personally hurt by Meredith lying to her about Alex's actions assaulting DeLuca. She tells her to never lie to her again, but she does so immediately afterwards about Riggs. Riggs tells Meredith she needs to tell Maggie. Maggie works up the courage to ask Riggs out, but he rejects her.\n\nDevelopment[edit]\n\nCasting and creation[edit]\n\nMcCreary on the role\nWhen I auditioned, all they told me was that the character might recur a little bit into Season 11; they did not tell me it was Meredith\u2019s sister and there was long-term potential. I had no idea the scope of it in terms of how [she] fit into the mythology of the series. Her character ties into a lot of things that have already occurred in these people\u2019s lives.\n\u201c\n\u201d\nBenjamin Lindsay, Backstage 2015[3]\n\nOn April 5, 2014, TVLine reported that Kelly McCreary best known for her series regular role on The CW's short lived medical drama Emily Owens, M.D. and recent guest appearances on Scandal had been cast in a guest star role. McCeary was slated to debut on the May 8, 2015 episode.[4] On October 23, 2014, it was announced that McCreary was promoted to series regular after being credited as guest-starring until the eleventh episode.[5][6][7][8] It was a couple of months after McCreary wrapped her stint on Scandal that she was invited to audition for Grey's.[9] McCeary revealed that she originally auditioned for the character of \"Claudette\" with dummy sides, unbeknownst to her. The only information McCeary had about the character was \"that she was adopted, that she would recur, and she was going to be a very important storyline.\" Just before the script reading for the season 10 finale, Rhimes summoned McCeary to inform her of Maggie's true identity.[10] \"I was really psyched\" McCeary revealed when Rhimes informed her of Maggie's lineage. \"I felt really honored to be the one to accept the challenge.\"[11] However, it wasn't until McCeary experienced the reactions to Maggie's existence from her fellow cast mates that McCeary realized just how big of a deal the character would be.[12]\n\nThe character's potential existence was first referenced in the press in February 2009 when Michael Ausiello hinted at the possibility of Meredith having a half-sibling, the product of her mother's affair with Richard.[13] Initial speculation pointed to Jesse Williams' Jackson Avery as the child, but the actor refuted those rumors.[14] Shonda Rhimes revealed that the character had always been a part of the original story plans, but the character's existence was not set in stone until season 4.[15]\n\nCharacterization[edit]\n\nKelly McCeary expressed her excitement about how special Maggie in an interview with BuddyTV. \"I just feel like it's a rare opportunity to be able to play somebody that is so complex and fully realized and smart and fierce and compassionate and awkward and the whole thing.\"[16] Maggie is very good at her job so she can find a place in a professional capacity, but in her personal life, she \"gets more than she bargained for\" McCreary said.[17] \"I think she's a really good doctor\" McCeary said of Maggie. \"She's obviously super-bright. She's very young to be as high in her field as she is.\" McCeary further described Maggie as a \"really great problem-solver.\" Maggie is \"very compassionate\" and at the same time can \"keep a clear head and do the right thing medically all the time.\"[16] McCeary further described Maggie as \"so dynamic.\"[11] While Maggie initially \"came across as all business,\" Kelly McCeary relishes in playing \"Maggie's neurotic, existential, meltdown side.\"[3] \"Maggie also won't really back down from a fight; she's very decisive.\"[12]\n\nIntroduction[edit]\n\nFurther information: Puzzle With a Piece Missing and Got to Be Real (Grey's Anatomy)\n\nKate Aurthur noted that until Maggie's introduction, Grey's was not \"known for dropping in stories that it planted seasons before -- it's never been filled with twisty mythology.\"[10] Rhimes insisted that the timing wasn't right for Maggie's introduction in previous seasons. In season 3, the series introduced Meredith's paternal half-sister Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) and it was at that time that Maggie became a serious topic of discussion. Though Lexie was killed off in the season 8 finale, \"Flight,\" Rhimes felt it was still too soon for Maggie's arrival.[9][18] The scribe even thought the show might end without the character ever being introduced. \"Then we hit this moment in time and I remember walking into the writers' room and going, 'You guys, it's time.'\"[15]\n\nWhen Maggie makes the sudden revelation that she is Ellis' child to Richard, viewers are left to wonder about her history. The second episode of the season puts Maggie front and center. The episode appropriately titled \"Puzzle With a Piece Missing,\" focuses on Maggie's struggle to fit in throughout her life, even with her own adoptive parents whom she is very different from.[19] Though she is very close with her parents, and they get along very well, she's grown up \"still feeling like something's missing.\" Kelly McCreary said \"That's what's really compelling to me about Maggie: that sort of dark underbelly of this person who seems to really have it all together.\"[20] Maggie struggles to build relationships with her colleagues. She unknowingly shares confidential information about Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) and she gets she also insults the hospital board when she tries to prop up Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Though she's got the \"best intentions,\" things backfire.[19] Maggie also serves as a \"mentor\" to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington).[21] As Maggie discovers she has several things in common with Richard, the stage is set for Maggie to learn that Richard is her father.[20][19]\n\n\"I think people will relate to the awkwardness of being the new kid at school\" McCeary said of the episode's comedic tone.[20] Despite so many different interactions, the episode highlights \"Maggie's loneliness.\"[21] The Maggie-centric episode also featured Kelly McCreary stepping into the coveted role of narrator for the episode, which was usually reserved for Ellen Pompeo's Meredith, and on occasion other veteran cast members.[22][23] \"It was overwhelming and very surprising\" McCeary said of being the center of attention so early into her Grey's tenure. She continued, \"I felt terrified and also really grateful that they trusted me with the institution about of Grey's Anatomy for a whole episode.\" McCeary relished in finally learning the character's history. \"[It] was a huge gift to have 65 pages worth of material telling me exactly who she is. It was great!\"[21]\n\nReception[edit]\n\n[icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2017)\n\nCritics responded positively to the development of Pierce in her centric episode \"Puzzle With a Piece Missing\". Fempop gave a largely positive review writing, \"Puzzle With a Piece Missing is a funny and insightful look both into this latest interloper and the established characters of Grey\u2019s.\" praising the new addition, \"Thankfully she\u2019s (Pierce) her own person, confident and happy to bring the thunder and put everyone, from interns to the chief of surgery, into their places.\"[24]\n\nEntertainment Weekly lauded the episode stating, \"Coming into the second week without Cristina Yang, Grey\u2019s was smart to focus all of its attention on the newcomer. With most other main characters only making occasional cameos, it made it more difficult to feel Yang\u2019s absence. And by showing Maggie\u2019s side of the story, it made her more relatable. It was a win-win.\" adding on McCreary's character, \" this episode is about how Maggie is her own, very likable person.\"[25]\n\nOn her character TV Fanatic wrote, Overall, we got to know Maggie a little better and it's nice to see that she's made some friends. It was a fair episode that showed Maggie's basically a work in progress. Maybe she'll grow on us eventually.\"[26]\n\nFor the thirteenth season, Vulture writer, Maggie Fremont spoke positively about the character: \"It\u2019s never easy for a long-running series to introduce a new character, especially when that character is meant to immediately fit in with the rest of the ensemble. But when Maggie Pierce arrived in season ten, that\u2019s exactly what Grey\u2019s Anatomy did. It could\u2019ve been easy to dislike her \u2014 she showed up to take over cardio as Cristina Yang was leaving, for chrissakes! She was yet another one of Meredith\u2019s long-lost sisters. The cards were really stacked against Maggie Pierce. Yet, thanks to the writers and Kelly McCreary\u2019s terrific performance, Maggie was immediately endearing. She is weird and neurotic and cheerful. She is nothing like Cristina, but she fills a void that Meredith needs filled in order to function. Can you really imagine Grey\u2019s without Maggie Pierce?\"[27]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.hollywoodreporter.com\/live-feed\/greys-anatomy-11-big-developments-735827\n  2. Jump up ^ Writer: William Harper; Director: Tony Phelan (May 15, 2014). \"Fear (of the Unknown)\". Grey's Anatomy. Season 10. Episode 24. American Broadcasting Company.\u00a0 |access-date= requires |url= (help)\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Lindsay, Benjamin (December 8, 2015). \"How Kelly McCreary of \u2018Grey\u2019s Anatomy\u2019 Finds Catharsis in Emotional Scenes\". Backstage. Backstage, LLC. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (April 5, 2014). \"Exclusive: Ill-Fated Scandal Guest Star Resurrected on Grey's Anatomy\". TVLine. Penske Media Corporation. Retrieved September 27, 2014.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Raftery, Liz (October 23, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy: Kelly McCreary Upped to Series Regular\". TV Guide. CBS Interactive. Retrieved October 23, 2014.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (October 23, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy's' Kelly McCreary Upped to Series Regular\". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved October 24, 2014.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"\u2018Grey\u2019s Anatomy\u2019 Promotes Kelly McCreary to Series Regular\". Variety. Penske Media Corporation. October 23, 2014. Retrieved October 24, 2014.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"'Grey's Anatomy' promotes Kelly McCreary to series regular\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. October 23, 2014. Retrieved October 24, 2014.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Greco, Patti (October 9, 2014). \"\"Grey's Anatomy\" Newbie Kelly McCreary on What's Next for Meredith and Maggie\". Cosmopolitan. Hearst. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Aurthur, Kate (January 29, 2015). \"Everything You Need To Know About The Woman Who Plays Meredith Grey\u2019s Sister On \"Grey\u2019s Anatomy\"\". BuzzFeed. BuzzFeed Inc. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Nelli, Victoria (October 16, 2014). \"Maggie\u2019s Anatomy: Kelly McCreary Dishes on Joining GREY\u2019S ANATOMY and Previews Tonight\u2019s Flashback Fun\". The TV Addict. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Goldberg, Lesley (October 2, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy's Kelly McCreary: There's a Lot Maggie Doesn't Know\". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved September 25, 2016.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (February 25, 2009). \"'Grey's' exclusive: Does Mer have another MIA sibling?\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved December 8, 2013.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich, Matt (December 8, 2009). \"Grey's Anatomy's Jesse Williams Addresses Meredith's Brother Rumor\". Archived from the original on December 12, 2009. Retrieved December 8, 2013.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Abrams, Natalie (July 15, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy's Shonda Rhimes Teases Half-Sister Twist, Possible New Romance\". TV Guide. CBS Interactive. Retrieved October 3, 2014.\u00a0\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacobs, Meredith (October 1, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy' Exclusive Interview: Kelly McCreary on 'Clashing' with Meredith and a 'Shift' with Richard\". BuddyTV. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (September 25, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy' Stars Tease Season 11: New Love, Board Drama and Meddling Meredith\". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved October 3, 2014.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (July 16, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy's' Shonda Rhimes: Season 11 to Focus on Meredith, Explore Callie and Arizona's 'Band-Aid'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b c Abrams, Natalie (September 30, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy' sneak peek: Things get even worse between Meredith and Maggie\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b c Raftery, Liz (October 1, 2014). \"Grey's Anatomy Newcomer Kelly McCreary: Maggie and Meredith Are Like \"Oil and Water\"\". TV Guide. CBS Interactive. Retrieved September 24, 2016.\u00a0\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c Bucksbaum, Sydney (October 2, 2014). \"Maggie's Grey's Anatomy Secret Won't Stay Hidden for Long! Kelly McCreary Gives the Scoop\". E!. NBCUniversal. Retrieved September 25, 2016.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (October 2, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy' Postmortem: 'Meredith Will Delve Deep Into the Past' to Uncover the Truth\". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved September 25, 2016.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Samson, Janalen (October 2, 2014). \"'Grey's Anatomy' Recap: Maggie Opens Pandora's Box\". BuddyTV. Retrieved September 25, 2016.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Alex Cranz. \"Review: Grey's Anatomy - 'Puzzle With a Missing Piece'\". FemPop Magazine. Retrieved August 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy recap: 'Puzzle With A Piece Missing'\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved August 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Tran, Christina. \"Grey's Anatomy\". TV Fanatic. Retrieved August 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Fremont, Maggie. \"Grey\u2019s Anatomy Recap: Oh, Mother\". Vulture. Retrieved February 10, 2017.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy portal\n  \u2022 Fictional characters portal\n  \u2022 iconTelevision portal\n  \u2022 Maggie Piece at ABC.com\n  \u2022 Maggie Pierce on IMDb\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrey's Anatomy\nEpisodes\n  \u2022 Season 1\n  \u2022 2\n  \u2022 3\n  \u2022 4\n  \u2022 5\n  \u2022 6\n  \u2022 7\n  \u2022 8\n  \u2022 9\n  \u2022 10\n  \u2022 11\n  \u2022 12\n  \u2022 13\n  \u2022 14\nCharacters\n(cast members)\n  \u2022 Meredith Grey\n  \u2022 Cristina Yang\n  \u2022 Izzie Stevens\n  \u2022 Alex Karev\n  \u2022 George O'Malley\n  \u2022 Miranda Bailey\n  \u2022 Richard Webber\n  \u2022 Derek Shepherd\n  \u2022 Preston Burke\n  \u2022 Addison Montgomery\n  \u2022 Mark Sloan\n  \u2022 Callie Torres\n  \u2022 Lexie Grey\n  \u2022 Erica Hahn\n  \u2022 Owen Hunt\n  \u2022 Sadie Harris\n  \u2022 Arizona Robbins\n  \u2022 Teddy Altman\n  \u2022 Jackson Avery\n  \u2022 April Kepner\n  \u2022 Amelia Shepherd\n  \u2022 Stephanie Edwards\n  \u2022 Maggie Pierce\nOther\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 Video game\n  \u2022 Private Practice\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Mexican telenovela)\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Colombian telenovela)\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Maggie_Pierce&oldid=799923131\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy characters\n  \u2022 Fictional African-American people\n  \u2022 Fictional characters from Washington (state)\n  \u2022 Fictional storytellers\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 2014\n  \u2022 Fictional surgeons\n  \u2022 Fictional female doctors\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from February 2017\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Articles to be expanded from February 2017\n  \u2022 All articles to be expanded\n  \u2022 Articles using small message boxes\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 10 September 2017, at 16:48.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8835014735717300562","title":"I'll Be There for You (The Rembrandts song)","text":"I'll Be There for You (The Rembrandts song)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\"I'll Be There for You\"\nTheRembrandtsIllBeThereForYouMaxiCDCover.jpg\nSingle by The Rembrandts\nfrom the album LP\nReleased May 1, 1995\nFormat 7\", CD single\nRecorded 1994\nGenre Power pop, pop rock, alternative rock, jangle pop\nLength 3:09\nLabel East West, Atlantic\nSongwriter(s) David Crane, Marta Kauffman, Michael Skloff, Allee Willis, Phil S\u014dlem, Danny Wilde\nProducer(s) Kevin Bright, David Crane, Marta Kauffman\nThe Rembrandts singles chronology\n\"Waiting to Be Opened\"\n(1993)\n\"I'll Be There for You\"\n(1995)\n\"This House Is Not a Home\"\n(1995)\n\"Waiting to Be Opened\"\n(1993)\n\"I'll Be There for You\"\n(1995)\n\"This House Is Not a Home\"\n(1995)\n\n\"I'll Be There for You\" is a song recorded by the American duo The Rembrandts. It is best known as the theme song to the American sitcom Friends, which premiered during 1994 and ended in 2004.[1] The song was also released as the first single from the group's third studio album LP.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Song information\n  \u2022 2 Music video\n  \u2022 3 Track listing\n  \u2022 4 Chart performance\n  \u2022 5 Charts\n  \u2022 6 Compilation usage\n  \u2022 7 Cover versions\n  \u2022 8 In popular culture\n  \u2022 9 See also\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nSong information[edit]\n\n\"I'll Be There for You\" was co-written by Friends producers David Crane and Marta Kauffman, Kauffman's husband, composer Michael Skloff, and songwriter Allee Willis, along with Phil S\u014dlem and Danny Wilde, both of the Rembrandts. It is strongly influenced by The Beatles, especially reminiscent of the \"I Feel Fine\" guitar riff, and is also highly reminiscent of The Monkees' \"Pleasant Valley Sunday.\"\n\nThe original theme, which is under one minute long, was later re-recorded as a three-minute pop song.[2] After Nashville program director Charlie Quinn, along with radio announcer and music director Tom Peace, looped the original short version into a full-length track and broadcast it on radio station WYHY, it became so popular that they had to re-record it. \"Our record label said we had to finish the song and record it. There was no way to get out of it,\" lead singer Phil S\u014dlem said.[3]\n\nMusic video[edit]\n\nThe music video of the song featured the six main stars of Friends, taking the singing and dancing roles of the band after, amusingly[citation needed], attacking them all and bemusing everyone else on the set with their daft behaviour. The video was included as a bonus feature on several of the show's Complete Season DVD Boxsets.\n\nTrack listing[edit]\n\nEuropean CD maxi-single\n  1. \"I'll Be There for You\" \u2013 3:09\n  2. \"Fixin' to Blow\" \u2013 5:03\n  3. \"Just the Way It Is Baby\" \u2013 4:06\n  4. \"Snippets Medley\" \u2013 6:46\n\nChart performance[edit]\n\nIn the United States, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart for eight weeks. When the single was released 1995, it peaked at #3 on the UK Singles Chart in the United Kingdom and at #17 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States as the flipside to \"This House Is Not a Home\". It also peaked at #1 on the U.S. Top 40 Mainstream and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts.[4]\n\nThe song was the most successful in Canada where it peaked at number 1 for 5 consecutive weeks.[5]\n\nIn April 2004, the song was ranked at #15 on Blender magazine's list of the \"50 Worst Songs Ever\".[6]\n\nCharts[edit]\n\nChart (1995\u20131997) Peak\nposition\nAustralia (ARIA)[7] 3\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[8] 10\nCanada (RPM)[9] 1\nNetherlands (Single Top 100)[10] 20\nFrance (SNEP)[11] 25\nGermany (Official German Charts)[12] 77\nIreland (IRMA)[13] 3\nNew Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[14] 3\nNorway (VG-lista)[15] 5\nSweden (Sverigetopplistan)[16] 34\nUK Singles (Official Charts Company)[17] 3\nU.S. Billboard Hot 100[18] 17\nU.S. Billboard Hot 100 Airplay[18] 1\nU.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks[18] 1\nU.S. Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks[18] 7\nU.S. Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks[18] 23\nU.S. Billboard Top 40 Mainstream[18] 1\n\nCompilation usage[edit]\n\n\"I'll Be There for You\" has been included on the following compilation albums:\n\n  \u2022 Friends: Music From The TV Series (1994) \u2013 for the American series Friends' opening song;\n  \u2022 Serial TV: Les Plus Grands Hits Des S\u00e9ries TV\n  \u2022 Happy Songs\n  \u2022 Billboard Top Hits: 1995 \u2013 for Billboard's 1995 CD.\n\nCover versions[edit]\n\n  \u2022 American pop rock band The Goo Goo Dolls recorded their own version of this song which contained slightly altered lyrics, and a more upbeat tempo, rockier sound, as well as a glockenspiel in the rhythm track.\n  \u2022 Yakko, Wakko, and Dot of Animaniacs parodied the theme song as \"We Won't Ever Leave\" during a 1997 episode entitled \"Acquaintances\" (which is itself a spoof of Friends).\n  \u2022 American punk rock band Pink Lincolns covered this song under the title \"Friends\" for a 1997 compilation album titled Show & Tell.\n  \u2022 Fictional American band Alvin and the Chipmunks covered this song for their 2007 video game Alvin and the Chipmunks.\n  \u2022 \"Weird Al\" Yankovic had planned to record a parody for his Bad Hair Day album called \"Theme for Home Improvement or I'll Repair For You\". Although the Rembrandts were fine with the parody idea, the producers of Friends were not, fearing that the show's theme would be overexposed. \"Theme for Home Improvement\" is nevertheless a concert favorite.\n\nIn popular culture[edit]\n\n  \u2022 The 2013 comedy film We're the Millers, which stars Jennifer Aniston, features a blooper during the credits where Jason Sudeikis flips through radio stations and ends up on \"I'll Be There for You\". Sudeikis, Emma Roberts, and Will Poulter begin singing the song as Aniston covers her face laughing.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1995 (U.S.)\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"The Rembrandts: 'So no one told me it was going to be this way'\". Independent. London. April 27, 2004. Retrieved 2010-08-20.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Etkin, Jaimie. \"The Amazing Story Behind \u201cI\u2019ll Be There For You,\u201d According To The Rembrandts\". Buzzfeed News. Retrieved 16 February 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Nashville DJ helped turn \"Friends\" song into radio hit\". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2004-12-21. Retrieved 2015-09-14.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2002). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961\u20132001. Record Research. p.\u00a0202.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Item Display \u2013 RPM \u2013 Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2015-09-14.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ [1] Archived December 31, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Australian-charts.com \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Item Display \u2013 RPM \u2013 Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2015-09-14.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Dutchcharts.nl \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Lescharts.com \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Musicline.de \u2013 The Rembrandts Single-Chartverfolgung\" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  13. Jump up ^ Jaclyn Ward. \"The Irish Charts \u2013 All there is to know\". Irishcharts.ie. Archived from the original on 2009-06-03. Retrieved 2015-09-14.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Charts.org.nz \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Norwegiancharts.com \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\". VG-lista. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Swedishcharts.com \u2013 The Rembrandts \u2013 I'll Be There For You\". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Archive Chart: 1995\" UK Singles Chart. Retrieved 4 April 2011.\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The Rembrandts. \"The Rembrandts | Biography, Albums, & Streaming Radio\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2015-09-14.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Rembrandts\n  \u2022 Phil Solem\n  \u2022 Danny Wilde\n  \u2022 Mark Karan\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 The Rembrandts (1990)\n  \u2022 Untitled (1992)\n  \u2022 L.P. (1995)\n  \u2022 Spin This (1998)\n  \u2022 Lost Together (2001)\nCompilation albums\n  \u2022 Choice Picks (2005)\n  \u2022 Greatest Hits (2006)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Just the Way It Is, Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"I'll Be There for You\"\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFriends\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Chandler Bing\n  \u2022 Phoebe Buffay\n  \u2022 Monica Geller\n  \u2022 Ross Geller\n  \u2022 Rachel Green\n  \u2022 Joey Tribbiani\nEpisodes\nSeason 1\n  \u2022 \"The Pilot\" (1.01)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Sonogram at the End\" (1.02)\n  \u2022 \"The One with George Stephanopoulos\" (1.04)\nSeason 2\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Lesbian Wedding\" (2.11)\n  \u2022 \"The One After the Superbowl\" (2.12\u20132.13)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Prom Video\" (2.14)\n  \u2022 \"The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies\" (2.18)\nSeason 3\n  \u2022 \"The One Where No One's Ready\" (3.02)\nSeason 4\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Embryos\" (4.12)\n  \u2022 \"The One with Ross's Wedding\" (4.23\u20134.24)\nSeason 5\n  \u2022 \"The One After Ross Says Rachel\" (5.01)\n  \u2022 \"The One Hundredth\" (5.03)\n  \u2022 \"The One with All the Thanksgivings\" (5.08)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Girl Who Hits Joey\" (5.15)\n  \u2022 \"The One Where Rachel Smokes\" (5.18)\n  \u2022 \"The One Where Ross Can't Flirt\" (5.19)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Ride-Along\" (5.20)\nSeason 6\n  \u2022 \"The One After Vegas\" (6.01)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Apothecary Table\" (6.11)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Proposal\" (6.24\u20136.25)\nSeason 7\n  \u2022 \"The One with Monica and Chandler's Wedding\" (7.23\u20137.24)\nSeason 8\n  \u2022 \"The One with Rachel's Date\" (8.05)\n  \u2022 \"The One with the Rumor\" (8.09)\nSeason 9\n\u2013\nSeason 10\n  \u2022 \"The Last One\" (10.17\u201310.18)\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Music\n    \u2022 \"I'll Be There for You\"\n  \u2022 Joey\n  \u2022 Mad About You\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 Friends ... 'Til the End\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=I%27ll_Be_There_for_You_(The_Rembrandts_song)&oldid=801058880\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1995 singles\n  \u2022 The Rembrandts songs\n  \u2022 Billboard Adult Contemporary number-one singles\n  \u2022 Billboard Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) number-one singles\n  \u2022 RPM Top Singles number-one singles\n  \u2022 Songs written by Allee Willis\n  \u2022 Friends\n  \u2022 Television theme songs\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Articles that may contain original research from September 2015\n  \u2022 All articles that may contain original research\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Australia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Belgium (Flanders)\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Dutch100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for France\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for German\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for New Zealand\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Norway\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Sweden\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for UK\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 17 September 2017, at 11:55.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-6344010436953808577","title":"Transient lingual papillitis","text":"Transient lingual papillitis\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (January 2014)\n\nTransient lingual papillitis (also termed fungiform papillary glossitis,[1] eruptive lingual papillitis,[2] or colloquially, lie bumps),[2] are painful, hypertrophic, red and white papillae on the tongue.[2]\n\nCause[edit]\n\nThe name \"lie bumps\" is a result of a myth that telling lies would cause them. However, very little has been written about this condition in scientific articles or textbooks and scientific studies have failed to produce a definite cause.[2] Possible causes include: \"stress, gastrointestinal upset, menstruation, acidic or sour food, smoking, and local trauma\" (direct physical irritation) of the tongue. Lie bumps are often caused by the taste bud(s) splitting.\n\nThese bumps are small, white bumps on the base of the tongue. They are likely to be the result of transient lingual papillitis (TLP). This condition is limited to the upper (dorsal) surface of the tongue, affecting some of the tiny bumps on the tongue known as the fungiform papillae, what we commonly call the \"taste buds.\"\n\nTLP is a harmless problem.[citation needed] These bumps can become notably red or white and are quite tender for up to several days. While the cause of TLP is not known with certainty, most experts[who?] feel that local accidental trauma (rubbing, scraping or biting) is a major factor; however, contact reactions to things like certain foods have also been suggested. Lie bumps are not contagious and the discomfort is relatively minor. Typically these lesions heal within a few days with no treatment, though a doctor may refer a patient to an oral pathologist in prolonged cases.\n\nTreatments[edit]\n\nThere are no specific treatments for this problem, other than using ice or numbing medicines to ease the pain.[citation needed]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Marks, R.; Scarff, C.E.; Yap, L.M.; Verlinden, V.; Jolley, D.; Campbell, J. (October 2005). \"Fungiform papillary glossitis: atopic disease in the mouth?\". British Journal of Dermatology. British Association of Dermatologists. 153 (100,000,000,000): 740\u2013745. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2005.06577.x. PMID\u00a016181454. Retrieved 2007-10-30.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Roux, O.; Lacour, J.P.; Paediatricians of the Region Var-Cote D'Azur (February 2004). \"Eruptive lingual papillitis with household transmission: a prospective clinical study\". British Journal of Dermatology. British Association of Dermatologists. 150 (2): 299\u2013303. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2004.05703.x. PMID\u00a014996101. Retrieved 2007-10-30.\u00a0\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nOral and maxillofacial pathology (K00\u2013K06, K11\u2013K14, 520\u2013525, 527\u2013529)\n[show]\nLips\n  \u2022 Cheilitis\n    \u2022 Actinic\n    \u2022 Angular\n    \u2022 Plasma cell\n  \u2022 Cleft lip\n  \u2022 Congenital lip pit\n  \u2022 Eclabium\n  \u2022 Herpes labialis\n  \u2022 Macrocheilia\n  \u2022 Microcheilia\n  \u2022 Nasolabial cyst\n  \u2022 Sun poisoning\n  \u2022 Trumpeter's wart\n[show]\nTongue\n  \u2022 Ankyloglossia\n  \u2022 Black hairy tongue\n  \u2022 Caviar tongue\n  \u2022 Crenated tongue\n  \u2022 Cunnilingus tongue\n  \u2022 Fissured tongue\n  \u2022 Foliate papillitis\n  \u2022 Glossitis\n    \u2022 Geographic tongue\n    \u2022 Median rhomboid glossitis\n    \u2022 Transient lingual papillitis\n  \u2022 Glossoptosis\n  \u2022 Hypoglossia\n  \u2022 Lingual thyroid\n  \u2022 Macroglossia\n  \u2022 Microglossia\n  \u2022 Rhabdomyoma\n[show]\nPalate\n  \u2022 Bednar's aphthae\n  \u2022 Cleft palate\n  \u2022 High-arched palate\n  \u2022 Palatal cysts of the newborn\n  \u2022 Inflammatory papillary hyperplasia\n  \u2022 Stomatitis nicotina\n  \u2022 Torus palatinus\n[show]\nOral mucosa \u2013 Lining of mouth\n  \u2022 Amalgam tattoo\n  \u2022 Angina bullosa haemorrhagica\n  \u2022 Beh\u00e7et's disease\n  \u2022 Bohn's nodules\n  \u2022 Burning mouth syndrome\n  \u2022 Candidiasis\n  \u2022 Condyloma acuminatum\n  \u2022 Darier's disease\n  \u2022 Epulis fissuratum\n  \u2022 Erythema multiforme\n  \u2022 Erythroplakia\n  \u2022 Fibroma\n    \u2022 Giant-cell\n  \u2022 Focal epithelial hyperplasia\n  \u2022 Fordyce spots\n  \u2022 Hairy leukoplakia\n  \u2022 Hand, foot and mouth disease\n  \u2022 Hereditary benign intraepithelial dyskeratosis\n  \u2022 Herpangina\n  \u2022 Herpes zoster\n  \u2022 Intraoral dental sinus\n  \u2022 Leukoedema\n  \u2022 Leukoplakia\n  \u2022 Lichen planus\n  \u2022 Linea alba\n  \u2022 Lupus erythematosus\n  \u2022 Melanocytic nevus\n  \u2022 Melanocytic oral lesion\n  \u2022 Molluscum contagiosum\n  \u2022 Morsicatio buccarum\n  \u2022 Oral cancer\n    \u2022 Benign: Squamous cell papilloma\n    \u2022 Keratoacanthoma\n    \u2022 Malignant: Adenosquamous carcinoma\n    \u2022 Basaloid squamous carcinoma\n    \u2022 Mucosal melanoma\n    \u2022 Spindle cell carcinoma\n    \u2022 Squamous cell carcinoma\n    \u2022 Verrucous carcinoma\n  \u2022 Oral florid papillomatosis\n  \u2022 Oral melanosis\n    \u2022 Smoker's melanosis\n  \u2022 Pemphigoid\n    \u2022 Benign mucous membrane\n  \u2022 Pemphigus\n  \u2022 Plasmoacanthoma\n  \u2022 Stomatitis\n    \u2022 Aphthous\n    \u2022 Denture-related\n    \u2022 Herpetic\n  \u2022 Smokeless tobacco keratosis\n  \u2022 Submucous fibrosis\n  \u2022 Ulceration\n    \u2022 Riga\u2013Fede disease\n  \u2022 Verruca vulgaris\n  \u2022 Verruciform xanthoma\n  \u2022 White sponge nevus\n[show]\nTeeth (pulp, dentin, enamel)\n  \u2022 Amelogenesis imperfecta\n  \u2022 Ankylosis\n  \u2022 Anodontia\n  \u2022 Caries\n    \u2022 Early childhood caries\n  \u2022 Concrescence\n  \u2022 Failure of eruption of teeth\n  \u2022 Dens evaginatus\n    \u2022 Talon cusp\n  \u2022 Dentin dysplasia\n  \u2022 Dentin hypersensitivity\n  \u2022 Dentinogenesis imperfecta\n  \u2022 Dilaceration\n  \u2022 Discoloration\n  \u2022 Ectopic enamel\n  \u2022 Enamel hypocalcification\n  \u2022 Enamel hypoplasia\n    \u2022 Turner's hypoplasia\n  \u2022 Enamel pearl\n  \u2022 Fluorosis\n  \u2022 Fusion\n  \u2022 Gemination\n  \u2022 Hyperdontia\n  \u2022 Hypodontia\n    \u2022 Maxillary lateral incisor agenesis\n  \u2022 Impaction\n    \u2022 Wisdom tooth impaction\n  \u2022 Macrodontia\n  \u2022 Meth mouth\n  \u2022 Microdontia\n  \u2022 Odontogenic tumors\n    \u2022 Keratocystic odontogenic tumour\n  \u2022 Odontoma\n    \u2022 Dens in dente\n  \u2022 Open contact\n  \u2022 Premature eruption\n    \u2022 Neonatal teeth\n  \u2022 Pulp calcification\n    \u2022 Pulp stone\n  \u2022 Pulp canal obliteration\n  \u2022 Pulp necrosis\n  \u2022 Pulp polyp\n  \u2022 Pulpitis\n  \u2022 Regional odontodysplasia\n  \u2022 Resorption\n  \u2022 Shovel-shaped incisors\n  \u2022 Supernumerary root\n  \u2022 Taurodontism\n  \u2022 Trauma\n    \u2022 Avulsion\n    \u2022 Cracked tooth syndrome\n    \u2022 Vertical root fracture\n    \u2022 Occlusal\n  \u2022 Tooth loss\n    \u2022 Edentulism\n  \u2022 Tooth wear\n    \u2022 Abrasion\n    \u2022 Abfraction\n    \u2022 Acid erosion\n    \u2022 Attrition\n[show]\nPeriodontium (gingiva, periodontal ligament, cementum, alveolus) \u2013 Gums and tooth-supporting structures\n  \u2022 Cementicle\n  \u2022 Cementoblastoma\n    \u2022 Gigantiform\n  \u2022 Cementoma\n  \u2022 Eruption cyst\n  \u2022 Epulis\n    \u2022 Pyogenic granuloma\n    \u2022 Congenital epulis\n  \u2022 Gingival enlargement\n  \u2022 Gingival cyst of the adult\n  \u2022 Gingival cyst of the newborn\n  \u2022 Gingivitis\n    \u2022 Desquamative\n    \u2022 Granulomatous\n    \u2022 Plasma cell\n  \u2022 Hereditary gingival fibromatosis\n  \u2022 Hypercementosis\n  \u2022 Hypocementosis\n  \u2022 Linear gingival erythema\n  \u2022 Necrotizing periodontal diseases\n    \u2022 Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis\n  \u2022 Pericoronitis\n  \u2022 Peri-implantitis\n  \u2022 Periodontal abscess\n  \u2022 Periodontal trauma\n  \u2022 Periodontitis\n    \u2022 Aggressive\n    \u2022 As a manifestation of systemic disease\n    \u2022 Chronic\n  \u2022 Perio-endo lesion\n  \u2022 Teething\n[show]\nPeriapical, mandibular and maxillary hard tissues \u2013 Bones of jaws\n  \u2022 Agnathia\n  \u2022 Alveolar osteitis\n  \u2022 Buccal exostosis\n  \u2022 Cherubism\n  \u2022 Idiopathic osteosclerosis\n  \u2022 Mandibular fracture\n  \u2022 Microgenia\n  \u2022 Micrognathia\n  \u2022 Intraosseous cysts\n    \u2022 Odontogenic: periapical\n    \u2022 Dentigerous\n    \u2022 Buccal bifurcation\n    \u2022 Lateral periodontal\n    \u2022 Globulomaxillary\n    \u2022 Calcifying odontogenic\n    \u2022 Glandular odontogenic\n    \u2022 Non-odontogenic: Nasopalatine duct\n    \u2022 Median mandibular\n    \u2022 Median palatal\n    \u2022 Traumatic bone\n  \u2022 Osteoma\n  \u2022 Osteomyelitis\n  \u2022 Osteonecrosis\n    \u2022 Bisphosphonate-associated\n    \u2022 Neuralgia-inducing cavitational osteonecrosis\n    \u2022 Osteoradionecrosis\n  \u2022 Osteoporotic bone marrow defect\n  \u2022 Paget's disease of bone\n  \u2022 Periapical abscess\n    \u2022 Phoenix abscess\n  \u2022 Periapical periodontitis\n  \u2022 Stafne defect\n  \u2022 Torus mandibularis\n[show]\nTemporomandibular joints, muscles of mastication and malocclusions \u2013 Jaw joints, chewing muscles and bite abnormalities\n  \u2022 Bruxism\n  \u2022 Condylar resorption\n  \u2022 Mandibular dislocation\n  \u2022 Malocclusion\n    \u2022 Crossbite\n    \u2022 Open bite\n    \u2022 Overbite\n    \u2022 Overeruption\n    \u2022 Overjet\n    \u2022 Prognathia\n    \u2022 Retrognathia\n    \u2022 Scissor bite\n  \u2022 Maxillary hypoplasia\n  \u2022 Temporomandibular joint dysfunction\n[show]\nSalivary glands\n  \u2022 Benign lymphoepithelial lesion\n  \u2022 Ectopic salivary gland tissue\n  \u2022 Frey's syndrome\n  \u2022 HIV salivary gland disease\n  \u2022 Necrotizing sialometaplasia\n  \u2022 Mucocele\n    \u2022 Ranula\n  \u2022 Pneumoparotitis\n  \u2022 Salivary duct stricture\n  \u2022 Salivary gland aplasia\n  \u2022 Salivary gland atresia\n  \u2022 Salivary gland diverticulum\n  \u2022 Salivary gland fistula\n  \u2022 Salivary gland hyperplasia\n  \u2022 Salivary gland hypoplasia\n  \u2022 Salivary gland neoplasms\n    \u2022 Benign: Basal cell adenoma\n    \u2022 Canalicular adenoma\n    \u2022 Ductal papilloma\n    \u2022 Monomorphic adenoma\n    \u2022 Myoepithelioma\n    \u2022 Oncocytoma\n    \u2022 Papillary cystadenoma lymphomatosum\n    \u2022 Pleomorphic adenoma\n    \u2022 Sebaceous adenoma\n    \u2022 Malignant: Acinic cell carcinoma\n    \u2022 Adenocarcinoma\n    \u2022 Adenoid cystic carcinoma\n    \u2022 Carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma\n    \u2022 Lymphoma\n    \u2022 Mucoepidermoid carcinoma\n  \u2022 Sclerosing polycystic adenosis\n  \u2022 Sialadenitis\n    \u2022 Parotitis\n    \u2022 Chronic sclerosing sialadenitis\n  \u2022 Sialectasis\n  \u2022 Sialocele\n  \u2022 Sialodochitis\n  \u2022 Sialosis\n  \u2022 Sialolithiasis\n  \u2022 Sj\u00f6gren's syndrome\n[show]\nOrofacial soft tissues \u2013 Soft tissues around the mouth\n  \u2022 Actinomycosis\n  \u2022 Angioedema\n  \u2022 Basal cell carcinoma\n  \u2022 Cutaneous sinus of dental origin\n  \u2022 Cystic hygroma\n  \u2022 Gnathophyma\n  \u2022 Ludwig's angina\n  \u2022 Macrostomia\n  \u2022 Melkersson\u2013Rosenthal syndrome\n  \u2022 Microstomia\n  \u2022 Noma\n  \u2022 Oral Crohn's disease\n  \u2022 Orofacial granulomatosis\n  \u2022 Perioral dermatitis\n  \u2022 Pyostomatitis vegetans\n[show]\nOther\n  \u2022 Eagle syndrome\n  \u2022 Hemifacial hypertrophy\n  \u2022 Facial hemiatrophy\n  \u2022 Oral manifestations of systemic disease\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Transient_lingual_papillitis&oldid=842620026\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Tongue\n  \u2022 Conditions of the mucous membranes\n  \u2022 Oral mucosal pathology\n  \u2022 Tongue disorders\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with weasel words from January 2014\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018\n  \u2022 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases\n  \u2022 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2014\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 23 May 2018, at 15:58.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4192791494289379737","title":"WWE Greatest Royal Rumble","text":"WWE Greatest Royal Rumble\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nGreatest Royal Rumble\nWWE Greatest Royal Rumble Official Poster.jpg\nPromotional poster featuring various WWE wrestlers\nTheme\nsong\n(s)\n\"When Legends Rise\" by Godsmack[1]\nInformation\nPromotion WWE\nBrand(s) Raw\nSmackDown\nSponsor(s) Saudi General Sports Authority\nDate April 27, 2018\nAttendance 60,000[2]\nVenue King Abdullah International Stadium\nCity Jeddah, Saudi Arabia\nWWE Network event chronology\nWrestleMania 34 Greatest Royal Rumble Backlash (2018)\n\nGreatest Royal Rumble[3] was a professional wrestling pay-per-view event[4] and WWE Network event[5][6] promoted by WWE for their Raw and SmackDown brands. The event was held on April 27, 2018 at the King Abdullah Sports City's King Abdullah International Stadium in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.[3][7] The event was scheduled for 7:00 p.m. local time. It aired live in the United States at noon EDT, with a pre-show starting at 11 a.m. EDT.[8] At the event, all men's main roster championships were defended, in addition to a 50-man Royal Rumble match.[9]\n\nThe card featured ten matches. In the main event, Braun Strowman won the titular Greatest Royal Rumble match to become the inaugural Greatest Royal Rumble Champion. In the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar retained the Universal Championship in a steel cage match against Roman Reigns. On the undercard, the WWE Championship match between AJ Styles and Shinsuke Nakamura resulted in a double countout, The Undertaker defeated Rusev in a casket match, and John Cena defeated Triple H in the opening match.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Production\n    \u2022 1.1 Background\n    \u2022 1.2 Storylines\n  \u2022 2 Event\n    \u2022 2.1 Preliminary matches\n    \u2022 2.2 Main event\n  \u2022 3 Controversy\n  \u2022 4 Results\n    \u2022 4.1 Tag Team Eliminator bracket\n    \u2022 4.2 Greatest Royal Rumble match entrances and eliminations\n  \u2022 5 WWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship\n    \u2022 5.1 History\n    \u2022 5.2 Championship belt design\n    \u2022 5.3 Reigns\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nBackground[edit]\n\nSince 1988, the Royal Rumble has been an annual event held by WWE and is typically shown on pay-per-view.[10] The event is highlighted by the Royal Rumble match, a battle royal whose participants enter at timed intervals.[11] The Greatest Royal Rumble included the largest version of the match to date, having a total of 50 participants.\n\nOn March 5, 2018, WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority advertised the Greatest Royal Rumble, a live event to be held on April 27, 2018, at King Abdullah International Stadium, part of the King Abdullah Sports City, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.[12][13] The event is a part of a 10-year strategic multi-platform partnership between WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia's social and economic reform program.[3][14]\n\nOn March 19, 2018, WWE scheduled seven championship matches for the event: the WWE Championship, Universal Championship, United States Championship, Intercontinental Championship, SmackDown Tag Team Championship, Raw Tag Team Championship and Cruiserweight Championship were to be defended at the event.\n\nAs revealed on March 22, 2018, the event was streamed live on the WWE Network.[6] It also aired on traditional pay-per-view in the United States[15] and internationally.[4] The event was also the first WWE pay-per-view to feature Arabic commentary.[16]\n\nIn the weeks leading up to the event, the WWE held tryouts in Saudi Arabia. From these tryouts, eight were selected to receive training by WWE, which would include an opportunity to earn a spot at the Greatest Royal Rumble event itself.[17]\n\nStorylines[edit]\n\nThe card comprised ten matches that resulted from scripted storylines and had results predetermined by WWE on the Raw and SmackDown brands.[18][19] Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw, SmackDown Live,[20] and the cruiserweight-exclusive 205 Live.[21]\n\nOn April 9, Brock Lesnar, who had renewed his WWE contract, was scheduled to defend the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match as a rematch from WrestleMania 34.[22][23] On Raw following WrestleMania, Reigns expressed frustration about not being told about his future matches and opponents, singling out the steel cage match with Lesnar. Reigns alleged that there was a conspiracy against him. Samoa Joe, who had been out with an injury since January, came out and warned Reigns that Lesnar would beat him again.[24]\n\nOn March 26, WWE scheduled a ladder match between then-champion The Miz, Seth Rollins, Finn B\u00e1lor, and Samoa Joe for the Intercontinental Championship.[25] At WrestleMania 34, The Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Rollins, thus making Rollins the defending champion.[26] Both Miz and Joe were traded to SmackDown while Rollins and B\u00e1lor remained on Raw.[27][28]\n\nOn March 26, Cesaro and Sheamus were scheduled to defend the Raw Tag Team Championship against The Hardy Boyz (Jeff and Matt Hardy).[25] At WrestleMania 34, however, Cesaro and Sheamus lost the titles to Braun Strowman and 10-year-old Nicholas.[26] The following night on Raw, Strowman and Nicholas relinquished the titles due to Nicholas being a fourth grader. Cesaro and Sheamus demanded their titles back, but Raw General Manager Kurt Angle instead scheduled them to face the winner of the four-team Tag Team Eliminator tournament for the vacant titles at the Greatest Royal Rumble.[24] \"Woken\" Matt Hardy and Bray Wyatt won the tournament by defeating Titus Worldwide (Apollo Crews and Titus O'Neil) and The Revival (Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson).[27] Cesaro and Sheamus were then traded to SmackDown during the Superstar Shake-up.[28]\n\nAt WrestleMania 34, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) and The New Day's Big E and Kofi Kingston in a triple threat tag team match to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship.[26] On the following SmackDown, The Usos defeated The New Day to earn a title match at Greatest Royal Rumble.[29]\n\nA match between John Cena and Triple H was scheduled on March 26.[25]\n\nThe Undertaker, was originally scheduled to face Rusev in a casket match, the first match of its kind in three years.[30] Due to reasons not entirely clear, Rusev was temporarily replaced by Chris Jericho[31] \u2014 this was explained with Rusev's wife Lana complaining about her husband competing in a casket match[32] \u2014 but eventually reinserted back into the match. Jericho was restored to his original participation in the Greatest Royal Rumble match.[33]\n\nAt WrestleMania 34, Jinder Mahal defeated Randy Orton, Bobby Roode, and Rusev in a fatal-four way match to win the United States Championship.[26] Mahal was then traded to Raw and lost the championship to Jeff Hardy and Mahal invoked his rematch clause for the Greatest Royal Rumble.[27] Hardy was then traded to SmackDown the following night.[28]\n\nAt WrestleMania 34, AJ Styles successfully defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. After the match, showed his respect to Styles but then attacked him with a low blow and a Kinshasa, turning heel.[26] On April 17, after repeated attacks on Styles by Nakamura, a rematch between the two was scheduled for the Greatest Royal Rumble.[28]\n\nOn the WrestleMania 34 pre-show, Cedric Alexander defeated Mustafa Ali in the WWE Cruiserweight Championship tournament final to win the vacant title.[34] Two nights later on 205 Live, Buddy Murphy attacked the new champion during his celebration.[35] Murphy was then scheduled to face Alexander for the title at the Greatest Royal Rumble, but he failed his mandatory weigh-in when he weighed 207 pounds, 2 pounds over the 205 pound weight limit. He was then removed from the match and banned from competing on 205 Live until he met the weight requirement.[36] The following week, Kalisto earned a Cruiserweight Championship match at the Greatest Royal Rumble by winning a gauntlet match.[37]\n\nEvent[edit]\n\nPreliminary matches[edit]\n\nOther on-screen personnel\nRole: Name:\nEnglish commentators Michael Cole\nCorey Graves\nByron Saxton\nSpanish commentators Carlos Cabrera\nMarcelo Rodr\u00edguez\nArabic commentators Faisal Almughaisib\nSultan Alharbi\nJude Aldajani\nRing announcer Greg Hamilton\nReferees Danilo Anfibio\nJason Ayers\nJohn Cone\nDan Engler\nDarrick Moore\nChad Patton\nRyan Tran\nInterviewer Mike Rome\nPre-show panel Byron Saxton\nJerry Lawler\nJim Ross\nBooker T\n\nThe actual pay-per-view opened with John Cena facing Triple H. During the match, after trading finishers, and reversing each other's finishers, Cena performed an Attitude Adjustment on Triple H, a springboard into the corner turnbuckle, followed and another Attitude Adjustment to pick up the victory. Following the match Cena thanked the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their hospitality, and expressed excitement over the event.[38]\n\nIn the following match, Cedric Alexander defended the Cruiserweight Championship against Kalisto. The match ended when Alexander countered a Salida Del Sol attempt into a Lumbar Check to retain the title.[38]\n\nNext, the vacant Raw Tag Team Championship was contested between the team of Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy and the former champions, Cesaro and Sheamus. In the end, Hardy distracted Sheamus, allowing Wyatt to perform a Sister Abigail on him. Hardy and Wyatt then performed a wheelbarrow Twist of Fate on Sheamus to win the title.[38]\n\nJeff Hardy then defended the United States Championship against Jinder Mahal. In the end, Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Mahal to retain the title.[38]\n\nAfter that, The Bludgeons Brothers defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos. Harper and Rowan retained their titles after performing a Double Crucifix Powerbomb on Jimmy Uso.[38]\n\nNext, Seth Rollins defended the Intercontinental Championship against Finn Balor, Samoa Joe and The Miz in a Ladder match. Near the end of the match, Finn Balor climbed the ladder to unhook the championship, only for Rollins to leap from the top rope onto the ladder and managed to retrieve the title belt before Balor, thus retaining his championship.[38]\n\nLater, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. During the match, Nakamura resorted to various illegal tactics, such as a Low Blow, increasingly frustrating Styles. In the end, both Nakamura and Styles brawled outside of the ring only for the match to end in a double countout. Post-match Styles performed a Phenomenal Forearm over the top rope on Nakamura.[38]\n\nAfter that, The Undertaker fought Rusev (who was accompanied by Aiden English) in a Casket match. At the end of the match, Undertaker performed a Chokeslam on Rusev and rolled him into the casket. Before he could close the lid, English attacked the Undertaker, who retailiated with another Chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver before putting English into the casket alongside Rusev and closing it for the victory.[38]\n\nIn the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) defended the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match. Lesnar delivered multiple German Suplexes during the match, and both men kicked out of each other's finishing moves. At one point in the match, Reigns tried to escape the cage through the door only for Heyman to slam the door on Reigns. The match ended after Reigns put Lesnar through the cage wall with a Spear, sending it onto the floor. Despite Reigns touching the floor with both feet first, the referee awarded the win to Lesnar, thereby retaining the Universal Championship.[38]\n\nMain event[edit]\n\nDaniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler began the 50-man Royal Rumble match as the first two entrants. Bryan survived until the final 3, beating out Rey Mysterio for the longest time spent in a single Royal Rumble match of all time at an hour and sixteen minutes. At the end of the match, Big Cass eliminated Bryan only for Cass to then attempt a Big Boot on Braun Strowman, who ducked and knocked Cass over the top rope to win the match. Strowman also achieved the most eliminations of a single Royal Rumble match at 13, beating out a record previously held by Roman Reigns with 12.[39] Post-match, Strowman received a trophy and the Greatest Royal Rumble Championship.[38]\n\nControversy[edit]\n\nSee also: Women in WWE\n\nWWE had been criticized for holding the event without female wrestlers, who were unable to perform at the event due to the limited rights women have in Saudi Arabia.[40][41] Triple H, WWE's Executive Vice President of Talent, Live Events and Creative, responded to the criticism: \"I understand that people are questioning it, but you have to understand that every culture is different and just because you don\u2019t agree with a certain aspect of it, it doesn\u2019t mean it\u2019s not a relevant culture...You can\u2019t dictate to a country or a religion about how they handle things but, having said that, WWE is at the forefront of a women\u2019s evolution in the world and what you can\u2019t do is effect change anywhere by staying away from it....While women are not competing in the event, we have had discussions about that and hope that, in the next few years they will be\".[40] Women were in attendance for the event, though only if accompanied by a male guardian.[40] This was a major change from previous events, which were only open to men. Associated Press noted that this is due to \"a series of social changes\" by the Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman.[42] During the event, WWE aired a promotional video, which included WWE female wrestlers. The Saudi General Sports Authority issued an apology for \"indecent material\" that aired at the event.[43]\n\nIn addition to the women, wrestler Sami Zayn did not participate in the event as Zayn is of Syrian descent, and Saudi Arabia has strained relations with Syria.[44]\n\nAnother subject of criticism was the situation of LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia, as in Saudi Arabia homosexual intercourse is illegal and can be punished by death.[45]\n\nResults[edit]\n\nNo. Results Stipulations Times[38]\n1 John Cena defeated Triple H Singles match[46] 15:45\n2 Cedric Alexander (c) defeated Kalisto Singles match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship[47] 10:15\n3 Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy defeated Cesaro and Sheamus Tag team match for the vacant WWE Raw Tag Team Championship[48] 8:50\n4 Jeff Hardy (c) defeated Jinder Mahal (with Sunil Singh) Singles match for the WWE United States Championship[49] 6:10\n5 The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) (c) defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) Tag team match for the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship[50] 5:05\n6 Seth Rollins (c) defeated Finn B\u00e1lor, Samoa Joe, and The Miz Ladder match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship[51] 15:05\n7 AJ Styles (c) vs. Shinsuke Nakamura ended in a double countout Singles match for the WWE Championship[52] 14:25\n8 The Undertaker defeated Rusev (with Aiden English) Casket match[53] 9:40\n9 Brock Lesnar (c) (with Paul Heyman) defeated Roman Reigns by escaping the cage Steel cage match for the WWE Universal Championship[54] 9:15\n10 Braun Strowman won by last eliminating Big Cass 50-man Royal Rumble match for the WWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship[55] 1:17:20\n  \u2022 (c) \u2013 refers to the champion(s) heading into the match\n\n\nTag Team Eliminator bracket[edit]\n\n\u00a0 First Round\nRaw (4\/9)\n\u00a0 \u00a0 Finals\nRaw (4\/16)\n\u00a0 \u00a0 Championship Match\nGreatest Royal Rumble (4\/27)\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\n\u00a0 The Revival\n(Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson)\nPin[24] \u00a0\n\u00a0 Karl Anderson and Luke Gallows 3:35 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Cesaro and Sheamus 8:50\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 The Revival 5:25 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy Pin[38]\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy Pin[27] \u00a0\n\u00a0 Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy Pin[24] \u00a0 \u00a0\n\u00a0 Titus Worldwide\n(Apollo Crews and Titus O'Neil)\n5:07 \u00a0\n\nGreatest Royal Rumble match entrances and eliminations[edit]\n\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u2013 Raw\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u2013 SmackDown\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u2013 NXT\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u2013 Free agent\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u2013 Winner\nDraw Entrant Brand Order Eliminated by Time[56] Elimination(s)\n1 Daniel Bryan SmackDown 48 Big Cass 1:16:05 3\n2 Dolph Ziggler Raw 12 Kurt Angle 0:21:44 2\n3 Sin Cara SmackDown 1 Dolph Ziggler 0:01:18 0\n4 Curtis Axel Raw 2 Mark Henry 0:02:00 0\n5 Mark Henry Free agent 5 Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler 0:03:27 3\n6 Mike Kanellis Raw 3 Mark Henry 0:00:03 0\n7 Hiroki Sumi Free agent 4 Mark Henry 0:00:46 0\n8 Viktor Raw 6 Daniel Bryan 0:00:51 0\n9 Kofi Kingston SmackDown 14 Elias 0:16:34 1\n10 Tony Nese Raw 9 Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods 0:07:13 1\n11 Dash Wilder Raw 7 Daniel Bryan and Hornswoggle 0:01:26 0\n12 Hornswoggle Free agent 8 Tony Nese 0:01:00 1\n13 Primo Col\u00f3n SmackDown 11 Kurt Angle 0:05:10 0\n14 Xavier Woods SmackDown 15 Elias 0:09:56 1\n15 Bo Dallas Raw 10 Kurt Angle 0:01:34 0\n16 Kurt Angle Raw 16 Elias 0:07:59 3\n17 Scott Dawson Raw 19 Bobby Roode 0:11:44 0\n18 Goldust Raw 18 Bobby Roode 0:10:04 0\n19 Konnor Raw 13 Elias 0:02:25 0\n20 Elias Raw 41 Bobby Lashley 0:34:04 5\n21 Luke Gallows SmackDown 20 Rey Mysterio 0:09:16 0\n22 Rhyno Raw 25 Roderick Strong 0:16:22 0\n23 Drew Gulak Raw 17 Tucker Knight 0:01:47 0\n24 Tucker Knight NXT 23 Big E 0:10:08 1\n25 Bobby Roode Raw 29 Baron Corbin 0:17:44 2\n26 Fandango Raw 21 Mojo Rawley 0:03:42 0\n27 Chad Gable Raw 24 Apollo Crews 0:08:17 0\n28 Rey Mysterio Free agent 37 Baron Corbin 0:20:25 1\n29 Mojo Rawley Raw 27 Randy Orton 0:08:52 2\n30 Tyler Breeze Raw 22 Mojo Rawley 0:00:16 0\n31 Big E SmackDown 33 Braun Strowman 0:13:59 1\n32 Karl Anderson SmackDown 26 Randy Orton 0:04:25 0\n33 Apollo Crews Raw 28 Randy Orton 0:03:26 1\n34 Roderick Strong NXT 30 Baron Corbin 0:06:00 1\n35 Randy Orton SmackDown 39 Elias 0:10:58 4\n36 Heath Slater Raw 34 Braun Strowman 0:07:38 0\n37 Babatunde NXT 31 Braun Strowman 0:05:53 0\n38 Baron Corbin Raw 38 Randy Orton 0:07:08 3\n39 Titus O'Neil Raw 35 Braun Strowman 0:04:42 0\n40 Dan Matha NXT 32 Braun Strowman 0:02:01 0\n41 Braun Strowman Raw 50 !\u2014 Winner 0:22:14 !0:22:14 13\n42 Tye Dillinger SmackDown 36 Braun Strowman 0:00:29 0\n43 Curt Hawkins Raw 40 Braun Strowman 0:00:20 0\n44 Bobby Lashley Raw 45 Braun Strowman 0:14:38 2\n45 The Great Khali Free agent 42 Braun Strowman and Bobby Lashley 0:00:31 0\n46 Kevin Owens Raw 47 Braun Strowman 0:10:43 0\n47 Shane McMahon SmackDown 44 Braun Strowman 0:08:07 0\n48 Shelton Benjamin SmackDown 43 Chris Jericho 0:04:23 0\n49 Big Cass SmackDown 49 Braun Strowman 0:07:23 1\n50 Chris Jericho SmackDown 46 Braun Strowman 0:03:18 1\n  \u2022 By eliminating 13 men, Braun Strowman broke the record of 12, set by Roman Reigns at the 2014 Royal Rumble.\n  \u2022 Daniel Bryan broke the longevity record for lasting 1:16:05, previous record held by Rey Mysterio (lasting 1:02:12) at the 2006 Royal Rumble.\n\nWWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship[edit]\n\nWWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship\nGreatestRoyalRumbleChamp.jpg\nThe WWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship belt with default side plates\nDetails\nPromotion WWE\nDate established April 27, 2018\nCurrent champion(s) Braun Strowman[57]\nDate won April 27, 2018\nOther name(s)\n  \u2022 Belt Kingdom Championship\n[show]Statistics\nFirst champion(s) Braun Strowman\nLongest reign Braun Strowman (7001310000000000000\u266031+ days)\nHeaviest champion Braun Strowman (385 lbs)\n\nThe WWE Greatest Royal Rumble Championship, also known as the Belt Kingdom Championship (Arabic: \u062d\u0632\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0637\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629), is a professional wrestling championship created and promoted by American professional wrestling promotion WWE and sanctioned by the Saudi General Sports Authority.[58] The current and inaugural champion is Braun Strowman, who was awarded the championship for winning the 50-man Greatest Royal Rumble match at the namesake event.\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nOn March 5, 2018, WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority advertised the Greatest Royal Rumble, a live event to be held on April 27, 2018, at King Abdullah International Stadium, part of the King Abdullah Sports City, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.[12][13] The event was part of a 10-year strategic multi-platform partnership between WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia's social and economic reform program.[3][14] The Greatest Royal Rumble Championship was unveiled by WWE on April 27, 2018 during the Greatest Royal Rumble event.[59] The championship was announced on the official website of the Saudi General Sports Authority as the Belt Kingdom Championship.[60] Braun Strowman, the 41st entrant of the 50-man Greatest Royal Rumble match, became the inaugural Greatest Royal Rumble Champion by lastly eliminating Big Cass.[61][62][63]\n\nChampionship belt design[edit]\n\nAs with some other championship belts unveiled in 2016, the base design is similar to the WWE Championship, with notable differences.[64] Instead of a large cut out of the WWE logo, the center plate is modeled with Arabic pattern with the WWE logo in the center. Like the WWE Championship belt and other belts introduced in 2016 and 2017, the Greatest Royal Rumble Championship belt features two side plates, both separated by gold divider bars, with removable round sections that can be replaced with the current champion's logo; the default plates feature the official logo of Saudi General Sports Authority which is identical to the national emblem of Saudi Arabia. The plates are on a green leather strap resembling the color of the national flag of Saudi Arabia.\n\nReigns[edit]\n\nAs of May 28, 2018, there has been one reign, which is the inaugural and current champion, Braun Strowman.\n\nNo. Champion Reign Date Days held Location Event Notes Ref.\n1 Strowman, BraunBraun Strowman 1 April 27, 2018 7001310000000000000\u266031+ Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Greatest Royal Rumble Became the inaugural champion by winning the 50-man Greatest Royal Rumble match [65]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Let's rumble like never before. \"When Legends Rise\" by @godsmack is an #OfficialThemeSong for the Greatest Royal Rumble event. #WWEGRR\". WWE on Twitter. April 27, 2018. Retrieved April 28, 2018.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"First-ever WWE Greatest Royal Rumble wows 60,000 in Jeddah\". Arab News. April 27, 2018. Retrieved April 28, 2018.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d WWE.com staff (March 5, 2018). \"Saudi Arabia to host the Greatest Royal Rumble\". WWE. Retrieved March 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"WWE Greatest Royal Rumble to be shown live on Sky Sports Box Office\". Sky Sports. March 22, 2018. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ WWE.com staff (April 4, 2018). \"Greatest Royal Rumble to stream on WWE Network Friday, April 27, at 12 p.m. ET\/9 a.m. PT\". WWE. Retrieved April 4, 2018.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Mike Johnson (March 12, 2018). \"WWE NETWORK TO BROADCAST GREATEST ROYAL RUMBLE\". PWInsider. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Saudi Arabia to host the Greatest Royal Rumble\". Saudigazette. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"WWE Network confirms Greatest Royal Rumble start time, Kickoff\". WWE. Retrieved April 9, 2018.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Seven title bouts, 50-Man Greatest Royal Rumble Match announced for Greatest Royal Rumble\". WWE. Retrieved March 19, 2018.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Specialty Matches: Royal Rumble\". WWE. Retrieved March 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Waldman, Jon (2005-02-02). \"Statistical survival \u2013 breaking down the Royal Rumble\". SLAM! Wrestling. Retrieved March 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Adam Silverstein (March 5, 2018). \"WWE news, rumors: 'Greatest Royal Rumble,' NXT injury, Jericho-NJPW done?\". CBS Sports. Retrieved March 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Jefferson Lake (March 5, 2018). \"WWE: Saudi Arabia to host 50-man Royal Rumble\". Sky Sports. Retrieved March 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b \"National Transformation Program 2020\" (PDF).\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Pay Per View on Verizon Fios\". Verizon Fios. Retrieved April 21, 2018.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"EXCLUSIVE: WWE Network Offering Arabic Commentary For Greatest Royal Rumble Event\". 27 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Eight athletes selected to receive additional training in Saudi Arabia\". WWE. Retrieved 2018-04-27.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Grabianowski, Ed. \"How Pro Wrestling Works\". HowStuffWorks. Discovery Communications. Archived from the original on November 18, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2012.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Live & Televised Entertainment\". WWE. Archived from the original on November 18, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2012.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Steinberg, Brian (2016-05-25). \"WWE's 'Smackdown' Will Move To Live Broadcast On USA (EXCLUSIVE)\". Variety. Archived from the original on 2016-05-26. Retrieved 2016-05-25.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Triple H Conference Call Report: Discusses 205 Live, NXT Takeover: Toronto, Says HBK Working at the Performance Center and More - 411MANIA\". 411mania.com. Archived from the original on 2016-12-20.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Brock Lesnar re-signs with WWE, will defend his Universal Title against Reigns in a rematch later this month\". Pro Wreslting Torch. April 9, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Powell, Jason. \"WWE re-signs Brock Lesnar, WrestleMania 34 rematch withe Roman Reigns announced\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 9, 2018.\u00a0\n  24. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Powell, Jason. \"WWE Raw Live TV Review: The Night After WrestleMania 34 edition\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 9, 2018.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"John Cena takes on Triple H at the Greatest Royal Rumble; tickets available this Saturday, March 31\". WWE. Retrieved March 26, 2018.\u00a0\n  26. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Powell, Jason. \"Powell's WrestleMania 34 live review: AJ Styles vs. Shinsuke Nakamura for the WWE Championship, Brock Lesnar vs. Roman Reigns for the WWE Universal Championship, Charlotte Flair vs. Asuka for the Smackdown Women's Championship, Ronda Rousey and Kurt Angle vs. Triple H and Stephanie McMahon\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 8, 2018.\u00a0\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Powell, Jason. \"WWE Raw Live TV Review: The Superstar Shakeup Night One, Sasha Banks vs. Bayley, Matt Hardy and Bray Wyatt vs. The Revival for a shot at the vacant Raw Tag Titles\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Powell, Jason. \"4\/17 Powell's WWE Smackdown Live TV Review: The WWE Superstar Shakeup Night Two\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 17, 2018.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Powell, Jason. \"4\/10 Powell's WWE Smackdown Live TV Review: AJ Styles vs. Daniel Bryan, Paige named new general manager, New Day vs. The Usos for a Smackdown Tag Title shot at the Greatest Royal Rumble\". Pro Wrestling Dot Net. Retrieved April 10, 2018.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Powell, Jason. \"Undertaker returning for a casket match at the Greatest Royal Rumble\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 11, 2018.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Powell, Jason. \"WWE changes Undertaker match at Greatest Royal Rumble\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"WWE's Lana & Rusev Rusev's Gonna Retire Undertaker ... CRUSH His Old Ass!\". TMZ Sports. April 12, 2018. Retrieved April 13, 2018.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Martin, Adam. \"Undertaker vs. Rusev back on for Greatest Royal Rumble, Miz talks about becoming a father\". WrestleView. Retrieved April 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Powell, Jason. \"Powell's WrestleMania 34 Kickoff Show live review: WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal, Cedric Alexander vs. Mustfa Ali for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship, Andre the Giant Memorial Battle Royal\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Archived from the original on April 9, 2018. Retrieved April 8, 2018.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Heydorn, Zack (April 10, 2018). \"4\/10 WWE 205 Live Report: Cedric Alexander debuts as the new WWE Cruiserweight Champion, Gulak vs. Andrews, The Brian Kendrick returns, and more\". Pro Wrestling Torch. Archived from the original on April 12, 2018. Retrieved April 11, 2018.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Heydorn, Zack (April 17, 2018). \"4\/17 WWE 205 Live Report: Maverick addresses Buddy Murphy, Dorado & Metalik vs. Tozawa & Itami, and more\". Pro Wrestling Torch. Retrieved April 19, 2018.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Heydorn, Zack (April 24, 2018). \"4\/24 WWE 205 Live Report: A number one contender gauntlet match featuring Mustafa Ali, Drew Gulak, and more\". Pro Wrestling Torch. Retrieved April 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  38. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Powell, Jason. \"Powell's WWE Greatest Royal Rumble live review: 50-man Royal Rumble match, Brock Lesnar vs. Roman Reigns in a cage match for the WWE Universal Championship, AJ Styles vs. Shinsuke Nakamura for the WWE Championship, John Cena vs. Triple H, Undertaker vs. Rusev in a casket match\". Pro Wreslting Dot Net. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Martin, Adam. \"WWE Royal Rumble PPV results 1\/26\/14 - (30 man Rumble)\". WrestleView. Retrieved 1 February 2014.\u00a0\n  40. ^ Jump up to: a b c Paddock, Matty (April 24, 2018). \"WWE Greatest Royal Rumble: Triple H defends hosting event in Saudi Arabia without any women wrestlers\". The Independent. Retrieved April 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Collins, Elle (March 26, 2018). \"WWE Reveals New Matches For The Greatest Royal Rumble, But No Women's Wrestling Allowed\". Uproxx. Retrieved April 24, 2018.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Women, children attend wrestling event in Saudi Arabia\". apnews.com. Retrieved 2018-04-28.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"APOLOGY ISSUED FOR 'INDECENT' MATERIAL AIRED DURING GREATEST ROYAL RUMBLE - PWInsider.com\". www.pwinsider.com.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"VINCE THANKS SAUDI ARABIA, BACKSTAGE NOTES AND MORE FROM GREATEST ROYAL RUMBLE\". PWInsider. 2018-04-28. Retrieved 2018-04-29.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"WWE is hosting Greatest Royal Rumble in Saudi Arabia and LGBT+ fans are not happy about it \u2013 PinkNews\". www.pinknews.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-27.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Benigno, Anthony. \"John Cena def. Triple H\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Powers, Kevin. \"WWE Cruiserweight Champion Cedric Alexander def. Kalisto\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Wortman, James. \"\"Woken\" Matt Hardy & Bray Wyatt def. Cesaro & Sheamus (new Raw Tag Team Champions)\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Melok, Bobby. \"United States Champion Jeff Hardy def. Jinder Mahal\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Wortman, James. \"SmackDown Tag Team Champions The Bludgeon Brothers def. The Usos\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ Benigno, Anthony. \"Intercontinental Champion Seth Rollins def. The Miz, Finn B\u00e1lor and Samoa Joe (Ladder Match)\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Melok, Bobby. \"WWE Champion AJ Styles vs. Shinsuke Nakamura ended in a Double Count-out\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Clapp, John. \"The Undertaker def. Rusev in a Casket Match\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ Melok, Bobby. \"Brock Lesnar def. Roman Reigns in a Steel Cage Match to retain the Universal Championship\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ Benigno, Anthony. \"Braun Strowman won the first-ever 50-Man Greatest Royal Rumble Match to become the Greatest Royal Rumble Champion\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"50-Man Greatest Royal Rumble Match statistics: Entrant order, eliminations, times and more\". WWE. Retrieved April 27, 2018.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Greatest Royal Rumble Championship\". WWE. Retrieved 2018-05-08.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ \"WWE Reveals Greatest Royal Rumble Championship Belt [Photo]\". April 27, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2018.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"LOOK: WWE awards awesome special championship title for Greatest Royal Rumble\". Retrieved 1 May 2018.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"The King Abdullah Sports City Stadium hosted the Greatest Royal Rumble\". gsa.gov.sa. April 27, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2018.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ \"WWE Greatest Royal Rumble results, recap, grades: Lesnar-Reigns controversy, Strowman stands tall\". Retrieved 1 May 2018.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ \"Greatest Royal Rumble results: Lesnar retains Universal title, Strowman wins Rumble\". Retrieved 1 May 2018.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ \"WWE's Greatest Royal Rumble had it all, including controversy\". 28 April 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2018.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Superstars\".\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ Tim Fiorvanti (April 28, 2018). \"Lesnar retains Universal championship, Strowman wins Greatest Royal Rumble\". ESPN. Retrieved May 1, 2018.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconProfessional Wrestling portal\n  \u2022 Greatest Royal Rumble Official Website\n  \u2022 Greatest Royal Rumble Championship title history\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWWE\nHistory\n  \u2022 Capitol Wrestling Corporation\n  \u2022 1980s boom\n  \u2022 Black Saturday\n  \u2022 WrestleMania\n  \u2022 The Kliq\n  \u2022 Monday Night Wars\n  \u2022 Montreal Screwjob\n  \u2022 Attitude Era\n  \u2022 The Undertaker vs. Mankind\n  \u2022 The Invasion\n  \u2022 Chris Benoit double-murder and suicide\n  \u2022 The New Monday Night Wars\n  \u2022 TNA Entertainment, LLC sues WWE\n  \u2022 Raw 1000\n  \u2022 Raw 25 Years\nProgramming\nMain shows\n  \u2022 Raw\n    \u2022 history\n  \u2022 SmackDown\n    \u2022 history\n  \u2022 NXT\nWeekly\n  \u2022 205 Live\n  \u2022 Main Event\n  \u2022 Experience\n  \u2022 Bottom Line\n  \u2022 Afterburn\n  \u2022 Vintage\n  \u2022 Wal3ooha\nSeasonal\n  \u2022 Miz & Mrs.\n  \u2022 Total Bellas\n  \u2022 Total Divas\nSpecials\n  \u2022 Free for All\n  \u2022 Tribute to the Troops\n    \u2022 results\nPay-per-view and\nWWE Network events\n  \u2022 Royal Rumble\n  \u2022 Elimination Chamber\n  \u2022 Fastlane\n  \u2022 WrestleMania\n  \u2022 Greatest Royal Rumble\n  \u2022 Backlash\n  \u2022 Money in the Bank\n  \u2022 United Kingdom Championship Tournament\n  \u2022 Extreme Rules\n  \u2022 SummerSlam\n  \u2022 Hell in a Cell\n  \u2022 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs\n  \u2022 Survivor Series\n  \u2022 Clash of Champions\n  \u2022 NXT TakeOver\nOther\n  \u2022 Former programming\nPersonnel\n  \u2022 McMahon family\n  \u2022 Roster\n  \u2022 Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 Alumni\n    \u2022 A\u2013C\n    \u2022 D\u2013H\n    \u2022 I\u2013M\n    \u2022 N\u2013R\n    \u2022 S\u2013Z\nAction figures\n  \u2022 LJN Wrestling Superstars\n  \u2022 Mattel WWE Legends\n  \u2022 WWF Hasbro action figures\n  \u2022 Other\nAffiliated properties\n  \u2022 WWE 2K Games\n  \u2022 WWE Books\n  \u2022 WWE Libraries Inc.\n  \u2022 WWE Magazine\n  \u2022 WWE Music Group\n    \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 WWE Studios\n  \u2022 WWE Home Video\n  \u2022 WWE Network (Canada)\n  \u2022 WWE Performance Center\n  \u2022 Tapout\nDefunct businesses\n  \u2022 World Bodybuilding Federation\n  \u2022 The World\n  \u2022 WWE Classics on Demand\n  \u2022 WWE Niagara Falls\n  \u2022 XFL\nInvestments\n  \u2022 Marvel Experience\n  \u2022 Tout\n  \u2022 Cloud9\n  \u2022 Drone Racing League\nNotable acquisitions\n  \u2022 World Championship Wrestling\n    \u2022 history\n  \u2022 Extreme Championship Wrestling\n    \u2022 WWE revival\n  \u2022 American Wrestling Association\n  \u2022 World Class Championship Wrestling\n  \u2022 Smoky Mountain Wrestling\n  \u2022 Global Wrestling Federation\n  \u2022 Georgia Championship Wrestling\nPartnerships\nCurrent\n  \u2022 Evolve\n  \u2022 Insane Championship Wrestling\n  \u2022 Progress Wrestling\nFormer\n  \u2022 Deep South Wrestling\n  \u2022 Florida Championship Wrestling\n  \u2022 Heartland Wrestling Association\n  \u2022 International Wrestling Association\n  \u2022 Memphis Championship Wrestling\n  \u2022 Ohio Valley Wrestling\n  \u2022 Power Pro Wrestling\n  \u2022 Ultimate Pro Wrestling\n  \u2022 World Wrestling Alliance\nAccomplishments\n  \u2022 Current champions\n  \u2022 Former championships\n  \u2022 Money in the Bank\n  \u2022 WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal\n  \u2022 Andr\u00e9 the Giant Memorial Battle Royal\n  \u2022 Diva Search\n  \u2022 Cruiserweight Classic\n  \u2022 Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic\n  \u2022 Mae Young Classic\n  \u2022 Mixed Match Challenge\n  \u2022 Slammy Award\n  \u2022 NXT Year-End Award\n  \u2022 Triple Crown\n  \u2022 Grand Slam\n  \u2022 WWE tournaments\nBrand extension\nBrands\n  \u2022 Raw\n  \u2022 SmackDown\n  \u2022 NXT\n  \u2022 ECW\nDraft\n  \u2022 2002\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\n  \u2022 2018\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 List of WWE attendance records\n  \u2022 The Streak\n  \u2022 Women in WWE\n  \u2022 WrestleMania Axxess\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n  \u2022 \u2190 2017\n  \u2022 2018\u00a0(2018) WWE Network events\nWWE\n  \u2022 Royal Rumble\n  \u2022 Elimination Chamber\n  \u2022 Fastlane\n  \u2022 WrestleMania 34\n  \u2022 Greatest Royal Rumble\n  \u2022 Backlash\n  \u2022 Money in the Bank\n  \u2022 United Kingdom Championship Tournament\n  \u2022 Extreme Rules\n  \u2022 SummerSlam\n  \u2022 Hell in a Cell\n  \u2022 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs\n  \u2022 Survivor Series\n  \u2022 Clash of Champions\nNXT\n  \u2022 TakeOver: Philadelphia\n  \u2022 TakeOver: New Orleans\n  \u2022 TakeOver: Chicago\n  \u2022 TakeOver: Brooklyn\n  \u2022 TakeOver: Los Angeles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nWWE pay-per-view and WWE Network events\nCurrent\n  \u2022 Royal Rumble (1989\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Elimination Chamber (2010\u20132015, 2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Fastlane (2015\u2013present)\n  \u2022 WrestleMania (1985\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Greatest Royal Rumble (2018\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Backlash (1999\u20132009, 2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Money in the Bank (2010\u2013present)\n  \u2022 United Kingdom Championship Tournament (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Mae Young Classic Finale (2017\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Extreme Rules (2009\u2013present)\n  \u2022 SummerSlam (1988\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Hell in a Cell (2009\u2013present)\n  \u2022 TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs (2009\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Survivor Series (1987\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Clash of Champions (2016\u2013present)\n  \u2022 NXT TakeOver (2014\u2013present)\nFormer\n  \u2022 The Wrestling Classic (1985)\n  \u2022 No Holds Barred (1989)\n  \u2022 This Tuesday in Texas (1991)\n  \u2022 One Night Only (1997)\n  \u2022 Capital Carnage (1998)\n  \u2022 In Your House (1995\u20131999)\n  \u2022 Over the Edge (1998\u20131999)\n  \u2022 Fully Loaded (1998\u20132000)\n  \u2022 Invasion (2001)\n  \u2022 Rebellion (1999\u20132002)\n  \u2022 Insurrextion (2000\u20132003)\n  \u2022 Bad Blood (1997, 2003\u20132004)\n  \u2022 Taboo Tuesday (2004\u20132005)\n  \u2022 December to Dismember (2006)\n  \u2022 New Year's Revolution (2005\u20132007)\n  \u2022 One Night Stand (2005\u20132008)\n  \u2022 Unforgiven (1998\u20132008)\n  \u2022 Cyber Sunday (2006\u20132008)\n  \u2022 Armageddon (1999\u20132000, 2002\u20132008)\n  \u2022 Judgment Day (1998, 2000\u20132009)\n  \u2022 The Great American Bash (2004\u20132009)\n  \u2022 Breaking Point (2009)\n  \u2022 Fatal 4-Way (2010)\n  \u2022 Bragging Rights (2009\u20132010)\n  \u2022 Capitol Punishment (2011)\n  \u2022 Vengeance (2001\u20132007, 2011)\n  \u2022 Over the Limit (2010\u20132012)\n  \u2022 No Way Out (1998, 2000\u20132009, 2012)\n  \u2022 NXT Arrival (2014)\n  \u2022 King of the Ring (1993\u20132002, 2015)\n  \u2022 The Beast in the East (2015)\n  \u2022 Live from Madison Square Garden (2015)\n  \u2022 Night of Champions (2008\u20132015)\n  \u2022 Cruiserweight Classic Finale (2016)\n  \u2022 Roadblock (2016)\n  \u2022 United Kingdom Championship Special (2017)\n  \u2022 Great Balls of Fire (2017)\n  \u2022 Battleground (2013\u20132017)\n  \u2022 No Mercy (1999\u20132008, 2016\u20132017)\n  \u2022 Payback (2013\u20132017)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=WWE_Greatest_Royal_Rumble&oldid=843362683\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Entertainment events in Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 Royal Rumble\n  \u2022 April 2018 events in Asia\n  \u2022 2018 in Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 2018 WWE Network events\n  \u2022 2018 WWE pay-per-view events\n  \u2022 Professional wrestling in Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 WWE championships\n  \u2022 National professional wrestling championships\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 May 2018, at 17:17.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5534194790926270381","title":"Bugsy Malone","text":"Bugsy Malone\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nNot to be confused with Bugzy Malone.\nThis media article uses IMDb for verification. IMDb may not be a reliable source for film and television information and is generally only cited as an external link. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Please help by replacing IMDb with third-party reliable sources. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nBugsy Malone\nBugsy malone movie poster.jpg\nTheatrical release poster by Charles Moll\nDirected by Alan Parker\nProduced by Alan Marshall\nWritten by Alan Parker\nStarring\n  \u2022 Scott Baio\n  \u2022 Jodie Foster\n  \u2022 Florrie Dugger\n  \u2022 John Cassisi\n  \u2022 Martin Lev\nMusic by Paul Williams\nCinematography\n  \u2022 Peter Biziou\n  \u2022 Michael Seresin\nEdited by Gerry Hambling\nProduction\ncompanies\n  \u2022 Goodtimes Enterprises\n  \u2022 RSO Records\nDistributed by Fox-Rank Distributors (United Kingdom)\nParamount Pictures (United States)\nRelease date\n  \u2022 26\u00a0June\u00a01976\u00a0(1976-06-26)\nRunning time\n93 minutes[1]\nCountry United Kingdom\nUnited States[2]\nLanguage\n  \u2022 English\n  \u2022 Italian\nBudget \u00a3575,000[3]-\u00a31 million[4]\nBox office $2.8 million[5]\n\nBugsy Malone is a 1976 American-British musical gangster comedy film, directed by Alan Parker and featuring only child actors. Set in New York City, the film is loosely based on events in New York and Chicago from the early 1920s to 1931 during Prohibition, specifically the exploits of real-life gangsters like Al Capone and Bugs Moran, as dramatized in cinema. Parker lightened the subject matter considerably for the children's market; in the U.S. the film received a G rating.\n\nThe film was Parker's feature-length directorial debut, introduced actor Scott Baio, and featured a 13-year old Jodie Foster.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n  \u2022 3 Production\n    \u2022 3.1 Casting\n    \u2022 3.2 Music\n    \u2022 3.3 Filming\n  \u2022 4 Release\n  \u2022 5 Accolades\n  \u2022 6 Home media\n  \u2022 7 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 8 Legacy\n  \u2022 9 Stage adaptation\n  \u2022 10 References\n  \u2022 11 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nA mobster named Roxy Robinson is \"splurged\" by members of a gang, using rapid-fire cream-shooting \"splurge guns\". Once splurged, a kid is \"all washed up... finished\". Speakeasy boss Fat Sam introduces himself and Bugsy Malone, a boxing promoter with no money (\"Bugsy Malone\").\n\nAt Fat Sam's speakeasy, there is much dancing and singing (\"Fat Sam's Grand Slam\"). Fat Sam is worried that his rival Dandy Dan will try to take control of the speakeasy. Blousey Brown, an aspiring singer, has come for an audition, but Sam is too distracted to see her. Bugsy meets Blousey when he trips over her luggage. He is smitten and flirts with her. Fat Sam's is raided by Dandy Dan's men, who shoot up the place. Dandy Dan's men continue to attack Fat Sam's empire, eventually taking away rackets and splurging members of Fat Sam's gang. Fat Sam sends all his available men to see if they can track down the guns. They are trapped at a laundry and all are splurged by Dandy Dan's gang.\n\nBugsy returns to Fat Sam's to arrange a new audition for Blousey. Fat Sam's girlfriend, the chanteuse Tallulah, makes a pass at him. Although Bugsy rejects her flirtation, Tallulah plants a big kiss on Bugsy's forehead when Blousey enters; Blousey is jealous. Fat Sam hires Blousey after her audition, but she refuses to speak to Bugsy (\"I'm Feelin' Fine\").\n\nFat Sam hires Bugsy to accompany him to a meeting with Dandy Dan. The meeting is a trap, but Bugsy helps Fat Sam escape. Gratefully, Fat Sam pays him $200. Bugsy and Blousey reconcile and have a romantic outing on a lake; Bugsy promises to take her to Hollywood. When he returns Sam's car to the garage, he is attacked and his money is stolen. Bugsy is saved by Leroy Smith, who assaults the attackers and drives them away. Bugsy realizes that Leroy has the potential to be a great boxer. Bugsy introduces Leroy to Cagey Joe and helps him train (\"So You Wanna Be a Boxer?\"). Fat Sam again seeks Bugsy's aid after his assistant Knuckles is unintentionally killed. Bugsy resists, but Fat Sam offers $400, enough money to keep his promise to Blousey. Blousey is disappointed when she learns that Bugsy hasn't bought the tickets to California yet (\"Ordinary Fool\"). Bugsy and Leroy follow Dandy Dan's men to a warehouse, where the guns are being stashed. The two of them can't take the place alone, so Bugsy recruits a large group of down-and-out workers at a soup kitchen (\"Down and Out\").\n\nThey steal the crates of guns and take them to Fat Sam's, arriving just as Dandy Dan's gang arrives. Chaos ensues as a massive splurge gun fight erupts, covering everyone (except Bugsy and Blousey) with cream. Unarmed patrons throw cream pies. The piano player is hit from behind and falls onto the keys, striking a single bass note. The tone silences the room, and the cream-covered crowd performs in a final number (\"You Give a Little Love\"). They realize they can all be friends, and Bugsy and Blousey leave for Hollywood.\n\nCast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Scott Baio as Bugsy Malone, an Italian-Irish ex-boxer\/boxing scout.\n  \u2022 Florrie Dugger as Blousey Brown, a sassy young dame interested in Hollywood.\n  \u2022 Jodie Foster as Tallulah, Fat Sam's gun moll, the speakeasy's star chanteuse and Bugsy's old flame.\n  \u2022 John Cassisi as Fat Sam Staccetto, crime boss. He is dubbed by the press as \"The Alleged Mobster King of the Lower East Side\".\n  \u2022 Martin Lev as Dandy Dan, rival gang boss who steals Fat Sam's territory.\n  \u2022 Paul Murphy as Leroy Smith, an African-American tramp who discovers he has a talent for boxing\n  \u2022 Sheridan Earl Russell as Knuckles, Fat Sam's main hoodlum who constantly cracks his knuckles. The only character to actually be killed by the splurge as opposed to \"finished\".\n  \u2022 Albin 'Humpty' Jenkins as Fizzy, Caretaker at Fat Sam's Grand Slam, tap dancer\n  \u2022 Paul Chirelstein as Smolsky, dim-witted police captain\n  \u2022 Andrew Paul as O'Dreary, dumb policeman\n  \u2022 Jeffrey Stevens as Louis, one of Fat Sam's hoodlums\n  \u2022 Donald Waugh as Snake Eyes, one of Fat Sam's hoodlums\n  \u2022 Peter Holder as Ritzy, one of Fat Sam's hoodlums\n  \u2022 Michael Kirkby as Angelo, one of Fat Sam's hoodlums\n  \u2022 Dexter Fletcher as Baby Face, down and out\n  \u2022 Davidson Knight as Cagey Joe, the boxing gym owner\n  \u2022 John Williams as Roxy Robinson, Fat Sam's best bodyguard, splurged by Dandy Dan's gang\n  \u2022 Bonnie Langford as Lena Marelli, showy, pompous theatre performer\n  \u2022 Mark Curry as Oscar DeVelt, stuck-up theatre producer\n  \u2022 Jonathan Scott-Taylor as News Reporter\n  \u2022 Sarah E. Joyce as Smokey Priscilla, showgirl, Tallulah's Troupe\n  \u2022 Helen Corran as Bangles, showgirl, Tallulah's Troupe\n  \u2022 Kathy Spaudling as Loretta, showgirl, Tallulah's Troupe\n  \u2022 Vivienne McKone as Velma, showgirl, Tallulah's Troupe\n  \u2022 Lynn Aulbaugh as Louella, Dandy Dan's wife and polo partner\n  \u2022 Michael Jackson as Razamatazz - Fat Sam's personal pianist and performer at the Grand Slam Speakeasy (n.b. not Michael Jackson)\n  \u2022 Louise English as Ballerina Mel\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nBugsy Malone was Alan Parker's first feature film. Parker was trying to find a film project that was not \"parochial\" and decided upon an American gangster setting: \"I had four young children and we used to go to a cottage in Derbyshire at weekends. On the long, boring car journey up there, I started telling them the story of a gangster called Bugsy Malone. They\u2019d ask me questions and I\u2019d make up answers, based on my memories of watching old movie reruns as a kid.\" His eldest son suggested children should be cast as the \"heroes\".[6]\n\nCasting[edit]\n\nThe director chose to cast several unknown actors in the film. To find his Fat Sam, Parker visited a Brooklyn classroom, asking for \"the naughtiest boy in class\". The students were unanimous in selecting John Cassisi, and Parker gave him the role. Florrie Dugger (Blousey) was originally cast in a smaller role; when the actress cast as Blousey suddenly grew taller than Baio, Dugger was promoted. She had been \"discovered\" at RAF Chicksands, an air force base in Bedfordshire where her American father was stationed.[7] At the time of filming, all of the cast were under 17 years old.[8]\n\nParker cast Baio after he slammed down the script and stormed out of his audition.[6] Baio later remembered:\n\nI had quit the business, because I didn\u2019t like driving into Manhattan. Well, the long and the short of it is that I wanted to play with my friends after school, but it happened to be raining that day, so I went to the city to meet with Alan Parker. I read it, but I just barely read it. I didn\u2019t even want to be there. He was English, but I didn\u2019t even know what that was. He was just this weird guy with long hair, and I didn\u2019t know what he was. [Laughs.] So I sort of read the script, threw it at him, and walked out the door. That was it: I\u2019d gotten the part before I got home.[9]\n\nMusic[edit]\n\nParker chose Paul Williams to score the film in order to get a more \"palatable\" modern sound, and simply because he liked him.[10] Williams had scored Brian De Palma's commercial failure Phantom of the Paradise, but had also written huge pop-radio hits (such as \"We've Only Just Begun\" (lyrics), and \"(Just An) Old Fashioned Love Song\"). In fact, Williams would soon win an Oscar for his song \"Evergreen\" from the film A Star Is Born (1976).\n\nWilliams felt that \"...the challenge for me was to provide songs that reflected the period ... and yet maintained an energy that would hold the young audiences attention.\" According to Parker, Williams was writing while on tour, recording songs in different cities, and sending the completed tapes to Hollywood. Arriving during the first pre-shoot rehearsals, the songs had to be accepted and used as they were, with voices by Williams, Archie Hahn and others.\n\nNeither the director nor the songwriter was entirely comfortable with the results. Williams later wrote \"I'm really proud of the work and the only thing I've ever doubted is the choice of using adult voices. Perhaps I should have given the kids a chance to sing the songs.\" Parker also commented: \"Watching the film after all these years, this is one aspect that I find the most bizarre. Adult voices coming out of these kids' mouths? I had told Paul that I didn't want squeaky kids voices and he interpreted this in his own way. Anyway, as the tapes arrived, scarcely weeks away from filming, we had no choice but to go along with it!\"[11]\n\nFilming[edit]\n\nThe film was rehearsed and shot in England, largely on Pinewood Studios' \"H\" stage, with locations in Black Park Country Park (Wexham, Buckinghamshire) and Reading, Berkshire.\n\nThe \"splurge firearm\" proved to be problematic. After initial experiments with cream-filled wax balls proved painful, Parker decided to abandon the idea of filming the firearms directly. Instead, the firearms fired ping-pong balls, and a fast cut to a victim being pelted with \"splurge\" was used to convey the impression of the rapid-firing firearms.[8]\n\nBaio later said making the film was \"awesome\":\n\nA kid\u2019s fantasy: You get to dress up as gangster, you get to shoot guns that fire whipped cream, you get to drive cars with pedals that look like real cars, and you get to talk like a grown-up. I mean, you couldn\u2019t ask for a better first big gig. Talk about getting you hooked on a business! It was fantastic.[9]\n\nRelease[edit]\n\nBugsy Malone was released in late 1976 to generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it currently holds a score of 83% based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6\/10.[12] Despite the positive critical reception, Bugsy Malone was not a commercial success in the US, bringing in just over $2.7 million. Paramount gave it a limited release, usually in second-tier theaters in a double-bill with The Bad News Bears, which had already been out for six months and was no longer much of a draw. According to Parker, the film was \"quite successful\" in the United Kingdom. By 1985, it had earned an estimated profit of \u00a31,854,000.[3]\n\nAccolades[edit]\n\nThe film garnered 15 award nominations, including \"Best Motion Picture (Musical\/Comedy)\", \"Best Original Score\" and \"Best Original Song\" (for the title track) from the Golden Globes, and an Oscar for \"Best Original Song Score\" (Paul Williams). The film was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival.[13] Actress Jodie Foster received two BAFTAs, \"Best Supporting Actress\" and \"Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles\", however, both her nominations were for her previous year's work in Taxi Driver in addition to her work on Bugsy Malone. Alan Parker received the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay, and a nomination for Best Direction. Geoffrey Kirkland won the BAFTA Award for Best Production Design. Additionally, Paul Williams received a nomination for the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, and Monica Howe a Best Costume Design nomination. The film itself received a Best Picture nomination.[14]\n\nIn 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Gangster Films list.[15]\n\nHome media[edit]\n\nIn the early eighties, Bugsy Malone was released on VHS. On 16 April 1996, it was re-released by Paramount on VHS. Although the film has never been commercially released on Region 1 DVD, it has been available through Internet sites as an Asian import supporting Region 1 (US). On 9 September 2008, Arista\/SME released a Blu-ray version, encoded for \"all regions\", as a United Kingdom import. This edition includes a director's commentary as well as other special features, however, as of October 2009, the Blu-ray version was discontinued. A US DVD (Region 1) release was listed around 2003\/04 as being available soon, however the film has yet to be released in this format.\n\nSoundtrack[edit]\n\nCD cover\n\nThe album was originally released as an LP in 1976. In March 1996, Polydor UK released the soundtrack on CD. It has yet to be released in the US on CD but is available through various outlets as an import.\n\nPerformers include Paul Williams, Archie Hahn, Julie McWhirter, and Liberty Williams. The track listing is:\n\n  1. \"Bugsy Malone\" \u2013 Paul Williams\n  2. \"Fat Sam's Grand Slam\" \u2013 Paul Williams\n  3. \"Tomorrow\"\n  4. \"Bad Guys\"\n  5. \"I'm Feeling Fine\"\n  6. \"My Name Is Tallulah\" - Louise \"Liberty\" Williams\n  7. \"So You Wanna Be a Boxer?\"\n  8. \"Ordinary Fool\"\n  9. \"Down and Out\"\n  10. \"You Give a Little Love\" \u2013 Paul Williams\n\nA cast recording of the National Youth Music Theatre stage version of Bugsy Malone was released in 1998. Like the stage show, this recording featured two songs originally written by Williams, but not used in the film: \"That's Why They Call Him Dandy\" and \"Show Business\". There is also some additional incidental orchestral score, such as an Overture and Exit Music, with music arranged by John Pearson.\n\nLegacy[edit]\n\nIn 2003, Bugsy Malone was voted #19 on a list of the 100 greatest musicals, as chosen by viewers of Channel 4 in the UK, placing it higher than The Phantom of the Opera, Cats, and The King and I.[16] Bugsy Malone ranks 353rd on Empire Magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.[17]\n\nBugsy Malone has been adapted into a stage show in two forms.[18][19] A 2003 television documentary called Bugsy Malone: After They Were Famous features a reunion and interviews with Jodie Foster, Scott Baio, John Cassisi and Florrie Dugger. The British actors who played Fat Sam's gang are also reunited at Pinewood Studios.[20] The documentary reported that Dugger, who (unlike her co-stars) had never acted again, had chosen to pursue a career in the United States Air Force Medical Service.[21][7]\n\nIn 2010, UK band Silvery included a cover of \"You Give a Little Love\" on their second album 'Railway Architecture', and Olly Murs, runner up in the 2009 UK series of The X Factor, sampled \"So You Wanna Be a Boxer\" in his song \"Hold On\" that can be found on his debut album.\n\nIn 2011, the film was the most screened film in secondary schools in the United Kingdom.[22]\n\nIn 2017, the song \"You Give A Little Love\" was sung by a children's chorus at the end of a Netflix \"Black Mirror\" episode (Season 4 episode 3 \"Crocodile\").\n\nStage adaptation[edit]\n\nParker wrote the book for a stage adaptation of Bugsy Malone, using Williams' music. This premiered in the West End in 1983 at Her Majesty's Theatre and ran for 300 performances. It was directed by Michael Dolenz and the cast featured Catherine Zeta-Jones as Tallulah. In 1997, the National Youth Music Theatre mounted an all-youth version. It was revived at the Queen's Theatre in 1997, starring Sheridan Smith and Jamie Bell.[23] Another revival played in 2015 and again in 2016 at the Lyric Hammersmith theatre,[24] where it was nominated for the Olivier Award for best musical revival.[25]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"BUGSY MALONE (U)\". British Board of Film Classification. 1976-04-13. Retrieved 2013-05-04.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Detail view of Movies Page\". www.afi.com.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Alexander Walker, National Heroes: British Cinema in the Seventies and Eighties, Harrap, 1985 p 86\n  4. Jump up ^ Kelly, Matthew (2003-12-31). \"Bugsy Malone\". After They Were Famous. Season 3. Episode 18. ITV.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Bugsy Malone (1976) - Box office \/ business\". Internet Movie Database. Amazon.com. Retrieved 2011-12-02.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Parker, Alan; Baio, Scott; Dickson, Andrew (13 October 2015). \"How we made Bugsy Malone\". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 October 2015.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Clark, Nick (12 April 2015). \"Florrie Dugger: The downside of growing up with Bugsy Malone\". The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 August 2016.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Bugsy Malone \u2013 Trivia IMDB. Retrieved 3 June 2010.\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Will Harris, \"Scott Baio talks Chachi, Bob Loblaw, and Howard Cosell\", AV Club 3 April 2014 accessed 7 April 2014\n  10. Jump up ^ Bugsy Malone DVD Special Edition PaulWilliamsCoUK.Plus.com David Chamberlayne. Retrieved 3 June 2010.\n  11. Jump up ^ Paul Williams \u2013 Bugsy Malone Soundtrack PaulWilliamsCoUK.plus.com; David Chamberlayne. Retrieved 3 June 2010.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Bugsy Malone (1976)\". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved 9 January 2016.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Festival de Cannes: Bugsy Malone\". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 6 May 2009.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Bugsy Malone \u2013 Awards IMDB.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"AFI's 10 Top 10 Nominees\" (PDF). Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 2016-08-19.\u00a0CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)\n  16. Jump up ^ \"100 Greatest Musicals \u2013 Broadcast Christmas 2003, Channel 4 (UK). Presented by Denise Van Outen\". thecustard.tv. The Custard. 2003. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 18 June 2008.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time \u2013 #400\u2013301 empireonline.com; Empire Online. Retrieved 3 June 2010.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Bugsy Malone\". Music Theater International. Retrieved 18 June 2008.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Bugsy Malone JR\". Music Theater International. Retrieved 28 November 2012.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"\"After They Were Famous\", Bugsy Malone. (2003)\" on IMDb\n  21. Jump up ^ Parker, Alan. \"Bugsy Malone: The Making of the Film\". Alan Parker - Director, Writer, Producer - Official Website. Retrieved 7 June 2017.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Top movies for schools revealed\". BBC News. 13 December 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-04.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Bugsy Malone: Show History\", MTIshows.com, accessed July 16, 2016\n  24. Jump up ^ Shenton, Mark. \"Bugsy Malone, review of Lyric Hammersmith's Olivier nominated revival\", LondonTheatre.co, June 27, 2016\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Olivier awards 2016: complete list of nominations\", The Guardian, February 29, 2016\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bugsy Malone on IMDb\n  \u2022 Bugsy Malone at the TCM Movie Database\n  \u2022 Bugsy Malone at Rotten Tomatoes\n  \u2022 Bugsy Malone show site at Music Theatre International\n  \u2022 Busy Malone JR. show site at Music Theatre International\n  \u2022 The Guide to Musical Theatre Bugsy Malone \u2013 Synopsis, etc\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFilms directed by Alan Parker\n  \u2022 The Evacuees (1975, Play for Today)\n  \u2022 Bugsy Malone (1976)\n  \u2022 Midnight Express (1978)\n  \u2022 Fame (1980)\n  \u2022 Shoot the Moon (1982)\n  \u2022 Pink Floyd \u2013 The Wall (1982)\n  \u2022 Birdy (1984)\n  \u2022 Angel Heart (1987)\n  \u2022 Mississippi Burning (1988)\n  \u2022 Come See the Paradise (1990)\n  \u2022 The Commitments (1991)\n  \u2022 The Road to Wellville (1994)\n  \u2022 Evita (1996)\n  \u2022 Angela's Ashes (1999)\n  \u2022 The Life of David Gale (2003)\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 BNF: cb164596801 (data)\n  \u2022 GND: 7659633-3\n  \u2022 VIAF: 316754431\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Bugsy_Malone&oldid=843603375\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1976 films\n  \u2022 American films\n  \u2022 American criminal comedy films\n  \u2022 American musical comedy films\n  \u2022 British films\n  \u2022 British criminal comedy films\n  \u2022 British musical comedy films\n  \u2022 English-language films\n  \u2022 Italian-language films\n  \u2022 1970s criminal comedy films\n  \u2022 1970s musical comedy films\n  \u2022 Directorial debut films\n  \u2022 Films about Al Capone\n  \u2022 Films directed by Alan Parker\n  \u2022 Films set in 1929\n  \u2022 Films shot in Buckinghamshire\n  \u2022 Films shot in England\n  \u2022 Films whose writer won the Best Screenplay BAFTA Award\n  \u2022 Musicals by Paul Williams (songwriter)\n  \u2022 Screenplays by Alan Parker\n  \u2022 Paramount Pictures films\n  \u2022 Films shot at Pinewood Studios\n  \u2022 Films adapted into plays\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from May 2015\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n  \u2022 Articles sourced by IMDb from May 2015\n  \u2022 Use British English from May 2013\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2011\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 06:44.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8942429205614838980","title":"Property tax","text":"Property tax\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor other uses, see Wealth tax.\n\nTaxation\n10 Percent Legacy and Succession Duty Impressed Duty Stamp.jpg\nAn aspect of fiscal policy\nPolicies[show]\n  \u2022 Government revenue\n  \u2022 Tax revenue\n  \u2022 Non-tax revenue\n  \u2022 Tax law\n  \u2022 Tax bracket\n  \u2022 Tax threshold\n  \u2022 Exemption\n  \u2022 Credit\n  \u2022 Deduction\n  \u2022 Tax shift\n  \u2022 Tax cut\n  \u2022 Tax holiday\n  \u2022 Tax advantage\n  \u2022 Tax incentive\n  \u2022 Tax reform\n  \u2022 Tax harmonization\n  \u2022 Tax competition\n  \u2022 Double taxation\n  \u2022 Representation\n  \u2022 Unions\n  \u2022 Medical savings account\n  \u2022 Tax, tariff and trade\nEconomics[show]\n  \u2022 Price effect\n  \u2022 Excess burden\n  \u2022 Tax incidence\n  \u2022 Laffer curve\n  \u2022 Optimal tax\n  \u2022 Theory\n  \u2022 Optimal capital income taxation\nCollection[show]\n  \u2022 Revenue service\n  \u2022 Revenue stamp\n  \u2022 Tax assessment\n  \u2022 Taxable income\n  \u2022 Tax lien\n  \u2022 Tax refund\n  \u2022 Tax shield\n  \u2022 Tax residence\n  \u2022 Tax preparation\n  \u2022 Tax investigation\n  \u2022 Tax shelter\n  \u2022 Private tax collection\n  \u2022 Tax farming\nNoncompliance[show]\n  \u2022 Tax avoidance\n  \u2022 Tax evasion\n  \u2022 Tax resistance\n  \u2022 Tax haven\n  \u2022 Smuggling\n  \u2022 Black market\n  \u2022 Transfer mispricing\n  \u2022 Unreported employment\n  \u2022 Tax shelter\nDistribution[show]\n  \u2022 Tax rate\n  \u2022 Flat\n  \u2022 Progressive\n  \u2022 Regressive\n  \u2022 Proportional\nTypes[show]\n  \u2022 Direct\n  \u2022 Indirect\n  \u2022 Per unit\n  \u2022 Ad valorem\n  \u2022 In rem\n  \u2022 Capital gains\n  \u2022 Carbon\n  \u2022 Consumption\n  \u2022 Dividend\n  \u2022 Ecotax\n  \u2022 Excise\n  \u2022 Fuel\n  \u2022 Georgist\n  \u2022 Gift\n  \u2022 Gross receipts\n  \u2022 Income\n  \u2022 Inheritance (estate)\n  \u2022 Land value\n  \u2022 Payroll\n  \u2022 Pigovian\n  \u2022 Property\n  \u2022 Sales\n  \u2022 Sin\n  \u2022 Single\n  \u2022 Stamp\n  \u2022 Steering\n  \u2022 Turnover\n  \u2022 Value-added (VAT)\n  \u2022 Corporate profit\n  \u2022 Excess profits\n  \u2022 Windfall profits\n  \u2022 Negative (income)\n  \u2022 Wealth\nInternational[show]\n  \u2022 Financial transaction tax\n  \u2022 Currency transaction tax\n  \u2022 Tobin tax\n  \u2022 Spahn tax\n  \u2022 Tax equalization\n  \u2022 Tax treaty\n  \u2022 Permanent establishment\n  \u2022 Transfer pricing\n  \u2022 European Union FTT\n  \u2022 Foreign revenue rule\nTrade[show]\n  \u2022 Custom\n  \u2022 Duty\n  \u2022 Tariff\n    \u2022 Import\n    \u2022 Export\n  \u2022 Tariff war\n  \u2022 Free trade\n  \u2022 Free trade zone\n  \u2022 Trade agreement\nReligious[show]\n  \u2022 Church tax\n  \u2022 Eight per thousand\n  \u2022 Teind\n  \u2022 Tithe\n  \u2022 Fiscus Judaicus\n  \u2022 Leibzoll\n  \u2022 Temple tax\n  \u2022 Tolerance tax\n  \u2022 Jizya\n  \u2022 Kharaj\n  \u2022 Khums\n  \u2022 Nisab\n  \u2022 Zakat\nBy country[show]\n  \u2022 List of countries by tax rates\n  \u2022 Tax revenues as %GDP\n  \u2022 Albania\n  \u2022 Algeria\n  \u2022 Argentina\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 Azerbaijan\n  \u2022 Bangladesh\n  \u2022 Bhutan\n  \u2022 Brazil\n  \u2022 Bulgaria\n  \u2022 BVI\n  \u2022 Canada\n  \u2022 China\n  \u2022 Colombia\n  \u2022 Croatia\n  \u2022 Denmark\n  \u2022 Finland\n  \u2022 France\n  \u2022 Germany\n  \u2022 Greece\n  \u2022 Hong Kong\n  \u2022 Iceland\n  \u2022 India\n  \u2022 Indonesia\n  \u2022 Iran\n  \u2022 Ireland\n  \u2022 Israel\n  \u2022 Italy\n  \u2022 Japan\n  \u2022 Kazakhstan\n  \u2022 Lithuania\n  \u2022 Malta\n  \u2022 Namibia\n  \u2022 Netherlands\n  \u2022 New Zealand\n  \u2022 Norway\n  \u2022 Pakistan\n  \u2022 Palestine\n  \u2022 Peru\n  \u2022 Philippines\n  \u2022 Poland\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Singapore\n  \u2022 South Africa\n  \u2022 Sweden\n  \u2022 Switzerland\n  \u2022 Taiwan\n  \u2022 Tanzania\n  \u2022 United Kingdom\n  \u2022 United States\n  \u2022 Uruguay\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nA property tax or millage rate[1] is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property, usually levied on real estate. The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. This can be a national government, a federated state, a county or geographical region or a municipality. Multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property. This tax can be contrasted to a rent tax which is based on rental income or imputed rent, and a land value tax, which is a levy on the value of land, excluding the value of buildings and other improvements.\n\nUnder a property-tax system, the government requires or performs an appraisal of the monetary value of each property, and tax is assessed in proportion to that value.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Types\n  \u2022 2 Jurisdictions\n    \u2022 2.1 Australia\n    \u2022 2.2 Brazil\n    \u2022 2.3 Canada\n      \u2022 2.3.1 Calculating Individual Property Taxes\n      \u2022 2.3.2 Land Transfer Tax\n        \u2022 2.3.2.1 British Columbia\n          \u2022 2.3.2.1.1 First time home buyers program\n          \u2022 2.3.2.1.2 New home exemption\n    \u2022 2.4 Chile\n    \u2022 2.5 Egypt\n    \u2022 2.6 Greece\n    \u2022 2.7 Hong Kong\n      \u2022 2.7.1 Net assessable value\n    \u2022 2.8 India\n    \u2022 2.9 Ireland\n    \u2022 2.10 Jamaica\n    \u2022 2.11 Lithuania\n    \u2022 2.12 Luxembourg\n    \u2022 2.13 Netherlands\n    \u2022 2.14 United Kingdom\n    \u2022 2.15 United States\n  \u2022 3 Places without property tax\n    \u2022 3.1 Africa\n    \u2022 3.2 Europe\n    \u2022 3.3 Oceania\n    \u2022 3.4 Asia\n    \u2022 3.5 United States\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 Further reading\n\nTypes[edit]\n\nThe four broad types of property taxes are land, improvements to land (immovable man-made objects, such as buildings), personal property (movable man-made objects) and intangible property. Real property (also called real estate or realty) is the combination of land and improvements.\n\nForms of property tax vary across jurisdictions. Real property is often taxed based on its class. Classification is the grouping of properties based on similar use. Properties in different classes are taxed at different rates. Examples of property classes are residential, commercial, industrial and vacant real property.[2] In Israel, for example, property tax rates are double for vacant apartments versus occupied apartments.[3]\n\nA special assessment tax is sometimes confused with property tax. These are two distinct forms of taxation: one (ad valorem tax) relies upon the fair market value of the property. The other (special assessment) relies upon a special enhancement called a \"benefit\" for its justification.\n\nThe property tax rate is typically given as a percentage. It may be expressed as a per mil (amount of tax per thousand currency units of property value), which is also known as a millage rate or mill (one-thousandth of a currency unit). To calculate the property tax, the authority multiplies the assessed value by the mill rate and then divides by 1,000. For example, a property with an assessed value of $50,000 located in a municipality with a mill rate of 20 mills would have a property tax bill of $1,000 per year.[4]\n\nJurisdictions[edit]\n\nProperty classes, tax rates, assessment rules and valuations vary by jurisdiction.\n\nAustralia[edit]\n\nAustralian property is taxed at both the state and council (local municipal) level. Taxes are payable by property owners - there is no property tax charged to renters.\n\nA state tax commonly called \"stamp duty\" is assessed when is property is purchased or transferred. It is typically around 5% of the purchase price, payable by the purchaser. Other transfer charges may also apply, including special fees for investors from overseas.[5]\n\n\"Land tax\" - also a state tax - is assessed every year on a property's value. Most Australians do not pay land tax, as most states provide a land tax exemption for the primary home or residence. Depending on the state, surcharge tax rates can apply to foreign owners.[6]\n\n\"Council rates\" is a municipal tax levied by local government. This is assessed each year on a property's value. Council rates are around $1300 per annum for an average Australian household.[7]\n\nBrazil[edit]\n\nBrazil is a Federation Republic, and its federated entities (internal States and Municipalities), as well as the Federal government, levy property taxes. They are all declared in the Federal Constitution.\n\nThese are the current property taxes:\n\n  \u2022 Tax on Rural Territorial Property \u2013 federal: levied upon real state property on rural areas;\n  \u2022 Tax on Urban Territorial Property \u2013 municipal: levied upon real state property on urban areas;\n  \u2022 Tax on Motorized Vehicles Property \u2013 state: levied upon the property of cars, trucks, motorcycles, and the likes;\n  \u2022 Tax on Big Fortunes \u2013 federal: it is declared on the Federal Constitution, but there is still no regulation defining its incidence.\n\nCanada[edit]\n\nMany provinces levy property tax on real estate based upon land use and value. This is the major source of revenue for most municipal governments. While property tax levels vary across municipalities, a common property assessment or valuation criteria is laid out in provincial legislation. The trend is to use a market value standard for valuation purposes with varying revaluation cycles. Multiple provinces established an annual reassessment cycle where market activity warrants, while others have longer periods between valuation periods.\n\nCalculating Individual Property Taxes[edit]\n\nIn Ontario, for most properties (e.g., residential, farms), property taxes can be calculated by multiplying the phased-in assessment indicated on the Property Assessment Notice by the tax rate.\n\nThe municipal tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = municipal portion of tax.\n\nThe county\/regional tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = county\/regional portion of tax.\n\nThe education tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = education portion of tax.\n\nThe municipal portion of tax + county\/regional portion of tax + education portion of tax = Total Property Tax.\n\nIn some cases (e.g., commercial, industrial, multi-residential properties), the Province or municipality may implement measures that affect the actual taxes paid on a property.\n\nLand Transfer Tax[edit]\n\nLand transfer tax is a provincial tax levied when purchasing a home or land in Canada. All provinces have a land transfer tax, except Alberta and Saskatchewan. In most provinces the tax is calculated as a percentage of the purchase price. In Toronto there is an additional municipal tax.\n\nOntario, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and the City of Toronto offer land transfer tax rebates for first-time homebuyers. [8][9]\n\nBritish Columbia[edit]\n\nIn British Columbia the property transfer tax is equal to one percent tax on the first $200,000 of the purchase price, two percent on the remaining amount up to $2 million and three percent on the rest.[10] An additional 15% tax that applies only to non-resident foreign home buyers in Greater Vancouver started on August 2, 2016. The definition of foreign buyer includes international students and temporary foreign workers. Anti-avoidance measures include fines of $100,000 for individuals and $200,000 for corporations.[11]\n\nFirst time home buyers program[edit]\n\nThe First Time Home Buyers Program is a program by the BC government that offers qualifying first-time homebuyers a reduction or elimination of the property transfer tax. It can be used in conjunction with the B.C. Home Owner Mortgage and Equity Partnership.[12]\n\nThe First Time Home Buyers Tax Credit is also available in Ontario, which offers First Time Home Buyers a 750 dollar tax Rebate. In 2017 the Ontario Government also released the Land Transfer Tax Rebate, which allowed for up to 4,000 dollar rebate - ensuring that first time home buyers of homes valued under 368,000 dollars would not pay land transfer tax.[13]\n\nNew home exemption[edit]\n\nThe Newly Built Home Exemption is a program that reduces or eliminates the property transfer tax on new homes. The amount is limited to $13,000 for qualifying individuals who must be either a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident. The property purchased must be located in British Columbia, have a fair market value of $750,000, be smaller than 1.25 acres and be used as a principle residence. It can be used in conjunction with the B.C. Home Owner Mortgage and Equity Partnership.[14]\n\nChile[edit]\n\nThe land property tax, called \"territorial tax\" or \"contribution\", is an annual amount paid quarterly by the property's owner. It is determined as a percentage of the property's \"fiscal value\", which is calculated by the Internal Revenue Service, based on the property's land and built area, construction materials, age and use. The fiscal value, which is usually much lower than the market value, may be disputed by the owner. The annual levy varies between 1 and 2% of this value, depending on the property's use (residential, agricultural or commercial). Residential properties valued below US$40K (as of 2013) are not taxed; those above that threshold are taxed only on the amount exceeding US$40K.[15] Revenues go to the municipality administering the property's commune.[16] All municipalities contribute a share of the revenue to a \"common municipal fund\" that is then redistributed back to municipalities according to a their needs (commune's poverty rate, etc.).[17][18] Additionally, municipalities charge a quarterly trash collection tax, which is often paid together with the territorial tax (if applicable).\n\nEgypt[edit]\n\nThe law imposes a tax on each property. Public buildings are excluded (such as government buildings), as are religious buildings (mosques and churches). Families owning private properties worth up to LE 2 million ($290,000) are exempt. commercial stores with an annual rent value over LE 1,200 are not exempt.[19]\n\nGreece[edit]\n\nGreece has a Municipal and a Government property tax. The municipal property tax (\u03a4\u0391\u03a0\/\u0394\u03a4\/\u0394\u03a6) is included in electricity bills and incorporates, among others, charges for street cleaning and lighting. The Government property tax (ENFIA) is a combination of the individual asset's tax based upon floor-area and a progressive real-estate wealth tax per individual which is based on the estimated net-worth of all properties and can reach 2%.\n\nHong Kong[edit]\n\nIn Hong Kong, the \"property tax\" is not an ad valorem tax; it is actually an income tax.\n\nAccording to HK Inland Revenue Ordinance IRO s5B, all property owners are not be subject to this tax unless they received a consideration, like rental income for the year of assessment. The property tax is computed on the net assessable value at the standard rate. The period of assessment is from 1 April to 31 March.\n\nNet assessable value[edit]\n\nThe formula is:\n\nNet assessable value = 80% of Assessable value.\nHK property tax payable = Net assessment value X Property tax standard rate\nAssessable value = Rental income + Premium + (Rental bad debt recovered\u00a0\u2014 Irrecoverable rent) \u2013 Rates paid by owner.\n\nIndia[edit]\n\nProperty tax or 'house tax' is a local tax on buildings, along with appurtenant land. It is and imposed on the Possessor (not the custodian of property as per 1978, 44th amendment of constitution). It resembles the US-type wealth tax and differs from the excise-type UK rate. The tax power is vested in the states and is delegated to local bodies, specifying the valuation method, rate band, and collection procedures. The tax base is the annual rental value (ARV) or area-based rating. Owner-occupied and other properties not producing rent are assessed on cost and then converted into ARV by applying a percentage of cost, usually four percent. Vacant land is generally exempt. Central government properties are exempt. Instead a 'service charge' is permissible under executive order. Properties of foreign missions also enjoy tax exemption without requiring reciprocity. The tax is usually accompanied by service taxes, e.g., water tax, drainage tax, conservancy (sanitation) tax, lighting tax, all using the same tax base. The rate structure is flat on rural (panchayat) properties, but in the urban (municipal) areas it is mildly progressive with about 80% of assessments falling in the first two brackets.[20]\n\nIreland[edit]\n\nMain article: Local Property Tax (Ireland)\n\nA Local Property Tax came into effect in Republic of Ireland on 1 July 2013, and is collected by the Revenue Commissioners. The tax is on residential properties. The property owner is liable (though in the case of leases over twenty years, the tenant is liable). The revenue funds the provision of services by local authorities. Such services currently include public parks, libraries, open spaces and leisure amenities, planning and development, fire and emergency services, maintenance and street cleaning and lighting.\n\nThe tax is based upon market value, taxed via a system of market bands. The initial national central rate of the tax is 0.18% of a property's value up to \u20ac1 million. Properties valued over \u20ac1 million are assessed 0.25% on the excess. From 1 January 2015, local authorities are able to vary LPT rates -\/+ 15% of the national central rate.\n\nIn the case of properties valued over \u20ac1 million, no banding applies \u2013 0.18% is charged on the first \u20ac1 million (\u20ac1,800) and 0.25% on the balance. The government estimates that 85% to 90% of all properties fall within the first five taxation bands.[21][22]\n\nJamaica[edit]\n\nThis tax is paid annually and is based on a percentage of the unimproved value of a property.\n\nLithuania[edit]\n\nThe tax period for a property tax is a calendar year. Property tax rate ranging from 0.3% to 1% the tax value of real estate is determined by the municipality.\n\nSince January 1st 2015 if the persons property value is higher than 220 000 euros, 0.5 per cent of property tax is applied for exceeding amount.\n\nLuxembourg[edit]\n\nProperty tax in Luxembourg is calculated on the basis of the property's \"unitary value\" determined by tax authorities and levied by the communes. The tax is calculated as property unitary value * assessment rate * communal rate. The assessment rate is determined by the legislator and generally ranges from 0.7% to 1%. The communal rate is set by the communal authority and varies from 120% to 900% depending on the municipality.\n\nLuxembourg has minimal property taxes compared to its neighbours in Benelux or in the European Union. It amounts to more or less \u20ac150 for a \u20ac500 000 apartment in Luxembourg City.[23][24]\n\nNetherlands[edit]\n\nProperty tax (Dutch: Onroerendezaakbelasting (OZB)) is levied on property on a municipal basis. Only the owners of residential property and people who rent\/own commercial space are taxed. People who rent a home do not pay property tax. Municipalities combine their property taxes with a tax for garbage collection and for the sewer system. Owners and users of property and land also pay taxes based on the value of property to the water boards for flood protection and water and wastewater treatment (\"waterschapsbelasting\"). A percentage of the value of a house (\"huurwaardeforfait\") is added to the income of the owner, so the owner of a house pays more income tax. All property-related taxes are based on the value of the house estimated by the municipality.\n\nUnited Kingdom[edit]\n\nSee also: Business rates in England and Wales\n\nIn the UK the ownership of residential property or land is not taxed, a situation almost unique in the OECD.[25][26][27] Instead, the Council Tax is usually paid by the resident of a property, and only in the case of unoccupied property does the owner become liable to pay it (although owners can often obtain a discount or an exemption for empty properties).[28]\n\nHer Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC) guidelines state:\n\n\"Council Tax is a tax on property. In principle it may be an allowable deduction in those instances where other property-based expenses are deductible.\"[29]\n\nThe Valuation Tribunal Service states that:\n\n\"The tax is a mix of a property tax and a personal tax. Generally, where two or more persons reside in a dwelling the full tax is payable. If one person resides in the dwelling then 75% is payable. An empty dwelling attracts only a 50% charge unless the billing authority has made a determination otherwise.\"[30]\n\nThe Council Tax depends on the value of the property, but is not calculated as a simple percentage. Instead, the property is allocated to a Council Tax band, (9 in England and 8 in Scotland and Wales). Valuation is carried out by the Valuation Office Agency under the auspices of Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC).[31][32]\n\nUnited States[edit]\n\nMain article: Property tax in the United States\n\nIn the United States, property tax on real estate is usually levied by local government, at the municipal or county level. Rates vary across the states, between about 0% and 4% of the home value.[33] The assessment is made up of two components\u2014the improvement or building value and the land or site value. The property tax is the main tax supporting local education, police\/fire protection, local governments, some free medical services and most of other local infrastructure. Many state and local jurisdictions add personal property taxes. (See exceptions below.)\n\nPlaces without property tax[edit]\n\nAfrica[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \u00a0Kenya[34]\n  \u2022 \u00a0Mauritania[35]\n  \u2022 \u00a0Namibia[36]\n\nEurope[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \u00a0Faroe Islands[37]\n  \u2022 \u00a0Malta[38]\n\nOceania[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \u00a0Palau[39]\n  \u2022 \u00a0Norfolk Island[40]\n  \u2022 \u00a0Cook Islands[41]\n\nAsia[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \u00a0China[citation needed]\n\nUnited States[edit]\n\nIn Alaska, \"...only a small portion of the land mass is subject to a property tax. ...only 24 municipalities in Alaska (either cities or boroughs) levy a property tax.\"[42] There is no tax on the private land in American Samoa, the Territory of Palmyra Island or Kingman Reef in the Pacific Ocean insular areas.[43]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Allodial title\n  \u2022 Land value tax\n  \u2022 Udal title\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Millage Rate\" at Investopedia.\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Real Property Tax Rates \u2013 otr\".\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Bousso, Nimrod (20 May 2013). \"Interior Minister Approves Doubling Property Taxes on Vacant Israeli Apartments\" \u2013 via Haaretz.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Connecticut Office of Policy Management: Mill Rates\". Retrieved 2010-10-04.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Office, Australian Taxation. \"State and territory taxes\". www.ato.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-01-08.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ content_publisher (2016-11-23). \"Land tax surcharge\". www.revenue.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-01-08.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Australia, Local Government Association of South. \"Council Rates\". Retrieved 2018-01-08.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Land Transfer Tax Calculator Canada \u2013 Rates & Rebates\".\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Land Transfer Tax\".\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"B.C. to hit foreign buyers of Metro Vancouver homes with 15% property tax\".\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Ontario considers following B.C. on taxing foreign real estate investors\".\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"First Time Home Buyers' Program \u2013 Housing Action\".\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.fin.gov.on.ca\/en\/bulletins\/ltt\/1_2008.html\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Newly Built Home Exemption \u2013 Housing Action\".\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"DFL-1 16-DIC-1998 MINISTERIO DE HACIENDA \u2013 Ley Chile \u2013 Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional\".\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Preguntas Frecuentes de Bienes Ra\u00edces\".\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ [1][dead link]\n  18. Jump up ^ REGLAMENTO PARA LA APLICACION DEL ARTICULO 38 DEL DECRETO LEY N\u00b0 3.063, DE 1979, MODIFICADO POR EL ARTICULO 1\u00b0 DE LA LEY N\u00b0 20.237\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Egypt's amended property tax law to take effect in July: Finance ministry \u2013 Economy \u2013 Business \u2013 Ahram Online\". english.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 2017-01-27.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Datta, Abhijit. (1992). Local Government Finances: Trends, Issues and Reforms, in Bagchi, Amaresh. et al. (Eds.), State Finances in India, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House for the NIPFP...\n  21. Jump up ^ Revenue Commissioners (Ireland) \u2013 Local Property Tax (LPT), Frequently Asked Questions (5 December 2012)\n  22. Jump up ^ Budget 2013 (Ireland) \u2013 ANNEX B \u2013 Local Property Tax (LPT) (5 December 2013)\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Property Tax | Le Gouvernement du Grand Duch\u00e9 de Luxembourg\". www.guichet.public.lu. Retrieved 2016-02-22.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Luxembourg Tax Smart Card\". www.nexvia.lu\/#!tax-smart-card\/glc4v. Retrieved 2016-02-22.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ editor, Patrick Wintour Political (7 December 2015). \"Labour has 'moral mission' to tackle inequality, says Tristram Hunt\" \u2013 via The Guardian.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Opinion\".\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"The Real Hope for Home Ownership\".\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Council Tax \u2013 GOV.UK\".\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"BIM46840 \u2013 Specific deductions: rent and rates: Council Tax\". www.hmrc.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Council Tax Guidelines\". Archived from the original on 3 October 2015.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Council Tax bands and rates | Westminster City Council\". www.westminster.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"Council tax bands and rates \u2013 guide | Lambeth Council\". www.lambeth.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"The Tax Foundation\u00a0\u2014 Property Taxes on Owner-Occupied Housing by State, 2004\u20132009\". 2009. Retrieved 2010-10-04.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Deloitte Kenya Highlights 2013 pdf\n  35. Jump up ^ Deloitte Mauritania Highlights 2013 pdf\n  36. Jump up ^ Deloitte Namibia Highlights 2013 pdf\n  37. Jump up ^ eTax, Nordisk. \"Faroe Islands\".\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"British Expat Forum \u2022 View forum \u2013 Malta\".\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Palau (US department of State)\".\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"A hidden paradise with no income tax or property tax\u2026 \u2013 Sovereign Man\".\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Why Invest in the Cook Islands \u2013 is it that good \u2013 really?\".\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Alaska Tax Facts\". Alaska Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development: Office of the State Assessor. Retrieved May 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"GAO\/OGC-98-5 \u2013 U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution\". U.S. Government Printing Office. November 7, 1997. Retrieved May 9, 2017.\u00a0\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Slack, E., & Bird, R. M. (2014). The Political Economy of Property Tax Reform, OECD Working Papers on Fiscal Federalism 18, OECD Publishing.\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nProperty\nBy owner\n  \u2022 Communal land\n  \u2022 Marital property (USA)\n  \u2022 Cooperative\n  \u2022 Estate in land\n  \u2022 Private\n  \u2022 Public\n  \u2022 State\n  \u2022 Crown land\nBy nature\n  \u2022 Croft\n  \u2022 Intangible\n  \u2022 Intellectual\n    \u2022 indigenous\n  \u2022 Personal\n  \u2022 Tangible\n    \u2022 immovable\n    \u2022 real\nCommon resources\n  \u2022 Common land\n  \u2022 Common-pool resource\n  \u2022 Digital\n  \u2022 Global\n  \u2022 Information\n  \u2022 Knowledge\nTheory\n  \u2022 Bundle of rights\n  \u2022 Commodity\n    \u2022 fictitious commodities\n  \u2022 Common good (economics)\n  \u2022 Excludability\n  \u2022 First possession\n    \u2022 appropriation\n    \u2022 Homestead principle\n  \u2022 Free-rider problem\n  \u2022 Game theory\n  \u2022 Georgism\n  \u2022 Gift economy\n  \u2022 Labor theory of property\n  \u2022 Law of rent\n    \u2022 rent-seeking\n  \u2022 Legal plunder\n  \u2022 Natural rights\n  \u2022 Ownership\n    \u2022 common\n    \u2022 customary\n    \u2022 self\n    \u2022 state\n  \u2022 Property rights\n    \u2022 primogeniture\n    \u2022 usufruct\n    \u2022 women's\n  \u2022 Right to property\n  \u2022 Rivalry\n  \u2022 Tragedy of the commons\n    \u2022 anticommons\nApplications\n  \u2022 Acequia (watercourse)\n  \u2022 Ejido (agrarian land)\n  \u2022 Forest types\n  \u2022 Inheritance\n  \u2022 Land tenure\n  \u2022 Property law\n    \u2022 alienation\n    \u2022 easement\n    \u2022 restraint on alienation\n    \u2022 real estate\n    \u2022 title\nRights\n  \u2022 Air\n  \u2022 Fishing\n  \u2022 Forest-dwelling (India)\n  \u2022 Freedom to roam\n  \u2022 Grazing\n    \u2022 pannage\n  \u2022 Hunting\n  \u2022 Land\n    \u2022 aboriginal\n    \u2022 indigenous\n    \u2022 squatting\n  \u2022 Littoral\n  \u2022 Mineral\n    \u2022 Bergregal\n  \u2022 Right of way\n  \u2022 Water\n    \u2022 prior-appropriation\n    \u2022 riparian\nDisposession\/\nredistribution\n  \u2022 Bioprospecting\n  \u2022 Collectivization\n  \u2022 Eminent domain\n  \u2022 Enclosure\n  \u2022 Eviction\n  \u2022 Expropriation\n  \u2022 Farhud\n  \u2022 Forced migration\n    \u2022 population transfer\n  \u2022 Illegal fishing\n  \u2022 Illegal logging\n  \u2022 Land reform\n  \u2022 Legal plunder\n  \u2022 Piracy\n  \u2022 Poaching\n  \u2022 Primitive accumulation\n  \u2022 Privatization\n  \u2022 Regulatory taking\n  \u2022 Slavery\n    \u2022 Bride buying\n    \u2022 Human trafficking\n    \u2022 wage\n    \u2022 wife selling\n  \u2022 Tax\n    \u2022 inheritance\n    \u2022 poll\n    \u2022 progressive\n    \u2022 property\n  \u2022 Theft\nScholars\n(key work)\n  \u2022 Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Bastiat\n  \u2022 Ronald Coase\n  \u2022 Henry George\n  \u2022 Garrett Hardin\n  \u2022 David Harvey\n  \u2022 John Locke\n    \u2022 Two Treatises of Government\n  \u2022 Karl Marx\n  \u2022 Marcel Mauss\n    \u2022 The Gift\n  \u2022 John Stuart Mill\n  \u2022 Elinor Ostrom\n  \u2022 Karl Polanyi\n    \u2022 The Great Transformation\n  \u2022 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon\n    \u2022 What Is Property?\n  \u2022 David Ricardo\n  \u2022 Murray N. Rothbard\n    \u2022 The Ethics of Liberty\n  \u2022 Jean-Jacques Rousseau\n    \u2022 The Social Contract\n  \u2022 Adam Smith\n    \u2022 The Wealth of Nations\n  \u2022 Category Categories: Property\n  \u2022 Property law\n    \u2022 by country\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 NARA: 10642013\n  \u2022 NDL: 00566785\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Property_tax&oldid=852847618\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Real property law\n  \u2022 Property taxes\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from January 2017\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from March 2013\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 31 July 2018, at 19:42\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2070039152279275503","title":"2017\u20132018 eruptions of Mount Agung","text":"2017\u20132018 eruptions of Mount Agung\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nAmbox current red.svg\nThis article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2018)\n2017\u20132018 eruptions of Mount Agung\nMount Agung, November 2017 eruption - 27 Nov 2017 02.jpg\nMount Agung on 27 November\nVolcano Mount Agung\nDate 21\u00a0November\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-21) \u2013 ongoing\n(11\u00a0months and 2\u00a0days)[1]\nType Vulcanian\/Sub-plinian\nLocation Bali, Indonesia\n8\u00b020\u203235\u2033S 115\u00b030\u203225\u2033E\ufeff \/ \ufeff8.34306\u00b0S 115.50694\u00b0E\ufeff \/ -8.34306; 115.50694Coordinates: 8\u00b020\u203235\u2033S 115\u00b030\u203225\u2033E\ufeff \/ \ufeff8.34306\u00b0S 115.50694\u00b0E\ufeff \/ -8.34306; 115.50694\nVEI 2 (as of 2 Dec 2017)[2]\nMount Agung is located in Bali\nMount Agung\nMount Agung\nLocation of Mount Agung, Bali\n\nMount Agung, a volcano on the island of Bali in Indonesia, erupted five times in late November 2017, causing thousands to evacuate, disrupting air travel and causing environmental damage. As of 27 November 2017[update], the alert level was at its highest and evacuation orders were in place.\n\nTectonic earthquakes from the volcano had been detected since early August, and volcanic activity intensified for several weeks before decreasing significantly in late October. A second, more violent period of major activity began in late November.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Background\n    \u2022 1.1 1843 eruption\n    \u2022 1.2 1963 eruption\n  \u2022 2 Major activity in 2017\n    \u2022 2.1 August\n    \u2022 2.2 September\n    \u2022 2.3 October\n    \u2022 2.4 November\n      \u2022 2.4.1 21 November\n      \u2022 2.4.2 25 November\n      \u2022 2.4.3 26 November\n      \u2022 2.4.4 27 November\n      \u2022 2.4.5 29 November\n  \u2022 3 Activity in 2018\n    \u2022 3.1 January\n    \u2022 3.2 June\n    \u2022 3.3 July\n  \u2022 4 Impact\n  \u2022 5 References\n\nBackground[edit]\n\n1843 eruption[edit]\n\nAgung erupted in 1843[3] as reported by Heinrich Zollinger:\n\nAfter having been dormant for a long time, this year the mountain began to be alive again. In the first days of the activity earthquake shocks were felt after which followed the emission of ash, sand and stones.[4]\n\n1963 eruption[edit]\n\nMount Agung's 1963 eruption was among the most catastrophic volcanic events in Indonesian history. After initial explosions in the crater on 18 February of that year, lava began flowing down the mountain on 24 February, eventually traveling 7\u00a0km over the next three weeks. On 17 March, a highly explosive eruption occurred, reaching a VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index) of 5 and sending lethal pyroclastic flows at high speeds down the mountain's slopes, killing at least 1,500 people.[5] Heavy rainfall mixed with ash from the eruption in the following days caused extensive lahars which killed about 200 more people. A smaller eruption occurred on 16 May, sending pyroclastic flows down the mountain once more, killing about 200 more people.[5][6] By the time the eruptions ceased in early 1964, they had claimed about 1,900 lives, marking the event as the 8th deadliest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.\n\nSince 1963, the population of Bali has nearly doubled.[7] Mount Agung is therefore considered highly dangerous by Indonesian authorities. This concern was the primary reason behind their decision to evacuate more than 100,000 people in response to the surge in local tectonic activity in the latter half of 2017.[6]\n\nMajor activity in 2017[edit]\n\nAugust[edit]\n\nVolcanic earthquakes were observed from 10 August 2017[8] and the intensity increased in the following weeks.\n\nSeptember[edit]\n\nIn September 2017, an increase of rumbling and seismic activity around the volcano made people raise the alert to the highest level and about 122,500 people were evacuated from their homes around the volcano.[9] The Indonesian National Disaster Management Authority declared a 12-kilometer exclusion zone around the volcano on 24 September.[10] A plume was observed on 13 September.[8]\n\nEvacuees gathered in sports halls and other community buildings around Klungkung, Karangasem, Buleleng, and other areas.[11] The monitoring station is in Tembuku, Rendang, Karangasem Regency, where intensity and frequency of tremors were monitored for signs of the imminent large eruption.[12]\n\nThe area experienced 844 volcanic earthquakes on 25 September, and 300 to 400 earthquakes by midday on 26 September. Seismologists have been alarmed at the force and frequency of the incidents as it has taken much less for similar volcanoes to erupt.[13][14]\n\nOctober[edit]\n\nIn late October 2017, the activity of the volcano decreased significantly, leading to lowering of the alert status on 29 October.[15]\n\nThe alert level remained at 3 (out of 4) until the start of the second major activity period, and plumes were observed during this time.[16][17]\n\nNovember[edit]\n\n21 November[edit]\n\nThere was a small phreatic eruption reported at 09:05 (UTC), with the ash cloud top reaching 3,842 metres (12,605\u00a0ft) above sea level.[18] Thousands of people immediately fled the area,[19] and over 29,000 temporary refugees were reported to be housed in over 270 locations nearby.[20]\n\n25 November[edit]\n\nA magmatic eruption began early on Saturday morning.[21] The resulting eruption plume was reported to rise about 1.5\u20134\u00a0km above the summit crater, drifting towards the south and dusting the surroundings with a thin layer of dark ash, leading some airlines to cancel flights bound for Australia and New Zealand. An orange glow was later observed around the crater at night, confirming that fresh magma had indeed reached the surface.[22][23]\n\n26 November[edit]\n\nAt 23:37 (UTC), another eruption occurred.[21] Ngurah Rai International Airport was closed next day,[24] leaving many tourists stranded.[25] More than 100,000 people in a 10-kilometre (6.2\u00a0mi) radius of the volcano were ordered to evacuate.[26]\n\n27 November[edit]\n\nAsh plume from Mount Agung on 27 November\n\nSunday 26 November's eruption continued at a constant rate,[27] and lahars were reported in the Selat district south of the volcano.[25] The Australian Government's Bureau of Meteorology reported that the top of the eruption column had reached an altitude of 9,144 m (5.7 miles).[28] Ash continued to spread in a southeasterly direction, and estimates by the Pacific Disaster Center predicted that the resulting atmospheric ash exposure will affect up to 5.6\u00a0million people within the densely populated region surrounding the volcano.[27]\n\n29 November[edit]\n\nNASA MODIS aerial view of ash from Terra satellite.\n\nReductions in eruption intensity and wind dispersal of the ash cloud led authorities to reopen Ngurah Rai International Airport at 07:00 (UTC).[29][30] Authorities also warned that the eruption volume could increase again at any time, potentially shutting down air traffic once more.[30]\n\nActivity in 2018[edit]\n\nJanuary[edit]\n\nThe volcano erupted once again on January 11, sending plumes of smoke and ash, while Indonesia's Bali international airport was declared safe, operating normally.[31] The eruption column was reported to rise 2.5\u00a0km above the mountain.\n\nJune[edit]\n\nAgung erupted on June 12, sending plumes of smoke and ash some 2,000 meters above the volcano's summit.[32] No flights were affected from the event.\n\nOn June 28, water vapour and volcanic ash emission were detected from Mount Agung up to two kilometres into the air. The Ngurah Rai Airport was closed due to the event. [33][34]\n\nJuly[edit]\n\nAgung erupted again July 3 due to a minor strombolian explosion. 700 people living near the crater were evacuated. No flights were affected.[35]\n\nImpact[edit]\n\nThe 2017 eruption caused some 40,000 people to be evacuated from 22 villages around Mount Agung. It also caused surrounding airports to be closed. Lombok International Airport, on the neighboring island of Lombok, closed on 26 November, but was reopened the next morning,[36] only to be closed again on 30 November.[37] Lombok's airport reopened on 1 December. Ngurah Rai International Airport, located at the southern tip of the island and southwest of the volcano, closed on 27 November.[38] More than 400 flights were canceled and about 59,000 passengers remained grounded.[39] The airport was reopened on 29 November. This eruption also caused a decline in tourism on Bali by about 30%.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Agung\". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2018-01-23.\n  2. Jump up ^ MT AGUNG ACTIVITY REPORT \"Current indicators point to a relatively small eruption of VEI 2 (volcanic eruptive index 2)\"\n  3. Jump up ^ Anwari Dilmy. \u00abPioneer Plants Found One Year After the 1963 Eruption of Agung in Bali\u00bb \/ Pacific Science, Volume 19, Number 4, 1965, p. 498-501\n  4. Jump up ^ Heinrich Zollinger. Eein uirsrapje naar her eiland Bali \/ Tijdschr. Neer. Ind. 74:43, 1845.\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Zen, M. T.; Hadikusumo, Djajadi (December 1964). \"Preliminary report on the 1963 eruption of Mt.Agung in Bali (Indonesia)\". Bulletin of Volcanology. 27: 269\u2013299 \u2013 via Springer.\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Mount Agung: Bali volcano alert raised to highest level\". BBC News. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Population of Indonesia by Province 1971, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2010\". Badan Pusat Statistik (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Global Volcanism Program. Sennert, Sally Kuhn, ed. \"Report on Agung (Indonesia)\". Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 13\u201319 September 2017. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Indonesian official: More than 120,000 flee Bali volcano\". Fox News. 28 September 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2017.\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Thousands evacuated as Bali volcano sparks fear\". The Australian. 24 September 2017.\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Mount Agung: facts about Bali's imminent volcano eruption\". UbudHood. 23 September 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"How do experts know Mount Agung is about to erupt?\". ABC News Australia. 25 September 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.\n  13. Jump up ^ Once tremors detected, Bali volcano can erupt within hours: Volcanologist CNA, 3 October 2017\n  14. Jump up ^ Lamb, Kate (26 September 2017). \"Bali volcano eruption could be hours away after unprecedented seismic activity\". The Guardian. ISSN\u00a00261-3077. Retrieved 26 September 2017.\n  15. Jump up ^ Topsfield, Jewel; Rosa, Amilia (30 October 2017). \"Mount Agung volcano alert in Bali downgraded\". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  16. Jump up ^ Global Volcanism Program. Sennert, Sally Kuhn, ed. \"Report on Agung (Indonesia)\". Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 1\u20137 November 2017. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  17. Jump up ^ Global Volcanism Program. Sennert, Sally Kuhn, ed. \"Report on Agung (Indonesia)\". Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 8\u201314 November 2017. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"VONA\".\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Bali's Mount Agung volcano erupts\". BBC News. 21 November 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.\n  20. Jump up ^ Regular bulletins are posted on the website of the Indonesian National Disaster Management Agency.\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Gunung Agung volcano (Bali, Indonesia): eruption has begun\". Volcano Discovery. 25 November 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"'Get out now' 100,000 people told as Bali volcano continues to spew ash\". Metro. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  23. Jump up ^ \"A volcanologist explains Bali eruption photos\". BBC News. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  24. Jump up ^ Saifulbahri Ismail (27 November 2017). \"Mount Agung eruption: Bali airport closed, flights cancelled\". CNA. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Locals Watch As Lahars From Mount Agung Sweep Away Rice Fields\". VIVA Indonesia (in Indonesian). 27 November 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Mount Agung: Bali volcano alert raised to highest level\". BBC News Online. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Life-saving technology provides alert as Bali's Mount Agung spews ash, raises alarm\". www.pdc.org. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2017.\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Volcanic ash update for Mount Agung\". Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Indonesia reopens Bali airport as wind clears volcanic ash\". Reuters.com. 2017-11-29.\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Bali volcano: live updates on Mount Agung eruptions as airport reopens\". Evening Standard. 2017-11-29.\n  31. Jump up ^ Volcano erupts in Indonesia's Bali, airport remains safe\n  32. Jump up ^ [1]\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Bali volcano eruption: Mount Agung spews volcanic ash triggering CLOSURE of airport\". Express Newspapers. 29 June 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018.\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Mount Agung: Bali flight chaos continues as more airlines cancel\". The West Australian. 29 June 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"700 flee 'thunderous' explosions and lava as Mount Agung erupts again\". ABC News. 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-04.\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Lombok International Airport closed due to volcanic ash from Mount Agung\". Retrieved 29 November 2017.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Bali volcano: State of emergency EXTENDED as Lombok airport closed over dangerous ash\". Retrieved 30 November 2017.\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Bali airport remains closed for a third day\". Retrieved 29 November 2017.\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Mount Agung: Bali Airport Closed And 59,000 Passengers Affected By Cancelled Flights\". Retrieved 29 November 2017.\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=2017\u20132018_eruptions_of_Mount_Agung&oldid=860791018\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2017 in Indonesia\n  \u2022 2017 natural disasters\n  \u2022 2018 in Indonesia\n  \u2022 2018 natural disasters\n  \u2022 21st century in Bali\n  \u2022 21st-century volcanic events\n  \u2022 Volcanism of Indonesia\n  \u2022 November 2017 events in Asia\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id)\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from November 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from April 2018\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating\n  \u2022 Coordinates on Wikidata\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2017\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 \u0b13\u0b21\u0b3c\u0b3f\u0b06\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 23 September 2018, at 02:44\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1287499231679664676","title":"Income elasticity of demand","text":"Income elasticity of demand\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nIn economics, income elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for a good or service to a change in the income of the people demanding the good. It is calculated as the ratio of the percentage change in quantity demanded to the percentage change in income. For example, if in response to a 10% increase in income, the quantity demanded for a good increased by 20%, the income elasticity of demand would be 20%\/10% = 2.0\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Interpretation\n  \u2022 2 Mathematical definition\n  \u2022 3 Types of income elasticity of demand\n  \u2022 4 Selected income elasticities\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 Notes\n  \u2022 7 References\n\nInterpretation[edit]\n\nInferior goods' demand falls as consumer income increases.\n  \u2022 A negative income elasticity of demand is associated with inferior goods; an increase in income will lead to a fall in the demand and may lead to changes to more luxurious substitutes.\n  \u2022 A positive income elasticity of demand is associated with normal goods; an increase in income will lead to a rise in demand. If income elasticity of demand of a commodity is less than 1, it is a necessity good. If the elasticity of demand is greater than 1, it is a luxury good or a superior good.\n  \u2022 A zero income elasticity of demand occurs when an increase in income is not associated with a change in the demand of a good. These would be sticky goods.\n\nIncome elasticity of demand can be used as an indicator of industry health, future consumption patterns and as a guide to firms investment decisions. For example, the \"selected income elasticities\" below suggest that an increasing portion of consumer's budgets will be devoted to purchasing automobiles and restaurant meals and a smaller share to tobacco and margarine.[1]\n\nIncome elasticities are closely related to the population income distribution and the fraction of the product's sales attributable to buyers from different income brackets. Specifically when a buyer in a certain income bracket experiences an income increase, their purchase of a product changes to match that of individuals in their new income bracket. If the income share elasticity is defined as the negative percentage change in individuals given a percentage increase in income bracken the income-elasticity, after some computation, becomes the expected value of the income-share elasticity with respect to the income distribution of purchasers of the product. When the income distribution is described by a gamma distribution, the income elasticity is proportional to the percentage difference between the average income of the product's buyers and the average income of the population.[2]\n\nMathematical definition[edit]\n\n\u03f5 Y = % \u00a0 change in demand % \u00a0 change in income {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{Y}={\\frac {\\%\\ {\\mbox{change in demand}}}{\\%\\ {\\mbox{change in income}}}}} \\epsilon _{Y}={\\frac  {\\%\\ {\\mbox{change in demand}}}{\\%\\ {\\mbox{change in income}}}}\n\nMore formally, the income elasticity of demand, \u00a0 \u03f5 d {\\displaystyle \\ \\epsilon _{d}} \\ \\epsilon _{d}, for a given Marshallian demand function Q ( I , P \u2192 ) {\\displaystyle Q(I,{\\vec {P}})} Q(I,{\\vec  {P}}) for a good is\n\n\u03f5 d = \u2202 Q \u2202 I I Q {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{d}={\\frac {\\partial Q}{\\partial I}}{\\frac {I}{Q}}} \\epsilon _{d}={\\frac  {\\partial Q}{\\partial I}}{\\frac  {I}{Q}}\n\nor alternatively:\n\n\u03f5 d = Y 1 + Y 2 Q 1 + Q 2 \u00d7 \u0394 Q \u0394 Y {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{d}={Y_{1}+Y_{2} \\over Q_{1}+Q_{2}}\\times {\\Delta Q \\over \\Delta Y}} \\epsilon _{d}={Y_{1}+Y_{2} \\over Q_{1}+Q_{2}}\\times {\\Delta Q \\over \\Delta Y}\n\nThis can be rewritten in the form:\n\n\u03f5 d = d ln \u2061 Q d ln \u2061 I {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{d}={\\frac {d\\ln Q}{d\\ln I}}} \\epsilon _{d}={\\frac  {d\\ln Q}{d\\ln I}}\n\nWith income I {\\displaystyle I} I, and vector of prices P \u2192 {\\displaystyle {\\vec {P}}} {\\vec {P}}.\n\nMany necessities have an income elasticity of demand between zero and one: expenditure on these goods may increase with income, but not as fast as income does, so the proportion of expenditure on these goods falls as income rises. This observation for food is known as Engel's law.\n\nTypes of income elasticity of demand[edit]\n\nThere are five possible income demand curves:\n\n1. High income elasticity of demand:\n\nIn this case increase in income is accompanied by relatively larger increase in quantity demanded.\n\n2. Unitary income elasticity of demand:\n\nIn this case increase in income is accompanied by same proportionate increase in quantity demanded.\n\n3. Low income elasticity of demand:\n\nIn this case increase in income is accompanied by less than proportionate increase in quantity demanded.\n\n4. Zero income elasticity of demand:\n\nThis shows that quantity bought is constant regardless of changes in income.\n\n5. Negative income elasticity of demand:\n\nIn this case increase in income is accompanied by decrease in quantity demanded.\n\nSelected income elasticities[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Automobiles 2.98[3]\n  \u2022 Books 1.44\n  \u2022 A person's own life (also called Value of Statistical Life) 0.50 to 0.60 [4]\n  \u2022 Restaurant Meals 1.40\n  \u2022 Tobacco 0.64\n  \u2022 Margarine \u22120.20\n  \u2022 Public Transportation \u22120.36[5]\n\nIncome elasticities are notably stable over time and across countries due to the law of one price.[6]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cross elasticity of demand (CED)\n  \u2022 Price elasticity of demand (PED)\n  \u2022 Price elasticity of supply (PES)\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Frank, Robert (2008). p. 125\n  2. Jump up ^ Bordley and McDonald.\n  3. Jump up ^ Samuelson; Nordhaus (2001). p.94.\n  4. Jump up ^ WK Viscusi (2003). \"The value of a statistical life: a critical review of market estimates throughout the world\". Journal of risk and uncertainty.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Frank (2008) 125.\n  6. Jump up ^ Perloff, J. (2008). p.105.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bordley; McDonald. \"Estimating Income Elasticities from the Average Income of a Product's Buyers and the Population Income Distribution\". Journal of Business and Economic Statistics.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Perloff, J. (2008). Microeconomics Theory & Applications with Calculus. Pearson. ISBN\u00a0978-0-321-27794-7.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Samuelson; Nordhaus (2001). Microeconomics (17th ed.). McGraw-Hill.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Frank, Robert (2008). Microeconomics and Behavior (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN\u00a0978-0-07-126349-8.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Income_elasticity_of_demand&oldid=842246719\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Demand\n  \u2022 Elasticity (economics)\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 21 May 2018, at 06:14\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8581459827310902378","title":"List of Toy Story characters","text":"List of Toy Story characters\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nThis is a list of characters from Disney\/Pixar's Toy Story franchise which consists of the animated films Toy Story (1995), Toy Story 2 (1999), and Toy Story 3 (2010) and the animated short films.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Primary characters\n    \u2022 1.1 Sheriff Woody\n    \u2022 1.2 Buzz Lightyear\n    \u2022 1.3 Jessie\n  \u2022 2 Toy characters by owner\n    \u2022 2.1 Andy's toys\n      \u2022 2.1.1 Hamm the Piggy Bank\n      \u2022 2.1.2 Rex the Tyrannosaurus Rex\n      \u2022 2.1.3 Slinky Dog\n      \u2022 2.1.4 Mr. Potato Head\n      \u2022 2.1.5 Mrs. Potato Head\n      \u2022 2.1.6 Bullseye\n      \u2022 2.1.7 Squeeze Toy Aliens \/ Little Green Men\n      \u2022 2.1.8 Barbie\n      \u2022 2.1.9 Sarge and the Bucket O' Soldiers\n      \u2022 2.1.10 Bo Peep\n      \u2022 2.1.11 RC\n      \u2022 2.1.12 Wheezy\n      \u2022 2.1.13 Etch\n      \u2022 2.1.14 Mr. Spell\n      \u2022 2.1.15 Rocky Gibraltar\n      \u2022 2.1.16 Lenny\n      \u2022 2.1.17 Snake\n      \u2022 2.1.18 Robot\n      \u2022 2.1.19 Mr. Shark\n      \u2022 2.1.20 Mr. Mike\n      \u2022 2.1.21 See 'n Say\n      \u2022 2.1.22 Roly Poly Clown\n      \u2022 2.1.23 Troikas\n      \u2022 2.1.24 Troll\n      \u2022 2.1.25 Toddle Tots Fire Truck\n    \u2022 2.2 Bonnie's toys\n      \u2022 2.2.1 Chuckles\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Dolly\n      \u2022 2.2.3 Mr. Pricklepants\n      \u2022 2.2.4 Trixie\n      \u2022 2.2.5 Buttercup\n      \u2022 2.2.6 Peas-in-a-Pod\n      \u2022 2.2.7 Angel Kitty\n      \u2022 2.2.8 Totoro\n    \u2022 2.3 Sid and Hannah's toys\n      \u2022 2.3.1 Combat Carl\n      \u2022 2.3.2 Hannah's dolls\n      \u2022 2.3.3 Mutant toys\n    \u2022 2.4 Mason's toys\n  \u2022 3 Toy characters by location\n    \u2022 3.1 Al's Toy Barn and apartment\n      \u2022 3.1.1 Stinky Pete the Prospector\n      \u2022 3.1.2 Utility Belt Buzz Lightyear\n      \u2022 3.1.3 Evil Emperor Zurg\n      \u2022 3.1.4 Tour Guide Barbie\n    \u2022 3.2 Sunnyside Daycare\n      \u2022 3.2.1 Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear\n      \u2022 3.2.2 Ken\n      \u2022 3.2.3 Big Baby\n      \u2022 3.2.4 Twitch\n      \u2022 3.2.5 Stretch\n      \u2022 3.2.6 Chunk\n      \u2022 3.2.7 Sparks\n      \u2022 3.2.8 Chatter Telephone\n      \u2022 3.2.9 Bookworm\n      \u2022 3.2.10 Cymbal-banging monkey\n    \u2022 3.3 Toys in other projects\n      \u2022 3.3.1 Discarded Fun Meal Toys\n      \u2022 3.3.2 Sleep Well Toys\n  \u2022 4 Non-toy characters\n    \u2022 4.1 Humans\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Andy Davis\n      \u2022 4.1.2 Bonnie Anderson\n      \u2022 4.1.3 Molly Davis\n      \u2022 4.1.4 Mrs. Davis\n      \u2022 4.1.5 Sid Phillips\n      \u2022 4.1.6 Hannah Phillips\n      \u2022 4.1.7 Al McWhiggin\n      \u2022 4.1.8 Mrs. Anderson\n      \u2022 4.1.9 Geri the Cleaner\n      \u2022 4.1.10 Emily\n      \u2022 4.1.11 Daisy\n      \u2022 4.1.12 Ron\n      \u2022 4.1.13 Mason\n    \u2022 4.2 Animals\n      \u2022 4.2.1 Scud\n      \u2022 4.2.2 Buster\n      \u2022 4.2.3 Crazy Critters\n      \u2022 4.2.4 Mr. Jones\n  \u2022 5 References\n\nPrimary characters[edit]\n\nSheriff Woody[edit]\n\nMain article: Sheriff Woody\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Tom Hanks (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Jim Hanks (1996\u2013present)\n\nSheriff Woody Pride is a 1950s old traditional pull string cowboy doll, and Andy's favorite toy. Appearing in all three Toy Story films, he usually acts as the leader of the gang. His rivalry with Buzz forms the basis of the plot of the first film. In Toy Story 2, he is stolen at a yard sale by a toy collector, causing the other toys to embark on a rescue mission. In Toy Story 3 he and the other toys are shipped to a daycare center.\n\nBuzz Lightyear[edit]\n\nMain article: Buzz Lightyear\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Tim Allen (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Patrick Warburton (2000\u20132001) (Buzz Lightyear of Star Command)\n  \u2022 Pat Fraley (Toy Story Treats, few video games, merchandise, attractions) (1996\u20132005)\n  \u2022 Mike MacRae (video games) (2010\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Javier Fernandez-Pe\u00f1a (Spanish Buzz)\n\nPreviously known as Tinny and Lunar Larry, Buzz Lightyear is a modern-day \"space ranger\" action figure, and wears a green and white space suit with various features such as retractable wings and transparent air helmet, a laser \"weapon,\" and various sound effects. In the films, he acts as Woody's second-in-command. In Toy Story, he begins the series believing he is a real space ranger (the other toys are aware that they are toys) and develops a rivalry with Woody, who resents him for getting more attention as the newcomer. During the film, he comes to realize that he is just a toy, and eventually becomes good friends with Woody. He is extremely loyal to his friends. During his time trapped at Sid's house, Hannah, Sid's sister, called Buzz Mrs. Nesbit. In Toy Story 2, Buzz goes to save Woody from Al with Potato Head, Hamm, Rex, and Slink (Slinky Dog) where he gets stuck in the Buzz Lightyear aisle in Al's Toy Barn by another Buzz and finds out for himself what he was really like. In Toy Story 3, a relationship begins to develop between Buzz and Jessie. He is particularly open with his affection when accidentally switched to \"Spanish mode.\"\n\nJessie[edit]\n\nMain article: Jessie (Toy Story)\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Joan Cusack (1999\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Mary Kay Bergman (yodeling voice) Toy Story 2\n  \u2022 Sarah McLachlan (singing voice) Toy Story 2\n  \u2022 Kathryn Cressida (Disney Infinity)\n\nJessie is a cowgirl doll, and part of the Woody's Round Up gang. Jessie is also Buzz Lightyear's girlfriend. She first appeared in Toy Story 2 along with Bullseye (her horse) and Stinky Pete. Initially, Jessie was hesitant to join Andy's friends. After she becomes part of the family, she is very happy (despite that Andy first calls her Bazooka Jane). In Toy Story 3, she was riding Bullseye when Woody fell off the train in Andy's opening sequence. She argued with Woody on their way to Sunnyside Daycare because of when the others think Andy threw them out. Later in the film, Jessie feels close with Buzz, even when Buzz got switched into Spanish. At the end, Jessie and Buzz danced to the Spanish version of \"You've Got a Friend in Me.\" Jessie also makes a cameo appearance in Monsters, Inc. as one of the toys Boo gives Sulley. Jessie also appears in Pixar's production of Toy Story of Terror! as the main character that saves the other toys from the toy stealer and seller at the rest stop.\n\nToy characters by owner[edit]\n\nAndy's toys[edit]\n\nHamm the Piggy Bank[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 John Ratzenberger (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Andrew Stanton (Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins)\n\nHamm is a wisecracking realist piggy bank with a cork in his belly in place of a stopper. He and Mr. Potato Head appear to be best friends, and are often seen playing games, such as Battleship (with Hamm always winning). Out of all the toys, he is shown to have the most knowledge of the outside, often being very familiar with various gadgets that are shown, likely as an homage to Ratzenberger's famous role of mail carrier and bar know-it-all Cliff Clavin on the sitcom Cheers.\n\nIn Toy Story, Hamm interrupts Woody's staff meeting by alerting the crowd telling them that the birthday guests are arriving at 3:00. Hamm becomes fascinated with Buzz's features and ridicules of Woody, along with Potato Head. When Woody inadvertently knocks Buzz off the window, Hamm is one of the many toys who believes that Woody did it intentionally and he turns on him. However, Hamm realizes the truth that Buzz is alive. At the end, Hamm cheers for Potato Head when Molly gets a Mrs. Potato Head for Christmas.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Hamm resents the Al's Toy Barn chicken mascot. When Woody is stolen, he and Mr. Potato Head organize a crime scene to present Woody's kidnapping to the other toys. After helping the toys find the Al's Toy Barn commercial on TV, Hamm goes with Buzz, Slinky, Rex, and Mr. Potato Head on a mission to rescue Woody. In Al's Toy Barn, Hamm spots a \"Bonus Belt\" Buzz, thinking he is Andy's Buzz, though he comments on the new Buzz's odd behavior. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he and Mr. Potato Head operate the truck's levers and knobs and are advised to pull the gear lever to get the truck to move. While reading the truck's manual, he states \"I seriously doubt he's getting this kinda mileage\". Eventually, Hamm and the other toys are able to rescue Woody and are able to return home in a stolen baggage carrier.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, Hamm is \"Evil Dr. Porkchop\" in Andy's western play opening sequence, appearing in a giant pig-shaped spaceship to rescue One-Eyed Bart and thwart Woody and his gang. Later, when the toys are accidentally thrown out, Hamm is angry, believing that Andy threw them out on purpose. He escapes with the rest of the toys to Sunnyside Daycare, where he is initially happy to be played with, but dismayed as he realizes the toddlers are too rough. Later that night, Hamm and his friends realize that Woody was telling the truth about Andy. When the toys are imprisoned by Lotso and his henchmen, Hamm is shown to be able to play the harmonica. When Woody comes back to rescue the toys from Sunnyside he quotes \"Return of the Astro-Nut\" on Buzz being turned back to demo. He helps the toys escape by fighting with Rex to distract Buzz, who has been switched to demo mode by Lotso, so that Jessie can trap him under a plastic container. Hamm and Rex, being the heaviest of the toys, sit on top of the container to prevent Buzz from escaping. When Woody returns with Buzz's instruction manual to switch him back, Hamm reads the instructions while the others hold Buzz down. When they were about to die in the incinerator, Hamm grabbed the hands of Slinky and Rex. Later, after the toys are rescued from an incinerator-related death at the dump due to Lotso's selfishness, Hamm, along with Slinky, wants revenge, but Woody talks them both out of it. He is donated along with Andy's other toys to Bonnie, where he becomes best friends with Buttercup.\n\nIn a 2010 advertisement for the United States Postal Service promoting Toy Story 3, Hamm wears a postal worker's hat while promoting the Priority Mail service; Ratzenberger is best known for his role as mailman Cliff Clavin on the long-running sitcom Cheers. He also makes an appearance in the Toy Story 3 video game as the mayor in Toy Box mode.\n\nHamm also appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nRex the Tyrannosaurus Rex[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Wallace Shawn (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Earl Boen (video games)\n\nRex is an excitable large, green, plastic Tyrannosaurus Rex. Rex suffers from anxiety, an inferiority complex and the concern that he is not scary enough. Rex's worst fear (after Sid) is that Andy will get another, scarier dinosaur. He is among the largest of Andy's toys, and is often depicted as the heaviest. He is voiced by Earl Boen in the video games Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue (1999) and Toy Story Racer (2001). Although Rex is a toy dinosaur he dislikes confrontation and is sensitive in nature.\n\nIn Toy Story, he states that he was manufactured by a smaller company that was purchased in a leveraged buyout by Mattel (coincidentally, real-life Rex toys used to be made by Hasbro, but as of 2009 are indeed made by Mattel). He is first introduced when he moves Woody's doodle pad, then tries to scare Woody with his roar. When Buzz arrives, Rex is fascinated by his cool features. Later, when Woody knocks Buzz out the window, he reluctantly sides against Woody out of pressure from the other toys. He is, however, a great deal less antagonistic than most of the other toys. He later feels guilty when everyone discovers Woody was telling the truth all along. He gains confidence at the end, saying he could play as the dominant predator if Andy gets a leaf eater.\n\nThe beginning of Toy Story 2, he is shown playing the \"Buzz Lightyear: Attack on Zurg\" video game, which he loses, much to his frustration. He is responsible for the toys seeing the commercial for Al's Toy Barn commercial when he accidentally clicks the remote control. When Woody was kidnapped by Al, Rex tried to send a message to the FBI for help, but he didn't know how to write FBI, and later joins Buzz' team to rescue Woody. Inside Al's Toy Barn, he excitedly finds a \"Buzz Lightyear\" video game strategy guide, which he takes with him. He loses the guide later, but is still able to give Buzz two tips from the guide on defeating Zurg. In a parody of Jurassic Park, he chases a car driven by the toys in Al's Toy Barn, in which Mr. Potato Head spots his reflection in the rear view mirror. It is Rex's tail sticking out of Al's bag that later causes the real Buzz to go after them. When the other Toys, led by Buzz 2 reach Al's Apartment, the toys use an unwilling Rex as a battering ram to break in against the unlocked grate. When Zurg is about to finish off Buzz 2, he turns away, not bearing to look anymore, but his tail knocks Zurg down the elevator shaft, making him feel overjoyed about finally defeating Zurg for real. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he serves as the navigator and tells Buzz which way to go since he can't see out the window while controlling the steering wheel. Eventually, he and the others manage to rescue Woody and return home in a stolen baggage carrier.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, he is Woody's \"Dinosaur who Eats Force Field Dogs\" in Andy's opening western play sequence, where he frightens One-Eyed Bart and his gang with a terrifying roar, but is then overpowered by a flood of monkeys. He is seen to be especially sad about Andy's lack of attention to the toys, expressing joy when Andy touches him for only a few moments. When the toys are initially left for the garbage pickup, he is ultimately responsible for saving them when they use his tail to rip a hole in the garbage bag. He is initially happy to be at Sunnyside, and is visibly sad when Woody leaves, but becomes dismayed after a rough playtime with the toddlers, commenting \"Andy never played with us like that!\" He is imprisoned along with Andy's other toys by Lotso and his gang. Later, at the garbage dump, Rex is the last to escape the shredder, only barely escaping when he grabs onto a broken fan. He discovers a source of light thinking that it's daylight, but Woody convinces him that it's not; it's the light of the flame from the incinerator. When the toys are finally given to Bonnie, Rex becomes close friends with Trixie the Triceratops.\n\nIn an outtake of Toy Story 2, when used as a battering ram, Rex hurt his head when banged against the locked grate. Rex makes an appearance in an outtake of Monsters, Inc. where he waits at the crosswalk with Mike and Sulley in a scene reminiscent of Jurassic Park. Rex is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game. In the movie WALL-E, Rex is seen in the background inside WALL-E's truck.\n\nRex reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, Partysaurus Rex and in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror!, and Toy Story That Time Forgot.\n\nSlinky Dog[edit]\n\n\"Slinky Dog\" redirects here. For the original toy, see Slinky\u00a0\u2013 Slinky Dog (section).\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Jim Varney (1995\u20131999)\n  \u2022 Blake Clark (2010\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Darryl Kurylo (Toy Story Racer)\n\nSlinky Dog (usually called just Slinky or sometimes Slink) is a toy dachshund with a metal Slinky for a body, who speaks with a southern accent. Slinky's head, feet, and tail are plastic and he is missing his pull string. Slinky also has a green collar. Slinky Dog is based on Slinky, a pull toy by James Industries, which was popular in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. With the permission of James Industries, Slinky Dog was partially redesigned for the film by Pixar artist Bud Luckey to make him more appealing as an animated character.\n\nIn Toy Story, he likes playing checkers with Woody, usually choosing the red side. Slinky is shown to be the most loyal to Woody and stands up for him when Potato Head complains. Slinky is fascinated by Buzz, along with the rest of the toys, but does not make fun of Woody when Buzz arrives like the others do. When Woody knocks Buzz out of the window, Slinky is one of the few toys who believes it was an accident. Later, when Andy notices Woody is missing, he and Bo Peep are worried about him, in contrast to the others, who are glad he's gone. Later, he attempts to help when Woody throws a chain of Christmas lights from Sid's house to Andy's, but Potato Head stops him. Even Slinky appears to give up on Woody when he pretends Buzz is with him but accidentally reveals his broken arm. He is stretched almost to the point of breaking when helping rescue Woody and Buzz on the moving truck, but is fixed by the end of the film.\n\nAt the beginning of Toy Story 2, Slinky is the one who finds Woody's hat, and joins Buzz, Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and Rex on a mission to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. His springy coil is used as a bungee cord when the toys jump from the roof of Andy's house. When the toys break into Al's apartment, Slinky uses his spring to hold Jessie and Bullseye back by coiling them up so the toys can safely rescue Woody. After Al packs up Woody and his Roundup gang and heads for the airport, Slinky, stretching down from the elevator ceiling by Buzz, Hamm and Potato Head, reaches for the case that contains Woody, and almost manages to save him, but is thwarted by the Prospector. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he operates the truck's gas and brake pedals. They manage to reach the airport and use a pet carrier to get inside. When a girl approaches them (mistaking the toys for a puppy), Slinky barks to scare her off to prevent their discovery. After rescuing Woody, they return home with the rest of the group in a stolen baggage carrier. In an outtake, he is seen petting his own hind section and talking to it.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, Slinky has a smaller role compared to the previous two films. He is the only original character that had to be re-cast (due to Jim Varney's death), and was replaced by Blake Clark (with a professional Jim Varney voice) in this film. Slinky is One-Eyed Bart's \"Attack Dog with a Built-in Force Field\" and protects the bad guys with his shield in Andy's western play sequence. At Sunnyside Daycare, Slinky has been tangled up by the young children. Later that night, Slinky reveals that Woody was telling them the truth about Andy's intention to store the toys into the attic. Slinky and his friends are imprisoned by Lotso's gang. He is shown to be the happiest toy to see Woody return, and assists him in subduing the Monkey toy who monitors the security cameras. When the toys reach the dumpster, Slinky stretches himself to create a bridge for the toys to climb across to safety, although they are stopped by Lotso. When the toys end up at the dump, Slinky is the first to be taken up by a magnetic ceiling due to the metallic section (Slinky) of his body. When Lotso betrays the toys and leaves them to be burned up in the incinerator, Slinky is the first to follow Buzz in joining hands in acceptance of their fate. After the toys are rescued by the Squeeze Toy Aliens, he and Hamm are the most vocal about wanting to get revenge on Lotso for leaving them to die before Woody convinces them Lotso isn't worth it. He is eventually donated to Bonnie along with the rest of the toys.\n\nHis catchphrase, said in all three movies, is \"Golly bob-howdy!\"\n\nSlinky reappears in the short film Hawaiian Vacation, in which he acts as a hotel porter as part of Ken and Barbie's Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex. He does not speak in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, silently appearing along with Jessie in one scene.\n\nMr. Potato Head[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Don Rickles (1995\u20132014)\n  \u2022 TBA (2019)\n\nMr. Potato Head (often referred to as simply Potato Head) is a Brooklyn-accented doll based on the real-life toy Mr. Potato Head by Playskool. He is an outspoken and sarcastic potato-shaped toy: his patented design allows him to separate his detachable parts from his body by removing them from the holes on his body. He also has a compartment on his lower back to store extra appendages. He is capable of retaining control over his parts even if they are several meters away from his main body. For example, he can still see if one or both of his detachable eyes are removed, as well as being able to move his hands if they are detached. The same thing applies to his \"Mrs.\" counterpart, as she was able to see Andy in his room through her eye left behind. While this attribute is mostly used for comedic effect (i.e. as a running gag, he often finds himself being split or falling apart due to outside forces), it does have its uses, particularly in the second and third films.\n\nIn Toy Story, it is hinted that he used to be Andy's favorite toy years before the events of the film, until he received Woody at the point of kindergarten, and therefore seems to have a strong jealousy towards Andy`s love for Woody. Then, when Andy gets the Buzz Lightyear action figure for his birthday he becomes fascinated with all of Buzz's features and ridicules Woody for not having a laser like Buzz as well as Woody's pull-string. After Buzz is knocked out of the window, Potato Head (perhaps due to his jealously towards Woody, and wanting to reclaim his long lost favorite toy position) blames Woody for kicking him out, thinking that Woody might do the same to him if Andy plays with him more often, and turns the other toys against Woody and leads a mutiny with them. When Woody reveals himself at Sid's House later, Mr. Potato Head convinces the others to refuse to help him, still assuming that Woody attacked Buzz. But when they are packed up Mr. Potato Head is still unhappy because he is stuck with Rex as a moving buddy and put in a moving truck. Later when Woody catches up with them and tosses RC onto the street to rescue Buzz, Potato Head, still distrusting Woody (and perhaps still eager to reclaim his favorite toy position), orders the other toys to mutiny again, and \"toss him overboard\", however, when Bo Peep reveals that \"Woody was telling the truth,\" the toys realize their mistake. He decides to reform himself as an apology to Woody by holding Slinky's tail to help Woody and Buzz back at the truck but gets hit after Slinky's attempt fails. When Woody tosses RC in the truck, Potato Head gets hit. At the end of the film, he is surprised to hear Molly receiving Mrs. Potato Head for her Christmas present and promptly decides to shave by removing his mustache.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, after Al McWhiggin steals Woody, he goes with Buzz, Hamm, Rex, and Slinky to rescue Woody. Later, when they are going to leave, Mrs. Potato Head packs some extra pair of shoes and angry eyes on his back compartment. When the toys cross the street to Al's Toy Barn, they cause a semi to jackknife, and the chains restraining a large pipe on the semi break, freeing the pipe, which rolls down the street, during which Mr. Potato Head gets one of his feet stuck in a chewing gum and has to pull his foot off the gum before the pipe can crush him. After the toys break into Al's room using Rex as a battering ram, Potato Head attempts to frighten Jessie by reaching into his back compartment for his angry eyes, but attaches his spare pair of shoes by mistake. When the toys leave the apartment after Al leaves with Woody, Potato Head throws his hat like a frisbee to jam the closing doors, letting the toys pass through. Outside, he is the first to spot an idling Pizza Planet delivery truck nearby. While the toys chase Al in the truck, Potato Head and Hamm operate the truck's levers and knobs and are advised by three alien toys to pull the truck's gear lever to get the truck to move. He later saves the alien toys from flying out the window. In the airport, when he sees the luggage area, he gasps and his angry eyes and pair of shoes come out after his compartment opens. He feels annoyed when the aliens repeatedly express their eternal gratefulness towards him, but after the toys return home in a stolen baggage carrier, he reluctantly gives in when his wife wants to adopt the aliens, much to his dismay. In an outtake, he is seen taking a dislike with the Barrel of Monkeys, saying he is \"drawing the line at monkeys\" and wants to call his agent.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, Potato Head is resentful of the aliens, who still worship him for saving their lives. Potato Head is sad that Andy doesn't play with them anymore, and complains all that to Woody. He is frustrated that Andy \"threw them away\", when he was actually going to put them in the attic. Again, Potato Head is the toy most doubtful of Woody when he and the other toys are almost thrown away by accident. Potato Head is excited to get played with in Sunnyside. After a rough playtime with the toddlers, he and Mrs. Potato Head's parts are scattered on the floor, and he gets his parts stuck up a kid's mouth and nose. Later that night, his wife Mrs. Potato Head through the other eye left in Andy's bedroom, spots that Andy is looking for his toys, making Mr. Potato Head and the other toys shocked. When Lotso's dark attitude is revealed, he tries to defend his friends from Lotso, but Big Baby throws him into \"The Box\" on Lotso's orders. When Jessie told Woody she was wrong to leave Andy, Potato Head agrees saying that she was wrong. The toys hatch an escape plan which Potato Head initiates by arguing with and distracting the captors, and he is thrown in the box once again. Only his smaller parts are able to escape, through a small hole. He reassembles onto a floppy tortilla, checks if Lotso is sleeping and then gives the signal. Pecked at by a pigeon, the tortilla falls apart, and Potato Head rejoins the other toys using a cucumber for a body. Bullseye returns his original plastic body to him. The toys manage to escape Sunnyside, and he and the other toys jump onto a garbage truck. Eventually, they end up in a landfill, facing death in the incinerator. However, Potato Head and the toys are saved by his alien children, who he now accepts and declares himself to be eternally grateful, just as the aliens had told him when they met. They eventually return to Andy's home and get washed. Mr. Potato Head then says his farewell to Woody before Andy comes into the room. Potato Head is donated to Bonnie at the end of the film.\n\nPotato Head reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mr. Potato Head's actor, Don Rickles, however died in 2017 so his voice actor is currently unknown for 2019's upcoming film, Toy Story 4.[1][2]\n\nHe is seen as an Interactive Audio-Animatronic at Toy Story Midway Mania!. It is stated on the Toy Story website that Mr. Potato Head was Andy's second toy.\n\nMrs. Potato Head[edit]\n\nVoiced by Estelle Harris (1999\u2013present)\n\nMrs. Potato Head is Mr. Potato Head's wife and female counterpart. Unlike her husband, Mrs. Potato Head is sweet and not hot-headed or impatient. Although mentioned as one of Molly's Christmas presents near the end of the first movie, she is not seen until Toy Story 2.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, her husband has found her lost earring. Before her husband leaves with Buzz and his troops, she stores his \"extra pair of shoes and angry eyes\" into his back compartment. She also warns the toys by saying \"Don't talk to any toy you don't know!\" She is not seen again until the end of the film. She becomes an adoptive mother of the three Squeeze Toy Aliens that Andy's toys had found in the Pizza Planet truck, as they will not leave because Mr. Potato Head saved their lives. She is then happily watching Wheezy sing his version of \"You've Got a Friend in Me\" with her husband.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, she has a more central role. She is \"One-Eyed Betty\", One-Eyed Bart's wife in the opening sequence. She uses her ninja skills and her nunchuk to herd Woody to the back, and eventually off the train. After One-Eyed Bart and Betty rob tons of gold, they are transported to Dr. Porkchop's aircraft. At the present time when Andy's toys all cram themselves in the toy box, Mrs. Potato Head loses one of her eyes. She is one of the toys who believe Andy threw them out on purpose. They are later donated to Sunnyside Daycare. She and her husband experience a rough playtime with the toddlers at the Caterpillar Room. When the toys hear something from the halls, Mrs. Potato Head uses her eye and looks under the door. She at first just sees the dark hall, but then she sees Andy looking for the toys in his room, due to the eye she left behind in Andy's house. She tells the toys it truly was an accident that they were thrown away. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, Mrs. Potato Head complains about her chewed up pocketbook and yells at him when he calls her \"Sweet Potato,\" along with telling him she needs more respect and having over 30 accessories. But Lotso takes off her mouth. Near the end of the film, she is saved from death in an incinerator by her adoptive children, and much to her delight, her husband now accepts them. She recovers her missing eye before she and the toys are donated to Bonnie. Even though she was Molly's Christmas gift in the first film, the second and third films imply that she is one of Andy's toys.\n\nMrs. Potato Head reappears in the theatrical short film Hawaiian Vacation and acts as a tour guide for Ken and Barbie in their Hawaiian adventures. She also reappears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nBullseye[edit]\n\nVocal effects by Frank Welker (1999\u2013present)\n\nBullseye is a toy horse who was introduced in Toy Story 2. He is the first toy with which Woody interacted in Al's penthouse. He was very happy to finally see Woody after a long time in storage. Bullseye is shown to loathe fights as he hides in a can when Jessie jumps on Woody. He is also upset at Woody's intention to abandon the Roundup gang to return to Andy, as Bullseye does not want Woody to leave. When Woody ultimately decides to return to Andy's room, it is Bullseye's loyalty that causes Woody to try to get the other toys to join him. At the airport, after Bullseye escapes from Al's case, Woody and Buzz Lightyear mount Bullseye and gallop across the airfield to rescue Jessie from being sent to Japan. Although Woody gets separated from Buzz, Buzz commandeers Bullseye to follow Woody, as they are seen galloping next to the wheels of the plane Woody and Jessie are on as it heads down the runway. The mission finally ends when Woody and Jessie swing down from the plane and land on Bullseye right behind Buzz, seconds before the plane takes off. After the toys return home, both Bullseye and Jessie become part of Andy's toys. Bullseye has every letter of Andy's name printed on the sole of each of his hooves.\n\nBullseye returns in Toy Story 3 as one of the remaining toys in Andy's room. He is still Woody's horse in the opening sequence and saves him when he falls off the train by One-Eyed Betty. Bullseye's fast speed helps Woody catch the train and rescue the orphans. Bullseye is really sad when Andy wouldn't play with them anymore. After Andy's mother thought the bag that the toys were in was trash, Bullseye and the toys manage to safely hide in a recycling bin. The toys are donated to Sunnyside Daycare. At Sunnyside, he proves his loyalty to Woody when he makes clear he wants to stay with him. He only stays when Woody tells him to since Woody doesn't want him to be alone in the attic. Bullseye is roughly tumbled over by a screaming toddler with a rolling wheel toy. After the toddler play session, Bullseye is covered with paint and has a blue sticker in his snout, which is removed by Jessie. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, he locks the toys up and shows them Woody's hat, making Bullseye miss Woody and sad he's gone. Bullseye is extremely happy when Woody comes back to Sunnyside and gives him back his hat. The toys then plan an escape. Bullseye helps by going through the playground, carrying the aliens on his back. He goes with Woody and is almost caught by Big Baby when Bullseye jumps and accidentally makes an alien fall and squeak. But they hide inside a pail safely. The toys then go to the garbage dump, and Bullseye is the most desperate to escape from the incinerator. They are rescued by the three aliens. At the end, Bullseye is donated to Bonnie, along with the rest of the toys. In Bonnie's room Bullseye changes the channel of a radio to a Spanish channel causing Buzz and Jessie to dance to the Spanish version of \"You've got a friend in me.\"\n\nBullseye acts like a dog in many ways. Unlike most of the other toys, Bullseye cannot communicate in clear speech but sounds like an actual horse and uses body language to speak. According to a character interview that used to be on the Toy Story website, Bullseye communicated with Jessie while in storage by tapping his hooves to yes or no questions.\n\nBullseye reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nSqueeze Toy Aliens \/ Little Green Men[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Jeff Pidgeon (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Debi Derryberry\u00a0\u2014 Toy Story\n  \u2022 Patrick Warburton\u00a0\u2014 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins\n\nThe Squeeze Toy Aliens, also known as Little Green Men (or \"LGMs\") in the Buzz Lightyear of Star Command television series, are a series of green, three-eyed squeaky toy aliens. They appear in all three films, and some were among Andy's toys after the events of Toy Story 2. Similar to Buzz, they think they're real aliens. Though it is not certain whether they are male or female at first glance, they are identified in the third film by Mr. Potato Head as \"[his] boys,\" implying that all three are male.\n\nIn Toy Story, Buzz and Woody climb inside a giant rocket-shaped claw game at Pizza Planet. Inside the claw game are hundreds of squeeze toy aliens. When Buzz asks who is in charge, the Little Green Men say \"the claw\", which belongs in the machine; the Little Green Men say that the claw will \"decide who will go and who will stay\". Sid spots Buzz inside the claw game and tries to win him. Woody attempts to save Buzz and escape through the claw game's maintenance hatch, but the Little Green Men stop him and say that they must not fight the claw. Woody, Buzz, and a Little Green Man get taken to Sid's house. Sid gives the Little Green Man to his dog, Scud, who violently chews it as Woody and Buzz watch in horror. Near the end of the movie, the same Little Green Man is seen to be intact, and it helps Woody try to scare Sid by getting out of Scud's food bowl and walking like a zombie toward Sid.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, a trio of them are hanging above the dashboard in the Pizza Planet truck. Buzz groans when he sees them, remembering them from the claw game in the first film. When the toys are having trouble getting the truck to move, they tell Mr. Potato Head to \"use the wand of power\" (the truck's gear lever), which they mistook for the control lever of the giant claw game. They nearly fall out of the window, due to the sharp turns from Buzz trying to catch Al in his car. Fortunately, Mr. Potato Head saves them. The Little Green Men are thankful and hand him his ear. Throughout the rest of the movie they frequently say \"You have saved our lives, we are eternally grateful,\" much to Potato Head's dismay. The Little Green Men join the quest to save Woody and mistake the entrance to the baggage area for the \"Mystic Portal\". They chase after the luggage with Rex, Hamm, and Potato Head, only to find cameras. Back home, the trio, along with Bullseye and Jessie, end up becoming some of Andy's toys. They say their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head, and Mrs. Potato Head is so happy that he saved their lives, so she suggests that they adopt them, with the Little Green Men calling Potato Head \"daddy\".\n\nThey reappear in Toy Story 3 as the \"henchmen\" under One-Eyed Bart and One-Eyed Betty, and serve as the getaway drivers during the western opening sequence and drive Barbie's corvette. The car is destroyed by Buzz's laser and they are transported to Dr. Porkchop's aircraft. In the present time, the same trio continues to express their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head. When Andy's mother mistakes the trash bag containing them as trash, she puts the toys on the curb, but they manage to escape the garbage bag. They are donated to Sunnyside along with the rest of Andy's toys. In Sunnyside, the Little Green Men find a toy crane, which reminds them of the claw game in Pizza Planet. The Little Green Men get sat on and bounced on during a rough playtime with the toddlers. The toys plan to escape Sunnyside. The Little Green Men have to go through the playground with Woody and ride on Bullseye. They almost get caught by Big Baby because one of the Little Green Men falls off Bullseye and squeaks, but manage to hide inside a pail. Later when Andy's toys escape, one of the Little Green Men's feet gets stuck in the lid of the bin at the bottom of the chute, possibly after being pulled by Lotso, who had been thrown in the bin by Big Baby. Woody goes in to help, but after he helps the Little Green Man, Lotso grabs Woody's feet and pulls him into the bin just as the refuse truck arrives. The toys are collected by the truck and subsequently sent to landfill. The Little Green Men are separated from the others by a bulldozer when they wander off, having spotted a crane. Woody and Mrs. Potato Head yell and try to warn them, but they are presumed to be dead after being crushed by the bulldozer. In the end, however, they are revealed to have avoided the conveyor belt and later rescue everyone from an incinerator with a giant claw crane for which the Potato Heads finally acknowledges them as his children, reciting their repetitive line, \"You have saved our lives and we are eternally grateful.\" The trio are later delivered to Bonnie along with Andy's other toys.\n\nThe Aliens reappear in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nBarbie[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jodi Benson\u00a0\u2014 (1999\u2013present)\n\nIn Toy Story 2, when the toys discover Barbie dolls in an aisle while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie volunteers to help them. During the end credits she is a cinema usherette and is seen giving out instructions to the audience. After a while she asks if everyone has gone and promptly stops smiling and complains that it hurts her face. She then leaves for her break.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, a Barbie appears to be one of the toys that Andy's sister, Molly, owns. In Sunnyside, she falls in love with Ken, but after Lotso's minions reset Buzz's personality, and reveal that they want to sacrifice Andy's old toys in order to protect themselves, she ingratiates herself with Ken in order to obtain the Buzz Lightyear manual that lets her friends reset Buzz to his original form. When she stands up to Lotso by saying that being treated fairly is better than living under his rule, Ken switches his allegiance to her and her friends. In the end credits of the film, they get back together and change Sunnyside, becoming its co-leaders, after Lotso is defeated.\n\nBarbie appears with Ken in Hawaiian Vacation. They sneak out of the daycare and stowaway in Bonnie's backpack to go to Hawaii but Ken is disappointed to find out that Bonnie didn't take her backpack on her family vacation. The gang creates their own Hawaiian paradise to cheer Ken and Barbie up. They share their first kiss outside and then get trapped in the snow.\n\nSarge and the Bucket O' Soldiers[edit]\n\nVoiced by R. Lee Ermey (Sarge)\n\nSarge (also known as Army Sarge and Sergeant) is the gung-ho commander of an army of plastic toy soldiers from Bucket O Soldiers and loosely based on his voice actor's role as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket.\n\nIn Toy Story, he and the Bucket O' Soldiers are set in particular positions. They are highly disciplined with a \"Leave no man behind\" policy and are masters of reconnaissance. Woody describes them as \"professionals.\" The soldiers venture out of Andy's room with one of Andy's baby monitors (while the other monitor resides in Andy's room with Woody operating it) and hide in an indoor plant to report Andy's birthday presents to the toys and one of his comrades was injured after Mrs. Davis accidentally steps on one of them. They announced the first few presents to the other toys in Andy's room through the monitors, but didn't get to tell them that Andy got a Buzz Lightyear action figure after Rex accidentally breaks the monitor. However, they were able to warn them that Andy and his friends are coming upstairs upon Woody fixing the monitor. Sarge and his soldiers thought Woody was a murderer when he knocked Buzz off the window, so they \"frag\" him and each one of them attack Woody, along with the other toys. In the moving van, the soldiers attack Woody when he pushed RC off the van, making Sarge and the toys think he's murdering him now. However, Sarge sees that Woody knocking Buzz out the window was an accident, attempts to helps him on the van with the other toys, and is proud to work under Woody once again as shown at the end of the film when they hide in a Christmas tree and Christmas lights with the baby monitor to report to the toys what Andy and Molly are getting for Christmas.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, the role of Sarge is very minor. He first orders the soldiers to keep looking for Woody's hat in the toy box. When Buster was about to come to the room, Sarge and his army held back the door (with help from Rocky) to prevent Buster's entry, but Buster bursts open the door, causing the soldiers to go flying everywhere. When Woody alerts the toys about the yard sale occurring outside the house, he signals Sarge for an \"emergency roll call\" and Sarge orders the toys to line up in a single-file line. At the end, Sarge and his soldiers watch Wheezy sing \"You've Got a Friend in Me.\"\n\nIn Toy Story 3, several years after Toy Story 2, only Sarge and two paratroopers are seen. Woody orders Sarge and his men to retrieve Andy's cellphone. That plan, however, fails, and knowing that Andy is going to get out the garbage bag, Sarge and his last two men leave Andy's room to find a better life. Buzz believes they are going AWOL, but Sarge claims that their mission is complete, and that when trash bags come out, the Army men are always the first to be thrown away (it's likely that the rest of the soldiers had either left prior to that day, or were sold in a yard sale). They appear again at the end of the film where they land in Sunnyside, and possibly recognizing Barbie, begin a happy new life under Barbie and Ken's leadership.\n\nBo Peep[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Annie Potts (1995\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Rebecca Wink (Toy Story Racer)\n\nBo Peep is a porcelain figurine attached to Molly's bedside lamp inspired by the heroine of the famed nursery rhyme; a beautiful, sweet-natured shepherdess accompanied by a single figure merged to resemble three sheep, who serves as Woody's romantic interest of the films. In spite of her status as one of Molly's toys, like Mrs. Potato Head she may fall under the category of Andy's toy. In Andy's games of imaginative play she is used as the damsel-in-distress of the stories, and she is depicted as gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. In the first film, after Woody's exclusion from the group when Buzz Lightyear started to attract more attention, she remained loyal to him rather than taunting him because of Buzz's rise in popularity. After Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window, she was one of the only toys who did not antagonize him. She continued to show her attraction to Woody in Toy Story 2, flirting with him while playing a minor role. However, she did not return in Toy Story 3, except in flashback footage, as, over the years, she had apparently been sold, much to Woody's distress, like a few of the other characters. The particular reason for her disappearance was never disclosed officially, though Woody shows grief over her loss. In August 2015, however, it was revealed that Bo Peep will have a major role in Toy Story 4.[3] The fourth film will focus on her relationship with Woody, along with Woody and Buzz trying to find and bring her back.[4]\n\nRC[edit]\n\nRC is Andy's remote controlled buggy. He has a green body with blue splash decals on the front. RC \"speaks\" with revving sounds, although Mr. Potato Head and the other toys can understand him regardless. RC is a playable character in Toy Story Racer.\n\nIn Toy Story, RC was fascinated with Buzz's features. When Woody becomes really jealous, he calls out to Buzz that there is a toy (a magic 8-ball) trapped underneath the desk. Woody sneaks over to RC, starts him up, and tried to hit Buzz but misses. However, RC hits a board instead, causing thumbtacks on the board to fall and a globe to roll. Buzz falls out a window when the globe hits a red lamp and swings around and hits him. RC says to the other toys that Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window. RC then turns on Woody and thinks that he murdered Buzz. When Woody went to the moving van, he got RC out of the box and pushes him into the street and controlled him to rescue Buzz during the moving scene at the end of the film.\n\nAfter the toys mistakenly think that Woody is trying to get rid of RC, they toss Woody out of the moving truck into the street. RC finds Buzz hiding under the car in the streets and is thrilled to see him alive and well. Buzz controlled RC to catch Woody. Woody switched the remote to turbo mode to catch up with the truck, but RC's batteries deplete, causing him to slow down and finally stop. When Woody lights the rocket taped onto Buzz's back, Woody and Buzz hold onto RC as they rocket toward the truck, but the force of the rocket lifts Woody up from RC. Nevertheless, Woody manages to toss RC back into the truck (knocking Mr. Potato Head apart in the process) before he and Buzz go skyrocketing into the air.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, RC has a very minor role. He was used when Andy played with his toys. With Buzz riding him, he crashed into Evil Dr. Porkchop and knocked him down. He is not seen again until the end of the film, when he watched Wheezy sing \"You've Got a Friend in Me\".\n\nRC does not directly appear in Toy Story 3, having seemingly been sold in a yard sale alongside a number of other toys. Instead, he only appears via archival footage.\n\nWheezy[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Joe Ranft (1999\u20142000)\n  \u2022 Robert Goulet (singing voice)\n  \u2022 Phil LaMarr (Toy Story 3: The Video Game)\n\nWheezy (also known as Wheezy the Penguin) is a squeeze toy penguin with a red bow tie.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Wheezy is introduced when Woody finds him on the shelf. Wheezy was one of Andy's favourite toys until one day his squeaker broke. Andy's mom then put him on the shelf, intending to fix his broken squeaker later, but she forgot about him. He is about to be sold at the yard sale, and in saving him, Woody ends up falling so that he is stuck at the yard sale himself and subsequently stolen by Al. At the end of the film, he gets a new \"squeaker\" and sings \"You've Got a Friend in Me,\" the ending theme of the movie. During the outtakes, he describes himself as \"not a good catcher\" as he fails to catch Mike's microphone thus hurting himself several times.\n\nWheezy does not directly appear in Toy Story 3 as he was sold in a yard sale after Toy Story 2, as mentioned by Woody, but he does appear in footage of Andy as a boy (Toy Story 3). Wheezy appears in the Toy Story 3 video game, where he is voiced by Phil LaMarr in toy box mode along with Bo Peep.\n\nEtch[edit]\n\nEtch is an Etch A Sketch magic screen by Ohio Art Company. Etch can draw quickly and accurately. Such sketches include guns, portraits of Buzz, Woody and Al, and even semi-complicated maps. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk.\n\nIn Toy Story, Woody compliments Etch's art by saying that he has the fastest knobs in the west. He was also seen in the background many times, such as during the staff meetings and during Andy's birthday and Christmas gift opening scenes. He became fascinated with Buzz during the middle of the film when he sketched a portrait of him. Angered by this, Woody erased it. He apparently, like most of the toys, temporarily believes Woody deliberately knocked Buzz out of the window; he helps Mr. Potato Head threaten Woody by sketching a hangman's noose.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Etch was seen helping Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and the gang to identify Woody's kidnapper, Al. Later on, when the toys were surfing channels to find the location on how to find Al's Toy Barn, Etch is seen in the back as he was ready to draw a map for Buzz. Near the end of the movie, sometime before Andy comes back from cowboy camp, Etch, as well as the rest of the toys (then including Jessie, Bullseye, and the Aliens), were aligned to welcome Andy home, with a \"Welcome Home, Andy\" sign written on Etch.\n\nEtch was sold in yard sale years after the second Toy Story, was mentioned by Woody, and only appeared in the archive footage of Andy as a kid in Toy Story 3.\n\nMr. Spell[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jeff Pidgeon\n\nMr. Spell is based on a popular 1970s Speak & Spell toy by Texas Instruments. He frequently holds or has held seminars on a variety of topics such as \"plastic corrosion awareness\" and \"what to do if you or part of you is swallowed.\" He also reveals the words he is saying.\n\nWhen Andy's friends came to his birthday party, the toys panicked in thinking that they might be replaced with new toys and Mr. Spell, along with basically everyone else aside from Woody, ran to the window in panic to see the size of the presents. Then later, when Andy's friends were running up to his room, Woody told everyone to go back to their places and the toys began to scatter and Mr. Spell can be seen in the overhead shot running in fright and then again behind Mr. Potato Head.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, when Buster finds Woody, Mr. Spell displays 13.5, the amount of time in seconds it has elapsed for Buster to find Woody, setting a new record. Later, after Woody is stolen from a yard sale, Buzz uses Mr. Spell to help Andy's toys figure out who has stolen Woody.\n\nMr. Spell does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold in a yard sale along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Rocky Gibraltar, Lenny, Snake, Robot, Mr. Shark, Mr. Mike, Roly Poly Clown, See 'n Say, the Troikas, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.\n\nRocky Gibraltar[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Jack Angel (Toy Story)\n  \u2022 Pat Fraley (Toy Story Racer)\n\nRocky Gibraltar, more simply referred to as Rocky, is a figure of a heavyweight wrestler. He is the second strongest toy in Andy's room, after Buzz Lightyear. In the first movie, he is seen lifting weights (Tinker Toys) with Snake, Troll, Buzz, Mr. Potato Head, and Rex. Rocky lifts the heaviest weights out of all of Andy's toys. Rocky is silent and plays a minor role in the movies, but he can speak in the Disney Adventures comics and in the Toy Story Animated Storybook and Toy Story Activity Center CD-ROM games from Disney Interactive. In the Activity Center computer game, he can be seen on the top shelf playing cards with Hamm and speaks in third-person, saying, \"Rocky needs to work on brain muscles.\" He is one of the toys who turn against Woody, who accidentally knocked Buzz off a window. After Woody throws RC off the moving truck, Rocky, under Mr. Potato Head's orders, spins Woody in the air and later tosses him off the truck personally. But when the toys realize that Woody's only use of RC is to help Buzz onto the truck, Bo Peep calls Rocky who then redeems himself by lowering the truck's ramp for them.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Rocky, along with Sarge's toy soldiers, tries to hold back the door to prevent Buster from entering, but Buster rams the door open, causing Rocky and the soldiers to go flying. Rocky is also seen holding Wheezy as Wheezy begs Buzz to rescue Woody and when waving Buzz and his rescue squad goodbye as they leave on their mission. At the end of the movie, Rocky is seen enjoying Wheezy's rendition of \"You've Got a Friend in Me.\" He only appears in the third film via archive footage of Andy as a child.\n\nRocky's name and a logo on his championship belt are references to the Rock of Gibraltar. Rocky is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.\n\nLenny[edit]\n\nVoiced by Joe Ranft\n\nLenny (often known as Lenny the Binoculars) is a pair of wind up binoculars. He is used as binoculars by the other toys in various situations and is talkative when he warns the toys what he sees on his watch and has a major role in Toy Story. Lenny does not speak in Toy Story 2, unlike the first film, and his role is more minor; Buzz uses Lenny to keep watch on Woody during the events at the yard sale until Al McWhiggin of Al's Toy Barn steals Woody. Lenny appears in Toy Story 3 through archive footage from when Andy was young. Lenny was sold, possibly at a yard sale, before the events of Toy Story 3. Lenny is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.\n\nSnake[edit]\n\nVoiced by: Jack Angel\n\nSnake is a green and purple jointed rattlesnake toy who is best friends with Robot, as they are often seen together. He has a major role in the first film. He is unable to talk, but he communicates through hissing. When Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window, he sided with Mr. Potato Head against Woody. Later, at the end of the film, he and the other toys try to help Woody, Buzz and RC get back onto the moving van when they realized their mistake.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Snake has a very minor role in the film. He is first seen when Hamm, Mr. Potato Head, Etch and everyone else try to figure out who stole Woody. He isn't seen again until the end of the movie where he watches Wheezy sing \"You Got a Friend in Me\".\n\nHe was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3 along with Robot, Bo Peep, Etch, Lenny and the other toys, but he made two cameos in the home videos at the start of the film.\n\nRobot[edit]\n\nVoiced by: Jeff Pidgeon\n\nRobot is an educational robot toy from Playskool. Unlike his best pal Snake, he speaks English. He is shown to be good with building blocks. In Toy Story, he stands on his head for Buzz to run on his treads like a treadmill and also repairs his ship. He is also one of the toys who turn against Woody when Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window. He and Rocky later throw Woody out of the moving truck, but then try to help Woody, Buzz and RC when the toys realized that they made a big mistake.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, he assists Buzz in the yard sale role call and isn't seen again until later at the end of the film where he watches Wheezy sing \"You Got a Friend in Me\".\n\nRobot does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold at yard sale along with Snake and the others, but he made a cameo in the home videos at the beginning of the film.\n\nMr. Shark[edit]\n\nVoiced by: Jack Angel\n\nMr. Shark is a blue rubber, squeaky shark toy who appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. The back of him is never seen because he spends most of his time in the toy box. In the first film, he steals Woody's hat and imitates him before he takes his hat back.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, he is used as one of the death traps during Andy's playtime. At the end of the film, he repairs Wheezy by finding him an extra squeaker. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3.\n\nMr. Mike[edit]\n\nMr. Mike, also known as Microphone, is a toy tape recorder who helps Woody amplify his voice during staff meetings with his attached microphone. In Toy Story 2, Wheezy uses him as a karaoke machine. He was sold at a yard sale prior to the events of Toy Story 3.\n\nSee 'n Say[edit]\n\nSee 'n Say is an educational animal toy that appeared in Toy Story. Whenever he feels strong emotions, his central arrow wheel spins rapidly. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk and just like Etch, Mr. Spell and Mike, he gets around by waddling on his stand. See 'n say did not appear in Toy Story 2. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3. However, a different See 'n Say was seen when Ken, Twitch, Sparks, Chunk and Stretch were seen gambling inside a vending machine.\n\nRoly Poly Clown[edit]\n\nRoly Poly Clown is a rocking, chiming clown toy with a painted jacket and hands and a party hat seen in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. While not being able to talk, he mainly communicates through facial expressions. He also must rely on rolling around to get places since he doesn't have feet. When not out, Roly Poly Clown resides in the toy box. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Lenny, Mr. Spell, See 'n Say, Robot, Snake, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Mr. Shark, the Troikas, and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.\n\nTroikas[edit]\n\nThe Troikas are a set of five non-talking egg-shaped toys that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. They are in the style of the Russian doll with a picture of five animals: a dog (largest), a cat (second largest), a duck (medium), a fish (smallest), and a ladybug (second smallest). They were sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See 'n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.\n\nTroll[edit]\n\nTroll is a Troll doll with pink hair and a blue bathing suit that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. In the first film it became fascinated with Buzz and is seen lifting weights (Tinker dolls) with Rocky, Rex, Mr. Potatoe Head, Robot and Snake. In Toy Story 2 it is seen alongside with Bo Peep to help for searching Woody's hat before Andy is about to go to the summer camp. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See 'n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.\n\nToddle Tots Fire Truck[edit]\n\nThe Toddle Tots Fire Truck is a fire truck toy directly taken from the Little Tikes company that appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. It is piloted by the Fireman Toddle Tots. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See 'n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Troll.\n\nBonnie's toys[edit]\n\nThese characters are the toys owned by Bonnie in Toy Story 3 and the short films.\n\nChuckles[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Bud Luckey (2010\u20132011)\n\nChuckles is a brokenhearted toy clown who was once owned by Daisy (along with Lotso and Big Baby), and is later owned by Bonnie. He is first seen mournfully looking out the kitchen window in Bonnie's house, where he tells Woody about Lotso's past, stating that Lotso used to be a good friend. Chuckles explains that he, Lotso, and Big Baby were accidentally left behind on a trip with Daisy's family, and when they finally made it back to Daisy's house, both him and Lotso discovered that Lotso had been replaced, which caused Lotso to snap. Chuckles objected when Lotso claimed all three had been replaced, but Lotso silenced him, and lied to Big Baby, saying that Daisy did not love him anymore. After the three found their way to Sunnyside and Lotso took over, running it like a prison, Chuckles was damaged and Bonnie found him and took him home. He still feels sorry for what happened to Lotso, but knows that what Lotso is doing at Sunnyside is wrong. He gives Woody a pendant (which formerly belonged to Big Baby) that says My heart belongs to Daisy, which later leads Big Baby to discover Lotso's deception and rebel against him. In one of the end credits sequences, Chuckles sees a crayon-drawn picture of him, and Dolly says that \"Bonnie really got your smile,\" making Chuckles happy again, for the first time in many years.\n\nChuckles returns in the short film Hawaiian Vacation and he sings a Hawaiian love song while playing a ukulele when Barbie and Ken get their recreated Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry.\n\nDolly[edit]\n\nVoiced by Bonnie Hunt\n\nDolly is a soft dress-up rag doll with purple hair, googly-eyes, an orange dress with buttons sewn on, and gently blushing cheeks. She helps Woody get back to Sunnyside Daycare Center with the rest of Andy's toys. In the Toy Story 3 video game, she is seen as a witch. It's indicated that she is the leader of Bonnie's toys.\n\nDolly appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nMr. Pricklepants[edit]\n\nVoiced by Timothy Dalton\n\nMr. Pricklepants is a stuffed hedgehog. He wears lederhosen and a Tyrolean hat, and views himself as a thespian. Mr. Pricklepants was made in Germany (although he speaks with an English accent and actor's diction) and is from the Waldfreunde (Forest Friends) collection of premium imported plush toys. Throughout Toy Story 3, he expresses great interest in theater arts and in the same respect, takes the art of role playing as a child's toy very seriously. Buttercup refers to him sarcastically as \"Baron von Shush\" due to his habit of \"shushing\" the other toys when they break character. During the credits, he plays Romeo, with one of the aliens playing Juliet.\n\nMr. Pricklepants reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appeared in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.\n\nTrixie[edit]\n\nVoiced by Kristen Schaal\n\nTrixie is a blue toy Triceratops. She chats online with \"a dinosaur toy down the street\" who goes by the name \"Velocistar237.\" She becomes best friends with Rex during the credits, playing cooperatively on a computer.\n\nTrixie reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.\n\nButtercup[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jeff Garlin\n\nButtercup is a white unicorn with a yellow mane and a pink nose. Despite his appearance, he has a very gruff voice and sarcastic personality. He is the first to introduce himself to Woody when Bonnie brings him home. He later appears at the end of the movie, now very close friends with Hamm.\n\nHe also appears in Small Fry, Hawaiian Vacation, and Partysaurus Rex.\n\nPeas-in-a-Pod[edit]\n\nVoiced by\n\n  \u2022 Charlie Bright, Amber Kroner, and Brianna Maiwand in Toy Story 3\n  \u2022 Zoe Levin in Hawaiian Vacation and Small Fry\n\nPeas-in-a-Pod are three soft, plush green balls in a green zip-up case that looks like a pea pod. They have the personalities of small children, and their names are Peaty, Peatrice, and Peanelope.\n\nThe Peas-in-a-Pod reappear in the short film Hawaiian Vacation. They also appear in Small Fry.\n\nAngel Kitty[edit]\n\nVoiced by Emma Hudak\n\nAngel Kitty is a Christmas ornament that only appears in Toy Story That Time Forgot. A running gag in the film is Angel Kitty giving a moral about Christmas much to other toys' (mostly Trixie) dismay and joy. She is mostly seen with a trumpet giving morals. She was last seen in Toy Story That Time Forgot giving one last moral and \"vanishes\".\n\nTotoro[edit]\n\nTotoro, the title character from My Neighbor Totoro, who is also the mascot of Studio Ghibli, appears as one of Bonnie's toys. He is a big plush toy and does not speak at all during the film, nor is he spoken to by anyone by his name. He does however display his famous grin during the credit scenes, and at the end of the film, he is seen juggling the alien triplets, while Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head watch. According to the tie-in book, The Art of Toy Story 3,[citation needed] Totoro's appearance in the film was intended as a tribute to Hayao Miyazaki, who is a close friend of Pixar executive John Lasseter.[5] In addition to Lasseter's relationship to Miyazaki, another factor that contributed to Totoro's appearance was Disney's role in dubbing Studio Ghibli films for their English-language releases.[6]\n\nSid and Hannah's toys[edit]\n\nThe following toys are only seen in the first film.\n\nCombat Carl[edit]\n\nCombat Carl is a G.I. Joe-type toy character. He first appears as a toy of Sid's that Sid blows up with an M-80 explosive in his first scene in Toy Story. Pieces of him are later seen coming to life during Woody's plan to frighten Sid into altering his behavior near the end of the film.\n\nA different character with the same name appears in Toy Story of Terror!\n\nHannah's dolls[edit]\n\n  \u2022 For Janie, see \"Janie and Pterodactyl\" under \"Mutant toys.\"\n  \u2022 Sally\u2014Sally is Hannah's replacement doll for Janie. Sally has brown hair and a yellow dress. After Sid is attacked by the toys, Sid sees Sally, then runs off in fright, thinking that Sally will come to life.\n  \u2022 Marie Antoinette and her little sister\u2014Marie Antoinette and her little sister are a company of two headless dolls from Hannah's tea party. One is Barbie without her original legs (she has spare legs from a rag doll body), and the second is rag doll in violet bloom dress. A dark brown headless teddy bear is also seen with the dolls. It is because Sid tortured Hannah's toys. Yet, she is able to play with them. \"Marie Antoinette\" is probably a nickname (given by Buzz), based on their headlessness rather than the actual name of one of the toys.\n\nMutant toys[edit]\n\nThe Mutant Toys are mutilated toys who live their unhappy lives in the darkest corners of Sid's room. They are assembled by Sid from mixed pieces of several toys that belong to him and Hannah (hence the baby doll's parts). They do not speak, though it is revealed they know Morse Code. Woody and Buzz initially think that they are cannibals who are going to eat them, before they learn that the toys are actually friendly and compassionate. They fix Buzz's broken arm, Janie and the Pterodactyl, and also help Woody implement his plan to save Buzz from Sid. They close in on Sid as Woody tells Sid how much they hate being mutilated, and they all rejoice in victory after Woody frightens Sid away with his own voice. In Toy Story Treats, the Mutant Toys appear in Andy's house.\n\n  \u2022 Baby Face\u00a0\u2013 The leader of the mutant toys, he is a one-eyed baby doll head staked on top of a spider-like body with crab-like pincers made of Erector set pieces. Baby Face lives in the shadows under Sid's bed. One way Baby Face communicates with the other toys is by banging in Morse code on the side of Sid's metal bedpost with his big claw. This method is used when he signals the other mutant toys to gather around to listen to Woody as he formulates his plan to rescue Buzz from Sid. When the mutant toys gain on Sid, Baby Face, suspended by Legs, lands on Sid's head, scaring him. Baby Face is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.\n  \u2022 Legs\u00a0\u2013 A toy fishing rod with Barbie doll legs. She is shown to be very strong, being able to hold Ducky's and Baby Face's weight. When Woody formulates his plan to save Buzz from Sid, he assigns Legs to partner up with Ducky. Legs opens the vent grating so she and Ducky can go to the front porch, where Legs lowers Ducky through the hole Ducky created so Ducky can swing toward the doorbell. After Ducky catches the Frog, Legs pulls both toys up to safety. Later, when the mutant toys advance on Sid, Legs lowers Baby Face onto Sid's head, scaring him.\n  \u2022 Hand-in-the-Box\u00a0\u2013 Hand-in-the-box is based on the character Thing from the 1960s TV horror spoof The Addams Family. A green rubber arm that emerges from a black box, it appears to be based on the electro-mechanical coin-bank that was marketed as part of the show's merchandising. During Woody's plan to save Buzz from Sid, Hand-in-the-box, held by Rockmobile mounted on Babyface's head, extends its hand to the doorknob, ready to open the door when the signal comes. After the Frog is let out the room to distract Scud, Hand-in-the-box mounts Roller Bob (held by Rockmobile) and extends its hand to pull Jingle Joe (carrying Janie and the Pterodactyl) when Woody motions the other mutant toys to go down to Sid's backyard. The Hand also grabs Sid's leg when the mutant toys surround him.\n  \u2022 Roller Bob\u00a0\u2013 A jet pilot action figure, whose torso has been attached to an old-school mini-skateboard. After the Frog is let out of Sid's room to distract Scud, Roller Bob ferries Woody and the other mutant toys outside the house to Sid's yard.\n  \u2022 The Frog\u00a0\u2013 The speediest toy of all. A tin wind-up frog with two different wheels (left is from an erector set and right is from a monster truck) instead of back legs. The Frog is missing his left front foot. As part of Woody's plot to rescue Buzz from Sid, Woody orders, \"Wind the Frog!\", and the Walking Car twists the wind-up key on the Frog's back to provide energy. When Ducky rings the doorbell, the Frog is let out of Sid's room, allowing Scud to chase him down the stairs and out to the front porch, where he is caught by Ducky, and Legs reels both toys up to safety.\n  \u2022 Jingle Joe\u00a0\u2013 The result of a triple toy combination. He is a Combat Carl head staked on top of a Melody Push Chime toddler toy with an arm which is missing from a Mickey Mouse figure. He appears at the part when he turns Woody's flashlight off by pressing the button. He helps in the plan to save Buzz by supplying motion for Janie and the Pterodactyl when there is no room on Roller Bob.\n  \u2022 Ducky\u00a0\u2013 Another triple toy combination: a duck-headed Pez dispenser with a baby doll torso and plunger base. Other than Rockmobile, he is the only one of Sid's toys that can communicate orally. He and Legs go to the front porch via the vent, and Ducky, suspended from the porch ceiling by Legs, swings toward the doorbell until he finally activates it, giving Woody the signal to release the Frog. Ducky catches the Frog as Legs reels both toys up to safety.\n  \u2022 Rockmobile\u00a0\u2013 A figure with an insect's head who sits in a headless upper torso of Rocky Gibraltar, in which is a steering wheel from a toy car. Rockmobile also walks on the Rocky doll's hands.\n  \u2022 Walking Car\u00a0\u2013 A yellow 1957 Austin-Healey 3000 car with small baby doll arms. He can run and climb very quickly. As part of Woody's plot to save Buzz from Sid, when Woody orders to wind the Frog, the Walking Car twists the screw on the Frog's back, giving the Frog enough energy to speed from Sid's room to the porch.\n  \u2022 Janie and Pterodactyl\u00a0\u2013 Hannah's beloved rag doll, Janie, and Sid's creepy toy, a small plastic Pterodactyl, are the subjects of Sid's last \"operation\", called a \"double bypass brain transplant\" (he ripped off their heads and replaced Janie's head with a pterodactyl's). The mutant toys later put their heads on the correct bodies. After the Frog is released from Sid's room for Scud to chase after, Janie and the Pterodactyl ride Jingle Joe (since Roller Bob has run out of capacity) as Woody motions the toys to go down to Sid's back yard. Janie has yellow hair and a striped dress.\n  \u2022 Red Pickup Truck\u00a0\u2013 a toy Toyota Hilux. It is a broken red pickup truck with crooked parts, missing ear windows and is covered in sand because it was abused and buried in the sandbox. It helps Woody and the other mutant toys rescue Buzz Lightyear from being blown up with a rocket by emerging from the sandbox along with Burned Rag Doll and Walking Car.\n  \u2022 Burned Rag Doll\u00a0\u2013 a one eyed rag doll that was possibly burnt in an explosion or fire. It repeatedly utters \"Mama!\", which signifies that it talks. It helps Woody and the mutant toys rescue Buzz Lightyear by coming out of the sandbox along with Walking Car and Red Pickup Truck.\n\nMason's toys[edit]\n\nAppearing in Toy Story That Time Forgot, these are the toys of Bonnie's best friend Mason.\n\n  \u2022 Battlesaurs \u2013 A group of mostly humanoid dinosaur toys who initially believe themselves to be real beings rather than playthings (like Buzz in the first and third films, and Buzz 2 in the second film). This illusion is encouraged by Mason's greater interest in a new videogame system that he received for Christmas, and they become hostile to Mason's other toys and to Bonnie's when they are brought over for a playdate. However, Trixie is eventually able to convince them that being played with brings its own joy, and they happily embrace their life as toys.\n    \u2022 Reptillus Maximus (voiced by Kevin McKidd) \u2013 The Carcharodontosaurus-like Champion of the Battlesaurs, who is fascinated by Trixie after meeting her. Initially, Reptillus is resistant to the idea of being a plaything, feeling that to submit to the will of his child would be surrender and dishonorable. However, Trixie later helps him to see that being there for Mason is honorable, and he helps her divert Mason's attention to his new toys. Near at the end of Toy Story That Time Forgot it's implied that he has a crush on Trixie.\n    \u2022 The Cleric (voiced by Steve Purcell) \u2013 An anthropomorphic Ludodactylus and the \"spiritual\" leader of the Battlesaurs. The Cleric is the first Battlesaur shown to be aware of their status as toys, but conceals it from the others so that he can rule over them and Mason's other toys. However, his plans are thwarted when Reptillus sides with Trixie; he is later shown apparently enjoying his new role as Mason's plaything.\n    \u2022 Ray-Gon (voiced by Jonathan Kydd) \u2013 A Scelidosaurus who serves as the armorer of the Battlesaurs, his main contribution is providing Trixie and Rex with battle armor, with the latter featuring remote-control arms that the Cleric uses to manipulate Rex.\n    \u2022 Goliathon \u2013 An Erythrosuchus that is kept as a pet by the other Battlesaurs and used to imprison their enemies in its belly.\n    \u2022 Guards \u2013 Various guards are part of the Battlesaur collections, with raptor-like males and Parasaurolophus-like females amongst others.\n\nToy characters by location[edit]\n\nAl's Toy Barn and apartment[edit]\n\nShown in a Buzz Lightyear commercial in Toy Story, this section contains characters from Toy Story 2. Al's Toy Barn appears in Toy Story 3: The Video Game.\n\nStinky Pete the Prospector[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Kelsey Grammer (Toy Story 2)\n  \u2022 Stephen Stanton (Toy Story 3: The Video Game)\n\nStinky Pete, also known as Prospector, is a prospector doll and the primary antagonist of Toy Story 2. He is a toy modeled after a character on the fictional television show, Woody's Roundup, where the characters consists of Sheriff Woody, Jessie, Stinky Pete, and Bullseye. The Prospector doll seen in the film had never been opened and was still \"Mint in the Box\" making him sought after by thousands of collectors.\n\nIn contrast to the character on the show, Stinky Pete is quite intelligent, manipulative, and well-spoken and, when he first appears, he seems to be a grandfather figure and mentor. However, he becomes embittered because he has never been sold or played with until Al McWhiggin eventually found him. Stinky Pete makes no secret of his hatred for space toys like Buzz Lightyear, whom he blames for causing the show to be canceled after the launch of Sputnik, causing children all over America to lose their interest in cowboy toys, shifting their interest to space adventures instead.\n\nYears after being purchased, Stinky Pete would spend years in storage while Al bought more toys and advertisements from Woody's Roundup. After Al had stolen Woody, Stinky Pete and Jessie were excited because now they could go to the Konishi Toy Museum in Japan, where they will be treated with respect. Woody reveals that he has an owner named Andy Davis, which infuriates Jessie and leads the Prospector to become determined to make sure Woody doesn't go back to Andy at any cost, despite the fact that he is now aware that Al actually has stolen Woody because he still belongs to Andy.\n\nWhen Al accidentally rips off Woody's arm, Stinky Pete secretly leaves his box and he sabotages Woody's attempt to recover his arm and return to Andy by turning on the TV. He then frames Jessie for this by putting the TV remote near her before returning to his box and pretending that he \"doesn't know\" how the TV turned on after Woody falls for his trick. He later convinces Woody to wait until his arm is supposed to be fixed in the morning, which is done after Al calls in a cleaner. After Woody's arm is fixed, Stinky Pete convinces Woody after a story that Jessie tells him about her old owner, that Andy won't play with him anymore by the time he goes to college, but in Japan, Woody will be treasured forever. Woody agrees to stay with them instead of going back to Andy, much to Stinky Pete, Jessie and Bullseye's delight.\n\nHowever, Woody's friends arrive during a celebration of going to Japan and they demand that Woody returns to Andy, but Woody angrily refuses, resulting in the toys sadly saying goodbye and leaving without him. However, before leaving, Buzz says an upset goodbye to Woody by saying that he'll be staying behind glass forever and not being loved again if he chooses to go to Japan, leaving Woody to think over his choice. However, Woody has a change of heart and tells Buzz that he is coming with them, and invites his friends to come with him to Andy's house. However, Stinky Pete is very angry with Woody for attempting to leave with Jessie and Bullseye back to Andy's house, and once again he sabotages Woody's attempt to escape by tightening the bolt to the vent (as well as revealing to the others that he can actually get out of his box whenever he wants) and uses his pick axe to turn off the TV, causing Woody to realize that it was the Prospector who foiled his escape the previous night by turning on the TV and framing Jessie for it. He sees unpopular toys like him and the Roundup Gang doomed to either always ending up in storage or \"spending a lifetime on a dime store shelf watching every other toy be sold,\" similar to his fate before Al found him, and does not want Woody, Jessie, and Bullseye to suffer the same fate. He also sees children as destroyers of toys whose ultimate fate will be \"spending eternity rotting in some landfill\". This makes him all the more determined to go to the Tokyo museum and become an exhibit for the rest of his life, unlike Woody and Jessie. When Slinky attempts to get Woody out of Al's suitcase, Stinky Pete quickly stops them and yanks Woody back in.\n\nWhen an angry Stinky Pete punches Buzz off the ramp at the airport to prevent Woody's rescue, Woody confronts and fights Stinky Pete for harming his friend. Stinky Pete manages to overpower him, ripping his right arm in the process. He then attempts to finish Woody off after he refuses to get back in the case as told, assuring him that he will be fixed again in Japan while saying that going home will eventually end up with him being in pieces. The other toys blind and stun Stinky Pete with flash cameras that the toys found after they confused and mistook another green luggage case for Woody's. Buzz, surviving the fall, captures Stinky Pete and Woody instructs Buzz and the other toys to dump Stinky Pete into a Barbie doll backpack that belongs to a little girl named Amy (voiced by Debi Derryberry), who enjoys decorating her dolls' faces with tattoos, as punishment and revenge for his betrayal, knowing it will make him learn the true meaning of playtime. Upon learning of Amy's occupations of decorating her dolls, Stinky Pete starts to weep as he is taken to his new owner's home. Ironically, this fate is a rectification of a past injustice done to Stinky Pete. Since much of his anger came from never being sold, opened or played with; now he is finally being owned by a child after waiting 50 years.\n\nHowever, after the film's release, the film's website featured interviews with the characters. In Stinky Pete's interview, he has reformed and said that he has become accustomed to Amy decorating him, as well of being fond of Amy herself.\n\nDespite his appearance, Stinky Pete does not appear in the third film, because he was no longer mentioned, though he seems to accurately predict the events of Toy Story 3 (as what he had said after his defeat started to come true in the film). He asks Woody if Andy will take him to college, and later tells the rest of the toys that children destroy toys, which occurs in the Sunnyside Daycare, and that they will be forgotten and end up in a landfill permanently, where the toys are narrowly rescued from the incinerator after an escape attempt and return to Andy's. The last part of his prediction did not come true.\n\nAccording to his box, Stinky Pete had a total of 9 sayings. In one outtake, Stinky Pete is seen talking to two Barbie dolls in the box, promising them a role in the third film. In another outtake, Stinky Pete gives Woody a choice to go back to Andy's home or stay, until he suffers a bout of flatulence, which he later implies is the reason for his nickname.\n\nDespite the fact that he does not appear in the third film, Stinky Pete does appear in the Toy Box Mode of Toy Story 3: The Video Game.\n\nAccording to the DVD commentary, the Pixar team had deliberated for a while what the proper comeuppance for the Prospector would be before it was decided for him to be placed in a Barbie bag with a face-painted Barbie.\n\nUtility Belt Buzz Lightyear[edit]\n\nVoiced by Tim Allen\n\nWhen searching for Woody at Al's Toy Barn, Buzz comes across the Buzz Lightyear aisle, causing him to stare in awe. While looking around, Buzz notices that there is a display case labeled \"New Utility Belt.\" Buzz then climbs up the display case to find a newer Buzz Lightyear with a Utility Belt. When Buzz tries to take the belt, the newer Buzz (who thinks he is a real Space Ranger, similar to Andy's Buzz in the original film) springs to life and grabs him, believing him to be an AWOL Space Ranger. Buzz finds himself wondering out loud if he was this deluded, which Utility Belt Buzz mistakes for talking back and threatens to use his laser on him. Buzz tries to prove to him that he is not an actual Space Ranger by showing him that his laser is actually a light bulb. This doesn't work however and Utility Belt Buzz jumps out of the way and tells him that he could've killed him. Buzz then decides that he's had enough and tries to leave, only for Utility Belt Buzz to jump out and attack him. After trapping Buzz in a box similar to the one he came in, he is mistaken for the original Buzz by the gang. When Rex mentions that he knows how to defeat Emperor Zurg\u2014having recently acquired a walkthrough guide for the Buzz Lightyear video game that he's been stuck on, Utility Belt Buzz quickly decides to tag along thinking that the toys are trying to find Zurg. While the gang search Al's Toy Barn and through the vents of Al's apartment with Utility Belt Buzz, they become increasingly suspicious of his cocky attitude (\"I'm Buzz Lightyear! I'm always sure!\") and strange actions (such as thinking that he is flying up the elevator shift and is unaware that he's standing on the elevator, which is helping him fly) until they are finally reunited with Andy's Buzz, who defuses his counterpart's confusion by claiming that the situation is a 'Code 546' (Precisely what this involves is unknown, but it prompted Utility Belt Buzz to refer to Woody as \"Your Majesty\").\n\nHeading to the elevator on the way down, they encounter a savage Emperor Zurg toy and Utility Belt Buzz engages him in battle. When Utility Belt Buzz claims Zurg killed his father, Zurg responds he is his father, causing Utility Belt Buzz to scream in dismay (a parody of The Empire Strikes Back). Rex defeats Zurg by accident, sending him falling off the elevator to his apparent doom by knocking him off-balance with his tail when he turns away as Zurg prepares to shoot Utility Belt Buzz, upsetting him. He is last seen playing catch with his \"father,\" the Zurg toy, whose attitude towards Utility Belt Buzz has changed after the fall.\n\nEvil Emperor Zurg[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Andrew Stanton (1999\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Wayne Knight (Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins)\n  \u2022 Jess Harnell (mini counterpart)\n  \u2022 James Patrick Stuart (Disney Magic Kingdoms)[7]\n\nEvil Emperor Zurg is a space villain action figure and Buzz Lightyear's archenemy. He has red evil eyes with neon gritting teeth, silver horns on his head, a purple tunic with a black cape on it and his weapon, a gun (which has a power control that, as a homage to This is Spinal Tap, goes to 11). In some cases, he does not have a gun but a hand like the one on his other arm.\n\nIn the first film, Zurg is a referenced character, and does not appear at all. However, Zurg is first seen in the opening sequence of the second film when Buzz is trying to take his main power away from him (Zurg's main power is from an AA battery which is actually revealed to be a hologram). In the ensuing battle, Zurg vaporizes the top half of Buzz Lightyear's body with his gun, killing him. The sequence then cuts showing that the opening sequence was actually a video game played by Rex.\n\nAs the story progresses, a Zurg toy in Al's Toy Barn bursts out from its box and follows Andy's Buzz Lightyear, who is on the way to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. Zurg is deluded, similar to Andy's Buzz in the first film. In the second film, another copy of Buzz Lightyear, deluded in the same way as Andy's Buzz in the first film, escapes from Al's Toy Barn and battles with Zurg on top of an elevator. In a reference to the relationship of Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader, the principal hero and villain respectively of the original Star Wars trilogy, Evil Emperor Zurg claims he is in fact the father of Buzz, in an almost word-for-word parody of the scene in The Empire Strikes Back. As Zurg attempts to finish off Buzz at point-blank range, Rex accidentally hits Zurg with his large tail and sends him falling down the elevator shaft. The second Buzz looks down the shaft in despair, thinking he has lost his father, while Rex is excited that he has finally managed to defeat Zurg in real life. Near the end of the film, Zurg is seen to have survived his fall with a bent horn and is now playing catch with the second Buzz. He supposedly bumped his head so hard that he forgot he was Buzz Lightyear's worst enemy. In the novelisation, however, Zurg is killed by the fall, and Buzz finds him and takes him back to Al's Toy Barn to bury him.\n\nZurg is mentioned in the third film by Buzz in his bad guy character after Lotso resets him to Demo mode. Zurg appears briefly during a sequence in the end credits, where he is donated to Sunnyside Daycare center and greeted by the resident toys.\n\nZurg also appears as in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and its direct-to-video movie Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins. Zurg says he is Lightyear's father during a fight in order to shock Lightyear, before regaining the advantage during the fight and then denying the truth of that previous claim. Whether or not this is actually true, Buzz definitely does not know who his father is. This version of Zurg is also severely lightened up, going from the movie's Darth Vader-esque version to a far less intimidating one; in the TV series Zurg is a flamboyant villain who is just as much a comic relief character as he is a formidable opponent, similar to Skeletor. This Zurg is known for videotaping Buzz's speeches, maintaining a troll doll collection, and various other comedic habits. He is shown to have a bit of a British accent throughout the series. It is revealed in the first episode that there is a Nana Zurg, but she is never seen at all (although he claims that she's \"plenty evil\"). Zurg would appear to be a cyborg of some description, also much like Darth Vader. However, it has also been discussed amongst fans that his \"cybernetic\" traits could also very well be because of advanced technology. There is yet to be a clear answer. In the TV series, he is the warlord-like ruler of an evil empire and is in command of an army of Hornet robots, as well of a minion workforce consisting of Grubs and Brainpods. The seat of which is the hellish Planet Z (standing for Xrghthung). In various media surrounding the film, his planet is said to be called Xrghthung. However, because this is unpronounceable in the TV series it is changed to simply \"Z.\" It is unknown whether Zurg rules over any other worlds, but, if he does, they have not been revealed. Planet Z evidently possesses vast resources and forces enabling Zurg to be a serious threat to the Galactic Alliance. Despite being frequently gullible and bungling, Zurg is evidently highly intelligent, able to concoct sound military tactics and Machiavellian evil schemes. Additionally, he occasionally references stereotypes of typical evil villains and intentionally violates them, showing how aware he is of his similarity to them. For example, when designing a vast prison on Planet Z, he declines building an execution arena, for it simply \"gives the captives more time to get away.\" When he was designing a schematic for a new base, he expressly forbade for air vents that allow \"hero-sized objects\" into the control room. \"And, may I remind you, no giant trash compactor! When heroes fall in, they always have enough time to figure a way out. Make it\u2014an incinerator!\"\n\nDespite his camp nature, he is just as fearsome and ruthless as his movie counterpart. Zurg is frequently mentioned to be the most evil villain in the galaxy and appears to possess authority over all other villains. In fact, he would appear to be a physical manifestation of pure evil. He is particularly proud of this and frequently brags of how \"evil\" he is. He is a parody of Darth Vader on Star Wars, Darkseid on DC Comics,[citation needed] Ming the Merciless on Flash Gordon, Megatron on Transformers, Doctor Doom on Marvel Comics as well as The Six Million Dollar Man.[citation needed]\n\nZurg appears as a playable character in Toy Story 3: The Video Game on the PlayStation 3 in Toy Box Mode after completing several missions. He also has a convertible (the ZurgsMobile) that matches his personality. His mini counterpart is featured in the short Small Fry.\n\nZurg appears in the 2015 live-action Disney movie, Tomorrowland.\n\nTour Guide Barbie[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jodi Benson\n\nTour Guide Barbie is a Barbie doll initially from Al's Toy Barn in Toy Story 2. When Hamm, Slinky Dog, Rex and Mr. Potato Head come upon the Barbie aisle at Al's Toy Barn while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie hops into the toy car they are driving. She gives the toys a tour in the toy barn and helps them locate Buzz Lightyear (they actually find a different, 'limited-edition' Buzz). After the outtakes of the film, Tour Guide Barbie waves goodbye to the audience until her face hurts from smiling. She then leaves for a break.\n\nSunnyside Daycare[edit]\n\nThese characters live at Sunnyside Daycare Centre. All appear in Toy Story 3 only.\n\nLots-O'-Huggin' Bear[edit]\n\nVoiced by Ned Beatty\n\nLots-O'-Huggin' Bear (Lotso for short) is a plush, hot pink teddy bear with a big plum nose, a sweet strawberry scent and a southern accent, who uses a wooden toy mallet as an assistive cane (although he is still able to walk even without it). He is the self-proclaimed leader of the toys at the Sunnyside Daycare Center. He initially acts like a kind-hearted and wise caretaker, but is eventually revealed to be a ruthless prison warden, although his backstory makes him more of a tragic villain.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, he welcomes Andy's toys to Sunnyside and assigns them to the Caterpillar Room. Woody tries to escape from Sunnyside so he could go back to Andy, but is instead found and taken by a little girl named Bonnie. Woody learns from Chuckles, one of Bonnie's toys, that Lotso was once owned and loved by a girl named Daisy, having become Daisy's favorite toy when she obtained it for Christmas. Lotso became friends with Chuckles and Big Baby. One day, Daisy and her family had a picnic in the countryside. When she fell asleep, her parents drove her home, inadvertently leaving the toys behind. Not wanting to give up, Lotso led his two friends on a long trek back to Daisy's house, only to discover that Daisy had gotten another Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear. Lotso became embittered and convinced Big Baby that they had been replaced, leaving Daisy's home with Chuckles. Lotso eventually discovered Sunnyside Daycare Center and turned it into an internment camp for toys. Big Baby took on the role of Lotso's enforcer, while Chuckles was broken, and was discovered by Bonnie and taken home.\n\nMeanwhile, Lotso realizes that Buzz is actually requesting a transfer of himself and the rest of Andy's toys to the Butterfly Room. Thinking of Buzz to be useful to him, Lotso only approves the transfer to him. When Buzz refuses Lotso's offer to stay in the Caterpillar Room, Lotso reverses Buzz to demo mode and manipulates him into imprisoning Andy's other toys.\n\nWhen Woody and Andy's toys attempt to flee from the daycare center. Lotso catches the group and once again offers them to stay at Sunnyside when a garbage truck arrives, but the toys refuse and Lotso instructs Stretch to push the toys into the dumpster. Woody argues with Lotso over his wrongdoings and reveals to him what he knows about Daisy and tosses Daisy's ownership tag to him; Lotso destroys it and says that toys are supposed to be discarded. His henchmen then turn on him and Big Baby throws him into the dumpster. As the toys attempt to flee, a vengeful Lotso pulls Woody into the dumpster just as the truck collects it to get the other toys to be sent to the dump.\n\nAt the landfill, the toys end up on a conveyor belt leading to a shredder. Finding Lotso stuck under a large golf bag, Woody and Buzz rescue him and escape the shredder, only to realize that it leads to an incinerator. As they are about to reach the incinerator, Lotso sees an emergency stop button, and with Woody and Buzz's help, manages to reach it. However, instead of pushing the button, he chooses to leave them behind, as he is still evil and selfish on the inside and still believes that all toys are meant to be at the dump. When Woody and the toys are rescued by the aliens, Hamm and Slinky want to get back at Lotso for leaving them to die, but Woody talks them out of it, claiming that \"he's not worth it\" and that the dump is the right place for him. Lotso (who is unaware the Andy's toys are still alive) is eventually found by a garbage man who recalls that he once had a Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear as a child, and straps Lotso to the grill of a garbage truck with three other toys before driving away.\n\nLotso was intended to be in the first film (originally for a sequel to Tin Toy), but the technology to design the fur to the proper consistency had yet to exist until Monsters, Inc. in 2001, so he was saved for the third film. However, an early version of Lotso can be seen in the first film when Woody says \"Everybody hear me? Up on the shelf, can you hear me? Great!\" and can be seen in the second film during the first Al's Toy Barn Commercial.\n\nTest audiences who had sympathized with Lotso for his backstory had wanted him to push the button in the incinerator scene to redeem himself. However, according to the DVD commentary, director Lee Unkrich explained that Lotso not pushing the button to save the toys was intended for the audience to really care about the characters after three films of getting to know them when it looked like it was the end for them in the incinerator. The Pixar team took note of the people's concerns and made Lotso to be an outright, selfish liar.\n\nLotso also makes a cameo appearance in Pixar's 2009 movie Up in a little girl's room in the city where Mr. Fredricksen's house goes by in the bottom left corner in the shadow of the bed.\n\nNed Beatty was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Villain for his performance as Lotso, and Pixar and he received widespread praise for the character's back story and Beatty's performance. IGN named Lotso the best villain of the summer of 2010.[8]\n\nKen[edit]\n\nVoiced by Michael Keaton\n\nKen is a smooth-talking doll who falls in love with Barbie. He first appears wearing light blue pleated and cuffed shorts, and a tucked-in leopard-print shirt with short sleeves. His accessories include matching ascot, sensible loafers and a fashion-forward gold belt. He lives in Ken's Dreamhouse, a big yellow doll house with three stories, a large wardrobe room, and an elevator. Barbie originally breaks up with Ken when she finds him, Lotso, his other henchmen, and a reset Buzz Lightyear locking up her friends and discovering their ulterior motive. Piqued, Ken orders her locked up as well.\n\nHowever, as part of a plan to escape, she pretends to forgive Ken, gaining access to his dream house. Barbie then ties Ken hostage to try to get him to reveal how to reset Buzz back to normal. As a provocation, she entangles him in an ironing board and rips his clothing apart. Ken reveals the truth after she begins to sabotage his prized Nehru jacket. He is not seen again until Lotso has the toys cornered at the dumpster, where he is the first to turn on Lotso. Ken comes to Barbie's help by trying to stop Lotso, having realized Barbie through her understanding of civics. Lotso tells Ken \"there's 100,000,000 just like her\", but Ken insists that for him, there is no one else like her, and wins back her affections.\n\nIn the end credits of the film, he and Barbie are seen greeting new toys at Sunnyside as Barbie becomes his girlfriend again, and with Lotso gone, they both take charge of the Sunnyside toys as the new leaders. He resembles a real doll from 1988 called Animal Lovin' Ken.[9] Due to being called a \"girl's toy,\" it is often joked about his femininity: such as his large selection and obsession with clothes, him wearing Barbie's scarf, his rather feminine boxer-shorts, Bookworm not being suspicious seeing who he believed being Ken (Barbie in a spacesuit outfit) in high heels, as well as at the end Buzz believing Barbie wrote them the fancy note, only to discover Ken's signature at the end.\n\nKen, along with Barbie, appears in the theatrical short, Hawaiian Vacation, in which the two embark on a journey to Hawaii, but ends up in Bonnie's room, where Woody and the other toys reenact various Hawaiian scenes.\n\nBig Baby[edit]\n\nVoiced by Woody Smith (2010\u2013present)\n\nBig Baby is a Bitty Baby doll with a lazy eye who carries around a bottle and is adorned with childlike scribbling that resembles ferocious tattoos. He normally does not speak, instead communicating through baby sounds, with the exception of one spoken line after the toys escape Sunnyside. Big Baby was once one of Daisy's toys before he, Lotso, and Chuckles were lost at a rest area. After returning home, Lotso lied to Big Baby, claiming that Daisy replaced and no longer loved them. They eventually took over Sunnyside Daycare, where Big Baby became Lotso's third-in-command. Eventually, Woody reveals to Lotso that Daisy still cared about them and gives Big Baby his pendant, sparking his memory of his former owner, whom he called \"Mama\". Lotso derides Big Baby for his attachment to Daisy and smashes the pendant with his mallet. Big Baby turns against Lotso and throws him in the dumpster (a parody of a scene from Return of the Jedi), blows him a raspberry, and helps Woody and his friends escape Sunnyside.\n\nIn the credits, Big Baby is much happier at Sunnyside under Barbie and Ken's care, and even wears gold diapers to match their outfits at a party at the daycare.\n\nThe baby who provided the voice for Big Baby is named \"Woody,\" according to Lee Unkrich's Twitter account,[10] and the film's credits confirm it as being Woody Smith (listed under Additional voices).\n\nTwitch[edit]\n\nVoiced by John Cygan\n\nTwitch is a green \"insectaloid warrior\" action figure with a bug's head, orange eyes with ferocious chomping mandibles, wings, and two muscular arms. He is one of the toy thugs working for Lotso. He helps to reprogram Buzz, and later apprehends Andy's other toys. He keeps a search light working in the playground. He and Sparks \"break\" the Chatter telephone before he is convinced of Lotso's evil by Woody and Ken. Because of how Lotso abused Big Baby, Twitch turns on Lotso, along with the other gang members. During the credits, he is seen living in a happier Sunnyside and is shown taking a turn to endure playtime with the young children in the Caterpillar Room, switching with Chunk so he can rest.\n\nTwitch is reminiscent of the 1980s \"He-Man and the Masters of the Universe\" toy line, and other similar lines.\n\nStretch[edit]\n\nVoiced by Whoopi Goldberg\n\nStretch is a toy rubber octopus with sticky suckers on her eight long arms and a glittery, purple body. She is the sole female member of Lotso's gang, and at first welcomes the toys, but later helps capture them with her elastic tentacles. With her cohorts, she later catches Woody and his friends, and was eager to push them into the dumpster, should they not admit defeat. However, Stretch was also seen to be the first toy to doubt Lotso's leadership and motives, as she was seen to visibly cringe at Lotso's true character being revealed. After Lotso destroys Big Baby's locket, he angrily orders Stretch to push Woody and his friends into the dumpster, which Stretch is now reluctant to do, causing Lotso to reveal his true feelings about all toys. Eventually, Lotso is thrown into the dumpster by Big Baby for his lies and treachery, and Stretch immediately leaves the area, shocked at what had happened but relieved. In the credits, she welcomes new toys happily without Lotso and is later seen sneaking a message to Woody and the gang in Bonnie's backpack. She is based on a purple Wacky WallWalker toy from the 1980s.\n\nChunk[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jack Angel\n\nChunk is an orange muscular rock monster toy. He has two red eyes when fierce, blue eyes when he's friendly, huge fists, and a face that you can change by rolling it up or down to a different facial expression or pressing a button at the top of his head. He welcomes the toys to Sunnyside, but later helps Lotso and Buzz imprison them. He is then convinced of Lotso's deception when he abuses Big Baby, and is seen helping Woody and his friends climb to safety. In the credits, he is seen taking the abuse of the younger children, later taking a rest while Twitch takes his place. He is based on the short lived Rock Lords toyline.[citation needed]\n\nChunk has a very low level of intelligence: During a gambling scene, he describes Buzz as \"He ain't the sharpest knife in the.....place...where they...keep the knives\". He enjoys teasing Ken during the gambling scene since he called him a \"girl's toy.\"\n\nSparks[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jan Rabson\n\nSparks is a robot toy at Sunnyside Daycare. He has shown to be both blunt and sarcastic. Sparks' retro design has flashing red LED eyes and a blaster cavity in his chest that spits out real sparks when he's rolling around on his wheels, but is completely safe for children. He sports telescoping arms with working pincers and he can also elevate his body to make himself taller. He starts out as one of Lotso's henchmen, but in the dumpster scene, when Ken states that Lotso put all of the toys in Sunnyside Daycare into a pyramid and placed himself on the top, he and Twitch (and likely Chunk as well) start to doubt Lotso's leadership as both of them look at each other. Both of them are also in shock when Lotso shows his true colors and pokes Big Baby angrily in the stomach. They also witness Big Baby who retaliates by throwing Lotso into the dumpster, and he and the rest of his fellow henchmen let Andy's toys escape. In the end, he and the rest of Lotso's former henchmen reform for the better and become nicer.\n\nSparks has only one line, when he points out Chunk's low intelligence, he says, \"Neither are you, Chunk\" after Chunk gives his opinion on Buzz.\n\nChatter Telephone[edit]\n\nVoiced by Teddy Newton\n\nChatter Telephone is a character based on the real-life toy of the same name. He can only speak when his receiver is lifted from its cradle. He lives in the Caterpillar Room. He is the oldest toy at Sunnyside, and becomes an ally to Woody. When Woody returns to Sunnyside, he immediately says that coming back was a mistake because Lotso had rigged his security after he left and that the best action would be to just lay low. He reluctantly gives him instructions on how to escape Sunnyside. For this, he is later brutally beaten and broken for helping Woody and his group escape, and eventually rats Woody out when convinced that Woody and the other toys had already escaped, but are caught just before they can do so. He sadly apologizes to Woody who fortunately shows sympathy for the broken toy. In the credits, he has been repaired and now lives a happier life there at Sunnyside Daycare without Lotso, having been invited into the Butterfly Room. When Woody talked to him, he called him Ol' Timer.\n\nBookworm[edit]\n\nVoiced by Richard Kind\n\nThe Bookworm is a green toy worm with a built-in flashlight who wears glasses. He is a genius who loves reading books. He keeps a library of instruction manuals in a closet at Sunnyside, and gives Lotso the instruction manual for Buzz Lightyear. He later gives the same manual to Barbie (who he thinks is Ken since she is disguised in his spacesuit outfit). It is unknown if he is in allegiance with Lotso but is most likely not, since he is never seen with him very often. In the credits, he is happy without Lotso, and is seen using his flashlight to light a disco ball during a party at Sunnyside. He is based on the Glo Worm toys from the 1980s. He only has two lines in the film.\n\nCymbal-banging monkey[edit]\n\nThe cymbal-banging monkey is a monkey toy based on the Musical Jolly Chimp toy from the 1960s. he monitors the Sunnyside Daycare security cameras at night, and can alert Lotso and the gang of any toys attempting to escape by screeching into a microphone to broadcast over the intercom. Chatter Telephone tells Woody that he must get rid of the monkey before he and his friends can escape. Woody and Slinky manage to succeed in taking him down by wrapping him up in Scotch Tape and shutting him in a filing cabinet. In the credits, he is seen in a much happier situation, gently playing his clash cymbals while wearing star-shaped sunglasses.\n\nToys in other projects[edit]\n\nThe following toy characters were seen in other Toy Story projects:\n\nDiscarded Fun Meal Toys[edit]\n\nAppearing in Small Fry, the Discarded Fun Meal Toys are toys that were discarded by children and have formed a support group in a storage room at Poultry Palace. Buzz Lightyear came across them at the time when he was replaced by the Fun Meal Toy version of Buzz. Among the Fun Meal Toys are:\n\n  \u2022 Queen Neptuna (voiced by Jane Lynch)\u00a0\u2014 Queen Neptuna is a mermaid toy who is leader of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. She was from the \"Mermaid Battle Squadron\" line where the Mermaid Battle Squadron's duties are to protect the oceans from pollution and exploitation.\n  \u2022 T-Bone (voiced by Angus MacLane)\u00a0\u2014 T-Bone is a steak-like Transformer who is Queen Neptuna's second-in-command of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He was from the \"Steak Force\" line where they fight the Vegetenarians.\n  \u2022 DJ Blu-Jay (voiced by Bret Parker)\u00a0\u2014 DJ Blu-Jay is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a small blue jay toy wearing a set of headphones with a disco player with a tree trunk to stand it up.\n  \u2022 Lizard Wizard (voiced by Josh Cooley)\u00a0\u2014 Lizard Wizard is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a small lime green lizard toy with a beard, a violet wizard hat and a wizard robe.\n  \u2022 Bozu the Ninja Clown\u00a0\u2014 Bozu is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a circus clown by day, 15th century ninja from Feudal Japan by night.\n  \u2022 Vlad the Engineer (voiced by Jess Harnell in a Transylvanian accent)\u00a0\u2014 Vlad the Engineer is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. Vlad is a vampire in a conductor's hat that rides in a purple steam engine. Vlad got discarded because \"nobody wanted to board the Vampire Express.\"\n  \u2022 Gary Grappling Hook (voiced by Angus MacLane)\u00a0\u2014 Gary Grappling Hook is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a green toy gun with hands and legs and a blue grappling hook for a face. Buzz uses him to escape the toy psychotherapy meeting when he was paired up with Lizard Wizard.\n  \u2022 Tae-Kwon Doe (voiced by Lori Alan)\u00a0\u2014 Tae-Kwon Doe is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. She is an anthropomorphic karate deer toy that can chop through the boards that are part of her toy. At one point, Queen Neptuna sees her hand up and thinks she is raising her hand. When Neptuna calls on her, Tae-Kwon Doe explains that it's simply her play feature at which point her left hoof goes down hitting the plastic boards and \"breaking\" it. Her name is a play on \"Taekwondo\".\n  \u2022 Super Pirate (voiced by Angus MacLane)\u00a0\u2014 Super Pirate is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a pirate-themed superhero with an eyepatch on his left eye and a peg leg in place of the lower part of the left leg.\n  \u2022 Beef Stewardess\u00a0\u2014 Beef Stewardess is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. She is an anthropomorphic cow that is dressed as a stewardess.\n  \u2022 Nervous Sys-Tim (voiced by Kitt Hiraski)\u00a0\u2014 Nervous Sys-Tim is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a clear plastic human that shows many body parts such as the brain, the eyes, and the nervous system. Nervous Sys-Tim mentioned that nobody wanted him because he is an accurate depiction of the human nervous system and that would seem gross when kids were eating.\n  \u2022 Ghost Burger (voiced by Jason Topolski)\u00a0\u2014 Ghost Burger is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a normal hamburger dressed in a ghost sheet.\n  \u2022 Koala Kopter (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui in an Australian accent)\u00a0\u2014 Koala Kopter is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a plastic koala on a helicopter that has a propeller on the top of his hat that is part of the \"Down Undermals\" set. Koala Kopter stated that he was switched out for a Kangaroo Kanoe.\n  \u2022 Roxy Boxy (voiced by Emily Forbes)\u00a0\u2014 Roxy Boxy is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. She is a boxing-themed turtle. Roxy Boxy mentioned that she was recalled because her boxing glove hands will come out and could hurt kids. This has happened during the meeting where it hit Lizard Wizard twice.\n  \u2022 Recycle Bin (voiced by Peter Sohn)\u00a0\u2014 Recycle Bin is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a blue recycling bin with arms. Recycle Ben claimed that \"he was recycled.\"\n  \u2022 Funky Monk (voiced by Angus MacLane)\u00a0\u2014 Funky Monk is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a monk with sunglasses and a gold chain with his initials around his neck.\n  \u2022 Condorman (voiced by Bob Bergen)\u00a0\u2014 Condorman is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a condor-themed superhero in his vehicle. Condorman is an allusion to the live-action 1981 Disney film of the same name.\n  \u2022 Franklin (voiced by Jim Ward)\u00a0\u2014 Franklin is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a bald eagle sitting on a rolled-up version of the constitution that supports a feather pen on the back of it and the wheels are made up of quarters. Franklin didn't understand why kids disliked him because \"he is history, but on wheels.\"\n  \u2022 Pizza-Bot (voiced by Jason Topolski)\u00a0\u2014 Pizza-Bot is a member of the Discarded Fun Meal Toys. He is a blue pizza box-headed robot whose right hand holds a pizza and his left hand is a pizza cutter. It reads PIZZABOT5000 on his chest. His chest is possibly a pizza-carrying chest, such as the ones that you see when someone brings you pizza or the boxes that carry the pizzas at baseball games. Kids do not like Pizza-Bot for some reason which makes him sad.\n\nSleep Well Toys[edit]\n\nA set of toys who were stolen from their owners during their stay at the Sleep Well roadside motel by Manager Ron's pet iguana, Mr. Jones, so that Ron could sell them online. They appear in Toy Story of Terror!, where they are held along with Bonnie's toys while Ron auctions them off on the Internet. They eventually escape with help from Jessie, and depart the Sleep Well on a mail truck.\n\n  \u2022 Combat Carl (voiced by Carl Weathers)\u00a0\u2013 A G.I. Joe-esque action figure. He is African-American in appearance, unlike the Caucasian character of the same name who briefly appeared in the first film. He is encountered by Jessie after all of her friends have been captured, having eluded Mr. Jones though losing a hand in the process. Carl is extremely paranoid and refers to himself in the third person, but later helps Jessie overcome her fears to save everyone. He was owned by a boy named Billy, to whom he is determined to return.\n  \u2022 Combat Carl Jr. (voiced by Carl Weathers in a high-pitched voice)\u00a0\u2013 A miniature version of Combat Carl who has a close relationship with his larger self.\n  \u2022 Pocketeer (voiced by Ken Marino)\u00a0\u2013 Part of an action figure line known as the \"Fastener Four,\" the Pocketeer has an outfit covered in pockets in which he keeps various helpful items. His fellows Zipper Man, Snaps, and Speed Lacer were sold by Ron prior to the capture of Bonnie's toys.\n  \u2022 Pez Cat (voiced by Kate McKinnon)\u00a0\u2013 a Pez dispenser whose head is that of a cat wearing glasses, and who serves as the lookout for the trapped toys in the Sleep Well motel.\n  \u2022 Transitron (voiced by Peter Sohn)\u00a0\u2013 a Transformers-esque transforming robot who splits into five vehicle components. Jessie freed Transitron from a box he was to be shipped in and then had him seal her inside so she could rescue Woody; Transitron later joined up with the other stolen toys and departed the Sleep Well.\n\nNon-toy characters[edit]\n\nHumans[edit]\n\nAndy Davis[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 John Morris \u2014 Toy Story, Toy Story 2, Toy Story 3\n  \u2022 Charlie Bright \u2014 Toy Story 3 (young)\n\nAndrew \"Andy\" Davis Jr.[11] is the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys in each of the three films. He lived with his mother and sister Molly, but left to go to college when he was 17. However, his father is never seen or mentioned in the films. Toy Story 2 implies that Woody might be a hand-me-down toy, and when introducing the 2009 set of Toy Story collectibles, John Lasseter said \"We always imagined he was a hand-me-down to Andy from his father.\"\n\nIn Toy Story, Andy receives a Buzz Lightyear action figure for his 6th birthday party. Tension erupts between Buzz and Woody, who has always prided himself on being Andy's favorite. Andy initially spends much more time with his new toy, but still has a special place in his heart for Woody. Thus, he becomes concerned when both toys go missing for a time, fearing they would be lost during his family's move to a new house.\n\nIn Toy Story 2, Andy is only seen in the beginning and for a short while in the ending. During his appearances, it is clear that he still loves his toys very much. At the end of the film, Andy is pleased to have five new toys\u00a0\u2013 Jessie, Bullseye, and the three Squeeze Toy Aliens\u00a0\u2013 added into his collection. He marks them, as he has all his toys, with his name on the soles of their feet, or in Bullseye's case, one letter of his name on each hoof.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, Andy is 17 and preparing to go off to college, intending to put most of his toys in the attic except for Woody, whom he initially plans to take with him. While he apparently has not played with his toys for some years and has given many of them away, he is still resistant to his mother's suggestion to either donate or sell his remaining toys, referring to them as \"junk\" (which the toys believe is what he truly thinks). When they go missing, however, he becomes upset and confused when he cannot find them. Before he goes to college, Woody secretly puts the address of Bonnie (the young daughter of a family friend) on the box with the toys in it, causing Andy to come around to the idea of donating them. He passes them on to young Bonnie, who he realizes will look after his childhood playthings and gives them each their own introduction, stating the qualities that make each of them special. When Bonnie finds Woody in the box as well, Andy shows great reluctance to pass on his favorite toy, but ultimately relents, allowing the toys to stay together in an environment where they will be loved and played with. He spends time with Bonnie and the toys one last time before departing for college, and is noticeably sad when Bonnie has Woody \"wave\" to him. He then responds with a quiet \"Thanks, guys\".\n\nAccording to Toy Story producer Ralph Guggenheim in a December 1995 Animation Magazine article, John Lasseter and the story team for Toy Story reviewed the names of Pixar employees' children, looking for the right name for Woody's owner. Davis was ultimately named after and based on Andy Luckey, the son of legendary animator Bud Luckey, Pixar's fifth employee and the creator of Woody. Luckey has declined to publicly comment on the connection.\n\nIn the DVD feature for Toy Story 3 on the voice cast, the Pixar crew remark that they weren't sure if Morris would want to do it or would sound right, and were ecstatic when they heard his voice on an answering machine, Morris was perfect for teenage Andy.\n\nBonnie Anderson[edit]\n\nVoiced by Emily Hahn\n\nBonnie Anderson appears in Toy Story 3 as one of the children who goes to Sunnyside Daycare. She becomes the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys at the end of the film. Although she has an active imagination and boisterous manner when playing with her toys, she is shy and withdrawn when she is around adults, but she quickly warms up to Andy, when he donates his toys to her. She finds Woody, who was trying to escape Sunnyside, takes him home, and plays with him. Woody is impressed by what he sees at her house and ultimately gets himself (and all of Andy's other toys) donated to her. Andy briefly plays with her after handing over his toys, and tells her he needs someone \"very special\" to take care of them for him.\n\nIn the short film Hawaiian Vacation, Bonnie goes on a vacation to Hawaii and leaves Barbie and Ken in her room.\n\nMolly Davis[edit]\n\nVoiced by:\n\n  \u2022 Hannah Unkrich\u2014Toy Story, Toy Story 2\n  \u2022 Bea Miller\u2014Toy Story 3\n\nMolly Davis is Andy's younger sister, seen as an infant in the first film, a toddler in the second film, and as a preteen in the third film. Andy uses her crib as the town jail during playtime at the beginning of the first film, implying they are sharing a room. When the family moves later in the film, Andy and Molly get separate rooms, though Molly has plans to move into Andy's presumably larger room once he leaves for college. In the first film, she slobbers on Mr. Potato Head and throws him from the crib, causing his parts to scatter and earning her the nickname \"Princess Drool\" from him. At the end of the film, she receives a Mrs. Potato Head toy for Christmas. In Toy Story 3, she also owned a Barbie doll, which she donates to the daycare center as she was less interested in dolls and toys by that time and is now a preteen.\n\nMrs. Davis[edit]\n\nVoiced by Laurie Metcalf (1995\u2013present)\n\nMrs. Davis is Andy and Molly's single mother. In the first film, she has brown hair and ties it in a ponytail. In the other two films, her physical appearance is noticeably different and instead of brown, she has blonde hair and leaves it down. Though presented as a loving mother to Andy and Molly, Mrs. Davis is actually a major (though indirect) threat to the toys, as she frequently asks Andy to throw out the toys he no longer wants. Mrs. Davis\u2019 actions regarding the toys sets the plot in motion in all three films, though they are not malicious. In the first film, she purchases a Buzz Lightyear toy for Andy on his birthday, prompting the rivalry between Buzz and Woody which leads to them being lost and forced to find their way home. In the second film, she puts Wheezy up for sale at a yard sale (due to a broken squeaker), prompting Woody's rescue attempt where he is subsequently stolen by Al. In the third film, she orders Andy to clean out his room before going to college and mistakenly throws away the bag of toys Andy was putting in the attic, causing them to be donated to a daycare center. Despite this, in the second film, she is overly protective of Woody, describing him as an old family toy. At the end of the third film, she breaks down and weeps at the departure of her first son, but Andy reassures her that she will always be with him even if they are apart. This moment between mother and son plays a major factor in Woody deciding to have Andy donate his toys to Bonnie, thus giving them a new lease on their lives.\n\nSome 2014 articles explore the possibility that Mrs. Davis is Jessie's original owner, Emily from her flashback memories. The evidence cited references the flashbacks of Jessie and Emily from Toy Story 2. The flashback sequence shows Emily as a child in the 1960s, which is when she would have been a child. The sequence also shows that the cowboy hat that Emily had is very similar to Andy's hat but with an additional white lace area, and Emily's hair was brown, just like Mrs. Davis's hair in the first film.[12][13]\n\nSid Phillips[edit]\n\nVoiced by Erik von Detten\n\nSid Phillips is Andy's neighbor until Andy moves, but it is unknown if he and Andy know each other. Sid is known for torturing and destroying toys. Many of his toys are either destroyed, have missing pieces, or replaced with parts from other toys, even Sid \"torturing\" Woody by burning his forehead with a magnifying glass. He is also shown tormenting his sister and destroying her toys by certain methods such as exploding, burning, and decapitating them. He also enjoys skateboarding, and his shirt depicts the logo for Zero Skateboards. The toys mention that he was consistently kicked out of summer camp; and in the audio commentary on the tenth anniversary DVD, the directors mention that he is a bully but also the \"most creative character in the movie\". It is also implied that he does not have the best home life. His parents do not make any major appearances: his mother's voice is only heard briefly several times in the film, and his father is only seen briefly asleep on a chair in front of the TV in the living room.\n\nHe also seems to be the only human depicted in the film to observe toys actually coming to life. At the end of the first film, Woody and Sid's mutant toys decide to rescue Buzz by scaring Sid, which causes him to become very frightened of toys. The last straw is Woody coming alive and telling him to take good care of his toys or else. This causes Sid to panic and run back into his house screaming, and then to his room when his sister scares him with her toy doll.\n\nSid does not appear in the second film, although he is mentioned once by Buzz during the toys' mission to rescue Woody from the greedy toy collector Al McWhiggin. Sid also appears in the four-issue Monsters, Inc. comic mini-series produced by Boom! Comics.\n\nIn the third film, Sid (now an adult) makes brief appearances in two scenes once again voiced by Erik von Detten. He is shown to be a garbageman with a small beard, recognizable by his characteristic T-shirt. His only dialogue in this movie involves humming guitar riffs, and he is depicted listening to heavy metal music through a pair of large headphones.\n\nHannah Phillips[edit]\n\nVoiced by Sarah Freeman\n\nHannah Phillips is Sid's sweet-natured, younger sister who appears a few times in the first film. In Toy Story, Hannah has adjusted to her toys being mutilated by Sid. Most of her dolls either have different heads or altered body parts, and at the end of the film she finds enjoyment in scaring her brother after he has been horrified by Woody and the other toys. She spends most of the time during the movie playing with her altered dolls.\n\nAl McWhiggin[edit]\n\nVoiced by Wayne Knight\n\nAl McWhiggin\u00a0\u2013 nicknamed \"The Chicken Man\" by Andy's toys\u00a0\u2013 is the owner of a chain of local toy stores and also an obsessive collector of all things related to the old Woody's Roundup TV series. He steals Woody from a yard sale held by Andy's mother in hopes of selling him to a toy museum in Tokyo, Japan. He is unscrupulously obsessive, overweight, very impatient, and lazy, as he complains of having to \"drive all the way to work on a Saturday\", despite his apartment only being across the street from the store. He is partially inspired by his voice actor Wayne Knight; during the production of Toy Story 2, Knight had a goatee like Al in the movie. Cartoonist and animator Scott Shaw has also been acknowledged as another model and inspiration for Al.\n\nAl is the owner of a large toy store called \"Al's Toy Barn\". The store is mentioned in the first Toy Story in an advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys, but Al did not appear. He is first seen in Toy Story 2 during an advertisement on TV in which he is dressed up in a chicken suit of which Hamm remarks \"I despise that chicken\" after turning off the TV. He later is seen trying to buy Woody in a yard sale held by Andy's mom. After Andy's mother refuses to hand over the doll and locks him in a box, Al steals Woody with the intent of selling him, along with the rest of his collection of Woody's Roundup toys and memorabilia, to a Japanese toy museum for a large sum of money. Andy's toys arrived at his apartment to rescue Woody but Stinky Pete's interference allow Al to leave for the airport with the Roundup Gang. Andy's toys follow him there on a stolen pizza planet truck. (In the original script, Andy's toys steal Al's car and Al steals the pizza planet truck and gives chase) As Al's plane is about to fly off to Japan with the Roundup Gang packed in the luggage, Andy's toys are able to save Woody, Jessie and Bullseye, getting Jessie off of the plane at the last second, while the Prospector is placed in a little girl's backpack for his betrayal. During his latest commercial soon after, Al is unable to control himself from hysterically sobbing over his losses as a result, which Hamm responded to by saying \"Well, I guess crime doesn't pay.\"\n\nAl was originally conceived to appear in the first Toy Story film, but was cut in the final screenplay.[citation needed] However, Al's Toy Barn makes an appearance in the first film during a television advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys.\n\nAl's last name was revealed on the nameplate on his office desk; also, when he is done taking pictures, he answers his cellphone and Mr. Konishi can be heard saying his full name. According to Disney Adventures magazine, Al was not permitted to play with his toys when he was a kid, which led to his toy-collecting niche. It is implied that Al's full name is actually Carl McWhiggin since Mr. Konishi is heard calling him that on the phone.\n\nHis car's license plate reads LZTYBRN, which is \"Al's Toy Barn\" (minus the vowel letters). It is also the actual license plate of Ash Brannon, co-director of Toy Story 2, according to the Toy Story 2: Special Edition commentary.\n\nMrs. Anderson[edit]\n\nVoiced by Lori Alan\n\nMrs. Anderson is the mother of Bonnie. She wears purple glasses. In Toy Story 3, she is the receptionist at Sunnyside Daycare. When Andy comes to return his toys to Bonnie, Mrs. Anderson is amazed to see a grown-up college student donating his childhood toys to her daughter. During the credits scene, she carries another box of donation toys into the Butterfly Room at Sunnyside that contains Emperor Zurg.\n\nIn Toy Story of Terror, she and Bonnie are driving in the countryside at nighttime when the car tire punctures. In the morning, the curtain behind the manager's desk fell down revealing all her missing toys. Mrs. Anderson calls the police to arrest the manager who stole the toys.\n\nGeri the Cleaner[edit]\n\nVoiced by Jonathan Harris\n\nGeri, an elderly specialist in toy restoration and repair with a fully loaded toy repair kit, comes to Al's apartment in Toy Story 2 to fix Woody up in preparation for his trip to Japan. He insists that Al let him take his time with the work and views it as more than a simple job, asserting, \"You can't rush art.\"\n\nGeri previously appeared in Pixar's 1997 short, Geri's Game, where he plays a chess game against himself. In that short, he is voiced by Bob Peterson. One of the drawers in his carrying case contains chess pieces, a reference to the short.\n\nEmily[edit]\n\nEmily was the name of Jessie's former owner and is mentioned by her in the second film. She appears in a flashback musical sequence while \"When She Loved Me\" by Sarah McLachlan is played. During this sequence, Jessie tells Woody of her first experience with an owner who was Emily and why she resented being a child's toy. As a young child she was a fan of the Wild West and horses, along with the Woody's Roundup TV show, apparent through her love of Jessie. As she became a teenager, her interest began to shift towards makeup, pop culture of the time and gossip with her friends which led to Jessie being neglected then thrown away through a donation box. She is mentioned by Jessie for the second time in the third film, when she fears of being thrown away by Andy, saying \"I should've seen this coming! It's Emily all over again!\".\n\nDaisy[edit]\n\nDaisy is a little girl who appears in flashbacks in Toy Story 3. She owned Lotso, Big Baby and Chuckles in the beginning, but accidentally left them behind at a rest area along the road. In order to pacify her, Daisy's parents bought her another Lots-O'-Huggin' Bear rather than finding Lotso and the rest of her toys, which made Lotso think he had been replaced and forgotten about, and changed him into a sinister, ruthless toy.\n\nRon[edit]\n\nVoiced by Stephen Tobolowsky\n\nRon is the greedy manager of the Sleep Well Motel, appearing in Toy Story of Terror. He has a habit of stealing toys from customers in his motel and selling them on the Internet, with the help from his pet iguana, Mr. Jones. When Bonnie and her mother went to Sleep Well after their car got a flat tire, Mr. Jones steals a number of Bonnie's toys, including Woody, Buzz, and Jessie. Ron then takes pictures of the toys and puts them on his bidding sale, awaiting buyers. Jessie manages to trick Mr. Jones into tearing off the curtain, revealing the toys' location and Ron's scheme to Bonnie and her mother, who then calls the police.\n\nTwo police officers later arrive to question Ron, who attempts to escape by stealing their car but is forced to flee on foot after immediately crashing it into the motel sign. The police officers initiate a manhunt for him.\n\nMason[edit]\n\nVoiced by R.C. Cope\n\nMason is Bonnie's best friend, and a post-Christmas playdate between the pair serves as the setting for Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mason receives an entire Battlesaurs collection for Christmas but is distracted from them by a new video game system. However, due to Trixie and Reptillus' efforts he abandons the video game and plays with his new toys. He is later shown to write his name on his toys in similar fashion to Andy and Bonnie.\n\nAnimals[edit]\n\nScud[edit]\n\nVoiced by Frank Welker\n\nScud is Sid's aggressive Bull Terrier. His viciousness is first demonstrated when Sid sets a Squeeze Toy Alien on his nose and commands him to maul it mercilessly. Scud serves as an obstacle for Woody and Buzz as they try to escape Sid's house. First, as Woody tries to run off when Sid leaves the bedroom door open he encounters Scud sleeping and accidentally wakes him, forcing him and Buzz to hide. When Sid takes Buzz to the backyard to blow him up with a rocket, Woody tries to save him but Scud traps him in Sid's room. The mutant toys help Woody distract Scud so they can rescue Buzz. Scud later spots Woody and Buzz trying to escape on the moving van and pursues them, but is eluded when he runs after them into the middle of a traffic intersection and is trapped by the cars as they crash while trying to avoid him.\n\nBuster[edit]\n\nVoiced by Frank Welker\n\nBuster is Andy's pet dachshund, whom he receives at the end of Toy Story. Buster appears in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3. In Toy Story 2, he is depicted as being very energetic. Buster is considered to be nice to the toys in Andy's room and is the only one in Andy's house who knows that the toys are alive, and is fiercely loyal to Woody, obeying all commands given to him by Woody: when Wheezy is taken by Andy's mother to be sold at a yard sale, Woody is able to command Buster to carry him down to the yard sale so he can rescue Wheezy. However, he does not respond to commands from Andy whatsoever. Slinky is also able to communicate with him due to the fact they are both dogs. At the beginning of Toy Story 2, Buster finds Woody in a record of 13.5 seconds.\n\nIn Toy Story 3, Buster is now older and looks very aged, with mixed brown and gray fur, a gray-white snout, overweight, and too old to help Woody save the other toys (in a direct parody of the rescue scene from Toy Story 2), although he remains nice and loyal to them. He tends to fall asleep as well.\n\nCrazy Critters[edit]\n\nCrazy Critters are a bunch of 2-dimensional animal puppets from the Woody's Roundup show including an armadillo, bat, bear, beaver, bird, deer, vulture, bear cub, porcupine, flying squirrel, rabbit, skunk, snake, fox, raccoon, tortoise and bobcat. They come quickly when Jessie calls them, with the tortoise falling slightly behind the others. Woody understands them in the Woody's Roundup show. The Crazy Critters make cameo appearances as prizes determined by the score of players in Toy Story Midway Mania!, and in the Toy Story 2 video game on the Nintendo 64.\n\nMr. Jones[edit]\n\nVoiced by Dee Bradley Baker\n\nMr. Jones is an iguana appearing in Toy Story of Terror!, owned by the manager of Sleep Well Motel, Ron. He is loyal to his master and is trained to secretly steal toys from customers so that his master can sell the toys off the Internet. During the majority of the special, he is seen snatching most of Bonnie's toys away in a flash through the air shafts and ventilation systems. Eventually, he accidentally swallowed Mr. Potato Head's left arm and Combat Carl's right hand. However, he is forced to regurgitate them out after Jessie tricks him into ripping off the curtain, revealing Ron's scheme to Bonnie and her mother. It is unknown what happens to him afterwards, although it is implied that he will be sent to Animal Control.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Don Rickles Hadn't Recorded Mr. Potato Head in Toy Story 4 Before Death\". Screen Rant. April 8, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2018.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Don Rickles Had Not Recorded His Role in 'Toy Story 4'\". The Hollywood Reporter. April 8, 2017.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Rosen, Christopher (August 14, 2015). \"Toy Story 4 plot details emerge\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved August 14, 2015.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Foutch, Haleigh (August 14, 2015). \"'Toy Story 4\u2032 Finds Buzz and Woody on the Search for Bo Peep\". Collider. Retrieved August 16, 2015.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Totoro Makes Cameo in Pixar's 3rd Toy Story 3 Trailer.\" Anime News Network. February 11, 2010. Retrieved on September 29, 2010.\n  6. Jump up ^ Campbell, Christopher. \"Pixar Chief Discusses Totoro Cameo In 'Toy Story 3' Trailer.\" MTV. February 17, 2010. Retrieved on September 29, 2010.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Disney Magic Kingdoms (Video Game 2016)\". IMDb. Retrieved May 7, 2018.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Favorite Villain\u2014Lotso (Ned Beatty), Toy Story 3\". IGN. Summer 2010. Archived from the original on September 22, 2010.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Toy Story 3 Easter Eggs\". Slashfilm.com. 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2010-08-27.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Unkrich, Lee [@leeunkrich] (June 22, 2010). \"Big Baby says one line in Toy Story 3. And the name of the baby actor who supplied the voice? Woody. Truth\" (Tweet). Retrieved September 20, 2010 \u2013 via Twitter.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Medina, Joseph (June 23, 2017). \"Toy Story: Woody's Odd Case Of Amnesia Finally Explained!\". Latino Review Media. Retrieved June 23, 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Hernandez, Patricia (February 24, 2014). \"A Bonkers Theory on The True Identity of Andy's Mom In Toy Story\". Kotaku.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Negroni, Jon (February 24, 2014). \"Toy Story: The True Identity of Andy's Mom Makes The Movie More Epic\". Moviepilot.\u00a0\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nToy Story\nFilms\n  \u2022 Toy Story\n  \u2022 Toy Story 2\n  \u2022 Toy Story 3\n  \u2022 Toy Story 4\nToy Story logo.svg\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Sheriff Woody\n  \u2022 Buzz Lightyear\n  \u2022 Jessie\nTelevision\n  \u2022 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command\n    \u2022 The Adventure Begins\n  \u2022 Toy Story of Terror!\n  \u2022 Toy Story That Time Forgot\nVideo games\n  \u2022 Toy Story\n  \u2022 Disney's Animated Storybook: Toy Story\n  \u2022 Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue\n  \u2022 Toy Story Racer\n  \u2022 Buzz Lightyear of Star Command\n  \u2022 Toy Story Mania!\n  \u2022 Toy Story 3: The Video Game\n  \u2022 Toy Story: Smash It!\n  \u2022 Disney Infinity\n  \u2022 Kingdom Hearts III\nShorts\n  \u2022 Toy Story Treats\n  \u2022 Toy Story Toons\n    \u2022 Hawaiian Vacation\n    \u2022 Small Fry\n    \u2022 Partysaurus Rex\nAttractions\n  \u2022 Buzz Lightyear\n  \u2022 RC Racer\n  \u2022 Slinky Dog Dash\n  \u2022 Slinky Dog Zigzag Spin\n  \u2022 Toy Story Midway Mania!\n  \u2022 Toy Soldiers Parachute Drop\n  \u2022 Toy Story Land\n  \u2022 Woody's All-American Roundup & Big Thunder Ranch Barbecue\n  \u2022 Woody's Roundup Village\nMusic\n  \u2022 \"You've Got a Friend in Me\"\n  \u2022 \"When She Loved Me\"\n  \u2022 \"We Belong Together\"\n  \u2022 Woody's Roundup: A Rootin' Tootin' Collection of Woody's Favorite Songs\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 Toy Story: The Musical\n  \u2022 Lego Toy Story\n  \u2022 Tiny Toy Stories\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_Toy_Story_characters&oldid=854475656\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Lists of Disney characters\n  \u2022 Toy Story characters\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 11 August 2018, at 16:58\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5528043434170938444","title":"It Wasn't Me","text":"It Wasn't Me\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article is about the song by Shaggy. For the song by George Thorogood & the Destroyers, see Move It On Over (album).\n\"It Wasn't Me\"\nShaggy-wasn't-me.jpg\nSingle by Shaggy\nfrom the album Hot Shot\nB-side \"Dance & Shout\"\nReleased September 11, 2000[1]\nFormat\n  \u2022 7\"\n  \u2022 12\"\n  \u2022 cassette\n  \u2022 CD\nRecorded 1999\nGenre\n  \u2022 Reggae fusion\nLength 3:47\nLabel\n  \u2022 Big Yard\n  \u2022 DreamWorks\nSongwriter(s)\n  \u2022 Shaggy\nProducer(s)\n  \u2022 Shaun Pizzonia\n  \u2022 Raul \"RAZ\" Zeballos\nShaggy singles chronology\n\"Luv Me, Luv Me\"\n(1998)\n\"It Wasn't Me\"\n(2000)\n\"Angel\"\n(2001)\n\"Luv Me, Luv Me\"\n(1998)\n\"It Wasn't Me\"\n(2000)\n\"Angel\"\n(2001)\n\n\"It Wasn't Me\" is the first single from Jamaican-American reggae artist Shaggy's multi-Platinum studio album Hot Shot (2000). The song features vocals from English-Jamaican singer Rikrok.\n\nThe lyrics of the song depict one man asking his friend what to do after his girlfriend caught him having sex with another woman. His friend's advice is to deny everything, despite clear evidence to the contrary, with the phrase \"It wasn't me.\"\n\n\"It Wasn't Me\" has been regarded as Shaggy's breakthrough in the pop market, and is his highest-charting song to date, topping the charts in Australia, Austria, France, Ireland, the United States, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It was the best-selling single of 2001 in the United Kingdom, selling over 1.15 million copies that year[2] and over 1.42 million as of 2017. The song was also featured on the 2001 compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 6.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Background\n  \u2022 2 Chart performance\n  \u2022 3 Music video\n  \u2022 4 Legacy\n  \u2022 5 Track listings\n  \u2022 6 Charts and sales\n    \u2022 6.1 Weekly charts\n    \u2022 6.2 Year-end charts\n    \u2022 6.3 Certifications\n    \u2022 6.4 Chart successions\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nBackground[edit]\n\nThe lyrics of \"It Wasn't Me\" depict one man asking his friend what to do after his girlfriend catches him having sex with another woman. His friend's advice is to deny everything, despite clear evidence to the contrary, with the phrase \"It wasn't me.\" Ultimately, the narrator says that the advice \"makes no sense at all\". The song was inspired by a bit called \"No Loyal Men,\" performed by Eddie Murphy in his 1987 comedy special Raw.[3] In a 2016 interview, Shaggy acknowledged similarities with the War song \"Smile Happy\".[4] The connection is further supported by Liam Payne's 2017 debut single \"Strip That Down\", itself based on \"It Wasn't Me\", which credited both Shaggy (as Orville Burrell) and members of War as co-songwriters.[5][6]\n\nThe clean version of the song replaces the lyric \"Picture this: we were both butt-naked banging on the bathroom floor\" with \"Picture this: we were both caught making love on the bathroom floor\" and \"Saw me banging on the sofa\" with \"Saw me kissing on the sofa\". \"It Wasn't Me\" was originally never intended to be released as a single.\n\nBefore the original version of Hot Shot was released in August 2000, Hawaiian DJ Pablo Sato downloaded the album from \"a Napster-like MP3 site he won't name\" and discovered that \"It Wasn't Me\" was \"the album's standout cut.\" He played the song on American radio the next day, and in an interview, claimed, \"The phone lines lit up right away. Within a couple of days, it was our number-one requested song.\"[7] The song was then released as the album's first single in September 2000, following its radio success. The song is written in the key of C, in the Mixolydian mode.\n\nThe song was spoofed by Bob Rivers, as Shaggy One Handed, making a reference to the Scooby-Doo character, Shaggy Rogers. The video focused on him being caught masturbating (about the girl next door) by his mother.[8] The song was also spoofed on Svengoolie. On The Chris Moyles Show, the song was used as a prank call with Shaggy trying to book a taxi, with the final line being \"Can you drop me off at The Chris Moyles Show on BBC Radio 1?, 97 to 99 FM\".[9]\n\nChart performance[edit]\n\n\"It Wasn't Me\" was Shaggy's first number-one hit in the United States. The song peaked at number two for two weeks from December 16, 2000[10] to December 23, 2000.[11] On December 30, 2000, it was bumped down one position to number three.[12] It moved back up to the number two spot on January 4, 2001.[13]\n\nThe song also reached number one on the UK Singles Chart on March 4, 2001, selling 345,000 copies, making the song a transatlantic chart-topper.[14] It also reached number one in Australia on April 1, 2001. It is also the 11th biggest selling single of the 21st century in the United Kingdom,[15] with sales of over 1.42 million as of September 2017.[15]\n\nAs of August 2014, it is the 49th best-selling single of the 21st century in France, with 399,500 units sold.[16]\n\nMusic video[edit]\n\nThe music video was directed by Stephen Scott.\n\nIt starts out with Rikrok running to Shaggy's mansion to explain to him what has just happened. Rikrok tells him that he cheated on his girlfriend and got caught. Shaggy tells him to tell her that \"It wasn't me.\" The video then cuts into a flashback to earlier that day. Rikrok has been caught sleeping with another woman, and his girlfriend is outside the apartment in her convertible when two women pull up next to her on their motorcycles (sport bikes).\n\nThen, the three women go into the building. He then sneaks out the window, takes the motorcycle of one of his girlfriends accomplices and leaves. The women come out and the girlfriend and one of the accomplices get in the convertible and the other gets on her motorcycle and they chase after him. From his mansion, Shaggy, using his futuristic technology, tracks down where Rikrok is going and prepares an escape for him. Rikrok then gets on a bridge over the highway when the accomplice rode on the bridge in front of him.\n\nHe then hits the brakes to stop while she stops her motorcycle. Rikrok then hears a noise behind him and it's the other accomplices and the girlfriend driving the convertible on the other side of the bridge with the highway down below. An eighteen-wheeler drives by, and Shaggy leaves Rikrok a text message telling him to look behind and he notices the truck and jumps off the side of overhead and lands on the truck. He is then dropped off at Shaggy's mansion, showing the same scene from the start of the video.\n\nLegacy[edit]\n\nThe lyrics of \"It Wasn't Me\" inspired Slate writer Josh Levin to coin the term the \"Shaggy defense\" to describe R. Kelly's defence at his child pornography trial stemming from the production of a sex tape: \"I predict that in the decades to come, law schools will teach this as the 'Shaggy defense'. You allege that I was caught on camera, butt naked, banging on the log cabin floor? It wasn't me.\"[17]\n\nLevin repeated the term on NPR.[18] The term describes a strategy of flatly denying guilt and refusing to engage with the evidence against the defendant, no matter how overwhelming. R. Kelly was ultimately found not guilty on all charges.[19]\n\nThe song is referenced by Trevor Noah on an episode of The Daily Show with Trevor Noah when he covered the vice-presidential debate between Mike Pence and Tim Kaine, as Pence vehemently kept denying his running mate Donald Trump's claims, despite the fact that the claims have been proved to be said by Trump on camera or through his Twitter account.[20]\n\nTrack listings[edit]\n\n  \u2022 UK\n\nCD Single\n\n  1. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Radio Edit) \u2013 3:43\n  2. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Vocal 12\" Mix) \u2013 3:49\n  3. \"Dance & Shout\" (Pussy 2000 Club Mix Edit) \u2013 8:07\n  4. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Enhanced Video) \u2013 3:43\n\nCassette single\n\n  1. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Radio Edit) \u2013 3:43\n  2. \"It Wasn't Me\" \u2013 3:47\n  \u2022 U.S.\n  1. \"It Wasn't Me\" \u2013 3:47\n  2. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Squeaky Remix) \u2013 4:25\n  3. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Instrumental) \u2013 3:47\n  4. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Sports Remix) \u2013 3:27\n  \u2022 Australia\n  1. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Radio Edit) \u2013 3:43\n  2. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Vocal 12\" Mix) \u2013 3:49\n  3. \"Dance & Shout\" (Pussy 2000 Club Mix Edit) \u2013 8:07\n  4. \"Dance & Shout\" (Dancehall Version) \u2013 3:46\n  5. \"It Wasn't Me\" (Enhanced Video) \u2013 3:43\n\nCharts and sales[edit]\n\nWeekly charts[edit]\n\nChart (2000\u201301) Peak\nposition\nAustralia (ARIA)[21] 1\nAustria (\u00d63 Austria Top 40)[22] 3\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[23] 1\nBelgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[24] 2\nCanada (Nielsen SoundScan) 18\nDenmark (Tracklisten)[25] 2\nEurope (Eurochart Hot 100)[26] 1\nFinland (Suomen virallinen lista)[27] 11\nFrance (SNEP)[28] 1\nGermany (Official German Charts)[29] 4\nIreland (IRMA)[30] 1\nItaly (FIMI)[31] 2\nNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)[32] 1\nNew Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[33] 6\nNorway (VG-lista)[34] 2\nPoland (Polish Singles Chart)[35] 1\nSpain (PROMUSICAE)[36] 13\nSweden (Sverigetopplistan)[37] 2\nSwitzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[38] 2\nUK Singles (Official Charts Company)[39] 1\nUS Billboard Hot 100[40] 1\nUS Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[41] 1\nUS Hot R&B\/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[42] 3\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\nChart (2001) Position\nAustralian Singles Chart[43] 2\nAustrian Singles Chart[44] 25\nBelgian (Flanders) Singles Chart[45] 6\nBelgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart[46] 6\nDutch Top 40[47] 7\nFrench Singles Chart[48] 7\nIrish Singles Chart[49] 2\nSwiss Singles Chart[50] 17\nUK Singles Chart[2] 1\nUS Billboard Hot 100[51] 12\n\nCertifications[edit]\n\nRegion Certification Certified units\/Sales\nAustralia (ARIA)[52] 3\u00d7 Platinum 210,000^\nAustria (IFPI Austria)[53] Gold 20,000*\nFrance (SNEP)[54] Platinum 500,000*\nGermany (BVMI)[55] Gold 250,000^\nNetherlands (NVPI)[56] Platinum 60,000^\nNorway (IFPI Norway)[57] Platinum 10,000*\nSwitzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[58] Gold 20,000^\nUnited Kingdom (BPI)[59] 2\u00d7 Platinum 1,428,204[15]\n\n*sales figures based on certification alone\n^shipments figures based on certification alone\n\nChart successions[edit]\n\nhideOrder of precedence\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Independent Women Part I\" by Destiny's Child\nBillboard Hot 100 number-one single\nFebruary 3, 2001 \u2013 February 10, 2001 (2 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Ms. Jackson\" by OutKast\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Puf \/ Schudden\" by Def Rhymz\nDutch number-one single\nMarch 3, 2001 \u2013 April 7, 2001 (6 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Damn (I Think I Love You)\" by Starmaker\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Always Come Back to Your Love\"\nby Samantha Mumba\nIrish (IRMA) number-one single\nMarch 3, 2001 (1 week)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Uptown Girl\" by Westlife\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Whole Again\" by Atomic Kitten\nUK number-one single\nMarch 4, 2001 (1 week)\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"La Passion\" by Gigi D'Agostino\nBelgian (Flanders) number-one single\nMarch 24, 2001 \u2013 April 14, 2001 (4 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Teenage Dirtbag\" by Wheatus\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Seul\" by Garou\nFrench SNEP number-one single\nMarch 31, 2001 \u2013 June 2, 2001 (10 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Hasta la Vista\" by MC Solaar\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Ms. Jackson\" by OutKast\nEurochart Hot 100 number-one single\nMarch 31, 2001 \u2013 June 2, 2001 (10 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Whole Again\" by Atomic Kitten\nPreceded\u00a0by\n\"Case of the Ex\" by M\u00fda\nAustralian ARIA number-one single\nApril 1, 2001 \u2013 April 22, 2001 (4 weeks)\nSucceeded\u00a0by\n\"Me, Myself and I\" by Scandal'us\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2001\n  \u2022 List of best-selling singles and albums of 2001 in Ireland\n  \u2022 List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (century) in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 List of 2000s UK Singles Chart number ones\n  \u2022 Shaggy defense\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"VH1 - Top 100 Greatest Songs of 2000's\". Retrieved April 24, 2014.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Shaggy's single is UK's best-seller\". BBC News. 27 December 2001. Retrieved 16 June 2015.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"How I Wrote That Song: Shaggy \"It Wasn't Me\"\". YouTube. April 23, 2015. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ [1]\n  5. Jump up ^ Mench, Chris (May 19, 2017). \"Liam Payne Interpolates A Shaggy Classic On His New Single \"Strip That Down\" Featuring Quavo\". Genius. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Rainbird, Ashleigh (September 1, 2017). \"Liam Payne insists he did not 'rip off' Shaggy song for new track as he gave singer credit\". Daily Mirror. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Paiva, Derek (January 18, 2001). \"Isle deejay takes credit for Shaggy hit\". The Honolulu Advertiser. Gannett Co., Inc. Archived from the original on February 22, 2001. Retrieved February 22, 2001.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Caught Me One-Handed\". YouTube. Retrieved April 12, 2018.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Shaggy - Taxi\". April 28, 2015.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media, Inc (2000-12-16). Billboard. Retrieved 25 August 2014.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media, Inc (2000-12-23). Billboard. Retrieved 25 August 2014.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Paoletta, Michael (2000-12-30). 2000: The Year In Music. Billboard. Retrieved August 25, 2014.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"'Independent' Stays On Top\". Retrieved 25 August 2014.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"SHAGGY RETURNS IN STYLE\". NME. 4 March 2000. Retrieved 28 October 2015.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b c Copsey, Rob (September 19, 2017). \"The UK's Official Chart 'millionaires' revealed\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 13, 2018.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Top 100 des singles les plus vendus du mill\u00e9naire en France, \u00e9pisode 6 (50-41)\". Chartsinfrance. 16 August 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2014.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Josh Levin. May 21, 2008. \"Dispatches From the R. Kelly Trial\".\n  18. Jump up ^ NPR. May 23, 2008. \"Trapped in a Courtroom: The R. Kelly Trial\".\n  19. Jump up ^ R. Kelly Found Not Guilty!\n  20. Jump up ^ Trevor Noah, October 4, 2016. Vice Presidential Debate Wrap-Up\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Australian-charts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Austriancharts.at \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in German). \u00d63 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Ultratop.be \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Danishcharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". Tracklisten. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Hits of the World: Eurochart Hot 100 (IFPI\/Nielsen Marketing Research) 04\/07\/01\". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media. 113 (14): 73. April 7, 2001. ISSN\u00a00006-2510.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"Shaggy feat. Rikrok: It Wasn't Me\" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat \u2013 IFPI Finland.\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Lescharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Musicline.de \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok Single-Chartverfolgung\" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.\n  30. Jump up ^ Irish Single Chart Irishcharts.ie Archived 2010-01-05 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved July 26, 2008)\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Italiancharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". Top Digital Download. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  32. Jump up ^ \"Nederlandse Top 40 \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok\" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Charts.org.nz \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Norwegiancharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". VG-lista. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Nielsen Music Control\". Archived from the original on October 17, 2007.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ \"Spanishcharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" Canciones Top 50. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Swedishcharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Swisscharts.com \u2013 Shaggy feat. Rikrok \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 100\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Shaggy Chart History (Hot 100)\". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Shaggy Chart History (Pop Songs)\". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  42. Jump up ^ \"Shaggy Chart History (Hot R&B\/Hip-Hop Songs)\". Billboard. Retrieved 2010-11-14.\n  43. Jump up ^ 2001 Australian Singles Chart aria.com (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  44. Jump up ^ 2001 Austrian Singles Chart Austriancharts.at Archived August 1, 2012, at WebCite (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  45. Jump up ^ 2001 Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  46. Jump up ^ 2001 Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Single top 100 over 2001\" (PDF) (in Dutch). Top40. Retrieved 1 May 2010.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ 2001 French Singles Chart Disqueenfrance.com Archived 2012-04-04 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  49. Jump up ^ 2001 Irish Singles Chart Irma.ie (Retrieved December 11, 2008)\n  50. Jump up ^ 2001 Swiss Singles Chart Hitparade.ch Archived 2012-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 12, 2008)\n  51. Jump up ^ \"2001\". Longbored Surfer. Retrieved April 1, 2014.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"ARIA Charts \u2013 Accreditations \u2013 2001 Singles\". Australian Recording Industry Association.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ \"Austrian single certifications \u2013 Shaggy \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in German). IFPI Austria.\u00a0 Enter Shaggy in the field Interpret. Enter It Wasn't Me in the field Titel. Select single in the field Format. Click Suchen\n  54. Jump up ^ \"French single certifications \u2013 Shaggy \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in French). Syndicat National de l'\u00c9dition Phonographique.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Gold-\/Platin-Datenbank (Shaggy;\u00a0'It Wasn't Me')\" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Dutch single certifications \u2013 Shaggy \u2013 It Wasn't Me\" (in Dutch). Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld- en geluidsdragers.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"IFPI Norsk platebransje Trofeer 1993\u20132011\" (in Norwegian). IFPI Norway.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ \"The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards (Shaggy;\u00a0'It Wasn't Me')\". IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"British single certifications \u2013 Shaggy \u2013 It Wasn't Me\". British Phonographic Industry.\u00a0 Enter It Wasn't Me in the search field and then press Enter.\n  \u2022 The Billboard Book of Number One Hits, fifth edition\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\n  \u2022 Everything Is A Remix Shaggy is inspired by Eddie Murphy\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nShaggy\n  \u2022 Discography\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Pure Pleasure\n  \u2022 Original Doberman\n  \u2022 Boombastic\n  \u2022 Midnite Lover\n  \u2022 Hot Shot\n  \u2022 Lucky Day\n  \u2022 Clothes Drop\n  \u2022 Intoxication\n  \u2022 Shaggy & Friends\n  \u2022 Summer in Kingston\n  \u2022 Rise\nCompilation albums\n  \u2022 Hot Shot Ultramix\n  \u2022 Mr. Lover Lover: The Best of Shaggy...part 1\n  \u2022 Boombastic Hits\n  \u2022 The Best of Shaggy\n  \u2022 Best of Shaggy: The Boombastic Collection\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Oh Carolina\"\n  \u2022 \"Nice and Lovely\"\n  \u2022 \"Soon Be Done\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Up\"\n  \u2022 \"In the Summertime\"\n  \u2022 \"Boombastic\"\n  \u2022 \"It Wasn't Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Angel\"\n  \u2022 \"Luv Me, Luv Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Dance & Shout\" \/ \"Hope\"\n  \u2022 \"Me Julie\"\n  \u2022 \"Hey Sexy Lady\"\n  \u2022 \"Wild 2nite\"\n  \u2022 \"Church Heathen\"\n  \u2022 \"Bonafide Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"What's Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Girls Just Wanna Have Fun\"\n  \u2022 \"Remain in Our Hearts\"\n  \u2022 \"Habibi (I Need Your Love)\"\n  \u2022 \"Only Love\"\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"I Got You Babe\"\n  \u2022 \"Christmas in Jamaica\"\n  \u2022 \"I Wanna\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't You Need Somebody\"\n  \u2022 \"Let Me Love You\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Shaggy defense\n  \u2022 Major Lazer\n  \u2022 Sean Paul\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nBest-selling singles by year in the United Kingdom\n1952\u20131969\n  \u2022 1952: \"Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart\" \u2013 Vera Lynn (UK)\n  \u2022 1953: \"I Believe\" \u2013 Frankie Laine\n  \u2022 1954: \"Secret Love\" \u2013 Doris Day\n  \u2022 1955: \"Rose Marie\" \u2013 Slim Whitman\n  \u2022 1956: \"I'll Be Home\" \u2013 Pat Boone\n  \u2022 1957: \"Diana\" \u2013 Paul Anka\n  \u2022 1958: \"Jailhouse Rock\" \u2013 Elvis Presley\n  \u2022 1959: \"Living Doll\" \u2013 Cliff Richard (UK)\n  \u2022 1960: \"It's Now or Never\" \u2013 Elvis Presley\n  \u2022 1961: \"Wooden Heart\" \u2013 Elvis Presley\n  \u2022 1962: \"I Remember You\" \u2013 Frank Ifield (UK)\n  \u2022 1963: \"She Loves You\" \u2013 The Beatles (UK)\n  \u2022 1964: \"Can't Buy Me Love\" \u2013 The Beatles (UK)\n  \u2022 1965: \"Tears\" \u2013 Ken Dodd (UK)\n  \u2022 1966: \"Green, Green Grass of Home\" \u2013 Tom Jones (UK)\n  \u2022 1967: \"Release Me\" \u2013 Engelbert Humperdinck (UK)\n  \u2022 1968: \"Hey Jude\" \u2013 The Beatles (UK)\n  \u2022 1969: \"Sugar, Sugar\" \u2013 The Archies\n1970\u20131989\n  \u2022 1970: \"The Wonder of You\" \u2013 Elvis Presley\n  \u2022 1971: \"My Sweet Lord\" \u2013 George Harrison (UK)\n  \u2022 1972: \"Amazing Grace\" \u2013 The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Band (UK)\n  \u2022 1973: \"Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree\" \u2013 Tony Orlando and Dawn\n  \u2022 1974: \"Tiger Feet\" \u2013 Mud (UK)\n  \u2022 1975: \"Bye Bye Baby\" \u2013 Bay City Rollers (UK)\n  \u2022 1976: \"Save Your Kisses for Me\" \u2013 Brotherhood of Man (UK)\n  \u2022 1977: \"Mull of Kintyre\" \/ \"Girls' School\" \u2013 Wings (UK)\n  \u2022 1978: \"Rivers of Babylon\" \/ \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" \u2013 Boney M.\n  \u2022 1979: \"Bright Eyes\" \u2013 Art Garfunkel\n  \u2022 1980: \"Don't Stand So Close to Me\" \u2013 The Police (UK)\n  \u2022 1981: \"Don't You Want Me\" \u2013 The Human League (UK)\n  \u2022 1982: \"Come On Eileen\" \u2013 Dexys Midnight Runners (UK)\n  \u2022 1983: \"Karma Chameleon\" \u2013 Culture Club (UK)\n  \u2022 1984: \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" \u2013 Band Aid (UK)\n  \u2022 1985: \"The Power of Love\" \u2013 Jennifer Rush\n  \u2022 1986: \"Don't Leave Me This Way\" \u2013 The Communards (UK)\n  \u2022 1987: \"Never Gonna Give You Up\" \u2013 Rick Astley (UK)\n  \u2022 1988: \"Mistletoe and Wine\" \u2013 Cliff Richard (UK)\n  \u2022 1989: \"Ride on Time\" \u2013 Black Box\n1990\u20132009\n  \u2022 1990: \"Unchained Melody\" \u2013 The Righteous Brothers\n  \u2022 1991: \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\" \u2013 Bryan Adams\n  \u2022 1992: \"I Will Always Love You\" \u2013 Whitney Houston\n  \u2022 1993: \"I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)\" \u2013 Meat Loaf\n  \u2022 1994: \"Love Is All Around\" \u2013 Wet Wet Wet (UK)\n  \u2022 1995: \"Unchained Melody\" \u2013 Robson & Jerome (UK)\n  \u2022 1996: \"Killing Me Softly\" \u2013 Fugees\n  \u2022 1997: \"Something About the Way You Look Tonight\" \/ \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" \u2013 Elton John (UK)\n  \u2022 1998: \"Believe\" \u2013 Cher\n  \u2022 1999: \"...Baby One More Time\" \u2013 Britney Spears\n  \u2022 2000: \"Can We Fix It?\" \u2013 Bob the Builder (UK)\n  \u2022 2001: \"It Wasn't Me\" \u2013 Shaggy featuring Rikrok (UK)\n  \u2022 2002: \"Anything Is Possible\" \/ \"Evergreen\" \u2013 Will Young (UK)\n  \u2022 2003: \"Where Is the Love?\" \u2013 The Black Eyed Peas\n  \u2022 2004: \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\" \u2013 Band Aid 20 (UK)\n  \u2022 2005: \"Is This the Way to Amarillo\" \u2013 Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay (UK)\n  \u2022 2006: \"Crazy\" \u2013 Gnarls Barkley\n  \u2022 2007: \"Bleeding Love\" \u2013 Leona Lewis (UK)\n  \u2022 2008: \"Hallelujah\" \u2013 Alexandra Burke (UK)\n  \u2022 2009: \"Poker Face\" \u2013 Lady Gaga\n2010\u2013present\n  \u2022 2010: \"Just the Way You Are\" \u2013 Bruno Mars\n  \u2022 2011: \"Someone Like You\" \u2013 Adele (UK)\n  \u2022 2012: \"Somebody That I Used to Know\" \u2013 Gotye featuring Kimbra\n  \u2022 2013: \"Blurred Lines\" \u2013 Robin Thicke featuring T.I. & Pharrell Williams\n  \u2022 2014: \"Happy\" \u2013 Pharrell Williams\n  \u2022 2015: \"Uptown Funk\" \u2013 Mark Ronson (UK) featuring Bruno Mars\n  \u2022 2016: \"One Dance\" \u2013 Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla (UK)\n  \u2022 2017: \"Shape of You\" - Ed Sheeran (UK)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=It_Wasn%27t_Me&oldid=840347036\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2000 singles\n  \u2022 Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles\n  \u2022 Billboard Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) number-one singles\n  \u2022 Songs about sexuality\n  \u2022 Number-one singles in Australia\n  \u2022 Reggae fusion songs\n  \u2022 European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles\n  \u2022 Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles\n  \u2022 Irish Singles Chart number-one singles\n  \u2022 SNEP Top Singles number-one singles\n  \u2022 Dutch Top 40 number-one singles\n  \u2022 Number-one singles in Poland\n  \u2022 UK Singles Chart number-one singles\n  \u2022 Shaggy (musician) songs\n  \u2022 Songs about infidelity\n  \u2022 2000 songs\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Webarchive template webcite links\n  \u2022 CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)\n  \u2022 CS1 German-language sources (de)\n  \u2022 CS1 French-language sources (fr)\n  \u2022 CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no)\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from October 2012\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Australia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Austria\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Flanders\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Wallonia\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Denmark\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Finland\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for France\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Germany\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Italy\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Dutch40\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for New Zealand\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Norway\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Spain\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Sweden\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Switzerland\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for UK\n  \u2022 Singlechart called without artist\n  \u2022 Singlechart called without song\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs\n  \u2022 Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Australia\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Austria\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for France\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Germany\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Netherlands\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Norway\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland\n  \u2022 Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 9 May 2018, at 09:02.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8127527412702163545","title":"Cat o' nine tails","text":"Cat o' nine tails\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor other uses, see Cat o' nine tails (disambiguation).\nA leather cat o' nine tails pictured with a U.S. dollar bill for size comparison. A U.S. dollar bill is about 6 inches (about 15 cm) long, so the total length would be about 30 inches (75 cm).\nPart of a series on\nCorporal punishment\nPelourinho.jpg\nBy place\n  \u2022 Domestic\n  \u2022 School\n  \u2022 Judicial\nBy implementation\n  \u2022 Belting\n  \u2022 Birching\n  \u2022 Caning\n  \u2022 Cat o' nine tails\n  \u2022 Flagellation\n  \u2022 Foot whipping\n  \u2022 Knout\n  \u2022 Paddle\n  \u2022 Scourge\n  \u2022 Slippering\n  \u2022 Spanking\n  \u2022 Strapping\n  \u2022 Switch\n  \u2022 Tawse\n  \u2022 Riding crop\n  \u2022 Whip\nBy country\n  \u2022 Afghanistan\n  \u2022 Brunei\n  \u2022 Indonesia\n  \u2022 Iran\n  \u2022 Malaysia\n  \u2022 Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 Qatar\n  \u2022 Singapore\n  \u2022 Taiwan\n  \u2022 United Arab Emirates\nCourt cases\n  \u2022 CFCYL v. Canada\n  \u2022 Ingraham v. Wright\nPolitics\nCampaigns against\ncorporal punishment\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nThe cat o' nine tails, commonly shortened to the cat, is a type of multi-tailed whip that originated as an implement for severe physical punishment, notably in the Royal Navy and Army of the United Kingdom, and also as a judicial punishment in Britain and some other countries.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Etymology\n  \u2022 2 Description\n    \u2022 2.1 Variations\n  \u2022 3 Historical punishments\n    \u2022 3.1 Naval types and use\n      \u2022 3.1.1 Flogging round the fleet\n    \u2022 3.2 British Army\n    \u2022 3.3 Prison usage\n    \u2022 3.4 Penal colonies in Australia\n      \u2022 3.4.1 Slavery\n  \u2022 4 Modern uses and types\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 Further reading\n\nEtymology[edit]\n\nThe term first appears in 1695,[1] although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its \"claws\", which inflict parallel wounds. There are equivalent terms in many languages, usually strictly translating, and also some analogous terms referring to a similar instrument's number of tails (cord or leather), such as the Dutch zevenstaart (seven tail[s]), negenstaart (nine tail[s]), the Spanish gato de nueve colas or the Italian gatto a nove code.\n\nDescription[edit]\n\nThe cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about \u200b2\u00a01\u20442 feet or 76\u00a0cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain.\n\nIt traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the manner in which rope is plaited. Thinner rope is made from three strands of yarn plaited together, and thicker rope from three strands of thinner rope plaited together. To make a cat o' nine tails, a rope is unravelled into three small ropes, each of which is unravelled again.\n\nVariations[edit]\n\nVariations exist, either named cat (of x tails) or not, such as the whip used on adult Egyptian prisoners which had a cord on a cudgel branching into seven tails, each with six knots, used only on adult men, with boys being subject to caning, until Egypt banned the use of the device in 2001.[2]\n\nSometimes the term \"cat\" is used incorrectly to describe various other punitive flogging devices with multiple tails in any number, even one made from 80\u00a0twigs (so rather a limp birch) to flog a drunk or other offender instead of 80\u00a0lashes normally applicable under shariah law. The closed cat, one without tails, was called a starter.\n\nHistorical punishments[edit]\n\nNaval types and use[edit]\n\nThe naval cat, also known as the \"captain's daughter\" (which in principle was used under his authority) weighed about 13 ounces (370\u00a0grams) and was composed of a handle connected to nine thinner pieces of line, with each line knotted several times along its length.[3] Formal floggings \u2014 those ordered by captain or court martial \u2014 were administered ceremonially on deck, the crew being summoned to \"witness punishment\" and the prisoner being brought forward by marines with fixed bayonets.[3]\n\nDuring the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the naval cat's handle was made of rope about 2 feet (0.61\u00a0m) long and about 1 inch (25\u00a0mm) in diameter, and was traditionally covered with red baize cloth. The tails were made of cord about a quarter inch (6\u00a0mm) in diameter and typically 2 feet long.[citation needed] Drunkenness or striking an officer might incur a dozen lashes, which could be administered on the authority of the ship's captain. Greater punishments were generally administered following a formal court martial, with Royal Navy records reflecting some standard penalties of two hundred lashes for desertion, three hundred for mutiny, and up to five hundred for theft. The offence of sodomy generally drew the death penalty, though one eighteenth century court martial awarded a punishment of one thousand lashes - a roughly equivalent sentence as there was no likelihood of survival.[4]\n\nA new cat was made for each flogging by a bosun's mate and kept in a red baize bag until use. If several dozen lashes were awarded, each could be administered by a fresh bosun's mate\u2014a left-handed one could be included to assure extra painful crisscrossing of the wounds. One dozen was usually awarded as a highly sensitizing prelude to running the gauntlet.[citation needed]\n\nFor summary punishment of Royal Navy boys, a lighter model was made, the reduced cat, also known as boy's cat, boy's pussy or just pussy, that had only five tails of smooth whip cord. If formally convicted by a court martial, however, even boys would suffer the punishment of the adult cat. While adult sailors received their lashes on the back, they were administered to boys on the bare posterior, usually while \"kissing the gunner's daughter\" (bending over a gun barrel), just as boys' lighter \"daily\" chastisement was usually over their (often naked) rear-end (mainly with a cane \u2013 this could be applied to the hand, but captains generally refused such impractical disablement \u2013 or a rope's end). Bare-bottom discipline was a tradition of the English upper and middle classes, who frequented public schools,[5] so midshipmen (trainee officers, usually from 'good families', getting a cheaper equivalent education by enlisting) were not spared, at best sometimes allowed to receive their lashes inside a cabin. Still, it is reported that the 'infantile' embarrassment of bare-bottom punishment was believed essential for optimal deterrence; cocky miscreants might brave the pain of the adult cat in the macho spirit of \"taking it like a man\" or even as a \"badge of honour\".\n\nOn board training ships, where most of the crew were boys, the cat was never introduced, but their bare bottoms risked, as in other naval establishments on land, \"the sting of the birch\", another favourite in public schools.\n\nFlogging round the fleet[edit]\n\n\"The severest form of flogging was a flogging round the fleet. The number of lashes was divided by the number of ships in port and the offender was rowed between ships for each ship's company to witness the punishment.\"[6] Penalties of hundreds of lashes were imposed for the gravest offences, including sedition and mutiny. The prisoner was rowed around the fleet in an open boat and received a number of his lashes at each ship in turn, for as long as the surgeon allowed. Sentences often took months or years to complete, depending on how much a man was expected to bear at a time. Normally 250\u2013500 lashes would kill a man, as infections would spread.\"[7] After the flogging was completed, the sailor's lacerated back was frequently rinsed with brine or seawater, which was thought to serve as a crude antiseptic (now known not to be the case). Although the purpose was to control infection, it caused the sailor to endure additional pain, and gave rise to the expression, \"rubbing salt into his wounds,\" which came to mean vindictively or gratuitously increasing a punishment or injury already imposed.\n\nBritish Army[edit]\n\nThe British Army had a similar multiple whip, though much lighter in construction, made of a drumstick with attached strings. The flogger was usually a drummer rather than a strong bosun's mate. Flogging with the cat o' nine tails fell into disuse around 1870.\n\nWhereas the British naval cat rarely cut (contrary to graphic films) but rather abraded the skin, the falls (tresses) of the British Army cat were lighter (around 1\/8th of an inch) and the string was in fact codline - a very dense material akin to tarred string. Although the total whip would weigh only a fraction of a naval rope cat, the thin, dense codline tresses were far more likely to cut the skin.\n\nIt was also used elsewhere in the empire, notably at the penal colonies in Australia, and also in Canada (a dominion in 1867) where it was used until 1881. An 1812 drawing[8] shows a drummer apparently lashing the buttocks of a naked soldier who is tied with spread legs on an A-frame made from sergeants' half pikes. In many places, soldiers were generally flogged stripped to the waist.\n\nPrison usage[edit]\n\nThe cat-o'-nine-tails was also used on adult convicts in prisons; a 1951 memorandum[9] (possibly confirming earlier practice) ordered all UK male prisons to use only cat o' nine tails (and birches) from a national stock at Wandsworth prison, where they were to be 'thoroughly' tested before being supplied in triplicate to a prison whenever a flogging was pending for use as prison discipline. In the 20th century, this use was confined to very serious cases involving violence against a prison officer, and each flogging had to be confirmed by central government.\n\nPenal colonies in Australia[edit]\n\nEspecially harsh floggings were given with it in secondary penal colonies of early colonial Australia, particularly at such places as Norfolk Island (apparently this had 9 leather thongs, each with a lead weight, meant as the ultimate deterrent for hardened life-convicts), Port Arthur and Moreton Bay (now Brisbane).[citation needed]\n\nSlavery[edit]\n\nIt was used on slave trade ships to punish the slaves.[citation needed]\n\nModern uses and types[edit]\n\nMain article: Judicial corporal punishment\n\nJudicial corporal punishment was removed from the statute book in Great Britain in 1948. The cat was still being used in Australia in 1957 and is still in use in a few Commonwealth countries, although the cane is used in more countries.\n\nJudicial corporal punishment has been abolished or declared unconstitutional since 1997 in Jamaica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Zambia, Uganda (in 2001) and Fiji (in 2002).\n\nHowever, some former colonies in the Caribbean have reinstated flogging with the cat. Antigua and Barbuda reinstated it in 1990, followed by the Bahamas in 1991 (where, however, it was subsequently banned by law)[10] and Barbados in 1993 (only to be formally declared inhumane and thus unconstitutional by the Barbados Supreme Court).\n\nTrinidad & Tobago never banned the \"Cat\". Under the Corporal Punishment (Offenders over Sixteen) Act 1953, use of the \"Cat\" was limited to male offenders over the age of 16. The age limit was raised in 2000 to 18.\n\nThe Government of Trinidad & Tobago has been accused of torture and \"cruel, inhuman and degrading\" treatment of prisoners, and in 2005 was ordered by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights to pay US $50,000 for \"moral damages\" to a prisoner who had received 15 strokes of the \"Cat\" plus expenses for his medical and psychological care; it is unclear whether the Court's decisions were implemented. Trinidad & Tobago did not acknowledge the Court's jurisdiction, since it had denounced the American Convention on Human Rights several years before the Court started hearing this case.[11]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Cat o' nine tails.\n  \u2022 Flagellation\n  \u2022 Judicial corporal punishment\n  \u2022 Physical punishment (includes comparison of disciplinary implements)\n  \u2022 Scourge\n  \u2022 Tawse\n  \u2022 Whip\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ William Congreve's love for love and first mention of cat o nine tails see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben.\n  2. Jump up ^ Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Egypt: 2001, U.S. State Department.\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793-1815. Naval Institute Press. p.\u00a0218. ISBN\u00a09781591146124.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Rodger, N. A. M. (1986). The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p.\u00a0227. ISBN\u00a00870219871.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Humphries, Stephen (1981). Hooligans or Rebels?: An oral history of working-class childhood and youth 1889\u20131939. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN\u00a0978-0-631-12982-0.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Broadside. Crime and Punishment\n  7. Jump up ^ Flogging Round the Fleet[permanent dead link]\n  8. Jump up ^ Fort Henry, Canada.\n  9. Jump up ^ Memorandum to prisons re: Birches and Cats-o'-nine tails, PRO HO 323\/13, National Archives.\n  10. Jump up ^ Bahamas Penal Code Archived 2011-06-15 at the Wayback Machine..\n  11. Jump up ^ Case of Caesar v. Trinidad and Tobago, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of March 11, 2005.\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 William Congreve's Love for Love and the first mention of cat of nine tails in literature see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben\n  \u2022 CORporalPUNishment website \u2013 here an illustrated example among many other articles, mainly on the adult cat\n  \u2022 EtymologyOnLine\n  \u2022 Joseph W. Bean, Flogging, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN\u00a01-890159-27-1.\n  \u2022 Male Genitorture on Wipipedia, a specialist BDSM wiki.\n  \u2022 Ecstagony- Dictionary of flogging instruments, with some illustrations\n  \u2022 Article and downloadable pdf file on corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago by Harvard Law School\n  \u2022 Inter-American Court of Human Rights orders Trinidad to pay compensation for flogging and humiliation of prisoners in March 2005\n  \u2022 Amnesty International report on use of the Cat o' nine tails on 6 Oct. 2006 in Bahamas\n  \u2022 Amnesty International report recording use of Cat o' nine tails on woman and young boy in Trinidad\n  \u2022 Inter-American Court of Human Rights' decisions and documents\n  \u2022 Use of Cat o' nine tails on World Corporal Punishment Topics site\n  \u2022 Judicial caning in Fiji in 1998\n  \u2022 Review of Lord Invader's calypso album of 1959\n  \u2022 Play sample of Lord Invader's calypso \"Cat o' nine tails\" here\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Cat_o%27_nine_tails&oldid=815325631\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Whips\n  \u2022 Corporal punishments\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from August 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 14 December 2017, at 05:11.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8254908067261800093","title":"St. Francis Preparatory School","text":"St. Francis Preparatory School\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nSt. Francis Prep\nFrancis Prep shady jeh.jpg\nAddress\n6100 Francis Lewis Boulevard\nNew York City (Fresh Meadows, Queens), New York 11365\nUnited States\nCoordinates 40\u00b044\u203232\u2033N 73\u00b046\u203234\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff40.74222\u00b0N 73.77611\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 40.74222; -73.77611\nInformation\nType Private\nMotto Deus Meus et Omnia\n(My God and My All)\nReligious affiliation(s) Roman Catholic\nEstablished 1858\nOversight Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn\nPresident Leonard Conway\nPrincipal Patrick McLaughlin '73\nFaculty 137\nGrades 9\u201312\nGender Coeducational\nEnrollment 2750[1]\u00a0(2008)\nAverage class size 30\nColor(s) Red and Blue \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\nFight song On For Ol' St Francis\nMascot Terrier\nNickname Prep\nTeam name Terriers\nRival Holy Cross High School (Flushing) (BOYS) and Mary Louis (GIRLS)\nAccreditation Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools[2]\nPublication The Little Portion Literary Magazine\nNewspaper The Seraph\nYearbook San Fran\nTuition $9,550\nWebsite http:\/\/www.sfponline.org\/\n\nSt. Francis Preparatory School, commonly known as St. Francis Prep, is a private, independent Catholic college preparatory school in the Fresh Meadows neighborhood of the New York City Borough of Queens, in the State of New York. It is the largest non-diocesan Catholic high school in the United States.[3] St. Francis is run by the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn, who maintain a residence on the top floor of the school. The school has a student body of about 2,750 students and graduates between 600 and 700 students annually.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Co-curricular activities and athletics\n  \u2022 3 Notable alumni\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nSt. Francis Preparatory originated as St. Francis Academy, a small all-boys high school on 300 Baltic Street in Brooklyn, New York, founded by the Franciscans Brothers of Brooklyn (O.S.F.).[3] The college section became St. Francis College, a private predominantly undergraduate college in Brooklyn Heights. It took its current name in 1935, then moved to a larger facility in Williamsburg, Brooklyn in 1952.[4] The school moved to its current location in Fresh Meadows, Queens in 1974 when it acquired the facility that formerly housed Bishop Reilly High School, a co-educational Catholic high school. The school began admitting female students that same year.[4] A fitness center was added recently and the science labs are being updated.[citation needed] There are currently plans to add a three-story addition to the rear of the existing building.[citation needed] The upgrades to the art rooms will support students in the studio, digital and the performing arts.[5]\n\nCo-curricular activities and athletics[edit]\n\nSt. Francis Prep has a rivalry with Holy Cross High School, fueled particularly by their football teams. Known as the \"Battle of the Boulevard\" due to the two schools being located only 2 miles apart on Francis Lewis Boulevard,[6] the rivalry between the Prep Terriers and the Holy Cross Knights has been called \"arguably the greatest rivalry in New York City football.\"[7]\n\nThe St. Francis Prep girls tennis team has been undefeated for 17 consecutive years, making them 17 time CHSAA champions.[citation needed] In 2015 the St. Francis Prep Varsity Handball team won their 13th consecutive CHSAA championship (with an undefeated season).[citation needed]\n\nNotable alumni[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Ted Alexandro, stand-up comedian\n  \u2022 Frank J. Aquila, corporate lawyer\n  \u2022 Marco Battaglia, NFL football player\n  \u2022 Michelle Betos, NWSL goalkeeper\n  \u2022 Des Bishop, stand-up comedian\n  \u2022 Vincent DePaul Breen, former Bishop of Diocese of Metuchen\n  \u2022 Patti Ann Browne, news anchor for the Fox News Channel[8]\n  \u2022 Julie Chen, news anchor for CBS and hostess of reality show Big Brother[9]\n  \u2022 Carlos Dengler, former bassist of band Interpol\n  \u2022 Gerry DiNardo, former college football coach and current Big Ten Network commentator\n  \u2022 James Dooley, Emmy Award-winning composer\n  \u2022 Sonny Dove (1963), college and NBA basketball player, fourth pick of 1967 NBA draft\n  \u2022 Peter Facinelli, actor[10]\n  \u2022 Kyle Flood, Rutgers University head football coach.\n  \u2022 Eric Gioia, New York City councilman[11]\n  \u2022 Dan Henning, NFL football player and coach[12]\n  \u2022 Ed Jenkins, NFL football player\n  \u2022 Vince Lombardi, former Green Bay Packers coach and namesake of the Lombardi Award and the Vince Lombardi Trophy[13]\n  \u2022 Glen Mazzara, writer and television producer\n  \u2022 Bill Pickel, NFL football player and sports broadcaster\n  \u2022 Frank Serpico, New York police officer known for uncovering corruption[14]\n  \u2022 Father Robert S. Smith, American Catholic priest, author, and educator\n  \u2022 Joe Torre, former MLB player, former New York Mets, Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals, New York Yankees and Los Angeles Dodgers manager [15]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"St. Francis Preparatory School Online\". Sfponline.org. Retrieved 2009-12-04.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ MSA-CSS. \"MSA-Commission on Secondary Schools\". Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2009-05-27.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Gustafson, Anna (November 28, 2008). \"Students, Faculty Reflect on 150 Years of St. Francis Prep\". The New York Daily News.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"About St. Francis Preparatory School\". SFPonline.org.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Rhoades, Liz (December 4, 2008). \"St. Francis Prep readies building expansion plan\". Queens Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-01-13.\u00a0[dead link]\n  6. Jump up ^ Samuel, Ebenezer (October 7, 2008). \"St. Francis Prep Cruises Past Holy Cross in Battle of the Boulevard\". The New York Daily News.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Live Blog: Holy Cross-St. Francis Prep Football\". Five Boro Sports.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Patti Ann Browne '83\". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"JackMyersLunchAtMichaels.com - CBS' Julie Chen: Unique Blend of Cultural Influences Motivates Big Brother Host\". JackMyers.com. September 21, 2007. Retrieved 2009-01-13.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Peter Facinelli's Twitter account\". December 16, 2009. Retrieved December 17, 2009.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"New York City Council: District 26 - Eric N. Gioia\". New York City Council. Retrieved 3 December 2009.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Dan Henning - Miami Dolphins\". Miami Dolphins official site. Retrieved 7 February 2010.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Hall of Famers: Vince Lombardi\". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Retrieved 7 February 2010.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Frank Serpico '54\". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Newell, Kevin. \"The Joe Torre Story\". Scholastic Corporation. Retrieved 2009-01-07.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 School website\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRoman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn\nBishops\nOrdinaries\nJohn Loughlin\nCharles Edward McDonnell\nThomas Edmund Molloy\nBryan Joseph McEntegart\nFrancis Mugavero\nThomas Vose Daily\nNicholas Anthony DiMarzio\nAuxiliary bishops\nGerald Barbarito\nAnthony Bevilacqua\nJohn Joseph Boardman\nFrank Joseph Caggiano\nIgnatius Anthony Catanello\nRaymond Francis Chappetto\nOctavio Cisneros\nJoseph Peter Michael Denning\nRaymond Augustine Kearney\nCharles Richard Mulrooney\nGeorge Mundelein\nEdmund Joseph Reilly\nPaul Robert Sanchez\nGuy Sansaricq\nJohn J. Snyder\nJoseph Michael Sullivan\nRen\u00e9 Arnold Valero\nBishops who served as priests in the diocese\nVincent DePaul Breen\nEdward Bernard Scharfenberger\nRoman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn.svg\nChurches\nCathedral\nCathedral Basilica of St. James, Brooklyn\nCo-Cathedral\nCo-Cathedral of St. Joseph, Brooklyn\nBasilicas\nBasilica of Our Lady of Perpetual Help, Brooklyn\nBasilica of Regina Pacis, Brooklyn\nParishes\nChurch of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Blaise, Brooklyn\nChurch of the Holy Innocents, Brooklyn\nHoly Cross Church, Queens\nOur Lady of the Miraculous Medal, Queens\nOur Lady of Victory Church, Brooklyn\nQueen of All Saints Church, Brooklyn\nSt. Adalbert, Queens\nSt. Barbara's Church, Brooklyn\nSaint Benedict Joseph Labre Church, Queens\nSaint Cecilia's Catholic Church, Brooklyn\nSt. Michael's Church, Brooklyn\nSt. Sebastian Church, Queens\nSt. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Queens\nTransfiguration, Queens\nFormer parishes\nChurch of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary,Brooklyn\nSt. Blaise's Church, Brooklyn\nSt. Monica's Church, Queens\nEducation\nSeminary\nCathedral Preparatory School and Seminary, Queens\nHigh schools, Brooklyn (Diocese and independent)\nBishop Kearney High School\nBishop Loughlin Memorial High School\nCristo Rey Brooklyn High School\nFontbonne Hall Academy\nNazareth Regional High School\nSt. Edmund Preparatory High School\nSt. Joseph High School\nSaint Saviour High School of Brooklyn\nXaverian High School\nHigh schools, Queens (Diocese and independent)\nArchbishop Molloy High School\nCathedral Preparatory School and Seminary\nChrist the King Regional High School\nHoly Cross High School\nMonsignor McClancy Memorial High School\nSt. Agnes High School\nSt. Francis Preparatory School\nSt. John's Preparatory School\nThe Mary Louis Academy\nHigh schools, former\nBishop Ford Central Catholic High School, Brooklyn\nMiscellany\nOther\nDeMarco v. Holy Cross High School\nMichael Himes\nHoly Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn\nNew Evangelization Television\nSt. Charles Cemetery\nSt. Vincent's Catholic Medical Center\nThe Tablet\n  \u2022 046CupolaSPietro.jpg Catholicism portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=St._Francis_Preparatory_School&oldid=818198360\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Private high schools in Queens, New York\n  \u2022 Preparatory schools in New York (state)\n  \u2022 Catholic secondary schools in New York (state)\n  \u2022 Educational institutions established in 1858\n  \u2022 Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn\n  \u2022 Franciscan high schools\n  \u2022 1858 establishments in New York (state)\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from May 2016\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 2 January 2018, at 05:04.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-4194757510770521437","title":"History of the People's Republic of China","text":"History of the People's Republic of China\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nHistory of the People's\nRepublic of China (PRC)\nNational emblem of the People's Republic of China\n1949\u20131976\nMao era\n  \u2022 Revolution\n  \u2022 Korean War\n  \u2022 Killings of landlords\n  \u2022 Zhen Fan\n  \u2022 Three-anti\/five-anti campaigns\n  \u2022 Hundred Flowers Campaign\n  \u2022 Anti-Rightist Campaign\nGreat Leap Forward\n(Great Chinese Famine)\nCultural Revolution\n  \u2022 (Lin Biao\n  \u2022 Gang of Four\n  \u2022 Tiananmen Incident)\n1976\u20131989\nRestructuring\n  \u2022 Economic reform\n  \u2022 Sino-Vietnamese War\n  \u2022 Beijing Spring\n  \u2022 Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign\n  \u2022 Tiananmen protests\n1989\u20132002\nRising power\nOne country, two systems\n  \u2022 (Hong Kong\n  \u2022 Macau)\n  \u2022 Chinese reunification\n2002\u2013present\u00a0\nRecent history\n  \u2022 Sichuan earthquake\n  \u2022 Beijing Olympics\n  \u2022 Shanghai 2010 Expo\n  \u2022 Wang Lijun incident\n  \u2022 2015 China Victory Day Parade\n  \u2022 Anti-corruption campaign\n    after the 18th Party Congress\nHistory of\n  \u2022 China\n  \u2022 PRC constitution\n  \u2022 Beijing\n  \u2022 Shanghai\nGenerations of leadership\n  \u2022 1.\u00a0Mao\n  \u2022 2.\u00a0Deng\n  \u2022 3.\u00a0Jiang\n  \u2022 4.\u00a0Hu\n  \u2022 5.\u00a0Xi\n  \u2022 Culture\n  \u2022 Economy\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Geography\n  \u2022 Politics\nFlag of the People's Republic of China.svg China portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of China\nHistory of China\nANCIENT\nNeolithic c. 8500 \u2013 c. 2070 BCE\nXia dynasty c. 2070 \u2013 c. 1600 BCE\nShang dynasty c. 1600 \u2013 c. 1046 BCE\nZhou dynasty c. 1046 \u2013 256 BCE\n\u00a0Western Zhou\n\u00a0Eastern Zhou\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Spring and Autumn\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Warring States\nIMPERIAL\nQin dynasty 221\u2013206 BCE\nHan dynasty 206 BCE \u2013 220 CE\n\u00a0 Western Han\n\u00a0 Xin dynasty\n\u00a0 Eastern Han\nThree Kingdoms 220\u2013280\n\u00a0 Wei, Shu and Wu\nJin dynasty 265\u2013420\n\u00a0 Western Jin\n\u00a0 Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms\nNorthern and Southern dynasties\n420\u2013589\nSui dynasty 581\u2013618\nTang dynasty 618\u2013907\n\u00a0 (Second Zhou dynasty 690\u2013705)\nFive Dynasties and\nTen Kingdoms\n\n907\u2013960\nLiao dynasty\n907\u20131125\nSong dynasty\n960\u20131279\n\u00a0 Northern Song Western Xia\n\u00a0 Southern Song Jin\nYuan dynasty 1271\u20131368\nMing dynasty 1368\u20131644\nQing dynasty 1644\u20131912\nMODERN\nRepublic of China 1912\u20131949\nPeople's Republic of China 1949\u2013present\n[show]\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Chinese historiography\n  \u2022 Timeline of Chinese history\n  \u2022 Dynasties in Chinese history\n  \u2022 Linguistic history\n  \u2022 Art history\n  \u2022 Economic history\n  \u2022 Education history\n  \u2022 Science and technology history\n  \u2022 Legal history\n  \u2022 Media history\n  \u2022 Military history\n  \u2022 Naval history\n  \u2022 view\n  \u2022 talk\n  \u2022 edit\n\nThe history of the People's Republic of China details the history of mainland China since October 1, 1949, when, after a near complete victory by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the Chinese Civil War, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) from atop Tiananmen. The PRC has for several decades been synonymous with China, but it is only the most recent political entity to govern mainland China, preceded by the Republic of China (ROC) and thousands of years of imperial dynasties.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 1949\u20131976: Socialist transformation under Mao Zedong\n  \u2022 2 1976\u20131989: Rise of Deng Xiaoping and economic reforms\n  \u2022 3 1989\u20132002: Economic growth under the third generation\n  \u2022 4 2002\u2013present\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 Further reading\n    \u2022 7.1 Historiography\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\n1949\u20131976: Socialist transformation under Mao Zedong[edit]\n\nMain article: History of the People's Republic of China (1949\u20131976)\n\nFollowing the Chinese Civil War and the victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Mao's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms. China's old system of landlord ownership of farmland and tenant peasants was replaced with a distribution system in favor of poor\/landless peasants which significantly reduced economic inequality. Over a million landlords were executed.[1] In Zhangzhuangcun, in the more thoroughly reformed north of the country, most \"landlords\" and \"rich peasants\" had lost all their land and often their lives or had fled. All formerly landless workers had received land, which eliminated this category altogether. As a result, \"middling peasants,\" who now accounted for 90 percent of the village population, owned 90.8 percent of the land.[2] Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis on class struggle, and in 1953 began various campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants, including the execution of more powerful landlords. Drug trafficking in the country as well as foreign investment were largely wiped out.\n\nMao believed that socialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following the First Five-Year Plan based on a Soviet-style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of the Great Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process of collectivization in rural areas. Mao urged the use of communally organized iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilization, the Great Leap Forward.\n\nThe implementation of Maoist thought in China may have been responsible for over 40-70 million deaths including famine during peacetime[3], with the Great Leap Forward, Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957-58,[4] and the Cultural Revolution. Millions died from both executions and forced labour. Because of Mao's land reforms during the Great Leap Forward, which resulted in massive famines, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961 the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition.[5] Active campaigns, including party purges and \"reeducation\" resulted in the imprisonment or execution of those deemed to hold views contrary to Maoist ideals.[6] Mao's failure with the Leap reduced his power in government, whose administrative duties fell to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.\n\nTo impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of \"old elements\", and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Red Guards terrorized the streets as many ordinary citizens were deemed counter-revolutionaries. Education and public transportation came to a nearly complete halt. Daily life involved shouting slogans and reciting Mao quotations. Many prominent political leaders, including Liu and Deng, were purged and deemed \"capitalist-roaders\". The campaign would not come to a complete end until the death of Mao in 1976.\n\nSupporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and sovereignty was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, education (only 20% of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5% thirty years later)[7], which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. They also claimed that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and \"purifying\" its culture. Others[who?] claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a \"clean slate\" on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters often also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns, attributing the high death toll to natural disasters, famine, or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai-shek.\n\n1976\u20131989: Rise of Deng Xiaoping and economic reforms[edit]\n\nMain article: History of the People's Republic of China (1976\u20131989)\n\nMao Zedong's death was followed by a power struggle between the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, and eventually Deng Xiaoping. Deng would maneuver himself to the top of China's leadership by 1980. At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road to Economic Reforms and Openness (\u6539\u9769\u5f00\u653e Gaige Kaifang), policies that began with the de-collectivization of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a \"preliminary assessment\" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman Ye Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution \"an appalling catastrophe\" and \"the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949].\"[8] The Chinese government's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. This stated that \"Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the \"cultural revolution\", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary.\"[9]\n\nOn the subject of Mao's legacy Deng coined the famous phrase \"7 parts good, 3 parts bad\" and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. Deng championed the idea of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), areas where foreign investment would be allowed to pour in without strict government restraint and regulations, running on a basically capitalist system. Deng laid emphasis on light industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries.\n\nSupporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms.\n\nAlthough standards of living improved significantly in the 1980s, Deng's reforms were not without criticism. Hard-liners asserted that Deng opened China once again to various social evils, and an overall increase in materialistic thinking, while liberals attacked Deng's unrelenting stance on political reform. Liberal forces began gathering in different forms to protest against the Party's authoritarian leadership. In 1989, the death of Hu Yaobang, a liberal figure, triggered weeks of spontaneous protests in the Tiananmen Square. The government imposed martial law and sent in tanks and soldiers to suppress the demonstrations. Western countries and multilateral organizations briefly suspended their formal ties with China's government under Premier Li Peng's leadership, which was directly responsible for the military curfew and bloody crackdown.\n\nCritics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently, they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and even as talismans. However, the path of modernization and market-oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms.\n\nIn 1979, the Chinese government instituted a one child policy to try to control its rapidly increasing population. The controversial policy resulted in a dramatic decrease in child poverty. The law currently applies to about a third of mainland Chinese, with plans in place to ease it to a two-child limit.[10][11]\n\nThe achievements of Lee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. They made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.[12]\n\n1989\u20132002: Economic growth under the third generation[edit]\n\nMain article: History of the People's Republic of China (1989\u20132002)\n\nAfter the events at Tiananmen, Deng Xiaoping retired from public view. While keeping ultimate control, power was passed onto the third generation of leadership led by Jiang Zemin, who was hailed as its \"core\". Economic growth, despite foreign trade embargoes, returned to a fast pace by the mid-1990s. Jiang's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng's vision for \"Socialism with Chinese Characteristics\". At the same time, Jiang's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitable SOE's were closed to make way for more competitive ventures, internally and abroad. The ill-equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test. Jiang also laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such as space exploration. To sustain vast human consumption, the Three Gorges Dam was built, attracting supporters and widespread criticism. Environmental pollution became a very serious problem as Beijing was frequently hit by sandstorms as a result of desertification.\n\nThe 1990s saw two foreign colonies returned to China, Hong Kong from Britain in 1997, and Macau from Portugal in 1999. Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems.\n\nJiang and President Clinton exchanged state visits, but Sino-American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade. On May 7, 1999, during the Kosovo War, US aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The U.S. government claimed the strike was due to bad intelligence and false target identification.\n\nInside the US, the Cox Report stated that China had been stealing various top US military secrets.\n\nIn 2001, a US surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet over international waters near Hainan, inciting further outrage with the Chinese public, already dissatisfied with the US.\n\nOn the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of public Falun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside of Zhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China's leaders. Jiang saw it as threatening to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using the mass media to denounce it as an evil cult.\n\nConversely, Premier Zhu Rongji's economic policies held China's economy strong during the Asian Financial Crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8% annually, pushed back by the 1998 Yangtze River Floods. After a decade of talks, China was finally admitted into the World Trade Organization. Standards of living improved significantly, although a wide urban-rural wealth gap was opened, as China saw the reappearance of the middle class. Wealth disparity between East and the Western hinterlands continued to widen by the day, prompting government programs to \"develop the West\", taking on such ambitious projects such as the Qinghai-Tibet Railway. The burden of education was greater than ever. Rampant corruption continued despite Premier Zhu's anti-corruption campaign that executed many officials.\n\n2002\u2013present[edit]\n\nMain article: History of the People's Republic of China (2002\u2013present)\n\nThe first major issue faced by China in the 21st century as a new generation of leaders led by Hu Jintao after assuming power was the public health crisis involving SARS, an illness that seemed to have originated out of Guangdong province. China's position in the war on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to the United States. The economy continues to grow in double-digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In gradual steps to consolidate his power, Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party Chief Chen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerful Shanghai clique. The assertion of the Scientific Perspective to create a Socialist Harmonious Society is the focus of the Hu-Wen administration, as some Jiang-era excesses are slowly reversed. In the years after Hu's rise to power, respect of basic human rights in China continue to be a source of concern.\n\nThe political status and future of Taiwan remain uncertain, but steps have been taken to improving relations between the Communist Party and several of Taiwan's parties that hold a less antagonistic view towards China, notably former rival Kuomintang.\n\nThe continued economic growth of the country as well as its sporting power status gained China the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. However, this also put Hu's administration under intense spotlight. While the 2008 Olympic was commonly understood to be a come-out party for People's Republic of China, in light of the March 2008 Tibet protests, the government received heavy scrutiny. The Olympic torch was met with protest en route. Within the country these reactions were met with a fervent wave of nationalism with accusations of Western bias against China.\n\nIn May 2008, a massive earthquake registering 8.0 on the Richter scale hit Sichuan province of China, exacting a death toll officially estimated at approximately 70,000. The government responded more quickly than it did with previous events, and has allowed foreign media access to the regions that were hit the hardest. The adequacy of the government response was generally praised, and the relief efforts extended to every corner of Chinese life. In May and June 2008, heavy rains in southern China caused severe flooding in the provinces of Anhui, Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong, with dozens of fatalities and over a million people forced to evacuate. As of 2009 China has increased its internet monitoring capabilities by adding hundreds of new monitoring stations.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 History of China\n  \u2022 History of the Republic of China\n  \u2022 History of Hong Kong\n  \u2022 History of Macau\n  \u2022 Dynasties in Chinese History\n  \u2022 Economic History of China\n  \u2022 Historiography of China\n  \u2022 History of Chinese Art\n  \u2022 History of Education in China\n  \u2022 History of Science and Technology in China\n  \u2022 Legal History of China\n  \u2022 Linguistic History of China\n  \u2022 Military history of China\n  \u2022 Naval History of China\n  \u2022 Timeline of Chinese history\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Stephen Rosskamm Shalom. Deaths in China Due to Communism. Center for Asian Studies Arizona State University, 1984. ISBN\u00a00-939252-11-2 pg 24\n  2. Jump up ^ The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century , Walter Scheidel, 2017\n  3. Jump up ^ Fenby, J (2008). Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present. Ecco Press. p.\u00a0351. ISBN\u00a00-06-166116-3. Mao's responsibility for the extinction of anywhere from 40 to 70 million lives brands him as a mass killer greater than Hitler or Stalin, his indifference to the suffering and the loss of humans breathtaking\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Teiwes, Frederick C., and Warren Sun. 1999. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of the great leap forward, 1955-1959. Contemporary China papers. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. pp 52-55.\n  5. Jump up ^ MacFarquhar, Roderick. 1974. The origins of the Cultural Revolution. London: Published for Royal Institute of International Affairs, East Asian Institute of Columbia University and Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia by Oxford University Press. p 4.\n  6. Jump up ^ Link, Perry (July 18, 2007). \"Legacy Of a Maoist Injustice\". The Washington Post.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Galtung, Marte Kj\u00e6r; Stenslie, Stig (2014). 49 Myths about China. Rowman & Littlefield. p.\u00a0189. ISBN\u00a0978-1442236226.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Poon, Leon. \"The People's Republic Of China: IV\". History of China. Retrieved April 4, 2010.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (June 27, 1981). \"Comrade Mao Zedong's Historical Role and Mao Zedong Thought --Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China (abridged)\". Communist Party of China. Retrieved April 14, 2010.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Malcolm Moore (15 November 2013). \"China to ease one-child policy\". Telegraph. Retrieved 26 December 2013.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"China's two-child policy will underwhelm\". The Economist. 31 October 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Chris Buckley, \"In Lee Kuan Yew, China Saw a Leader to Emulate,\" New York Times March 23, 2015\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Lynch, Michael. Access to History: Mao's China 1936-97 (3rd ed. Hachette UK, 2015)\n\nHistoriography[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Eben V. Racknitz, Ines. \"Repositioning History for the Future - Recent Academic Debates in China\" History Compass (2014) 12#6 pp 465\u2013472.\n  \u2022 Finnane, Antonia. \"Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing.\" Asian Studies Review 39#1 (2015): 163-164.\n  \u2022 Longxi, Zhang. \"Re-conceptualizing China in our Time: From a Chinese Perspective.\" European Review 23#2 (2015): 193-209.\n  \u2022 Unger, Jonathan. Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Routledge, 2015)\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cold War International History Project: Document Collection on China in the Cold War\n  \u2022 \"Rethinking \u2018Capitalist Restoration\u2019 in China\" by Yiching Wu\n  \u2022 Peoples Republic of China by P.M. Calabrese\n  \u2022 China Timeline: A Chronology of Key Events in China by Gerhard K. Heilig\n  \u2022 China from the Inside - 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International and the BBC.\n  \u2022 Map of situation in East Asia at the time of declaration of the People's Republic of China (omniatlas.com)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nChina\u00a0articles\nHistory\n  \u2022 China\n    \u2022 timeline\n  \u2022 Ancient China (outline) (2070\u2013221 BCE)\n  \u2022 Imperial China (221 BCE\u20131911 CE)\n  \u2022 Republic of China (1912\u20131949)\n  \u2022 People's Republic of China\u2212PRC\n    \u2022 PRC 1949\u201376\n    \u2022 PRC 1976\u201389\n    \u2022 PRC 1989\u20132002\n    \u2022 PRC since 2002\n    \u2022 Years in the PRC\n  \u2022 Geography\n  \u2022 Natural environment\nOverviews\n  \u2022 Borders\n  \u2022 Extreme points\n  \u2022 Geology\n  \u2022 Natural disasters\nRegions\n  \u2022 East\n  \u2022 Northeast\n  \u2022 North\n  \u2022 South Central\n    \u2022 Central\n    \u2022 South\n  \u2022 Western\n    \u2022 Northwest\n    \u2022 Southwest\nTerrain\n  \u2022 Bays\n  \u2022 Canyons\n  \u2022 Caves\n  \u2022 Deserts\n  \u2022 Grasslands\n  \u2022 Hills\n  \u2022 Islands\n  \u2022 Mountains\n    \u2022 ranges\n    \u2022 passes\n  \u2022 Peninsulas\n  \u2022 Northeast\u00a0\/ North\u00a0\/ Central Plains\n  \u2022 Valleys\n  \u2022 Volcanoes\nWater\n  \u2022 Canals\n  \u2022 Lakes\n  \u2022 Rivers\n  \u2022 Waterfalls\n  \u2022 Wetlands\n  \u2022 Water resources\nSeas\n  \u2022 Bohai\n  \u2022 Yellow\n  \u2022 East China\n  \u2022 South China\nReserves\n  \u2022 Protected areas\n  \u2022 National parks\n  \u2022 Nature reserves\n  \u2022 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves\nWildlife\n  \u2022 Fauna\n  \u2022 Flora\n  \u2022 Government\n  \u2022 Politics\n  \u2022 Economy\nGovernment\nand politics\n  \u2022 Civil service\n  \u2022 Constitution\n  \u2022 Elections\n  \u2022 Environmental policy\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\n  \u2022 Military (People's Liberation Army)\n  \u2022 National People's Congress\n    \u2022 Standing Committee\n  \u2022 National security\n  \u2022 Political parties and movements\n    \u2022 Communist Party\n      \u2022 General Secretary\n      \u2022 Politburo\n    \u2022 Democratic Parties\n    \u2022 Anti-democratisation\n    \u2022 Pro-democratisation\n  \u2022 President\n    \u2022 Vice President\n  \u2022 State Council\n    \u2022 Premier\n    \u2022 Vice Premier\nAdministrative\ndivisions\n  \u2022 Baseline islands\n  \u2022 Border crossings\n  \u2022 Cities\n  \u2022 Province-level subdivisions\nLaw\n  \u2022 Judicial system\n  \u2022 Human rights\n    \u2022 LGBT\n  \u2022 Law enforcement\n  \u2022 Nationality law\n  \u2022 Penal system\nEconomy\n  \u2022 Agriculture\n  \u2022 Banking\n    \u2022 Central bank\n  \u2022 Economic history\n  \u2022 Energy\n    \u2022 Petroleum industry\n    \u2022 Renewable energy\n  \u2022 Finance system\n  \u2022 Foreign aid received\n  \u2022 Foreign aid program\n  \u2022 Historical GDP\n  \u2022 International rankings\n  \u2022 Poverty\n  \u2022 Reform\n  \u2022 Renminbi (currency)\n  \u2022 Science and technology\n    \u2022 history\n  \u2022 Special Economic Zones (SEZs)\n  \u2022 Standard of living\n  \u2022 Telecommunications\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transport\n    \u2022 airports\n    \u2022 ports and harbors\n  \u2022 People\n  \u2022 Society\n  \u2022 Culture\nPeople\n  \u2022 Demographics\n  \u2022 Emigration\n  \u2022 Ethnic groups\n  \u2022 Internal migration\n  \u2022 Statistics\n  \u2022 Urbanization\nSociety\n  \u2022 Anthem\n  \u2022 Chinese Dream\n  \u2022 Corruption\n  \u2022 Crime\n  \u2022 Emblem\n  \u2022 Education\n    \u2022 universities\n  \u2022 Flag\n  \u2022 \"Generation Y\"\n  \u2022 Harmonious Socialist Society\n  \u2022 HIV\/AIDS\n  \u2022 Intellectualism\n  \u2022 Languages\n  \u2022 Poverty\n  \u2022 Public health\n    \u2022 food safety\n      \u2022 incidents\n  \u2022 Public holidays\n  \u2022 Rural life\n  \u2022 Sexuality\n  \u2022 Socialism with Chinese characteristics\n  \u2022 Social issues\n  \u2022 Social relations\n  \u2022 Social structure\n  \u2022 Social welfare\n  \u2022 Suicide\n  \u2022 Terrorism\n  \u2022 Time zones\n  \u2022 Urban life\n  \u2022 Water supply and sanitation\n  \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Xiaokang (middle-class)\n  \u2022 Primary stage of socialism\nCulture\n  \u2022 Archaeology\n  \u2022 Archives\n  \u2022 Art\n  \u2022 Cinema\n  \u2022 Cuisine\n  \u2022 Dance\n  \u2022 Gardens\n  \u2022 Libraries\n  \u2022 Literature\n  \u2022 Martial arts\n  \u2022 Media\n    \u2022 newspapers\n    \u2022 radio\n    \u2022 television\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Parks\n  \u2022 Philosophy\n  \u2022 Religion\n  \u2022 Smoking\n  \u2022 Sports\n  \u2022 Tea culture\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Variety arts\n  \u2022 World Heritage Sites\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Portal\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of Asia\nSovereign states\n  \u2022 Afghanistan\n  \u2022 Armenia\n  \u2022 Azerbaijan\n  \u2022 Bahrain\n  \u2022 Bangladesh\n  \u2022 Bhutan\n  \u2022 Brunei\n  \u2022 Cambodia\n  \u2022 China\n  \u2022 Cyprus\n  \u2022 East Timor (Timor-Leste)\n  \u2022 Egypt\n  \u2022 Georgia\n  \u2022 India\n  \u2022 Indonesia\n  \u2022 Iran\n  \u2022 Iraq\n  \u2022 Israel\n  \u2022 Japan\n  \u2022 Jordan\n  \u2022 Kazakhstan\n  \u2022 North Korea\n  \u2022 South Korea\n  \u2022 Kuwait\n  \u2022 Kyrgyzstan\n  \u2022 Laos\n  \u2022 Lebanon\n  \u2022 Malaysia\n  \u2022 Maldives\n  \u2022 Mongolia\n  \u2022 Myanmar\n  \u2022 Nepal\n  \u2022 Oman\n  \u2022 Pakistan\n  \u2022 Philippines\n  \u2022 Qatar\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 Singapore\n  \u2022 Sri Lanka\n  \u2022 Syria\n  \u2022 Tajikistan\n  \u2022 Thailand\n  \u2022 Turkey\n  \u2022 Turkmenistan\n  \u2022 United Arab Emirates\n  \u2022 Uzbekistan\n  \u2022 Vietnam\n  \u2022 Yemen\nStates with\nlimited recognition\n  \u2022 Abkhazia\n  \u2022 Artsakh\n  \u2022 Northern Cyprus\n  \u2022 Palestine\n  \u2022 South Ossetia\n  \u2022 Taiwan\nDependencies and\nother territories\n  \u2022 British Indian Ocean Territory\n  \u2022 Christmas Island\n  \u2022 Cocos (Keeling) Islands\n  \u2022 Hong Kong\n  \u2022 Macau\n  \u2022 P history.svgHistory portal\n  \u2022 Flag of the People's Republic of China.svgChina portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China&oldid=830705533\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 History of the People's Republic of China\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from September 2011\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases\n  \u2022 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2014\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiversity\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 16 March 2018, at 13:29.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"9164321463116886443","title":"Cold front","text":"Cold front\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nNot to be confused with Cold wave.\nThe symbol of a cold front: a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel\nA retreating cold front with clear air behind\nA cold front over the eastern and central region of the United States of America\n\nA cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30\u00a0\u00b0C (54\u00a0\u00b0F).[1] When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Development of cold fronts\n  \u2022 2 Clouds\n  \u2022 3 Precipitation\n    \u2022 3.1 Frontogenetical circulation\n  \u2022 4 Temperature changes\n  \u2022 5 Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nDevelopment of cold fronts[edit]\n\nThe cooler and denser air wedges under the less-dense warmer air, lifting it. This upward motion causes lowered pressure along the cold front and can cause the formation of a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms when enough moisture is present. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles\/spikes (pips) pointing in the direction of travel. A cold front's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop off, which in an isotherm analysis would show up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough.[2] Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and can produce sharper changes in weather. Since cold air is denser than warm air, it rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary.[3]\n\nIn the northern hemisphere, a cold front usually causes a shift of wind from southwest to northwest clockwise, also known as veering, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from northwest to southwest (anticlockwise, backing). Normally, cold fronts can be marked by these characteristics:\n\nWeather phenomenon Prior to the passing of the front While the front is passing After the passing of the front\nTemperature Warm Cooling suddenly Steadily cooling\nAtmospheric pressure Decreasing steadily Lowest, then sudden increase Increasing steadily\nWinds\n  \u2022 Southwest to southeast (northern hemisphere)\n  \u2022 Northwest to northeast (southern hemisphere)\nGusty; shifting\n  \u2022 North to west, usually northwest (northern hemisphere)\n  \u2022 South to west, usually southwest (southern hemisphere)\nPrecipitation\/conditions* Light patchy rain can be produced by stratocumulus or stratus in the warm sector. In summer, sometimes thunderstorms if a preceding squall line is present. Prolonged rain (nimbostratus) or thunderstorms (cumulonimbus): depends on conditions. Showers, then clearing\nClouds* Often preceded by cirrus, cirrostratus then altostratus like a warm front (but usually with smaller amounts of these clouds). Areas of cirrocumulus and altocumulus within cirrostratus and altostratus more commonly seen than at a warm front. Larger cumulus clouds under the higher cloud types than at a warm front, where stratocumulus and cumulus humilis usually occur. Some of these cumulus clouds may produce showers ahead of the front. Cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus producing frequent showers, with a sheet of upper altostratus, through which the sun can sometimes be seen. Less commonly nimbostratus occurs with continuous rain. Patchy altocumulus or stratocumulus and higher cirrus clouds along with fast moving stratus fractus then eventually scattered cumulus and sometimes cumulonimbus.\nVisibility* Fair to poor in haze Poor, but improving Good, except in showers\nDew Point High, steady Sudden drop Falling\n\n*provided there is sufficient moisture.\n\nClouds[edit]\n\nIf the cold front is highly unstable, cumulonimbus clouds producing thunderstorms commonly form along the front. Anvil cirrus clouds may spread a considerable distance downwind from the thunderstorms.[4] The other cloud types associated with a cold front depend on atmospheric conditions such as air mass stability and wind shear.[5] As the front approaches, middle-\u00e9tage gives way to altostratus and low-level stratocumulus with intermittent light precipitation if the warm airmass being displaced by the cold front is mostly stable. With significant airmass instability, vertically developed cumulus or cumulonimbus with showers and thunderstorms will form along the front.\n\nAfter the passage of the cold front, the sky usually clears as high pressure builds in behind the system, although significant amounts of cumulus or stratocumulus, often in the form of long bands called cloud streets may persist if the air mass behind the front remains humid.[6] Small and unchanging amounts of cumulus or cirrus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are usually indications of continuing fair weather as long as the barometric pressure remains comparatively high.\n\nPrecipitation[edit]\n\nA cold front as it appeared on the National Weather Service Wichita, Kansas WSR-88D on April 3, 2011. The thin blue line labeled \"cold front\" is the front, with severe thunderstorms seen developing behind the front, which is moving towards the bottom right.\n\nA cold front commonly brings a narrow band of precipitation that follows along the leading edge of the cold front. These bands of precipitation are often very strong,[7] and can bring severe thunderstorms, hailstorms[8] and\/or tornadoes. In the spring, these cold fronts can be very strong, and can bring strong winds when the pressure gradient is higher than normal. During the winter months, cold fronts sometimes come through an area with little or no precipitation. Wider rain bands can occur behind cold fronts which tend to have more stratiform, and less convective, precipitation.[9] These rainstorms sometimes bring flooding, and can move very slowly when the storm steering it is strong and embedded within a meridional flow pattern (with more pole to equator motion rather than west to east motion). In the winter, cold fronts can bring cold spells, and occasionally snow. In the spring or summer in temperate latitudes, hail may occasionally fall along with the rain. If moisture is not sufficient, such as when a system has previously moved across a mountain barrier, cold fronts can pass without cloudiness.\n\nFrontogenetical circulation[edit]\n\nFrontogenesis is the process of creating or steepening the temperature gradient of a front. During this process the atmosphere reacts in an attempt to restore balance, the consequence is a circular motion along the front where air is being lifted up, along the cold front and dropping downward, behind the frontal boundary. This is the actual force of upward motion along a front that is responsible for clouds and precipitation.\n\nAs the temperature gradient steepens during frontogenesis, the thermal wind becomes imbalanced. To maintain balance, the geostrophic wind aloft and below adjust, such that regions of divergence\/convergence form. Mass continuity would require a vertical transport of air along the cold front where there is divergence (lowered pressure). Although this circulation is described by a series of processes, they are actually occurring at the same time, observable along the front as a thermally direct circulation. There are several factors that influence the final shape and tilt of the circulation around the front, ultimately determining the kind and location of clouds and precipitation.[5][10]\n\nTemperature changes[edit]\n\nCold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name \"cold front\". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50\u00a0\u00b0F (30\u00a0\u00b0C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs.[11] The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.\n\nCharacteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone[edit]\n\nOccluded cyclone example. The triple point is the intersection of the cold, warm, and occluded fronts.\n\nCold fronts form when a cooler air mass moves into an area of warmer air in the wake of a developing extratropical cyclone. The warmer air interacts with the cooler air mass along the boundary, and usually produces precipitation. Cold fronts often follow a warm front or squall line. Very commonly, cold fronts have a warm front ahead but with a perpendicular orientation. In areas where cold fronts catch up to the warm front, the occluded front develops. Occluded fronts have an area of warm air aloft. When such a feature forms poleward of an extratropical cyclone, it is known as a trowal, which is short for TRough Of Warm Air aLoft.[12] A cold front is considered a warm front if it begins to retreat ahead of the next extratropical cyclone along the frontal boundary, and called a stationary front if it stalls.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cold wave\n  \u2022 Air mass\n  \u2022 Surface weather analysis\n  \u2022 Texas Norther\n  \u2022 Weather front\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Cold December: 2013\". www.climate.umn.edu. Retrieved 20 January 2018.\n  2. Jump up ^ David Roth (2006-12-14). \"Unified Surface Analysis Manual\" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2012-01-09.\n  3. Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski; Yvette P. Richardson (2011-09-20). Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley and Sons. p.\u00a0120. ISBN\u00a0978-1-119-96667-8. Retrieved 2012-01-09.\n  4. Jump up ^ Lee M. Grenci; Jon M. Nese (2001). A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology: A Text \/ Laboratory Manual (3 ed.). Kendall\/Hunt Publishing Company. pp.\u00a0207\u2013212. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7872-7716-1. OCLC\u00a051160155.\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Preview Text, Holton, James R., 2004: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press, 277 pp.\n  6. Jump up ^ Weston, K. J. (1980). \"An observational study of convective cloud streets\". Tellus. 32 (5): 433. doi:10.1111\/j.2153-3490.1980.tb00970.x.\n  7. Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.\n  8. Jump up ^ Schemm, S.; L. Nisi, A. Martinov; D. Leuenberg & O. Martius (2016). \"On the link between cold fronts and hail in Switzerland\". Atmospheric Science Letters. 17 (5): 315\u2013325. doi:10.1002\/asl.660.\n  9. Jump up ^ K. A. Browning and Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global Energy and Water Cycles. Retrieved on 2008-12-26.\n  10. Jump up ^ Preview Text, Carlson, Toby N., 1991: Mid-Latitude Weather Systems. HarperCollins, 435 pp.\n  11. Jump up ^ Nav Canada (January 2005). Aviation Weather Services Guide. p.\u00a036.\n  12. Jump up ^ St. Louis University (2003-08-04). \"What is a TROWAL? via the Internet Wayback Machine\". Archived from the original on 2006-09-16. Retrieved 2006-11-02.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Cold Front: transition zone from warm air to cold air\n  \u2022 Weather Fronts\n  \u2022 Fronts: the boundaries between air masses\n  \u2022 Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpegWeather portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Cold_front&oldid=861609294\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Weather fronts\n  \u2022 Cold\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u5434\u8bed\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 September 2018, at 17:37\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1647823572457592548","title":"Take That Look Off Your Face","text":"Take That Look Off Your Face\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"Take That Look Off Your Face\"\nTake that Look off.jpg\nSingle by Marti Webb\nfrom the album Tell Me on a Sunday\nB-side \"Sheldon Bloom\"\nReleased January 1980\nFormat 7\" single\nRecorded 1979\nGenre Pop, MOR, Theatrical\nLength 3:27\nLabel Polydor\nSongwriter(s) Andrew Lloyd Webber, Don Black\nProducer(s) Andrew Lloyd Webber\nMarti Webb singles chronology\n\"D-Darling\"\n(1973)\n\"Take That Look Off Your Face\"\n(1980)\n\"Tell Me on a Sunday\"\n(1980)\n\"D-Darling\"\n(1973)\n\"Take That Look Off Your Face\"\n(1980)\n\"Tell Me on a Sunday\"\n(1980)\n\n\"Take That Look Off Your Face\" is the title of a hit song by musical theatre composer Andrew Lloyd Webber. Collaborating with lyricist Don Black, it was written for the song cycle show Tell Me on a Sunday in 1978. It was sung and released by Marti Webb in 1980, and became a No.3 hit in the UK charts. The song was also popular in Ireland, and spent six weeks at number one. Later, Tell Me on a Sunday was combined with another Lloyd Webber work, Variations, to form an entire new show, Song and Dance.\n\nThe song is about a woman being told of her boyfriend's infidelity. The woman denies this initially, before rebuking her newsbearer (a girlfriend) with the revelation that she \"knew before\" and had done for some time. She also spends much of the song criticising her friend for rushing to break the \"bad news\" to her.\n\nDespite having been written during the creative process for Tell Me on a Sunday, the song wasn't recorded during the album's principal sessions. Black reminded Lloyd Webber that they had missed a track, then entitled \"You Must Be Mistaken\". John Mole, the bass guitar player, improvised a part reminiscent of the arrangement style of Phil Spector, inspiring the rest of the orchestration. The track was recorded in one take, apart from a double tracking of the orchestra.\n\nA briefer 3:02 edit of the song is included on the album, however, a longer 3:29 version remixed with greater dynamic range compression[citation needed] was released as the single.\n\nTrack listing[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Side A: \"Take That Look Off Your Face\"\n  \u2022 Side B: \"Sheldon Bloom\"\n\nRevisions[edit]\n\nThe lyrics were substantially rewritten by Richard Maltby, Jr for the original Broadway production of Song and Dance. The British productions of the show have always used the lyrics written by Black.\n\nBlack himself amended the line, \"He's doing some deal up in Baltimore now\" after realising that Baltimore is south of New York. In subsequent versions, the song's protagonist is said to be \"down\" in Baltimore.\n\nFor the 2003 production of Tell Me on a Sunday, the storyline instead placed the action in England prior to an emigration to New York, requiring some further revision of the lyrics to reference London instead.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n\nStub icon This 1970s song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Take_That_Look_Off_Your_Face&oldid=840686528\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Songs from musicals\n  \u2022 Songs with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber\n  \u2022 Songs with lyrics by Don Black (lyricist)\n  \u2022 1978 songs\n  \u2022 1980 singles\n  \u2022 1970s song stubs\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018\n  \u2022 All stub articles\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 11 May 2018, at 13:54.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4399451317010923095","title":"Percy Fawcett","text":"Percy Fawcett\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nPercy Fawcett\nPercyFawcett.jpg\nFawcett in 1911\nBorn Percival Harrison Fawcett\n(1867-08-18)18 August 1867\nTorquay, Devon, United Kingdom\nDisappeared 29 May 1925 (aged\u00a057)\nMato Grosso, Brazil\nOccupation Artillery officer, archaeologist, explorer\nMilitary career\nAllegiance United Kingdom\nService\/branch British Army\nYears\u00a0of service 1886\u20131910\nc.1914\u20131919\nRank Lieutenant Colonel\nUnit Royal Artillery\nBattles\/wars World War I\nAwards Distinguished Service Order\n3 \u00d7 Mentioned in despatches\n\nLieutenant Colonel Percival Harrison Fawcett DSO (18 August 1867\u00a0\u2013 during or after 1925) was a British geographer, artillery officer, cartographer, archaeologist and explorer of South America. Along with his eldest son, Fawcett disappeared in 1925 during an expedition to find \"Z\" \u2013 his name for an ancient lost city, which he and others believed to exist and to be the remains of El Dorado, in the jungles of Brazil.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Biography\n    \u2022 1.1 Early life\n    \u2022 1.2 Early expeditions\n    \u2022 1.3 Final expedition\n      \u2022 1.3.1 Dead Horse Camp\n  \u2022 2 Posthumous controversy and speculations\n    \u2022 2.1 Rumours and unverified reports\n    \u2022 2.2 Villas-B\u00f4as story\n    \u2022 2.3 Fawcett's Bones\n    \u2022 2.4 Russian documentary\n    \u2022 2.5 Commune in the jungle\n    \u2022 2.6 Grann's Lost City of Z\n  \u2022 3 Works\n  \u2022 4 In popular culture\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 Notes\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nBiography[edit]\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nPercy Fawcett was born on 18 August 1867 in Torquay, Devon, England, to Edward Boyd Fawcett and Myra Elizabeth (n\u00e9e MacDougall).[2] He received his education at Newton Abbot Proprietary College along with Bertram Fletcher Robinson. Percy Fawcett's India-born father was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS). His elder brother Edward Douglas Fawcett (1866\u20131960) was a mountain climber, Eastern occultist and author of philosophical books and popular adventure novels.[3]\n\nFawcett attended the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich as a cadet, being commissioned as a lieutenant of the Royal Artillery on 24 July 1886.[4] On 13 January 1896 he was appointed adjutant[5] of the 1st Cornwall (Duke of Cornwall's) Artillery Volunteers,[6] and was promoted to captain on 15 June 1897.[7] He later served in Trincomalee, Ceylon, where he also met his future wife Nina Agnes Paterson, whom he married in January 1901 after having previously ended their engagement. They had two sons, Jack (born 1903) and Brian (1906\u20131984), and one daughter, Joan (1910\u20132005). He joined the RGS himself in 1901 in order to study surveying and mapmaking. Later, he worked for the British Secret Service in North Africa while pursuing the surveyor's craft. He served for the war office on Spike Island, County Cork from 1903 to 1906, where he was promoted to major on 11 January 1905.[8] He became friends with authors H. Rider Haggard and Arthur Conan Doyle; the latter used Fawcett's Amazonian field reports as an inspiration for his novel The Lost World.\n\nEarly expeditions[edit]\n\nFawcett's first expedition to South America was in 1906 (being seconded for service there on 2 May[9]) when at the age of 39 he travelled to Brazil to map a jungle area at the border of Brazil and Bolivia at the behest of the Royal Geographical Society. The Society had been commissioned to map the area as a third party unbiased by local national interests. He arrived in La Paz, Bolivia in June. Whilst on the expedition in 1907, Fawcett claimed to have seen and shot a 62 foot long giant anaconda, a claim for which he was ridiculed by scientists. He reported other mysterious animals unknown to zoology, such as a small cat-like dog about the size of a foxhound, which he claimed to have seen twice, or the giant Apazauca spider which was said to have poisoned a number of locals.[10][11]\n\nFawcett made seven expeditions between 1906 and 1924. He was mostly amicable with the locals through gifts, patience and courteous behaviour. In 1908, he traced the source of the Rio Verde (Brazil) and in 1910 made a journey to Heath River (on the border between Peru and Bolivia) to find its source, having retired from the British army on 19 January.[12] After a 1913 expedition, he supposedly claimed to have seen dogs with double noses. These may have been Double-nosed Andean tiger hounds.[13]\n\nBased on documentary research, Fawcett had by 1914 formulated ideas about a \"lost city\" he named \"Z\" somewhere in the Mato Grosso region of Brazil. He theorized that a complex civilization once existed in the Amazon region and that isolated ruins may have survived.[14] Fawcett also found a document known as Manuscript 512\u00a0(pt), written after explorations made in the sert\u00e3o of the state of Bahia, and housed at the National Library of Rio de Janeiro. It is believed to be by Portuguese bandeirante Jo\u00e3o da Silva Guimar\u00e3es\u00a0(pt), who wrote that in 1753 he'd discovered the ruins of an ancient city that contained arches, a statue, and a temple with hieroglyphics; the city is described in great detail without providing a specific location. This city became a secondary destination for Fawcett, after \"Z\". (See Fawcett's own book Exploration Fawcett.)\n\nAt the beginning of the First World War Fawcett returned to Britain to serve with the Army as a Reserve Officer in the Royal Artillery, volunteering for duty in Flanders, and commanding an artillery brigade despite the fact that he was nearly fifty years of age. He was promoted from major to lieutenant-colonel on 1 March 1918,[15] and received three mentions in despatches from Douglas Haig, in November 1916,[16] November 1917,[17] and November 1918,[18] and was also awarded the Distinguished Service Order in June 1917.[19]\n\nAfter the war Fawcett returned to Brazil to study local wildlife and archaeology. In 1920, he made a solo attempt to search for \"Z\", but ended after suffering from a fever and shooting his pack animal.[14]\n\nFinal expedition[edit]\n\nIn 1925, with funding from a London-based group of financiers known as the Glove,[20] Fawcett returned to Brazil with his eldest son Jack and Jack's best and longtime friend, Raleigh Rimell, for an exploratory expedition to find \"Z\". Fawcett left instructions stating that if the expedition did not return, no rescue expedition should be sent lest the rescuers suffer his fate.\n\nFawcett was a man with years of experience travelling, and had brought equipment such as canned foods, powdered milk, guns, flares, a sextant, and a chronometer. His travel companions were both chosen for their health, ability and loyalty to each other; Fawcett chose only two companions in order to travel lighter and with less notice to native tribes, as some were hostile towards outsiders.\n\nOn 20 April 1925 his final expedition departed from Cuiab\u00e1. In addition to his two principal companions, Fawcett was accompanied by two Brazilian labourers, two horses, eight mules, and a pair of dogs. The last communication from the expedition was on 29 May 1925 when Fawcett wrote, in a letter to his wife delivered by a native runner, that he was ready to go into unexplored territory with only Jack and Raleigh. They were reported to be crossing the Upper Xingu, a southeastern tributary river of the River Amazon. The final letter, written from Dead Horse Camp, gave their location and was generally optimistic.\n\nMany people assumed that local Indians killed them, as several tribes were nearby at the time: the Kalapalos, the last tribe to have seen them, the Arum\u00e1s, Suy\u00e1s, and the Xavantes whose territory they were entering. The Kalapalo have an oral story of the arrival of three explorers which states that the three went east, and after five days the Kalapalo noticed that the group no longer made camp fires. The Kalapalo say that a very violent tribe most likely killed them. However, both of the younger men were lame and ill when last seen, and there is not any proof that they were murdered. It is plausible that they died of natural causes in the Brazilian jungle.\n\nIn 1927, a name-plate of Fawcett was found with an Indian tribe. In June 1933, a theodolite compass belonging to Fawcett was found near the Baciary Indians of Mato Grosso by Colonel Aniceto Botelho. However, the name-plate was from Fawcett's expedition five years earlier and had most likely been given as a gift to the chief of that Indian tribe. The compass was proved to have been left behind before he entered the jungle on his final journey.[21][22][23]\n\nDead Horse Camp[edit]\n\nDead Horse Camp, or Fawcett\u2019s camp, is one of the major camps that Fawcett made on his final journey. This encampment was his last known location.[24]\n\nFrom Dead Horse Camp, Fawcett wrote to his wife about the hardships that he and his companions had faced, his coordinates, his doubts in Raleigh Rimmel, and of his plans for the near future. He concludes his message with, \u201cYou need have no fear of any failure...\u201d[24]\n\nOne question remaining about Dead Horse Camp concerns a discrepancy in the coordinates Fawcett gave for the camp. In the letter to his wife, he wrote: \"Here we are at Dead Horse Camp, latitude 11 degrees 43' South and longitude 54 degrees 35' West, the spot where my horse died in 1920\" (11\u00b043\u2032S 54\u00b035\u2032W\ufeff \/ \ufeff11.717\u00b0S 54.583\u00b0W\ufeff \/ -11.717; -54.583). However, in a report to the North American Newspaper Alliance he gave the coordinates as 13\u00b043\u2032S 54\u00b035\u2032W\ufeff \/ \ufeff13.717\u00b0S 54.583\u00b0W\ufeff \/ -13.717; -54.583.[25]\n\nThe discrepancy may have been a typographical error. However, he may have intentionally concealed the location to prevent others from using his notes to find the lost city.[26] It may have also been an attempt to dissuade any rescue attempts; Fawcett had stated that if he disappeared, no rescue party should be sent because the danger was too great.[25]\n\nPosthumous controversy and speculations[edit]\n\nRumours and unverified reports[edit]\n\nDuring the ensuing decades, various groups mounted several rescue expeditions, without success. They heard only various rumours that could not be verified. In addition to reports that Fawcett had been killed by Indians or wild animals, there was a tale that Fawcett had lost his memory and lived out his life as the chief of a tribe of cannibals.\n\nWhile a fictitious tale estimated that 100 would-be-rescuers died on several expeditions attempting to discover Fawcett's fate[27], the actual toll was only one - a sole man who ventured after him alone.[28] One of the earliest expeditions was commanded by American explorer George Miller Dyott. In 1927 he claimed to have found evidence of Fawcett's death at the hands of the Aloique Indians, but his story was unconvincing. From 1930\u201331, Aloha Wanderwell used her seaplane to try to land on the Amazon River in the Matto Grosso to find him. After an emergency landing and living with the Bororo Tribe for 6 weeks, Aloha and Walter Flew back to Brazil, with no luck. A 1951 expedition unearthed human bones that were found later to be unrelated to Fawcett or his companions.\n\nVillas-B\u00f4as story[edit]\n\nDanish explorer Arne Falk-R\u00f8nne journeyed to the Mato Grosso during the 1960s. In a 1991 book, he wrote that he learned of Fawcett's fate from Orlando Villas-B\u00f4as[29], who had heard it from one of Fawcett's murderers. Allegedly, Fawcett and his companions had a mishap on the river and lost most of the gifts they'd brought along for the Indian tribes. Continuing without gifts was a serious breach of protocol; since the expedition members were all more or less seriously ill at the time, the Kalapalo tribe they encountered decided to kill them. The bodies of Jack Fawcett and Raleigh Rimell were thrown into the river; Colonel Fawcett, considered an old man and therefore distinguished, received a proper burial. Falk-R\u00f8nne visited the Kalapalo tribe and reported that one of the tribesmen confirmed Villas-B\u00f4as's story about how and why Fawcett had been killed.\n\nFawcett's Bones[edit]\n\nIn 1951, Orlando Villas-B\u00f4as, activist for indigenous peoples, supposedly received the actual remaining skeletal bones of Fawcett and had them analysed scientifically. The analysis allegedly confirmed the bones to be Fawcett's, but his son Brian Fawcett (1906\u20131984) refused to accept this. Villas-B\u00f4as claimed that Brian was too interested in making money from books about his father's disappearance. Later scientific analysis confirmed that the bones were not Fawcett's.[30] As of 1965, the bones reportedly rested in a box in the flat of one of the Villas-B\u00f4as brothers in S\u00e3o Paulo.[31]\n\nIn 1998, English explorer Benedict Allen went to talk to the Kalapalo Indians, said by Villas-B\u00f4as to have confessed to having killed the three Fawcett expedition members. An elder of the Kalapalo, Vajuvi, claimed during a filmed BBC interview with Allen that the bones found by Villas-B\u00f4as some 45 years before were not really Fawcett's.[32][33] Vajuvi also denied that his tribe had any part in the Fawcetts' disappearance. No conclusive evidence supports either statement.\n\nRussian documentary[edit]\n\nIn 2003, a Russian documentary film, \"\u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u044c\u0435 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432 \/ \u042d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438 \u0424\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0410\u043c\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\" (The Curse of the Incas' Gold \/ Expedition of Percy Fawcett to the Amazon), was released as a part of the television series \"\u0422\u0430\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430\" (Mysteries of the Century). Among other things, the film emphasizes the recent expedition of Oleg Aliyev to the presumed approximate place of Fawcett's last whereabouts and Aliyev's findings, impressions and presumptions about Fawcett's fate.[34]\n\nCommune in the jungle[edit]\n\nOn 21 March 2004, the British newspaper The Observer reported that television director Misha Williams, who had studied Fawcett's private papers, believed that Fawcett had not intended to return to Britain but rather meant to found a commune in the jungle based on theosophical principles and the worship of his son Jack.[35] Williams explained his research in some detail in the preface to his play AmaZonia, first performed in April 2004.[36]\n\nGrann's Lost City of Z[edit]\n\nMain article: The Lost City of Z (book)\n\nIn 2005, The New Yorker staff writer David Grann visited the Kalapalo tribe and reported that it had apparently preserved an oral history about Fawcett, among the first Europeans the tribe had ever seen. The oral account said that Fawcett and his party had stayed at their village and then left, heading eastward. The Kalapalos warned Fawcett and his companions that if they went that way they would be killed by the \"fierce Indians\" who occupied that territory, but Fawcett insisted on going. The Kalapalos observed smoke from the expedition\u2019s campfire each evening for five days before it disappeared. The Kalapalos said they were sure the fierce Indians had killed them.[14] The article also reports that a monumental civilisation known as Kuhikugu may have actually existed near where Fawcett was searching, as discovered recently by archaeologist Michael Heckenberger and others.[37] Grann's findings are further detailed in his book The Lost City of Z (2009).\n\nWorks[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Fawcett, Percy and Brian Fawcett (1953), Exploration Fawcett, Phoenix Press (2001 reprint), ISBN\u00a01-84212-468-4\n  \u2022 Fawcett, Percy and Brian Fawcett (1953), Lost Trails, Lost Cities, Funk & Wagnalls ASIN B0007DNCV4\n  \u2022 Fawcett, Brian (1958), Ruins in the Sky, Hutchinson of London\n\nIn popular culture[edit]\n\nThis article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances; add references to reliable sources if possible, otherwise delete it. (April 2017)\n  \u2022 Was the subject of an episode of Digging for the Truth.\n  \u2022 Arthur Conan Doyle based his Professor Challenger character partly on Fawcett, and stories of the \"Lost City of Z\" became the basis for his novel The Lost World.[38]\n  \u2022 A contemporary reviewer of Evelyn Waugh's novel A Handful of Dust suggested he may have derived the plot partly from Fawcett's disappearance.[39] The novel's hero vanishes into the Brazilian jungle and is kept prisoner there.\n  \u2022 Fawcett has been proposed as a possible inspiration for Indiana Jones, the fictional archaeologist\/adventurer.[40][41] A fictionalised version of Fawcett aids Jones in the novel Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils.[42])\n  \u2022 Fawcett was a prototype of Percy Foster, fictional explorer in the Russian-language novel The grave of Tame-Tung. There, Foster and his son became obsessed with riches of Indians and were killed by their former friend Raleigh Rimer (based on Raleigh Rimmel) to prevent pillaging.\n  \u2022 According to an article in Comics Scene No. 45, Fawcett was the inspiration of Kent Allard, an alter ego of the Shadow.[32]\n  \u2022 Director Pete Docter named Fawcett as one of the inspirations for the character Charles F. Muntz, the antagonist of the Pixar film Up.\n  \u2022 David Grann's The Lost City of Z was optioned by Brad Pitt's Plan B production company and Paramount Pictures. James Gray directed the film, which stars Charlie Hunnam as Fawcett and was released in April 2017.\n  \u2022 The Cruise of the Condor (1933), one of W. E. Johns' \"Biggles\" stories, is inspired by Fawcett's search for \"Z\".\n  \u2022 Writers Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child mentioned in their books that Percy Fawcett was a great-great uncle of Aloysius Pendergast on his mother\u2019s side.\n  \u2022 The plot of the first episode of the television programme Hooten & the Lady was about the search for Fawcett's camp.\n  \u2022 In Herg\u00e9's adventure of Tintin L'Oreille Cass\u00e9e, Fawcett is believed to be the model for Ridgewell, an explorer disappeared for ten years who has become known as \"the white old man\" a member of the Arumbaya tribe.\n  \u2022 Peter Fleming's book Brazilian Adventure is the story of his part in an expedition to find Fawcett. Fleming's book was first published in 1933. Peter was the brother of Ian who wrote the James Bond books.\n  \u2022 The 2017 Osprey Games Eurogame The Lost Expedition, designed by Peer Sylvester, with artwork by Garen Ewing, is based on Percy Fawcett's expeditions.[43]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Amazon River\n  \u2022 Archaeology\n  \u2022 Explorers\n  \u2022 List of people who disappeared mysteriously\n  \u2022 Paititi\n  \u2022 Aloha Wanderwell\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Heckenberger, Michael J. (2009). \"Lost cities of the Amazon\". Scientific American. 301 (4): 64\u201371.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"E. Douglas Fawcett (1866\u20131960)\". Keverel Chess. 10 August 2011. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Fawcett, E, Douglas\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. 18 January 2017.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"No. 25615\". The London Gazette. 10 August 1886. p.\u00a03855.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"No. 26703\". The London Gazette. 24 January 1896. p.\u00a0424.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"No. 26705\". The London Gazette. 31 January 1896. p.\u00a0589.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"No. 26869\". The London Gazette. 2 July 1897. p.\u00a03635.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"No. 27792\". The London Gazette. 12 May 1905. p.\u00a03426.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"No. 27916\". The London Gazette. 25 May 1906. p.\u00a03657.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Fawcett, P. H. and Fawcett, B. Exploration Fawcett (1953)\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Apazauca spider\". The Great Web of Percy Harrison Fawcett.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"No. 28330\". The London Gazette. 18 January 1910. p.\u00a0434.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Double-nosed dog not to be sniffed at\". BBC News. 10 August 2007.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b c Grann, David (19 September 2005). \"The Lost City of Z\". The New Yorker. Retrieved 23 December 2016.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"No. 31120\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 January 1919. p.\u00a0674.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"No. 29890\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 2 January 1917. p.\u00a0208.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"No. 30421\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 7 December 1917. p.\u00a012912.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"No. 31077\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 17 December 1918. p.\u00a014926.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"No. 30111\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 1 June 1917. pp.\u00a05468\u20135470.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ The London Illustrated News, 22 June 1924\n  21. Jump up ^ Wallechinsky, David; Wallace, Irving (1981). \"History of the Search for Percy H. Fawcett, Part 2\". Trivia-Library.com.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Cummins, Geraldine (March 1985). The Fate of Colonel Fawcett. Health Research Books. p.\u00a014. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7873-0230-6.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Basso, Ellen B. (22 July 2010). The Last Cannibals: A South American Oral History. University of Texas Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-292-79206-7.\u00a0\n  24. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Colonel Fawcett's Last Words\". Colonel Percy Fawcett's Search For the Lost city of Z. Archived from the original on 28 September 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2011.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Dead Horse Camp (Fawcett's Camp)\". The Great Web of Percy Harrison Fawcett. Retrieved 9 June 2011.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"The Continuing Chronicles of Colonel Fawcett\". Retrieved 9 June 2011.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Grann, David (2010). The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon. New York: Vintage Books. p.\u00a0273. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4000-7845-5.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Hemming, John (1 April 2017). \"The Lost City of Z is a very long way from a true story and I should know\". The Spectator.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Falk-R\u00f8nne, Arne (2017-03-16). Dr. Klapperslange (in Danish). Lindhardt og Ringhof. ISBN\u00a09788711714096.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ The upper jaw provides the clearest possible evidence that these human remains were not those of Colonel Fawcett, whose spare upper denture is fortunately available for comparison. Royal Anthropological Institute (London) (1951) \"Report on the human remains from Brazil\" as quoted by Grann (2009) p. 253\n  31. Jump up ^ \"1953 COL. FAWCETT PERU BOLIVIA BRAZIL SOUTH AMERICA LOST EXPEDITION EL DORADO\". eBay. Retrieved 2017-07-21.\u00a0\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b Orcutt, Larry (2000). \"Colonel Percy Harrison Fawcett\".\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Vajuvi said that they were the bones of his grandfather, Mugikia.\" Grann (2009) pp. 252\u2013253\n  34. Jump up ^ \"\u0422\u0430\u0439\u043d\u044b \u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u042d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u044f \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438 \u0424\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u0410\u043c\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443.\" [Secrets of the century. The curse of the Inca gold. Expedition of Percy Fosset to the Amazon.]. Filmix.net (in Russian). 2011.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Thorpe, Vanessa (21 March 2004). \"Veil lifts on jungle mystery of the Colonel who vanished\". The Observer.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Williams, Misha. AmaZonia (PDF).\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ For further info see the last chapter of Grann's book The Lost City of Z and Charles Mann's book 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus.\n  38. Jump up ^ Grann, David (2009) The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon. Doubleday, New York, pages 8 and 95, ISBN\u00a0978-0-385-51353-1\n  39. Jump up ^ \"The Times\". 4 September 1934. p.\u00a07.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Neither George Lucas nor Steven Spielberg \u2014 co-creators of the successful concept and franchise \u2014 have indicated that any specific individual inspired their character, other than the generic stock heroes popularised in the matin\u00e9e serials and pulp magazines of the 1930s and 1940s they admired and wished to modernise, or later exotic-culture adventure films such as 1954's Secret of the Incas.\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Making Raiders of the Lost Ark\". Raiders News. 23 September 2003. Archived from the original on 7 December 2003. Retrieved 14 October 2008.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rob (November 1991). Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils. Bantam Books. ISBN\u00a0978-0-553-29035-6.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"The Lost Expedition\". BoardGameGeek. Retrieved 4 July 2017.\u00a0\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Falk-R\u00f8nne, Arne. (1991). Klodens Forunderlige Mysterier. Roth Forlag.\n  \u2022 Fleming, Peter. (1933) Brazilian Adventure, Charles Scribner's Sons ISBN\u00a00-87477-246-X\n  \u2022 Grann, David (2009) The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon ISBN\u00a0978-0-385-51353-1\n  \u2022 Leal, Hermes (1996), Enigma do Coronel Fawcett, o verdadeiro Indiana Jones (Colonel Fawcett: The Real-Life Indiana Jones; Published in Portuguese)\n  \u2022 La Gazette des Fran\u00e7ais du Paraguay, Percy Fawcett - Un monument de l'Exploration et de l'Aventure en Am\u00e9rique Latine - Exp\u00e9dition du Rio Verde - bilingue fran\u00e7ais espagnol - num\u00e9ro 6, Ann\u00e9e 1, Asuncion Paraguay.\n  \u2022 Scriblerius, C.S. (2015), \"Percyfaw Code, the secret dossier\" Published by Amazon.com.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Forgotten Travellers: The Hunt for Colonel Fawcett Essay on Lt.-Col. Percy Harrison Fawcett\n  \u2022 Virtual Exploration Society \u2013 Colonel Percy Fawcett\n  \u2022 Colonel Fawcett\n  \u2022 Mad Dreams in the Amazon Essay on Fawcett from The New York Review of Books\n  \u2022 Lost in the Amazon: The Enigma of Col. Percy Fawcett PBS Secrets of the Dead documentary\n  \u2022 B. Fletcher Robinson & 'The Lost World' by Paul Spiring\n  \u2022 The Lost City of Z is a Long Way From a True Story and I Should Know by John Hemming in The Spectator\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 61597470\n  \u2022 LCCN: n81102852\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0000 8140 5771\n  \u2022 GND: 138720967\n  \u2022 SUDOC: 03093544X\n  \u2022 BNF: cb12225182v (data)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Percy_Fawcett&oldid=800129901\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1867 births\n  \u2022 English archaeologists\n  \u2022 English explorers\n  \u2022 Explorers of Amazonia\n  \u2022 Lost explorers\n  \u2022 Missing people\n  \u2022 People from Torquay\n  \u2022 Professor Challenger\n  \u2022 Royal Artillery officers\n  \u2022 Companions of the Distinguished Service Order\n  \u2022 1920s missing person cases\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y\n  \u2022 CS1 Danish-language sources (da)\n  \u2022 CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)\n  \u2022 Use British English from July 2011\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2011\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Interlanguage link template link number\n  \u2022 Articles with trivia sections from April 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Year of death missing\n  \u2022 Year of death unknown\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 11 September 2017, at 17:41.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5757085995717138945","title":"Meredith Grey","text":"This is a good article. Click here for more information.\n\nMeredith Grey\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nMeredith Grey\nGrey's Anatomy character\nGreys-Anatomy-Season-7-Promo-9.jpg\nEllen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey\nFirst appearance \"A Hard Day's Night\"\n1x01, March 27, 2005\nCreated by Shonda Rhimes\nPortrayed by Ellen Pompeo (adult)\nNicolette Collier (young)\nClaire Geare (age 3)\nAria Leabu (Season 11 flashbacks)\nInformation\nNickname(s) Slutty Mistress\nOur Lady of General Surgery\nMer\nGrey\nThe girl in the bar\nThe Perfect Twelve-year-old\nDirty Mistress\nAdulterous Whore\nDeath\nTwisted Sister\nThe Good Grey\nBig Grey\nMrs. Shepherd\nMedusa\nCindy Lou\nOccupation Chief of General Surgery\nBoard Director\nTitle Head of General Surgery\nM.D.\nF.A.C.S.\nFamily Ellis Grey (mother, deceased)\nThatcher Grey (father)\nLexie Grey (paternal half-sister, deceased)\nMolly Thompson (paternal half-sister)\nMaggie Pierce (maternal half-sister)\nSpouse(s) Derek Shepherd (m.\u00a02009; d.\u00a02015)\nSignificant other(s) Finn Dandridge\nWill Thorpe\nNathan Riggs\nChildren Zola Shepherd (daughter)\nDerek Bailey Shepherd (son)\nEllis Shepherd (daughter)\n\nMeredith Grey, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series' producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by actress Ellen Pompeo. Meredith is the series' protagonist, and was introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital (later Seattle Grace-Mercy West, and afterwards Grey Sloan Memorial), eventually obtaining the position of a resident, and later the position of an attending, and in 2015, attaining the Chief of General Surgery position. As the daughter of world-renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, Meredith struggles with the everyday life of being in a competitive profession, maintaining the relationship with her one-night stand and eventual husband Derek Shepherd (deceased), her motherhood, and her friendships with her colleagues.\n\nMeredith is the narrator of the show and serves as the focal point for most episodes. Pompeo's connection with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd) is acclaimed as a high point of the series. Rhimes has characterized Meredith as not believing in good or bad, but instead doing what she thinks is right. Grey has been positively received by television critics, with Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as \"the heroine of Grey's Anatomy\". News of Pompeo leaving arose when it was made clear that her contract ended after the eighth season, and whether or not she would return to the series after her contract expires has been the centre of media speculation ever since. In 2016, Pompeo re-negotiated her contract and signed up for the thirteenth season of the show.\n\nPompeo's performance has been well received throughout the show and the character has gained widespread popularity worldwide. Pompeo has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of the character in the long running ABC medical drama including Satellite Award for Best Actress and multiple nominations at the People's Choice Awards for Best Actress winning at 39th People's Choice Awards in 2013 and again in 2015 at 41st People's Choice Awards, Pompeo has also received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Storylines and Characteristics\n  \u2022 2 Development\n    \u2022 2.1 Casting and creation\n    \u2022 2.2 Characterization\n  \u2022 3 Reception\n    \u2022 3.1 Reviews\n    \u2022 3.2 Awards\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nStorylines and Characteristics[edit]\n\nDr. Meredith Grey is the daughter of world-renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, and grew up in her shadow. Ellis was a deeply flawed, emotionally and verbally abusive, neglectful mother towards her. Meredith is described as a \"dark and twisty,\" damaged person who sees the world in varying shades of gray morality. Because of this, she is an emotionally complex person capable of empathizing with others when they're at their lowest points, and a sensitive observer of the people around her. Meredith is a graduate of Dartmouth College and nearly did not attend med school due to conflicts with her mother. Meredith was directionless after obtaining her undergrad and had plans to sleep and party her way through Europe. After a month abroad, Meredith was called back to care for Ellis, who had developed early-onset Alzheimer's disease, and Meredith obtained her M.D.\n\nThe night before Meredith's internship begins, she has a one-night stand with Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), a stranger she meets at a bar. She discovers the next day that he is the recently-hired attending and new head of neurosurgery at her new workplace, Seattle Grace Hospital. Meredith is assigned to work under resident Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), and befriends her fellow interns, George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers).\n\nShe is particularly close with Cristina Yang, who becomes her best friend and \"person\". Though she initially thinks poorly of him, Alex Karev also evolves into Meredith's \"person\" and the two assume a sibling-esque familial relationship. Meredith has a conflicted relationship with Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace. Richard was very close to Ellis when Meredith was a child, which inclines him to save or mentor Grey and make exceptions for her. Meredith has a habit of \"collecting strays\", allowing her friends and coworkers to live in the house her mother left her and become her pseudo-family. Meredith is endlessly loyal to those she deems her family, and bends traditional morality as needed in order to keep them safe.\n\nHaving grown up in a hospital, Meredith shows immense natural talent. She possesses a steadfast, calm ease during medical procedures and emergencies, and is a natural observer of people. She exhibits a knack for catching subtle hints and accurately determining difficult-to-catch diagnoses. Her placid, non-judgmental bedside manner often causes people to open up and trust her. Her surgical skills are solidly impressive and she shows a talent and patience for medical research trials and dealing with psychologically damaged patients.\n\nMeredith resists Derek's advances throughout her internship, but is eventually charmed into starting a relationship with him despite misgivings about an intern dating an attending. She is therefore shocked by the arrival of Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), Derek's wife, unaware that he was married. Derek struggles to choose between the two, but ultimately returns to Addison, despite Meredith begging to be chosen instead.\n\nMeredith is devastated and turns to multiple, self-destructive means of coping. Initially she falls on old habits of self-medicating with tequila and sex, and buys a dog. She also tries to resolve some issues by searching for her long-absent father, Thatcher. [1] She learns that her father, who left when she was five and she has not seen since, remarried and had two more daughters. The two do not become close, but Grey becomes fond of her stepmother.\n\nMeredith spirals further when Ellis is admitted to the hospital, revealing Ellis' diagnosis of early-onset Alzheimer's and her verbally abusive tendencies. Meredith self-destructive behavior increases when she saves a patient with a bomb in their chest by impulsively inserting her hand to hold it until the bomb squad can remove it. Mereidth has a series of one-night stands, including one with George, who is in love with her. When she cries in the middle of their encounter, their friendship temporarily ends. Meredith swears off her behavior, agrees to be friends only with Shepherd, and embarks on a relationship with veterinarian Finn Dandridge (Chris O'Donnell).\n\nDerek regrets his decision to return to his wife and Meredith must decide whether to continue a relationship with Finn, or allow Derek a second chance.\n\nWhen Ellis experiences a rare, completely lucid day, and expresses her immense disappointment at how ordinary Meredith has turned out to be, she becomes depressed and possibly suicidal. During a ferryboat accident, Meredith is knocked into the water and chooses to give up and drown, rather than fight and swim. She flatlines at the hospital, and awakens in an \"afterlife\", where she interacts with deceased former acquaintances. Ellis dies in the interim, and Meredith meets with her mother, who tells her that she is anything but ordinary. She is subsequently resuscitated at the insistence of Cristina. Derek distances himself from Meredith as the result of her self recklessness, prompting her to seek therapy to address her problems. Meredith sees a therapist, Dr. Wyatt (Amy Madigan), to seek happiness and begins to successfully tackle her issues. Meredith found her mother's diaries, dredging up old memories and secrets for her to work through. Meanwhile, Meredith nearly fails her intern exam after a drunken Thatcher publicly blames Meredith for the death of his wife, Susan, a distraught Grey sits through her entire test without writing a single answer. Dr. Webber gives her a second chance, saving her from destroying her career.\n\nAfter Meredith is promoted to a resident, her younger half-sister Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) begins working at Seattle Grace as an intern. Meredith initially rejects Lexie's attempts to form a relationship, but slowly softens towards her. The sisters are very different people with different childhoods. Lexie had an idealistic family life and often has difficulty understanding her much darker sister, who does not have the same positive associations with family as Lexie.\n\nShe later initiates a neurosurgical clinical trial, enlisting Derek as a consulting neurosurgeon. The trial fails repeatedly, but the final patient they treat survives, which leads them to reuniting and moving in together. Their relationship is healthier than before, but still experiences snags as the two attempt to understand each other and navigate what they now look on as a permanent, long-term relationship. Meredith relies heavily on Cristina for emotional support and guidance. Eventually, Derek and Meredith decide to marry, but on their wedding day, the pair give their \"perfect\" wedding ceremony to Izzie and Alex, to marry each other during the planned ceremony instead.\n\nThe development of Grey and Shepherd's relationship, during season three, was disliked among television critics.\n\nMeredith and Derek marry by writing their wedding vows on a post-it note. Meredith spends the majority of a season out of commission after donating part of her liver to Thatcher and supporting Cristina's new relationship with Owen Hunt, an army doctor with worrisome PTSD.\n\nMereduth experiences another immense trauma after the hospital is put under a lockdown from an active mass-shooter seeking revenge against Derek. Meredith offers her own life in exchange for his and miscarries her baby during the crisis. She goes through this traumatic experience with Cristina, who operates on Derek while threatened at gunpoint. Meredith hides her loss and the trauma psychiatrist refuses to clear neither Cristina nor Meredith for their return to surgery. Meredith is able to work through her issues and become cleared, but Cristina remains deeply traumatized. Meredith covers for and supports her friend through her dark time, but is ultimately unable to fully help her return to surgery.\n\nMeredith decides to actively try to become pregnant, but learns that she has a \"hostile uterus\", which leads her to consider her other possible genetic flaws. Derek, who is constantly worried about the possibility that she will develop Alzheimer's, initiates a clinical trial hoping to cure the disease. Meredith opts to work on the trial and appears to be leaning towards a neuro specialty.\n\nWhen the chief of surgery, Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.)'s wife, Adele, is diagnosed with Alzheimer's, she receives a spot on the trial. Meredith tampers with the drugs so that Adele does not receive the placebo. She and Derek decide to adopt Zola, an orphaned baby from Malawi, and make their marriage legal. When the truth about the tampering comes out, however, a furious Derek tells her he cannot raise a child with her because of her moral ambiguity. Meredith is fired, and tries to conceal both this and her marital separation from the adoption counselor in order to keep Zola. Although Dr. Webber steps down as chief of surgery and takes the blame for the trial tampering to protect Meredith, Zola is taken away. She and Derek reconcile. Meredith chooses a general specialty over neuro, and they successfully fight to get Zola back.\n\nAs her last year of residency is coming to a close, the residents travel around the country, searching for the best jobs in their specialties. In order to finish their residency, the residents must take the medical boards. Meredith takes the exam while sick with the flu. She decides to take a job offer at The Brigham and Women's Hospital as the next step in her career. During a medical flight to undertake a prestigious surgery involving conjoined twins, Meredith, Derek, Cristina, and Lexie, among others, are involved in an aviation accident. The plane crash kills Lexie, and the survivors are trapped in the wooded wilderness for days waiting for help. Following their rescue, Merdith becomes an attending general surgeon at Seattle Grace, now Seattle Grace-Mercy West. While Cristina flees Seattle for her fellowship, Meredith, afraid of flying and change, declines her job offer, and clings to what remains in Seattle. Cristina and Meredith begin calling the hospital Seattle Grace Mercy Death in light of the immense amount of trauma, death, and pain they have experienced there.\n\nMeredith's newfound attitude and sarcasm leads to her being dubbed \"Medusa\" by the hospital's new batch of interns. In the aftermath of the plane accident, the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence. Each victim including Derek, Cristina, Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) and herself must receive $15 million of compensation, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurance company refuses to pay due to a loophole. The doctors along with Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) buy the hospital with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing and become new members of the directing board.\n\nMeredith asks Dr. Bailey to perform gene mapping on her to finally know whether she has Alzheimer's genes like her mother. She tests positive for more than one of the genetic markers for the disease.\n\nMeredith moves to the completed dream home and sells her house to Alex, who purchases it as the only true home he's ever known. He continues Meredith's tradition of keeping the house open to any \"strays\" needing a home. Meredith discovers she is pregnant and gives birth to a son. The baby is delivered via C-section. While stitching Meredith up, the obstetrician who operated on her is called away to another patient and intern Shane Ross completes the stitching. When blood begins to appear from everywhere, Meredith diagnoses herself in as being in DIC. Dr. Bailey performs a spleen removal, which saves her life. In return, Derek and Meredith name their son Bailey.\n\nAs a spouse, surgeon, and mother, Meredith has cited a number times that she did not want to be like either of her parents: her father had followed her mother around pathetically before leaving to be happy, while her mother valued her career over her family. Meredith is frequently conflicted trying to balance between the two, and fears her family are hindering her medical aspirations, as much as she fears becoming like her mother whenever she's tempted to choose surgery over family. Meredith and Cristina have a huge rift when Cristina confirms Meredith's fears by stating that Meredith's skills have fallen behind Cristina's due to her familial obligations taking her away from OR time.\n\nMeredith and Derek come to an agreement that he, already established in his career and reputation, would take a step back to take care of the children and allow her to shine. Meredith attempts to regain some ground by starting a promising research trial 3-D printing portal veins. The conflict between Cristina and Meredith widens when Cristina commandeers Meredith's resources for her own trial, ultimately garnering a Harper Avery nomination for Cristina. Cristina and Meredith repair their relationship when Meredith confesses that Cristina was correct, her skills have surpassed Meredith's. Cristina moves to Switzerland take up a job offer from Dr. Preston Burke, her former attending, mentor and fianc\u00e9, who was looking for a replacement at a research hospital he was running, thus leaving Alex in charge of being Meredith's \"person\" in her place, an honor he gladly accepts.\n\nMeredith and Derek's marriage becomes strained when Derek goes against his promise and accepts an offer from the U.S. President to participate in the Brain Mapping Initiative, which consumes his time and eclipses Meredith, who is feeling increasingly left behind and mommy-tracked. He receives an offer to head the project itself in Washington D.C., meaning that he would have to be based there permanently. Meredith puts her foot down as she does not want to uproot their young family to move across the country for his career at the sacrifice of her own. They begin a series of on-and-off arguments and \"cold wars\" over their careers. Derek accepts the job in the heat of the moment and promptly leaves for Washington. During a phone call with Meredith, they agree to work things out after she tells him that she did not want them to become \"one of those couples\" and he reciprocates, saying that he missed her. She privately admits to Alex that she has realized that she could live independently of Derek, but chooses not to.\n\nMeredith finds out she has a maternal half sister named Maggie Pierce who is now working in Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith is in denial and rejects Maggie, thinking she would have remembered if her mother was pregnant until she finds a hospital document confirming the revelation. Meredith tries to piece together her relationship with her mother and half sister by going through old videos of her mother. She eventually recovers her repressed memories of the pregnancy when she views her mother's diary and has a change of heart, choosing to accept Maggie and begin building a relationship.\n\nMeredith is widowed when Derek is killed in a car accident and was taken to an understaffed hospital. The doctors failed to recognize his head injury in time and allowed personal conflicts to interfere. Derek is declared brain dead, and Meredith must go to the medical center to consent to remove him from life support, shortly before she's hit with the first waves of morning sickness. She tells Penny, the intern who was assigned to Derek that every doctor has \"that one\" patient who dies on their watch and haunts them forever and \"that one will make you work harder, and they make you better.\"\n\nAfter Derek's death, Meredith returns to Grey Sloan Memorial to inform the others of his passing. Following the funeral service, Meredith impulsively packs up her belongings and leaves with the children to San Diego. Months pass by while her friends and family are unaware of her whereabouts. Eventually, parallels show similarities in Meredith's and Ellis' lives: Both have lost the love of their life, both run away from Seattle following their loss, and both eventually give birth to a daughter. Meredith names her newborn daughter after her mother. Although still grieving over Derek, Meredith returns to Seattle with the children and later becomes chief of general surgery. She sells the \"dream house\" and moves back to her mother's house, having purchased it back from Alex, and now lives there with Maggie and Amelia Shepherd, her sister-in-law.\n\nMeredith hosts a dinner party and at the party Callie brings Penny as a date. Later at the event Meredith finds out Penny will be joining her at Grey Sloan Memorial. Meredith eventually forgives Penny, who becomes her favorite resident over Alex's girlfriend, Jo. Alex and Meredith continue their close, sibling-like relationship of being each other's \"person\", despite Jo's displeasure and inability to understand their closeness. He supports her when she is violently attacked by a disoriented patient, and she supports him through his legal difficulties. Alex initiates a weekly family waffle day where he makes waffles for everyone in the house.\n\nMeredith recovers enough to start seeing Nathan Riggs, Owen Hunt's former best friend, by season 13, although their relationship is complicated by the fact that Maggie confesses to Meredith that she has feelings for Riggs and Meredith is not ready to declare their relationship formally or publicly. Eventually she accepts her relationship with Riggs, but it's complicated by the unexpected return of Owen's sister, Megan Hunt, Riggs' fianc\u00e9e. Meredith finds herself in another love triangle when Megan rejects Riggs because he is still in love with Meredith, but Meredith pushes them to be together. After her relationship with Riggs ends, Meredith is nominated for a Harper Avery Award for her groundbreaking surgery on Megan.\n\nDevelopment[edit]\n\nCasting and creation[edit]\n\nPompeo discovered Grey's Anatomy after an extended period of doing nothing in the acting profession. Her agent suggested she audition amongst other projects. [2] While casting actresses for the part of Meredith Grey, series' creator Shonda Rhimes said: \"I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile, and after a while, they were like, 'We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile.' I spent time with her and got to know her, and then we started casting for the men.\" She reported that Grey was not an easy role to cast because of the strong verbal possibilities. [3] Rhimes was informed that the actress in question was Pompeo, who had a deal in place with ABC, having previously tested for a pilot show on the network.[4] It has been speculated that Pompeo was the first character to be cast, but when asked, she said she did not know of this.[5] When asked of how she created Pompeo's character, Rhimes said:\n\n\u201c \"[I was] in my pajamas at home, which is where I spent a lot of time writing. I kept asking myself, 'What kind of woman should the heroine be?' I thought she should be someone who had made some big mistakes. As it turns out, Meredith also has another problem: She is trying to live up to her mother's renowned career in surgery. Meredith is the daughter of a mother who basically never spent any time with her\u2014the daughter of a mother who now has Alzheimer's and doesn't even remember her.\"[6] \u201d\n\nPompeo was cast as the program's titular character, described by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times as \"a prickly, independent sort whose ambition, and ambivalence, is fueled by the fact that her mother was a gifted surgeon and now suffers from Alzheimer's.\"[7] Grey also serves as the show's narrator, and as such was likened in early reviews to Carrie Bradshaw (Sarah Jessica Parker), the narrator and protagonist of Sex and the City.[8][9] After her initial contract with Grey's Anatomy expired, Pompeo negotiated a new one, in which she would be paid US$200,000 per episode, making her and Dempsey the highest-paid cast members on the show.[10] In 2012, Forbes recognized Pompeo as the eighth highest-paid actress on television, with a salary of US$275,000 per episode for her role on Grey's Anatomy.[11]\n\nPompeo's second contract with Grey's Anatomy expired after the eighth season, and speculation arose that she would be leaving subsequently. [12] In September 2011, Pompeo reported that she is open to the idea of extending her contract, if invited. She told TV Guide: \"I would never turn up my nose at [Grey's Anatomy]. As long as the stories are honest and truthful, and Patrick [Dempsey] and I feel there is material for us to be passionate about, it still beats a 9-to-5 job any day. If I hear from the fans that they want us to keep going, then I would continue because we owe them everything.\" E! Online reported in May 2012, that Pompeo, as well as all original cast members have signed on for two more years.[13] With the Huffington Post's announcement of season nine having officially been renewed, the contract is set into place for Pompeo to return.[14]\n\nPompeo's contract expired again at the end of the twelfth season. She signed a new contract to keep her in the starring role on the series for thirteenth season.[15] According to a report in Deadline.com, Pompeo was earning $300,000 per episode under the new deal.[16]\n\nCharacterization[edit]\n\nWhatever I come up with, [Pompeo] is always game to play. She's been so good at what she's done that I've just let the character do what I've wanted the character to do, which has been wonderful. She's managed to sell every single thing because she's really believed it. The incredible thing is that you can have no fear to write what you think because she is always able to deliver.\nExecutive producer Betsy Beers on developing Pompeo's character[17]\n\nGrey is the protagonist and focal point of the series. She has been called \"intelligent, compassionate, hard-working, oftentimes outspoken, easily distracted, and indecisive\" by Grey's Anatomy executives.[18] Pompeo says she is unaware if her character knows how to have fun, adding: \"All of my scenes with [Dempsey] are the same\u2014we're either breaking up or having sex.\"[19] Her personality has evolved over the past few seasons from depressed, to happy and \"fixed\". Pompeo said to Good Morning America, \"I am so incredibly lucky to have Patrick [Dempsey], to have the chemistry that we do, we have an amazing relationship, and it's like any other relationship, you have your ups and downs. But we work it out, and we've found a way to do this for this long and still get along, and make it work and believe in what we're doing.\" Pompeo told Entertainment Weekly: \"It's awkward with Patrick [Dempsey] because he's like my brother. As soon as the camera is off, I'm like, 'Is your hand on my butt?' But there are millions of girls who have been waiting for this, so I feel an obligation to the fans.\"[20] Rhimes used the dog \"Doc\", which Meredith and Derek shared, as a metaphor of their relationship during the second season.[21] She characterizes Grey as doing what she thinks is right:\n\n\u201c Meredith is the girl who put her hand on a bomb in a body cavity. Meredith is the girl who tried to help a serial killer kill himself, so that he could donate his organs. Meredith\u2014and this is obvious\u2014has a compass that has always led her to shades of grey. She does not believe in black-and-white, she does not believe in good or bad, she does what she thinks is right.[22] \u201d\nMcKee deemed Grey and O'Malley's sexual encounter irreversible.\n\nThe character had a one-night stand with George O'Malley, in the second season. Series writer Stacy McKee, said of the sexual encounter: \"There\u2019s no turning back. There\u2019s nothing George and Meredith can do. The damage is done \u2013 things will never be the same. They\u2019ve just changed something important in their lives FOREVER and\u2026they are freaking out.\"[23] Grey's character development has also been known as an influence on the creation of her half-sister, Lexie Grey. Particularly, it has been made clear that they both share the same motives. McKee offered her thoughts: \"Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed. They want to be strong. They want to feel normal. They want, so much, to be whole. But it\u2019s a struggle \u2013 a genuine struggle for them. Being hardcore doesn\u2019t come naturally. Sometimes, they have to fake it.\"[24] Grey's personality has been compared with that of Alex Karev's. Rhimes offered the insight:\n\n\"I like to create moments for him and Meredith. Because, in my head, they are very similar people. Even though Karev can be such an ass, even though he\u2019s arrogant, even though he gave O'Malley the Syph. He and Meredith are both lost, both lonely, both former screw-ups who got their acts together. In another lifetime, they would be really good friends. So throughout the season, we watch them pause from time to time to look at each other and see that they are mirrors of one another.\n\n\u2014\u2009Shonda Rhimes, Grey Matter[25]\n\nPompeo fights for a truthful storyline for her character\u2014she wants it to be realistic and says you can't always wrap it up in a neat little package.[26] Referring to Grey's tampering with Shepherd's trial, Pompeo said: \"Listen, what Meredith did clearly crossed a line. Derek has a right to be pissed.\"[27] Following the tampering, Rhimes said she believes that Grey and Shepherd are meant to be together and that it in the end, they will end up with each other.[22] Grey's relationship with Cristina Yang, has been looked upon as \"sisterhood\", and Yang has repeatedly referred to Grey as \"her person\". This led to the two being dubbed \"the twisted sisters\". At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a \"honeymoon\" together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale.[28] Grey has been characterized, by some, as \"whiny\". Rhimes offered her insight:\n\n\u201c I've heard a lot of talk about Meredith being whiny but the truth is, she's got a mom [who died of] Alzheimer's, no other family to speak of, and the man she loves is married. She's pretty freaking lonely, people. She's got a right to get her whine on. So, when she falters, it's partly because she's got nothing to hang on to. As she says in the first episode, she needs a reason to go on, she needs some hope.[29] \u201d\n\nRhimes felt that the 100th episode showed well Meredith's evolution throughout the show from a \"dark and twisty girl\" to a \"happy woman\". She said: \"She is the thing her mother wished for her. She is extraordinary. Because, to get past the crap of your past? To move on? To let the past go and change? That is extraordinary. To love? Without fear? Without screwing it up? That is extraordinary. It makes me happy to see her happy.\"[30]\n\nFollowing the departure of Patrick Dempsey's character, Rhimes was quoted as saying that \"...Meredith and the entire Grey\u2019s Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life. The possibilities for what may come are endless.\" [31] With at least a year left in Pompeo's contract with the show, viewers are sure to witness some of the most difficult times of Meredith's life yet.\n\nReception[edit]\n\nReviews[edit]\n\nThe character has received both overwhelmingly positive reviews to weary response from television critics throughout the course of the show. The initial response to the character was positive but as the series progressed Meredith Grey became immensely popular and Pompeo established the character as a critic and fan favorite featuring on a number of Top TV Character lists. The development of the character has been deemed as the highlight of the show. Grey has constantly been defined as \"the heroine of Grey's Anatomy\".[32] At the time of inception Newsday's Diane Werts praised the character stating, \"Like Hugh Laurie's irascible \"House\" title character, star Ellen Pompeo's newly minted Dr. Grey conveys such substance that you simply can't stop watching.\"[33] Ellen A. Kim of After Pompeo not receiving an Emmy nomination for her work as Grey, McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo, \"who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character at last\" should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards.[34] Later, during the twelfth season Western Gazette gave Ellen Pompeo the credit for carrying the show and re-ittirated.\" (It's) time for Pompeo to finally win an Emmy Award.\"[35] Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly referred to Grey as the \"trusty voice over master\" of Grey's Anatomy.\n\nPompeo's connection with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd) is acclaimed as a high point of the series.\n\nFormer television columnist for The Star-Ledger Alan Sepinwall expressed his boredom on the focus given on Grey's relationships storylines while reviewing the second season's finale: \"On those occasions when Meredith's not involved in a plot about her love life, I do kind of like her, but those moments are so infrequent compared to her constant angsting over McDreamy -- not to mention all those seemingly unrelated storylines that always turn into a metaphor for that relationship -- that I really, really can't stand her.\"[36] During the show's third season, the development of the character received negative reviews, with Cristopher Monfette of IGN stating that her storyline has become \"some bizarrely under-developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season's worth of reconsidering to do.\"[37] Also during the third season, Robert Rorke of the New York Post noted the decline in Meredith's role in the show, expressing disappointment: \"She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas, but lately, she's been a little dopey, what with the endless McDreamy soliloquies.\"[38] Similarly, Macleans.ca found their storyline in the fourth season overused, \"This whole 'Oh I need more time,' but 'Oh, I'm jealous if you look at someone else' angst was tired in the second season, frustrating in the third and now a total channel changer. The will-they-or-won't-they plot doesn't work because they've already been in and out of that relationship too many times. Meredith is a nag and McDreamy is henpecked.\"[39] On a more positive note, her relationship with Shepherd was included in AOL TV's list of the \"Best TV Couples of All Time\" and in the same list by TV Guide.[40][41] During the sixth season the development of the character was praised, Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that \"You gotta love Mer when she's gloomy.\", in addition to praising Pompeo's performance. In her review of the episode Tainted Obligation she wrote \"I felt for Meredith, but after Lexie's heartfelt begging and pleading, I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside. Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first, and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver\u2014her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone.\"[42] Reviewing the first part of the eighth season, TV Fanatic lauded the character and wrote: \"this season belongs to Meredith Grey. She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding. This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman. Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season.\"[43]\n\nWit & Fancy praised the transformation of the character and stated, \"Of course Meredith will still make rash decisions like when she took off with Zola, or tampered with the trial but she does things out of love and the kindness of her heart now and not because she is dark and twisty. Considering where Meredith was at the beginning and where she is now, I think she went through a remarkable journey and did more than just growing up, she finally became \u201call whole and healed\u201c.\"[44]\n\nMaura O'Malley of Bustle also lauded the development of the character ahead of season 12 saying, \"When the series began, Meredith was just a girl sitting in a bar celebrating the exciting next phase of her life. She had graduated medical school, she was starting her residency at a prestigious hospital, and she was simply looking for a no-strings attached, one night stand. What she got instead was a complicated romantic relationship that rivals Romeo and Juliet \u2014 but the key is, she wasn't searching for love. Working and learning were \u2014 and continue to be \u2014 her priorities, while McDreamy was simply an added perk. Hopefully, the new season of Grey's Anatomy will reflect this change in tone, because Meredith is a strong, independent woman \u2014 and she will be just fine.\"[45]\n\nLater in the series, Ellen Pompeo received critical acclaim with numerous critics lauding her portrayal of the character. Reviewing the episode She's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the \"anchor\" for Grey's saying, \"Throughout, this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo, who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks. Tonight, she cried, she fought, and she learned that she was carrying his child.\"[46] and added that Pompeo is often \"ovelooked\" saying, \"Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked.\"[47] Rick Porter of Zap2it reviewing \"How to Save a Life\" wrote, \"Without Meredith, and without one of Pompeo's strongest performances in her long time on the show, \"How to Save a Life\" would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode, the likes of which the show has done several times before. He added. \"How to Save a Life\" may not be the ideal Emmy-submission episode for Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it's among the best work she's ever done on the show.\"[48] USA Today also lauded Pompeo saying, \" In some ways, the episode (How to Save a Life) was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She had some of the more memorable and well-played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life.\"[49]\n\nMark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered Meredith's friendship with Cristina (Sandra Oh) to be \"the secret core of Grey's\".\n\nThe relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be \"the secret core of Grey's\". Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that \"With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television.\"[50] Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because \"they don\u2019t try to be\". There\u2019s nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them 'soulmates', \" And even though they\u2019d never dare get sappy enough to say it, they\u2019re soul mates.[51] Margaret Lyons of Vulture (magazine) called the friendship \" dream BFF relationship.\" and the primary focus of the show, \"One of the series' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships.\" [52]\n\n\u201c \"I wanted to create a world in which you felt as if you were watching very real women. Most of the women I saw on TV didn't seem like people I actually knew. They felt like ideas of what women are. They never got to be nasty or competitive or hungry or angry. They were often just the loving wife or the nice friend. But who gets to be the bitch? Who gets to be the three-dimensional woman?\" - Rhimes on Cristina-Meredith friendship.[53] \u201d\n\nE! at the time of Sandra Oh's exit wrote, \"In Grey's Anatomy's 10-year history, the doctor duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, plane crashes, bomb threats, shooting, you name it, they've lived (and danced) through it. \" and added, \"And with the three words, \"You're my person.\" Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen's best best friends ever.\"[54] Marama Whyte of Hypable wrote, \"Critically, the key relationship in Meredith\u2019s life was not her romance with Derek Shepherd, but her passionate, indestructible, absolutely enviable friendship with Cristina. Talk about relationship goals; who wants McDreamy when Cristina Yang could be your person. These two were the real powerhouse, and Shonda Rhimes didn\u2019t shy away from making the audience remember this. Derek was the love of her life, but Cristina was her soul mate. More than anyone else, Cristina challenged Meredith, was honest with her, and inspired her. For these reasons, it was Cristina who was constantly the source of Meredith\u2019s character development, not Derek.\"[55]\n\nPompeo's character has also been used to define the image a strong woman, Bustle previewing the 12th season wrote, \"Meredith Grey has always been capable of being on her own. Grey's Anatomy is about Meredith's journey. Men and romantic interests are a part of her life, but they are not the priority. She doesn't need McDreamy. Grey's Anatomy doesn't need McDreamy. So even if the writers do decide to create a new love interest for Ms. Grey (Martin Henderson, perhaps?), it wouldn't matter. I have faith that the show's writers will do this storyline justice, because TV needs more strong single women \u2014 and Meredith seems like the perfect candidate.\" The site added, \"This past season was almost a trial run for a McDreamy-less Grey's Anatomy. When Derek left for Washington D.C. to pursue his research, Meredith stayed behind and focused on her own career. She didn't chase him. Her priority were her children and the Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. Meredith showed that she would never put aside her own dreams and aspirations for a man, and I believe that this won't change after Derek's death.\"[45]\n\nAwards[edit]\n\nMain article: List of awards and nominations received by Grey's Anatomy\nPompeo's failure to garner an Emmy Award nomination has been called a \"snub\" on multiple occasions.\n\nPompeo has won and has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of Grey. She and the Grey's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards.[56] During the following year's ceremony, she was named Best Actress in a Television Drama Series.[57] She was among the Grey's Anatomy cast members awarded the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series accolade at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards,[58] and received nominations in the same category in 2006[59] and 2008.[60] Pompeo received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards\u00a0\u2013 the program won Best Drama Series at the same ceremony.[61] Also in 2007, Pompeo and the female cast and crew of Grey's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award, which honors those \"whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women.\"[62]\n\nPompeo's performance has garnered her multiple People's Choice Awards. At the 37th People's Choice Awards, she was nominated against Dempsey and Oh in the Favorite TV Doctor category,[63] and the following year, she was a contender in the Favorite TV Drama Actress category.[64] Since 2012 Pompeo has received nomination at the People's Choice Awards every year in two categories at 40th People's Choice Awards alongside Patrick Dempsey and Sandra Oh respectively. She won the Best Drama Actress Award at both the 39th People's Choice Awards[65] and the 41st People's Choice Awards.[66] In 2007, show-business awards reporter Tom O'Neil commented that Pompeo was overdue an Emmy Award nomination for her role in Grey's Anatomy.[67] Readers of O'Neil's awards website, The Envelope, included Pompeo in their 2009 nominations for Best Drama Actress in the site's Gold Derby TV Awards.[68] Entertainment Weekly launched the EWwy Awards in 2008, to honor actors who have not received Emmy nominations. Pompeo was nominated in the Best Actress in a Drama Series category, and placed fourth, with 19\u00a0percent of readers' votes.[69]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\nSpecific\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Yesterday\". Grey's Anatomy. Season 2. Episode 18. February 19, 2006. ABC.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Ellen Pompeo Biography\". Yahoo. Yahoo! Movies. Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Ryan, Maureen (September 30, 2005). \"Chicago as a 'Grey' area?\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Fonseca, Nicholas (September 16, 2005). \"Playing Doctors\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved January 23, 2012.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Interview: Ellen Pompeo from Grey's Anatomy\". Fanbolt. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0 |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)\n  6. Jump up ^ Winfrey, Oprah (December 2006). \"Oprah Talks to Shonda Rhimes\". O, The Oprah Magazine. Harpo Productions, Inc. Retrieved May 24, 2012.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ McNamara, Mary (May 15, 2005). \"'Grey's' takes a scalpel to standard procedure\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Brownfield, Paul (March 25, 2005). \"Lessons in the OR and via voice-over\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Stanley, Alessandra (March 25, 2005). \"Tales of Sex and Surgery\". New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2012.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (March 9, 2007). \"\"Grey's Anatomy\" stars get pay rises\". Reuters. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"2012 Highest Paid TV Actresses\". Forbes. Forbes, Inc. Archived from the original on July 22, 2012. Retrieved August 25, 2012.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"ABC Not Worried About \u2018Grey\u2019s Anatomy\u2019 Star Contracts; \u2018Revenge\u2019 Could Move Out Of Hamptons\". Access Hollywood. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney. \"Grey's Anatomy: Patrick Dempsey, Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh and Justin Chambers Set to Return!\". NBC Universal. E! Online. Archived from the original on May 14, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Ryan, Maureen (May 10, 2012). \"'Once,' 'Revenge,' 'Grey's' And Two Comedies Renewed By ABC\". Huffington Post. Huffington Post TV. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Rice, Lynette (1 June 2016). \"Ellen Pompeo signs new deal with Grey's Anatomy\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 5 June 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Nilles, Billy (1 June 2016). \"Ellen Pompeo Signs New Deal for Grey's Anatomy Season 13 Because No Duh\". E!. Retrieved 5 June 2016.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Grey's Anatomy Season Three DVD: Commentary Feature. Buena Vista, ABC. 2007.\u00a0 |access-date= requires |url= (help)\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) Bio\". American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on May 15, 2013. Retrieved June 13, 2013.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Keck, William (September 24, 2007). \"A lighter shade of 'Grey's' on the set\". USA Today. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Ellen Pompeo Biography\". People. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (May 17, 2006). \"From Shonda Rhimes (FINALLY)\u2026\". Grey Matter. American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on March 19, 2013. Retrieved July 14, 2012.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b Mitovich, Matt Webb. \"Shonda Rhimes: Grey's Anatomy Finale Sets Up What May Be Original Cast's Final Run\". TVLine. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ McKee, Stacy (February 26, 2006). \"From Stacy McKee, writer of \"What Have I Done To Deserve This?\"\". ABC. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on December 19, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ McKee, Stacy (November 1, 2007). \"Stacy McKee on \"Kung Fu Fighting\"...\". ABC. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on February 10, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (November 22, 2005). \"From Shonda Rhimes, creator and writer of \"Thanks For The Memories\"\". ABC. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Mosthof, Marielle. \"Ellen Pompeo Discusses Keeping the Spark Alive With Her On-Screen Hubby\". Wet Paint. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb. \"Grey's Exclusive: Ellen Pompeo Weighs In on Mer-Der Fight: 'He Needs To Get Over It, Quick'\". TVLine. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (October 3, 2007). \"Shonda on the Season Premiere Episode \"A Change Is Gonna Come\"...\". ABC. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (February 12, 2006). \"From Shonda: It's the end of the episode (as we know it)\". ABC. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (May 8, 2009). \"Shonda Rhimes on \"What a Difference a Day Makes\"...\". Grey Matter. American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013. Retrieved September 3, 2013.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Gay, Verne (April 24, 2015). \"Patrick Dempsey leaves 'Grey's Anatomy'; creator Shonda Rhimes says show entering 'uncharted territory'\". Newsday. Retrieved May 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Stanley, Alessandra (September 12, 2006). \"TV Review: Men In Trees\". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved May 10, 2012.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.metacritic.com\/tv\/greys-anatomy\/critic-reviews\n  34. Jump up ^ McNamara, Mary (July 17, 2009). \"Seven Emmy nods a good fit\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Hawkins, Alex (September 28, 2015). \"Grey\u2019s Anatomy returns swinging in a new direction\". Western Gazette. Archived from the original on September 29, 2015. Retrieved October 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Sepinwall, Alan (May 19, 2006). \"Odds and sods\". Sepinwall.blogspot.com. Retrieved August 12, 2012.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy: Season 3 Review\". TV.IGN.com. Retrieved September 3, 2011.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Rorke, Robert. \"HEART THROB - GREY'S ANATOMY'S KATHERINE HEIGL ON SEX, LOVE AND CUPCAKES\". New York Post. Retrieved May 19, 2012.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Treble, Patricia (April 25, 2008). \"Grey's Anatomy is on life support\". Macleans.ca. Archived from the original on March 14, 2012. Retrieved July 7, 2012.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Potts, Kimberly (February 11, 2008). \"Best TV Couples of All Time\". AOL TV. Aol, Inc. Retrieved September 14, 2012.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"Couples Pictures, Grey's Anatomy Photos - Photo Gallery: The Best TV Couples of All Time\". TV Guide. Retrieved June 20, 2012.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.buddytv.com\/articles\/greys-anatomy\/greys-anatomy-episode-64-taint-31787.aspx\n  43. Jump up ^ Morrison, Courtney (November 18, 2011). \"Grey's Anatomy Midseason Report Card: B+\". TV Fanatic. Retrieved September 1, 2013.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ http:\/\/witandfancy.com\/2012\/01\/22\/awesome-female-characters-meredith-grey-and-her-journey-from-dark-and-twisty-to-whole-and-healed\/\n  45. ^ Jump up to: a b http:\/\/www.bustle.com\/articles\/108812-meredith-grey-will-be-just-fine-after-mcdreamys-death-so-will-you-greys-anatomy-fans\n  46. Jump up ^ http:\/\/cartermatt.com\/163316\/greys-anatomy-season-10-episode-22-review-meredith-and-dereks-baby-tears-and-much-more\/\n  47. Jump up ^ http:\/\/cartermatt.com\/133792\/greys-anatomy-season-11-episode-1-review-ellen-pompeo-star-premiere\/\n  48. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.zap2it.com\/blogs\/greys_anatomy_ellen_pompeo_saved_how_to_save_a_life-2015-04\n  49. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/life\/tv\/2015\/04\/23\/greys-anatomy-kills-off-major-character\/26243761\/\n  50. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/browbeat\/2014\/05\/14\/grey_s_anatomy_season_finale_ends_meredith_and_cristina_s_friendship_the.html\n  51. Jump up ^ http:\/\/popwatch.ew.com\/2014\/05\/14\/greys-anatomy-meredith-cristina\/\n  52. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.vulture.com\/2013\/12\/meredith-cristina-greys-anatomy-fight.html\n  53. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/browbeat\/2014\/05\/14\/grey_s_anatomy_season_finale_ends_meredith_and_cristina_s_friendship_the.html.\u00a0 Missing or empty |title= (help)\n  54. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.eonline.com\/news\/538821\/grey-s-anatomy-we-dare-you-not-to-cry-during-this-tribute-to-cristina-and-meredith-s-epic-friendship\n  55. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.hypable.com\/shondaland-shonda-rhimes-feminism\/\n  56. Jump up ^ \"Winner Announcement\" (PDF). www.pressacademy.com. International Press Academy. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ \"Satellites Award 'No Country,' ' Juno'\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. December 17, 2007. Retrieved January 13, 2012.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ \"The 13th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards\". www.sagawards.org. Screen Actors Guild. Retrieved January 13, 2012.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ \"The 12th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards\". www.sagawards.org. Screen Actors Guild. Retrieved January 14, 2012.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"The 14th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards\". www.sagawards.org. Screen Actors Guild Awards. Retrieved January 14, 2012.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy\". www.goldenglobes.org. Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Davidson, Ben G. (June 14, 2007). \"WIF's Lucy Award goes to women of 'Grey's Anatomy'\". The Hollywood Reporter. Nielsen Company. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0(subscription required)\n  63. Jump up ^ \"People's Choice Awards 2011 Nominees\". www.peopleschoice.com. People's Choice Awards. Archived from the original on July 15, 2011. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"People's Choice Awards 2012 Nominees\". www.peopleschoice.com. People's Choice Awards. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.wetpaint.com\/greys-anatomy\/articles\/ellen-pompeo-and-greys-anatomy-win-big-at-2013-peoples-choice-awards?rand=130121\n  66. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.latimes.com\/entertainment\/la-et-peoples-choice-awards-2015-winners-list-20150107-story.html\n  67. Jump up ^ O'Neil, Tom (June 6, 2007). \"Battle to the finish\". The Envelope (Los Angeles Times). Tribune Broadcasting. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ O'Neil, Tom (June 30, 2009). \"'30 Rock,' 'Mad Men' lead Gold Derby TV Award nominations\". Gold Derby (Los Angeles Times). Tribune Broadcasting. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"EWwy Winners Revealed!\". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. September 22, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2012.\u00a0\n\nGeneral\n\n  \u2022 \"Grey's Anatomy: Episode Recap Guide\". ABC. Retrieved June 19, 2012.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy portal\n  \u2022 Fictional characters portal\n  \u2022 iconTelevision portal\n  \u2022 Meredith Grey at ABC.com\n  \u2022 Meredith Grey on IMDb\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrey's Anatomy\nEpisodes\n  \u2022 Season 1\n  \u2022 2\n  \u2022 3\n  \u2022 4\n  \u2022 5\n  \u2022 6\n  \u2022 7\n  \u2022 8\n  \u2022 9\n  \u2022 10\n  \u2022 11\n  \u2022 12\n  \u2022 13\n  \u2022 14\nCharacters\n(cast members)\n  \u2022 Meredith Grey\n  \u2022 Cristina Yang\n  \u2022 Izzie Stevens\n  \u2022 Alex Karev\n  \u2022 George O'Malley\n  \u2022 Miranda Bailey\n  \u2022 Richard Webber\n  \u2022 Derek Shepherd\n  \u2022 Preston Burke\n  \u2022 Addison Montgomery\n  \u2022 Mark Sloan\n  \u2022 Callie Torres\n  \u2022 Lexie Grey\n  \u2022 Erica Hahn\n  \u2022 Owen Hunt\n  \u2022 Sadie Harris\n  \u2022 Arizona Robbins\n  \u2022 Teddy Altman\n  \u2022 Jackson Avery\n  \u2022 April Kepner\n  \u2022 Amelia Shepherd\n  \u2022 Stephanie Edwards\n  \u2022 Maggie Pierce\nOther\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 Video game\n  \u2022 Private Practice\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Mexican telenovela)\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Colombian telenovela)\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Meredith_Grey&oldid=808602648\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy characters\n  \u2022 Fictional characters from Massachusetts\n  \u2022 Fictional characters from Washington (state)\n  \u2022 Fictional storytellers\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 2005\n  \u2022 Fictional surgeons\n  \u2022 Fictional female doctors\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 errors: missing author or editor\n  \u2022 Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL\n  \u2022 Pages with citations lacking titles\n  \u2022 Pages with citations having bare URLs\n  \u2022 Pages containing links to subscription-only content\n  \u2022 Good articles\n  \u2022 Pages using deprecated image syntax\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 3 November 2017, at 22:13.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-4006628983297177140","title":"The Longest Yard (2005 film)","text":"The Longest Yard (2005 film)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThe Longest Yard\nLongest yard ver2.jpg\nTheatrical release poster\nDirected by Peter Segal\nProduced by Jack Giarraputo\nScreenplay by Sheldon Turner\nBased on The Longest Yard\nby Tracy Keenan Wynn\nThe Longest Yard\nby Albert S. Ruddy\nStarring Adam Sandler\nChris Rock\nJames Cromwell\nNelly\nWilliam Fichtner\nDavid Patrick Kelly\nTracy Morgan\nCloris Leachman\nBurt Reynolds\nThe Great Khali\nMusic by Teddy Castellucci\nCinematography Dean Semler\nEdited by Jeff Gourson\nProduction\ncompany\n  \u2022 MTV Films\n  \u2022 Happy Madison Productions\n  \u2022 Callahan Filmworks\nDistributed by Paramount Pictures\n(United States)\nColumbia Pictures\n(International)\nRelease date\n  \u2022 May\u00a027,\u00a02005\u00a0(2005-05-27)\nRunning time\n113 minutes\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nBudget $82 million[1]\nBox office $190.3 million[1]\n\nThe Longest Yard is a 2005 American sports prison comedy film and a remake of the 1974 film of the same name. Adam Sandler plays the protagonist Paul Crewe, a disgraced former professional quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers, who is forced to form a team from the prison inmates to play football against their guards.\n\nBurt Reynolds, who played Sandler's role in the original, co-stars as Nate Scarborough, the inmates' coach. Chris Rock plays Crewe's friend, known as Caretaker. The cast includes James Cromwell, Nelly, William Fichtner and several former and current professional athletes such as Terry Crews, Michael Irvin, Brian Bosworth, Bill Romanowski, Bill Goldberg, Bob Sapp, Kevin Nash, Stone Cold Steve Austin, and Dalip \"The Great Khali\" Singh Rana. The film was produced by MTV Films and Happy Madison Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures and Columbia Pictures, and was released on May 27, 2005.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n  \u2022 3 Production\n  \u2022 4 Reception\n    \u2022 4.1 Box office\n    \u2022 4.2 Critical response\n  \u2022 5 Awards\n  \u2022 6 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nThis article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nPaul Crewe is a former NFL player who, one night, gets drunk and goes joyriding in the Bentley of his girlfriend Lena, crashing it. It is revealed that he was accused of shaving points in a big game, although it was never proven.\n\nIn prison, Warden Rudolph Hazen, wishing to boost his prison's reputation for future elections as State Governor, uses threats and confinement in a hot box to coerce Crewe into helping the prison guards' football team, led by the hostile Captain Knauer. Crewe informs Hazen that what Hazen's team needs is a tune-up game to boost the guards' confidence, and is therefore coerced to form an inmate team to play against the guards. He does so with the help of a newfound friend, Caretaker. They start off with a poorly organized team, before being noticed by another prisoner, former college football star Nate Scarborough, who decides to help coach the team by gathering several intimidating inmates as a boost to the team's strength.\n\nCaretaker tells Crewe that they need more \"brothers\" on the team. When Crewe goes to the basketball court to ask the black inmates to join the team, their leader, Deacon Moss rebuffs him. Crewe challenges Deacon to a one-on-one basketball game, saying that if he wins, the brothers will join the team, and if Deacon wins, Crewe will leave them alone. Deacon accepts, and despite Deacon's undisguised personal fouls in which he elbows, punches or grabs Crewe, Crewe continues without complaint. On the game-winning shot, Crewe cleanly steals the ball from Deacon and scores, but Deacon calls a foul. Realizing he won't be allowed to win, Crewe lets Deacon score the final shot. Although Deacon beats Crewe, one of the brothers, a fast runner named Earl Megget, impressed with Crewe's decision to take the beating, joins the football team as its running back. When the guards learn of this, they confront Earl in an attempt to provoke an assault by him by saying the racial epithet \"nigger\", but Earl does not allow himself to be provoked despite intimidation and minor abuse. Having witnessed this, the other \"brothers\", including Deacon, decide to join the team too.\n\nHazen and the guards continue attempts to hinder Crewe's team by flooding their field, but the team decides to practice in the mud anyway.\n\nInmate Unger spies on the activities of the inmates and after being pressured by the guards, rigs Crewe\u2019s radio with an explosive. Caretaker unknowingly enters the cell to give a photo gift to Crewe, but is killed when he tries to turn the dial on the radio.\n\nOn game day, the inmates are revitalized in the wake of Caretaker's murder when Crewe reveals Caretaker's last gift to the team, quality gear and uniforms from his cousin at Reebok with the team name \"Mean Machine\" on the uniforms. The Mean Machine overcomes a rough start, due to individual inmates' attempts to retaliate against guards for the abuse they've suffered. Crewe angrily tells the inmates that winning the game is more important and will damage the guards more than their personal grudges, and gets them to play as a team. The first half ends with the score tied. The angered Hazen informs Crewe in private that if he does not lose he will be charged for Caretaker's murder. Crewe acquiesces to Hazen's threat, asking that the guards refrain from using excessive force on the field after getting a comfortable lead, to which Hazen agrees to do so after they obtain a two touchdown lead. After Crewe fakes an injury in order to leave the field, his teammates voice their displeasure over his obvious deserting of the team.\n\nAfter seeing that Hazen has broken his promise and two members of the Mean Machine are injured, Crewe asks Skitchy if the time spent in jail for punching the warden was worth it. Skitchy replies, \"It was worth every goddamn second,\" and inspired Crewe returns to the field. The team initially doubts Crewe\u2019s resolve and allows him to be sacked twice. After running for a first down on 4th and Long, Crewe, realizing that his inmates are still not protecting him due to his prior actions, calls a huddle, admits to the point shaving that disgraced him, the injury that he faked as a result of Hazen's threat, and sabotage to the other inmates, and asks for their forgiveness, putting his hands in the middle of all of them. Moss puts his hand in, followed by the rest of the team.\n\nThe Mean Machine, united again as a team, quickly scores two touchdowns to cut the guards' lead to 35\u201328. After Megget is injured following a long run, Scarborough comes in for one play as replacement and scores a touchdown off a trick play involving a fumble called a Fumblerooski. Mean Machine decides to go for the two-point conversion and the win. As they get up to the line they seem to be confused, and Crewe and Scarborough start arguing in order to trick the guards. Moss gets the snap and passes it to Crewe, who scores the winning conversion, winning the game. Knauer, with a newfound respect for Crewe, tells him that he showed extraordinary nerve, and lets him know that he will vouch that Crewe had nothing to do with Caretaker's death.\n\nHazen admonishes Knauer for losing a fixed game and notices that Crewe is heading towards the exit. Eagerly implying Crewe is trying to escape, Hazen orders that Crewe be shot for attempting to escape. Knauer hesitates and at the last moment realizes (and scornfully tells Hazen) that Crewe is only picking up the game football. Crewe returns it to Hazen, telling him to \"stick it in [his] trophy case.\" Moss and Joey Battle give Hazen a Gatorade shower, and when he tells them that this has earned them a week in the hot box, Battle defiantly yells \"Who gives a shit?!\"\n\nCast[edit]\n\nConvicts\n\n  \u2022 Adam Sandler as Paul \"Wrecking\" Crewe\n  \u2022 Chris Rock as James \"Caretaker\" Farrell\n  \u2022 Burt Reynolds as Coach Nate Scarborough\n  \u2022 Nelly as Earl Megget\n  \u2022 Michael Irvin as Deacon Moss\n  \u2022 Bill Goldberg as Joey \"Battle\" Battaglio\n  \u2022 Terry Crews as \"Cheeseburger\" Eddy\n  \u2022 Bob Sapp as Switowski\n  \u2022 Nicholas Turturro as Brucie\n  \u2022 Dalip Singh as Turley\n  \u2022 Lobo Sebastian as Torres\n  \u2022 Joey Diaz as Tony\n  \u2022 Rob Schneider as Punky\n  \u2022 David Patrick Kelly as Unger\n  \u2022 Eddie Bunker as Doc \"Skitchy\" Rivers\n  \u2022 Steve Reevis as \"Baby Face\" Bob Rainwater\n  \u2022 Tracy Morgan as Miss Tucker\n\u00a0\n\nPrison Staff\n\n  \u2022 James Cromwell as Warden Rudolph Hazen\n  \u2022 William Fichtner as Captain Wilhem Knauer\n  \u2022 Kevin Nash as Sergeant Engleheart\n  \u2022 Steve Austin as Guard Dunham\n  \u2022 Brian Bosworth as Guard Garner\n  \u2022 Michael Papajohn as Guard Papajohn\n  \u2022 Conrad Goode as Guard Webster\n  \u2022 Bill Romanowski as Guard Lambert\n  \u2022 Cloris Leachman as Lynette Grey\n\u00a0\n\nOthers\n\n  \u2022 Allen Covert as Referee\n  \u2022 Jim Rome as Himself\n  \u2022 Chris Berman as Himself\n  \u2022 Lauren Sanchez as Herself\n  \u2022 Patrick Bristow as Walt\n  \u2022 Adam Schefter as Himself\n  \u2022 Peter King as Himself\n  \u2022 Courteney Cox as Lena (uncredited)\n  \u2022 Dan Patrick as Police Officer\n\u00a0\n\n\nRap group D12 except for Eminem appeared in the movie and they were credited as Basketball Convicts. Eminem was mentioned in the scene where Crewe comes to invite the Basketball team and a player says: 'Look guys, it's the fake Slim Shady' mocking his race.\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nThe movie was filmed at the New Mexico State Penitentiary on Route 14, Santa Fe, New Mexico. The football game at the end of the film was filmed at Murdock Stadium at the El Camino College in Torrance, California. The car chase scene was filmed whereabouts in Long Beach, California. Other parts of the film were filmed in Los Angeles and New Mexico.[citation needed] The golf course scene was filmed at Lost Canyons Golf Club in Simi Valley, California.[2]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nBox office[edit]\n\nThe film did well at the box office. Its $47.6 million opening weekend was the largest of Sandler's career and only second to The Day After Tomorrow as the largest opening by a movie that was not #1. The film would go on to gross $158.1 million in the United States and Canada and $190 million worldwide. It was the highest-grossing film produced by MTV Films, until it was surpassed by Hansel and Gretel: Witch Hunters. Despite the large number of remakes released at the theaters, it's worth noting that The Longest Yard is the highest grossing comedy remake of the modern box office era (from 1980 on).[3]\n\nCritical response [edit]\n\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 32% based on 165 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8\/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"This Yard has some laughs but missing from this remake is the edginess of the original.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a grade of \"A\u2212\" on an A+ to F scale.[4]\n\nRoger Ebert, in the critical minority with this title, gave it a \"Thumbs Up\", defending it later in his Chicago Sun-Times review as a film that \"...more or less achieves what most of the people attending it will expect.\" In the print review, Ebert beseeches his readers to \"...seek out a movie you could have an interesting conversation about\", citing films not in wide release such as Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist and Kontroll, until finally encouraging his readers to \"drop any thought of seeing anything else instead\" if they can see Crash.[5]\n\nAwards[edit]\n\nThe film earned Chris Rock a BET Comedy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Theatrical Film.[citation needed]\n\nBurt Reynolds earned a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performance in the film.[citation needed]\n\nSoundtrack[edit]\n\nMain article: The Longest Yard (soundtrack)\n\nThe official soundtrack, which consisted entirely of hip-hop music, was released on May 24, 2005 by Universal Records. It peaked at 11 on the Billboard 200 and 10 on the Top R&B\/Hip-Hop Albums.\n\nThe film itself contains a mixture of hip hop and rock music, featuring music by Creedence Clearwater Revival, Norman Greenbaum and AC\/DC among others.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Longest Yard (2005)\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 27, 2018.\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Filming at Lost Canyons Golf Club\". Lost Canyons. December 1, 2014.\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Comedy Remake\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved December 1, 2014.\n  4. Jump up ^ \"CinemaScore\". CinemaScore. Retrieved 2015-07-15.\n  5. Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (May 26, 2005). \"Reviews: The Longest Yard\". rogerebert.com. 3\/4 stars\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: The Longest Yard (2005 film)\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard on IMDb\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard at Box Office Mojo\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard at Rotten Tomatoes\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard at americanfootballfilms\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nMTV Films\n1990s\n  \u2022 Joe's Apartment (1996)\n  \u2022 Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996)\n  \u2022 Dead Man on Campus (1998)\n  \u2022 Varsity Blues (1999)\n  \u2022 200 Cigarettes (1999)\n  \u2022 Election (1999)\n  \u2022 The Wood (1999)\n2000s\n  \u2022 The Original Kings of Comedy (2000)\n  \u2022 Save the Last Dance (2001)\n  \u2022 Pootie Tang (2001)\n  \u2022 Orange County (2002)\n  \u2022 Better Luck Tomorrow (2002)\n  \u2022 Crossroads (2002)\n  \u2022 Martin Lawrence Live: Runteldat (2002)\n  \u2022 Jackass: The Movie (2002)\n  \u2022 The Fighting Temptations (2003)\n  \u2022 Tupac: Resurrection (2003)\n  \u2022 The Perfect Score (2004)\n  \u2022 Napoleon Dynamite (2004)\n  \u2022 Hustle & Flow (2005)\n  \u2022 Coach Carter (2005)\n  \u2022 Murderball (2005)\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard (2005)\n  \u2022 Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005)\n  \u2022 \u00c6on Flux (2005)\n  \u2022 Jackass Number Two (2006)\n  \u2022 Freedom Writers (2007)\n  \u2022 Blades of Glory (2007)\n  \u2022 Beneath (2007)\n  \u2022 How She Move (2008)\n  \u2022 The Foot Fist Way (2008)\n  \u2022 Stop-Loss (2008)\n  \u2022 Dance Flick (2009)\n2010s\n  \u2022 Jackass 3D (2010)\n  \u2022 Justin Bieber: Never Say Never (2011)\n  \u2022 Footloose (2011)\n  \u2022 Katy Perry: Part of Me (2012)\n  \u2022 Hansel & Gretel: Witch Hunters (2013)\n  \u2022 Jackass Presents: Bad Grandpa (2013)\n  \u2022 Project Almanac (2015)\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFilms directed by Peter Segal\n  \u2022 Naked Gun 33\u2153: The Final Insult (1994)\n  \u2022 Tommy Boy (1995)\n  \u2022 My Fellow Americans (1996)\n  \u2022 Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000)\n  \u2022 Anger Management (2003)\n  \u2022 50 First Dates (2004)\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard (2005)\n  \u2022 Get Smart (2008)\n  \u2022 Grudge Match (2013)\n  \u2022 Second Act (2018)\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHappy Madison Productions\nFilms\n  \u2022 Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo (1999)\n  \u2022 Little Nicky (2000)\n  \u2022 The Animal (2001)\n  \u2022 Joe Dirt (2001)\n  \u2022 Mr. Deeds (2002)\n  \u2022 The Master of Disguise (2002)\n  \u2022 Eight Crazy Nights (2002)\n  \u2022 The Hot Chick (2002)\n  \u2022 Anger Management (2003)\n  \u2022 Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star (2003)\n  \u2022 50 First Dates (2004)\n  \u2022 The Longest Yard (2005)\n  \u2022 Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo (2005)\n  \u2022 Grandma's Boy (2006)\n  \u2022 The Benchwarmers (2006)\n  \u2022 Click (2006)\n  \u2022 I Now Pronounce You Chuck And Larry (2007)\n  \u2022 Reign Over Me (2007)\n  \u2022 Strange Wilderness (2008)\n  \u2022 The House Bunny (2008)\n  \u2022 You Don't Mess with the Zohan (2008)\n  \u2022 Bedtime Stories (2008)\n  \u2022 Paul Blart: Mall Cop (2009)\n  \u2022 The Shortcut (2009)\n  \u2022 Funny People (2009)\n  \u2022 Grown Ups (2010)\n  \u2022 Just Go with It (2011)\n  \u2022 Zookeeper (2011)\n  \u2022 Bucky Larson: Born to Be a Star (2011)\n  \u2022 Jack and Jill (2011)\n  \u2022 That's My Boy (2012)\n  \u2022 Here Comes the Boom (2012)\n  \u2022 Grown Ups 2 (2013)\n  \u2022 Blended (2014)\n  \u2022 Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2 (2015)\n  \u2022 Pixels (2015)\n  \u2022 Joe Dirt 2: Beautiful Loser (2015)\n  \u2022 The Ridiculous 6 (2015)\n  \u2022 The Do-Over (2016)\n  \u2022 Sandy Wexler (2017)\n  \u2022 The Week Of (2018)\nTelevision series\n  \u2022 Rules of Engagement (2007\u201313)\n  \u2022 The Gong Show with Dave Attell (2008)\n  \u2022 Nick Swardson's Pretend Time (2010\u201311)\n  \u2022 Breaking In (2011\u201312)\n  \u2022 The Goldbergs (2013\u2013present)\n  \u2022 Imaginary Mary (2017)\nKey people\n  \u2022 Adam Sandler\n  \u2022 Allen Covert\n  \u2022 Jack Giarraputo\n  \u2022 Tim Herlihy\n  \u2022 Heather Parry\n  \u2022 Sony Pictures Entertainment\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNelly\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\nStudio albums\nand singles\nCountry Grammar\n  \u2022 \"Country Grammar (Hot Shit)\"\n  \u2022 \"E.I.\"\n  \u2022 \"Ride wit Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Batter Up\"\nNellyville\n  \u2022 \"Hot in Herre\"\n  \u2022 \"Dilemma\"\n  \u2022 \"Air Force Ones\"\n  \u2022 \"Work It\"\n  \u2022 \"Pimp Juice\"\nSweat and Suit\n  \u2022 \"Flap Your Wings\"\n  \u2022 \"Tilt Ya Head Back\"\n  \u2022 \"Na-NaNa-Na\"\n  \u2022 \"My Place\"\n  \u2022 \"Over and Over\"\n  \u2022 \"'N' Dey Say\"\nBrass Knuckles\n  \u2022 \"Wadsyaname\"\n  \u2022 \"Party People\"\n  \u2022 \"Body on Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Stepped on My J'z\"\n5.0\n  \u2022 \"Just a Dream\"\n  \u2022 \"Move That Body\"\n  \u2022 \"Gone\"\nM.O.\n  \u2022 \"Hey Porsche\"\n  \u2022 \"Get Like Me\"\nCompilations\n  \u2022 Sweatsuit\n  \u2022 The Best of Nelly\nEPs\n  \u2022 6 Derrty Hits\nRemix albums\n  \u2022 Da Derrty Versions: The Reinvention\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"Where the Party At\"\n  \u2022 \"Girlfriend (The Neptunes Remix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Get It Poppin'\"\n  \u2022 \"Nasty Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"Call on Me\"\n  \u2022 \"5000 Ones\"\n  \u2022 \"Here I Am\"\n  \u2022 \"Miss Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Lose Control (Let Me Down)\"\n  \u2022 \"Cruise (Remix)\"\n  \u2022 \"4x4\"\n  \u2022 \"I Don't Wanna Go to Bed\"\n  \u2022 \"Millionaire\"\nSoundtrack singles\n  \u2022 \"#1\"\n  \u2022 \"Shake Ya Tailfeather\"\n  \u2022 \"Errtime\"\n  \u2022 \"Warrior\"\nOther singles\n  \u2022 \"Iz U\"\n  \u2022 \"Grillz\"\n  \u2022 \"The Champ\"\n  \u2022 \"The Fix\"\n  \u2022 \"Die a Happy Man\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 St. Lunatics\n  \u2022 Derrty Entertainment\n  \u2022 The Main Event\n  \u2022 Nellyville (TV series)\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Longest_Yard_(2005_film)&oldid=865603684\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2005 films\n  \u2022 English-language films\n  \u2022 2000s comedy-drama films\n  \u2022 2000s prison films\n  \u2022 American comedy-drama films\n  \u2022 American crime drama films\n  \u2022 American film remakes\n  \u2022 American films\n  \u2022 American football films\n  \u2022 American prison films\n  \u2022 American sports comedy films\n  \u2022 Films set in Texas\n  \u2022 Films shot in New Mexico\n  \u2022 Pittsburgh Steelers in popular culture\n  \u2022 Films directed by Peter Segal\n  \u2022 Paramount Pictures films\n  \u2022 Columbia Pictures films\n  \u2022 MTV Films films\n  \u2022 Happy Madison films\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from September 2015\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 24 October 2018, at 23:40\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-3485658226283555167","title":"Joanna Going","text":"Joanna Going\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nJoanna Going\nJoanna Going - Kingdom Premiere Oct 2014 (cropped).jpg\nJoanna Going at the Kingdom premiere in October 2014.\nBorn Joanna C. Going\n(1963-07-22) July 22, 1963 (age\u00a054)\nWashington, DC., United States\nAlma\u00a0mater Emerson College\nAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts\nOccupation Actress\nYears\u00a0active 1986\u2013present\nSpouse(s) Dylan Walsh (m.\u00a02004; div.\u00a02012)\nChildren 1\n\nJoanna C. Going[1] (born July 22, 1963) is an American actress.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 Career\n  \u2022 3 Personal life\n  \u2022 4 Filmography\n    \u2022 4.1 Film\n    \u2022 4.2 Television\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nShe was born in Washington, DC, the oldest of six children of a lawyer\/state assemblyman father and a police dispatcher mother.[1] Raised in Newport, Rhode Island, she graduated from Rogers High School in 1981, then attended Emerson College for two years before studying at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.[citation needed]\n\nCareer[edit]\n\nGoing appeared in soap opera roles in the late 1980s, most notably as Lisa Grady on Another World from 1987 to 1989.[2] She went on to portray lead character Victoria Winters in the 1991 primetime series Dark Shadows.[2] Going later starred in short-lived television series Going to Extremes and guest-starred on Columbo, Spin City, The Outer Limits, and Law & Order.\n\nGoing starred in a number of feature films. She made her film debut in Wyatt Earp (1994) as Josephine Marcus, and later had major roles in Eden, Keys to Tulsa, Inventing the Abbotts, and Still Breathing. Her biggest role may be in the 1998 film version of Phantoms. In the 2000s, she starred in several television films and guest-starred on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Criminal Minds, and Mad Men. She also appeared opposite Sean Penn in the 2011 film The Tree of Life, her first role in a major motion picture since 2003's Runaway Jury. In 2014, Going starred as First Lady Tricia Walker in the second season of Netflix political series House of Cards. She later was cast in the DirecTV series Kingdom.[3][4][5]\n\nGoing appeared on Ken Reid's TV Guidance Counselor podcast on March 25, 2016.\n\nPersonal life[edit]\n\nGoing married actor Dylan Walsh on October 10, 2004. They have a daughter, Stella Haven. On December 15, 2010, Walsh announced he had filed for divorce.[6] The divorce was finalized in December 2012.[7]\n\nFilmography[edit]\n\nNick Jonas, Going, Matt Lauria, Frank Grillo, and Jonathan Tucker at the premiere of the Kingdom in October 2014\n\nFilm[edit]\n\nYear Title Role Notes\n1994 Wyatt Earp Josephine Marcus\n1995 How to Make an American Quilt Young Em\n1995 Nixon Young Student\n1996 Eden Helen Kunen\n1997 Little City Kate\n1997 Inventing the Abbotts Alice Abbott\n1997 Keys to Tulsa Cherry\n1997 Commandments Karen Warner\n1997 Still Breathing Rosalyn Willoughby\n1998 Phantoms Jennifer Pailey, M.D.\n1998 Heaven Jennifer Marling\n1998 Blue Christmas Pretty Woman\n1999 NetForce Toni Fiorelli\n2000 Cupid & Cate Cynthia TV Movie\n2001 Lola Sandra\n2002 The Routine Mother Short film\n2002 Home Alone 4 Natalie TV Movie\n2003 Runaway Jury Celeste Wood\n2006 Save Me Rita Lambert Short film\n2006 My Silent Partner Phyllis Webber TV Movie\n2007 McBride: Dogged Sarah Sinclair TV Movie\n2009 Chasing a Dream Diane Stiles TV Movie\n2011 The Tree of Life Jack's Wife\n2014 Ready or Knot Margo\n2014 The Sphere and the Labyrinth Jordana\n2014 Love & Mercy Audree Wilson\n\nTelevision[edit]\n\nYear Title Role Notes\n1986 Search for Tomorrow Evie Stone Recurring role\n1987\u20131989 Another World Lisa Grady Series regular\n1990 The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd Mindy Episode: \"Here's Why You Can Never Have Too Much Petty Cash\"\n1991 Dark Shadows Victoria Winters \/ Josette du Pres Series regular, 12 episodes\n1992 Columbo Melissa Alexandra Hayes Episode: \"No Time to Die\"\n1992\u20131993 Going to Extremes Kathleen McDermott Series regular, 17 episodes\n1993 New Year Katie Hartman TV pilot\n1993 Nick's Game Laura 'Stock' Swenson TV pilot\n1995 Children of the Dust Rachel TV miniseries\n2000 Ed Sela McKenzie Episode: \"Pretty Girls and Waffles\"\n2001 Spin City Julia Rhodes 3 episodes\n2001 The Outer Limits Dr. Anya Kenway Episode: \"Worlds Within\"\n2002 Law & Order Dana Bauer Episode: \"The Collar\"\n2002 Georgetown TV pilot\n2003 111 Gramercy Park Cathy Wilton TV pilot\n2005 Inconceivable Jann Carlton Episode: \"Sex, Lies and Sonograms\"\n2005 Into the West Old Clara Wheeler TV miniseries\n2006 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Amanda Sinclair \/ Jill Case Episode: \"Happenstance\"\n2007 Criminal Minds Dana Woodridge Episode: \"Distress\"\n2007 Close to Home Samantha Veeder 3 episodes\n2007 Journeyman Lauren Episode: \"Perfidia\"\n2013 Mad Men Arlene Episodes: \"To Have and to Hold\" and \"The Better Half\"\n2014 House of Cards First Lady Tricia Walker 7 episodes\n2014\u20132017 Kingdom Christina Kulina Main role\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Joanna Going Biography (1963-)\". Filmreference.com. Retrieved 2010-01-18.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Joanna Going\". Movies.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved 2014-04-06.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"'House of Cards' Joanna Going Boards DirecTV's 'Navy St.'\". Hollywood Reporter. 2014-03-07. Retrieved 2014-04-06.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Joanna Going Joins DirecTV's 'Navy St'; Angelique Cabral Boards NBC's 'Two To Go'\". Deadline.com. March 7, 2014. Retrieved 2014-04-06.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Deadline, The (June 12, 2014). \"DirecTV Drama Series 'Navy St' Gets New Title, Premiere Date\". Deadline.com. Retrieved October 19, 2014.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Nip\/Tuck Star Dylan Walsh Files for Divorce\". People.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Dylan Walsh - Ordered to Pay Ex-Wife HALF Of 'Nip\/Tuck' Money\". TMZ.com. 2012-12-25. Retrieved 2014-04-06.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Joanna Going on IMDb\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 268785326\n  \u2022 LCCN: no2001038831\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0001 1934 8179\n  \u2022 BNF: cb14182087x (data)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Joanna_Going&oldid=793784298\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1963 births\n  \u2022 Actresses from Rhode Island\n  \u2022 American film actresses\n  \u2022 American television actresses\n  \u2022 Emerson College alumni\n  \u2022 Living people\n  \u2022 People from Newport, Rhode Island\n  \u2022 American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni\n  \u2022 20th-century American actresses\n  \u2022 21st-century American actresses\n  \u2022 Actresses from Washington, D.C.\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from November 2011\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 3 August 2017, at 22:51.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"579893973614577866","title":"Can't Take My Eyes Off You","text":"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"I Love You Baby\" redirects here. For the film of that name, see I Love You Baby (film).\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\nCan't Take My Eyes Off You.jpg\nCover of the 1967 US single\nSingle by Frankie Valli\nfrom the album Frankie Valli: Solo[1]\nB-side \"The Trouble With Me\"\nReleased May\u00a01967\u00a0(1967-05)\nFormat 7\"\nRecorded April 1967\nGenre Pop rock\nLength 2:58\nLabel Philips\nSongwriter(s)\n  \u2022 Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 Bob Gaudio\nProducer(s) Bob Crewe\nFrankie Valli singles chronology\n\"The Proud One\"\n(1966)\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n(1967)\n\"I Make a Fool of Myself\"\n(1967)\n\"The Proud One\"\n(1966)\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n(1967)\n\"I Make a Fool of Myself\"\n(1967)\n\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind \"Windy\" by The Association.[2] It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli's biggest solo hit until he hit #1 in 1974 with \"My Eyes Adored You\".[3]\n\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club's name or a popular player's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing \"Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la!\"). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake-up song for a mission of the Space Shuttle, on the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Credits\n  \u2022 2 Charts\n    \u2022 2.1 Weekly charts\n    \u2022 2.2 Year-end charts\n  \u2022 3 Notable cover versions\n    \u2022 3.1 1967\u20131969\n    \u2022 3.2 1970\u20131989\n    \u2022 3.3 1990\u20131999\n    \u2022 3.4 2000\u20132009\n    \u2022 3.5 2010\u2013present\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nCredits[edit]\n\nThe song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio.[4] The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone as the engineer.\n\nCharts[edit]\n\nWeekly charts[edit]\n\nChart (1967) Peak\nposition\nCanada RPM Top Singles[5] 2\nUS Billboard Hot 100[6] 2\nUS Cash Box Top 100[7] 1\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\nChart (1967) Rank\nCanada[8] 18\nUS Billboard Hot 100[9] 10\nUS Cash Box [10] 3\n\nNotable cover versions[edit]\n\nThe song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:\n\n1967\u20131969[edit]\n\n  \u2022 The Lettermen (#7 in 1967, in a medley with \"Goin' Out of My Head\")\n  \u2022 A version by Andy Williams made it to #5 on the UK singles chart in 1968.[11] The arranger and producer was Nick DeCaro and the conductor was Eddie Karam.[12] This version is included in the soundtrack of the 2001 film Bridget Jones's Diary. In 2002 he recorded a new version of the song, as a duet with British actress and singer Denise van Outen, which reached #23 in the UK singles charts.[13]\n  \u2022 Vicki Carr recorded a cover of the song on her 1967 album It Must Be Him.\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson (#52 in 1969)\n  \u2022 Engelbert Humperdinck covered the song on his 1968 album A Man Without Love.[14]\n  \u2022 The Easybeats covered the song on their 1968 album Vigil, only released on the UK\/European version of the album.\n  \u2022 The Supremes performed the song for the first time in 1969, in one of Diana Ross' last performance on TV with the group, with Mary Wilson on lead.\n  \u2022 A translated version in Swedish was recorded by Anni-Frid Lyngstad (later of ABBA) and was released as the B-side to her debut single \"Din\" in 1967. The recording has also been released on Lyngstad's compilation albums.[15]\n\n1970\u20131989[edit]\n\n  \u2022 In 1970, Brook Benton recorded the song on his album Brook Benton Today.[16]\n  \u2022 In 1972, Bobby Darin performed the song on his summer television series, Dean Martin Presents: The Bobby Darin Amusement Company, and this version was included in the 2004 album Aces Back to Back.\n  \u2022 In 1974, Anna Maria Alberghetti performed the song as part of a medley on the 1974 Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon.\n  \u2022 In 1975, Julio Iglesias sang the song on his TV show.\n  \u2022 Shirley Bassey recorded this as a United Artist Single in 1976.\n  \u2022 In 1978 actors Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken and John Cazale sang the lyrics in the movie The Deer Hunter.\n  \u2022 Maureen McGovern (#27 on the US Adult Contemporary chart in 1979; #5 Canadian AC in 1980).[17]\n  \u2022 In 1982, San Francisco based disco band Boys Town Gang performed a disco version of the song which reached number one in the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and number four in the United Kingdom.[18][19] This version was also successful in Japan, receiving a gold digital certification by the RIAJ in 2011, and is also on games such as Just Dance 4.\n  \u2022 In 1987, Hong Kong singer Prudence Liew recorded a Cantonese version and released it as the fourth single from her sophomore album, Why.\n  \u2022 In 1989, Michelle Pfeiffer sang the song in The Fabulous Baker Boys.\n\n1990\u20131999[edit]\n\n  \u2022 1991, onwards various versions from by disco singer Gloria Gaynor.[20]\n  \u2022 1991, Pet Shop Boys used part of the song on their cover version of U2's \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", which reached #4 in the U.K. and #72 in the U.S.\n  \u2022 1992, Dutch singers Gerard Joling and Tatjana \u0160imi\u0107 recorded a duet version of the song (including a rap segment by Darrell Bell), which peaked at #5 in the Dutch Top 40 charts.[21]\n  \u2022 1993, the song was recorded by a-ha singer Morten Harket for the soundtrack of the movie Coneheads (1993).[22]\n  \u2022 1994, Russian singer Philipp Kirkorov recorded this song for his album I'm not a Rafael.\n  \u2022 1995, Christian rock band Daniel Amos recorded a version of the song on their album Songs of the Heart.\n  \u2022 1996, Manic Street Preachers recorded a version of the song and used it as the third B-side on their single \"Australia\", the fourth to be taken from the hit album Everything Must Go.\n  \u2022 1997, Turkish singer Tu\u011fba \u00d6nal covered the song in Turkish, titled \"Gelmezsen Gelme\" and featured the song on her album Onun Ad\u0131 A\u015fk.[citation needed]\n  \u2022 1997, German singer Tommy Fischer released his german disco version \"Weil ich dich liebe\" (covered in 2008 by Two 4 Pop)\n  \u2022 1997, Xysma, the pioneering finnish grindcore band, covered the song in their later career after transforming into a rock band on their EP Singles.\n  \u2022 1998, Lauryn Hill (#35 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and #2 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart in 1998 and #8 on the Australian Singles Charts).[23] This version was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance in 1999.\n  \u2022 1999, Izumi Sakai of the Japanese music unit Zard recorded a version of the song with Yasuharu Konishi. It was included as a miniature bonus CD to the 8th Zard album Eien. The title is altered slightly to \"Can't Take My Eyes Off Of You\" and a remixed version is included as the second of two tracks.\n  \u2022 1999, Jatin-Lalit included a Hindi version, \"Haan Haan Yeh Pyar Hai\", in the film Dillagi.\n  \u2022 1999, Heath Ledger sang the song in the teen romantic-comedy 10 Things I Hate About You.\n  \u2022 1999, Denise Richards sang the song in the comedy Drop Dead Gorgeous (film).\n\n2000\u20132009[edit]\n\n  \u2022 2000, Japanese singer Ringo Sheena, for the single \"Tsumi to Batsu\".\n  \u2022 2000, Hong Kong singer Leon Lai did a Cantonese version in his album Beijing Station.\n  \u2022 2000, Sheena Easton recorded her version for her album Fabulous.\n  \u2022 2001, Jimmy Somerville released his version as a single.\n  \u2022 2001, British group Muse, for the single \"Dead Star\" \/ \"In Your World\".\n  \u2022 2002, Japanese singer Tommy february6, on her eponymous album.\n  \u2022 2002, American guitarist Ron 'Bumblefoot' Thal, on his album Uncool.\n  \u2022 2003, Czech duo T\u011b\u017ekej Pokondr recorded a Czech comedy version named Pejzy for their album Kuss.\n  \u2022 2003, italian singer Mina recorded a dance version of the song called Don't Call Me Baby.\n  \u2022 2004, Jennifer Pe\u00f1a recorded a Latin version of the song, \"No Hay Nadie Igual Como T\u00fa\", which reached #33 on the Latin charts.\n  \u2022 2004, Bad Manners, for The Ultimate Bad Collection - Crooners.\n  \u2022 2005, Jamie Kennedy performed a song in the movie, Son of the Mask.\n  \u2022 2005, Hello Kitty performed a song for Sanrio Puroland's Yoru wo Tanoshima Night.\n  \u2022 2006, Barry Manilow including this song on his album The Greatest Songs of the Sixties.\n  \u2022 2006, The Killers performed this song as an intro to \"Shadowplay\" while on their Sam's Town Tour in 2006\/07.\n  \u2022 2007, Greek singer Efi Thodi included this song in her album I Love You Baby.\n  \u2022 2008, John Barrowman recorded a cover for his album Music Music Music.\n  \u2022 2008, Chinese soft rock duet Yu Quan recorded a cover as an EP titled Fall in Love with Your Beauty.\n  \u2022 2008, Frankie Valli's version of the song was played by NASA as the morning wake-up call for astronaut Christopher Ferguson, in honor of his anniversary while he was on the STS-126 Space Shuttle mission.[24]\n  \u2022 2008, East german duo \"TWO 4 POP\" released a cover of Tommy Fischer's german version \"Weil ich dich liebe\" from 1997\n\n2010\u2013present[edit]\n\n  \u2022 In 2010, A cappella group Straight No Chaser included a cover of the song on their album With a Twist.\n  \u2022 In 2010, Clay Aiken included a cover of the song on his album Tried and True.\n  \u2022 In 2011, Japanese R&B singer Misia, included a cover of the song as a B-side to her single \"Kioku\". The song was later included on her cover album, Misia no Mori: Forest Covers.\n  \u2022 In 2011, Taiwanese-American singer-songwriter Joanna Wang, included a cover of the song on her cover album, The Things We Do for Love.\n  \u2022 2011, Stereophonics frontman Kelly Jones sang an acoustic version of the song in tribute to former Wales national football team manager Gary Speed. The song has been an adopted anthem for Welsh football fans during Speed's playing career with Wales after being used in a BBC Wales promo for the 1994 World Cup qualifying campaign.[25]\n  \u2022 In 2012, Sandaime J Soul Brothers, a dance and vocal group from Japan under the same agency as EXILE, cover this song and sing it on their [0~ZERO~ Live Tour] as \"\u541b\u306e\u77b3\u306b\u604b\u3057\u3066\u308b-Can't Take My Eyes Off of You-\".[26]\n  \u2022 In 2013, Canadian indie band Walk off the Earth recorded an acoustic\/beat box version of the song posted on YouTube with Belgian singer\/songwriter Selah Sue voicing the chorus.[27]\n  \u2022 In 2013, South Korean girl group Girls' Generation performed a version of this song as part of their Japan 2nd Tour \uff5eGirls\uff06Peace\uff5e[28] and 2013 Girls' Generation World Tour - Girls & Peace.[29]\n  \u2022 In 2013, Rumba music group Chico & the Gypsies did a Spanish version called \"No Puedo Quitar Mis Ojos De Ti\" on their album Fiesta released mid-2013. Chico is Jahloul \"Chico\" Bouchikhi, one of the founder members of Gipsy Kings.\n  \u2022 In 2013, the vocal harmony group The Overtones covered the song for the official soundtrack of the German movie Buddy, and also included the song on the Christmas and Mother's Day editions of their 2013 platinum selling album, Saturday Night at the Movies.\n  \u2022 In 2014, John Lloyd Young covered the song for the movie Jersey Boys about the band The Four Seasons where he played Frankie Valli. He was also the original performer on the Broadway musical of the same name which premiered in 2005.\n  \u2022 In 2015, Greek singers Antonis Remos and Melina Aslanidou performed the song on a tour.\n  \u2022 In 2016, Amanda Lear recorded a new version of the song for her album Let Me Entertain You.\n  \u2022 Jessie J recorded her version in 2016, for the French cosmetics brand Make Up For Ever.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Official Frankie Valli Site\". Retrieved 2017-11-25.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100\". 1967-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-31.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Bronson, Fred. The Billboard book of number 1 hits. p.\u00a0398.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Frankie Valli - Can't Take My Eyes Off You \/ The Trouble With Me (Vinyl)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-15.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN\u00a00-89820-089-X\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, July 15, 1967\". Tropicalglen.com. 1967-12-23. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-15.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Musicoutfitters.com\". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1967\". Tropicalglen.com. 1967-12-23. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 40 | Official Charts Company\". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Love, Andy by Andy Williams, album sleeve, 1967. New York: Columbia Records CS 9566\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 40 | Official Charts Company\". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Engelbert Humperdinck - A Man Without Love (Vinyl, LP)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Du \u00e4r s\u00e5 underbart rar - recording\". musicbrainz.com. Retrieved 2016-03-11.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Brook Benton - Brook Benton Today (Vinyl, LP, Album)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Top 40-lijst van week 24, 1982\". Top40.nl. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p.\u00a074. ISBN\u00a01-904994-10-5.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Gloria Gaynor - Can't Take My Eyes Off You - YourDancefloorTV on YouTube. Retrieved June 9, 2012.\n  21. Jump up ^ \"JAARLIJST 1992\". Members.chello.nl. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Coneheads - Original Soundtrack | Songs, Reviews, Credits\". AllMusic. 1993-07-20. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Lauryn Hill | Awards\". AllMusic. 1975-05-26. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"MP3 file\". Spaceflight.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ [1][dead link]\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Sandaime J Soul Brothers LIVE TOUR 2012 \"0 - Zero -\" [Blu-ray] Sandaime J Soul Brothers (3JSB) Blu-ray\". CDJapan. 2013-03-13. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Can't Take My Eyes Off You - Walk off the Earth (Feat. Selah Sue) on YouTube Retrieved January 16th, 2013.\n  28. Jump up ^ Girls' Generation Second Japan Arena Tour Set List Retrieved April 5th, 2013.\n  29. Jump up ^ 2013 Girls' Generation World Tour Set List. Retrieved June 9, 2013.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \"Official Frankie Valli Site\". Retrieved 2010-2-16.\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\n  \u2022 RIAA - Gold & Platinum Searchable Database\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAndy Williams\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Andy Williams Sings Steve Allen\n  \u2022 Andy Williams Sings Rodgers and Hammerstein\n  \u2022 Two Time Winners\n  \u2022 To You Sweetheart, Aloha\n  \u2022 Lonely Street\n  \u2022 The Village of St. Bernadette\n  \u2022 Under Paris Skies\n  \u2022 Danny Boy and Other Songs I Love to Sing\n  \u2022 Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes\n  \u2022 Warm and Willing\n  \u2022 Days of Wine and Roses and Other TV Requests\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Christmas Album\n  \u2022 The Wonderful World of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 The Academy Award-Winning \"Call Me Irresponsible\" and Other Hit Songs from the Movies\n  \u2022 The Great Songs from \"My Fair Lady\" and Other Broadway Hits\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Dear Heart\n  \u2022 Merry Christmas\n  \u2022 The Shadow of Your Smile\n  \u2022 In the Arms of Love\n  \u2022 Born Free\n  \u2022 Love, Andy\n  \u2022 Honey\n  \u2022 Happy Heart\n  \u2022 Get Together with Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Show\n  \u2022 Love Story\n  \u2022 You've Got a Friend\n  \u2022 Love Theme from \"The Godfather\"\n  \u2022 Alone Again (Naturally)\n  \u2022 Solitaire\n  \u2022 The Way We Were\n  \u2022 Christmas Present\n  \u2022 You Lay So Easy on My Mind\n  \u2022 The Other Side of Me\n  \u2022 Andy\n  \u2022 Let's Love While We Can\n  \u2022 Greatest Love Classics\n  \u2022 Close Enough for Love\n  \u2022 I Still Believe in Santa Claus\n  \u2022 Nashville\n  \u2022 We Need a Little Christmas\n  \u2022 I Don't Remember Ever Growing Up\nCompilations\n  \u2022 Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Best\n  \u2022 Million Seller Songs\n  \u2022 Canadian Sunset\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Newest Hits\n  \u2022 May Each Day\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Sound of Music\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits\n  \u2022 The Impossible Dream\n  \u2022 Love Story\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits Vol. 2 (CBS)\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits Vol. 2\n  \u2022 Reflections\n  \u2022 The Best of Andy Williams (1992)\n  \u2022 Personal Christmas Collection\n  \u2022 16 Most Requested Songs: Encore!\n  \u2022 The Best of Andy Williams (1996)\n  \u2022 The Love Songs\n  \u2022 In the Lounge with...\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Andy Williams (2000)\n  \u2022 Andy\n  \u2022 The Essential Andy Williams\n  \u2022 B Sides and Rarities\n  \u2022 Music to Watch Girls By: The Very Best of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Moon River: The Very Best of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Andy Williams (2009)\n  \u2022 The Classic Christmas Album\nLive albums\n  \u2022 Greatest Hits\n  \u2022 The New Andy Williams Christmas Album\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Walk Hand in Hand\"\n  \u2022 \"Canadian Sunset\"\n  \u2022 \"Butterfly\"\n  \u2022 \"I Like Your Kind of Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Lips of Wine\"\n  \u2022 \"Are You Sincere?\"\n  \u2022 \"Promise Me, Love\"\n  \u2022 \"The Hawaiian Wedding Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Lonely Street\"\n  \u2022 \"The Village of St. Bernadette\"\n  \u2022 \"Danny Boy\"\n  \u2022 \"Fly by Night\"\n  \u2022 \"Stranger on the Shore\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't You Believe It\"\n  \u2022 \"Twilight Time\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Get Used to Losing You\"\n  \u2022 \"Days of Wine and Roses\"\n  \u2022 \"Hopeless\"\n  \u2022 \"A Fool Never Learns\"\n  \u2022 \"Charade\"\n  \u2022 \"Wrong for Each Other\"\n  \u2022 \"On the Street Where You Live\"\n  \u2022 \"Almost There\"\n  \u2022 \"Dear Heart\"\n  \u2022 \"...and Roses and Roses\"\n  \u2022 \"Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars (Corcovado)\"\n  \u2022 \"May Each Day\"\n  \u2022 \"You're Gonna Hear from Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Bye Bye Blues\"\n  \u2022 \"How Can I Tell Her It's Over\"\n  \u2022 \"In the Arms of Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Music to Watch Girls By\"\n  \u2022 \"Holly\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Sweet Memories\"\n  \u2022 \"Battle Hymn of the Republic\"\n  \u2022 \"Happy Heart\"\n  \u2022 \"Live and Learn\"\n  \u2022 \"A Woman's Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Help Falling in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"One Day of Your Life\"\n  \u2022 \"It's So Easy\"\n  \u2022 \"Home Lovin' Man\"\n  \u2022 \"(Where Do I Begin?) Love Story\"\n  \u2022 \"A Song for You\"\n  \u2022 \"You've Got a Friend\"\n  \u2022 \"Speak Softly Love (Love Theme from The Godfather)\"\n  \u2022 \"MacArthur Park\"\n  \u2022 \"Solitaire\"\n  \u2022 \"Love's Theme\"\n  \u2022 \"Another Lonely Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Cry Softly\"\n  \u2022 \"Sad Eyes\"\n  \u2022 \"The Other Side of Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell It Like It Is\"\n  \u2022 \"It's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year\"\nB-Sides\n  \u2022 \"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\"\n  \u2022 \"I Want to Be Wanted\"\n  \u2022 \"Summertime\"\n  \u2022 \"So Rare\"\n  \u2022 \"Emily\"\n  \u2022 \"Red Roses for a Blue Lady\"\n  \u2022 \"I'll Remember You\"\n  \u2022 \"Something\"\n  \u2022 \"My Love\"\n  \u2022 \"They Long to Be Close to You \"\n  \u2022 \"I Love My Friend\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 The Williams Brothers\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Four Seasons\n  \u2022 Frankie Valli\n  \u2022 Tommy DeVito\n  \u2022 Bob Gaudio\n  \u2022 Nick Massi\n  \u2022 Charles Calello\n  \u2022 Joe Long\n  \u2022 Gerry Polci\nAlbums\n  \u2022 Sherry & 11 Others (1962)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Greetings (1962)\n  \u2022 Big Girls Don't Cry and Twelve Others (1963)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Sing Ain't That a Shame and 11 Others (1963)\n  \u2022 Golden Hits of the 4 Seasons (1963)\n  \u2022 Dawn (1964)\n  \u2022 Rag Doll (1964)\n  \u2022 Born to Wonder (1964)\n  \u2022 Stay and Other Great Hits (1964)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Sing Big Hits by Burt Bacharach... Hal David... Bob Dylan (1965)\n  \u2022 4 Seasons Entertain You (1965)\n  \u2022 Lets Hang On (1965)\n  \u2022 Working My Way Back to You (1965)\n  \u2022 On Stage with The Four Seasons (1965)\n  \u2022 New Gold Hits (1967)\n  \u2022 Edizione D'Oro (Gold Edition) (1968)\n  \u2022 The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette (1969)\n  \u2022 Half and Half (1970)\n  \u2022 Chameleon (1972)\n  \u2022 Who Loves You (1975)\n  \u2022 Helicon (1977)\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Frankie Valli & The Four Seasons (2002)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Bermuda\"\n  \u2022 \"Sherry\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Girls Don't Cry\"\n  \u2022 \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\"\n  \u2022 \"Walk Like a Man\"\n  \u2022 \"Ain't That a Shame\"\n  \u2022 \"Candy Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"New Mexican Rose\"\n  \u2022 \"Dawn (Go Away)\"\n  \u2022 \"Stay\"\n  \u2022 \"Ronnie\"\n  \u2022 \"Rag Doll\"\n  \u2022 \"Alone (Why Must I Be Alone)\"\n  \u2022 \"Save It for Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Sincerely\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Man in Town\"\n  \u2022 \"I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus\"\n  \u2022 \"Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)\"\n  \u2022 \"Since I Don't Have You\"\n  \u2022 \"Girl Come Running\"\n  \u2022 \"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)\"\n  \u2022 \"Let's Hang On!\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't Think Twice\"\n  \u2022 \"Working My Way Back to You\"\n  \u2022 \"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'bout Me)\"\n  \u2022 \"On the Good Ship Lollipop\"\n  \u2022 \"I've Got You Under My Skin\"\n  \u2022 \"The Proud One\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell It to the Rain\"\n  \u2022 \"Beggin'\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"C'mon Marianne\"\n  \u2022 \"Lonesome Road\"\n  \u2022 \"Watch the Flowers Grow\"\n  \u2022 \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\"\n  \u2022 \"My Eyes Adored You\"\n  \u2022 \"Our Day Will Come\"\n  \u2022 \"Who Loves You\"\n  \u2022 \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\"\n  \u2022 \"Silver Star\"\n  \u2022 \"Grease\"\nRelated topics\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Members\n  \u2022 Albums\n  \u2022 Songs\n  \u2022 The Four Lovers\n  \u2022 The Wonder Who?\n  \u2022 Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 \"Ces soir\u00e9es-l\u00e0\"\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys: Original Broadway Cast Recording\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys (musical)\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys (film)\nWikipedia book Book:The Four Seasons\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nJimmy Somerville\n  \u2022 Discography\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Read My Lips\n  \u2022 Home Again\nCompilations\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat and The Communards\n  \u2022 For a Friend: The Best of Bronski Beat, The Communards & Jimmy Somerville\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Suspicious Minds\"\n  \u2022 \"Comment te dire adieu\"\n  \u2022 \"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)\"\n  \u2022 \"Read My Lips (Enough Is Enough)\"\n  \u2022 \"To Love Somebody\"\n  \u2022 \"Smalltown Boy ('91 Remix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Gimme Shelter\"\n  \u2022 \"Heartbeat\"\n  \u2022 \"Hurt So Good\"\n  \u2022 \"By Your Side\"\n  \u2022 \"The Number One Song in Heaven\"\n  \u2022 \"Why? (Almighty Mix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\"\nOther songs\n  \u2022 \"Love to Love You Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"Johnny Remember Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Lover Man\"\n  \u2022 \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\"\n  \u2022 \"From This Moment On\"\n  \u2022 \"Someday We'll Be Together\"\n  \u2022 \"But Not Tonight\"\n  \u2022 \"I Was Born This Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell Me Why\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Bronski Beat\n  \u2022 The Communards\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNancy Wilson\nAlbums\n  \u2022 Like in Love\n  \u2022 Something Wonderful\n  \u2022 The Swingin's Mutual!\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson\/Cannonball Adderley\n  \u2022 Broadway \u2013 My Way\n  \u2022 Hollywood \u2013 My Way\n  \u2022 Yesterday's Love Songs\/Today's Blues\n  \u2022 Today, Tomorrow, Forever\n  \u2022 The Nancy Wilson Show!\n  \u2022 Tender Loving Care\n  \u2022 Lush Life\n  \u2022 Welcome to My Love\n  \u2022 But Beautiful\n  \u2022 Love, Nancy\n  \u2022 A Nancy Wilson Christmas\n  \u2022 R.S.V.P. (Rare Songs, Very Personal)\n  \u2022 Turned to Blue\nSongs\n  \u2022 \"(You Don't Know) How Glad I Am\"\n  \u2022 \"Uptight (Everything's Alright) \"\n  \u2022 \"You've Got Your Troubles\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"She Called Me Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"Love Won't Let Me Wait\"\n  \u2022 \"I Can't Make You Love Me\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Jazz Profiles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Lettermen\n  \u2022 Tony Butala\n  \u2022 Bobby Poynton\n  \u2022 Donovan Tea\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Once Upon a Time (1962)\n  \u2022 The Best of The Lettermen (1966)\n  \u2022 I Have Dreamed (1969)\n  \u2022 Spin Away (1972)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"The 7th Dawn\"\n  \u2022 \"Allentown Jail\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Chanson D'Amour\"\n  \u2022 \"Come Back Silly Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"Eastward\"\n  \u2022 \"How Is Julie?\"\n  \u2022 \"Hurt So Bad\"\n  \u2022 \"I Have Dreamed\"\n  \u2022 \"Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Our Winter Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Put Your Head on My Shoulder\"\n  \u2022 \"Secretly\"\n  \u2022 \"Shangri-La\"\n  \u2022 \"She Cried\"\n  \u2022 \"Silly Boy (She Doesn't Love You)\"\n  \u2022 \"Sweet September\"\n  \u2022 \"Theme from A Summer Place\"\n  \u2022 \"Turn Around, Look at Me\"\n  \u2022 \"The Way You Look Tonight\"\n  \u2022 \"When I Fall in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Where or When\"\nRelated\n  \u2022 Vocal Group Hall of Fame\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Can%27t_Take_My_Eyes_Off_You&oldid=815160692\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1967 singles\n  \u2022 1968 singles\n  \u2022 1969 singles\n  \u2022 Songs written by Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 Songs written by Bob Gaudio\n  \u2022 Frankie Valli songs\n  \u2022 The Four Seasons (band) songs\n  \u2022 Jay and the Americans songs\n  \u2022 Andy Williams songs\n  \u2022 Lauryn Hill songs\n  \u2022 Barry Manilow songs\n  \u2022 The Lettermen songs\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) songs\n  \u2022 Schlager songs\n  \u2022 Maureen McGovern songs\n  \u2022 Oricon International Singles Chart number-one singles\n  \u2022 Dutch Top 40 number-one singles\n  \u2022 Song recordings produced by Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 1967 songs\n  \u2022 Philips Records singles\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from September 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 December 2017, at 03:50.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4348899975411196819","title":"Finger","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nFinger\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor other uses, see Finger (disambiguation) and Fingertips (disambiguation).\n\nFinger\nDedos de la mano (no labels).jpg\nDetails\nIdentifiers\nLatin Digiti manus\nMeSH D005385\nTA A01.1.00.030\nFMA 75592\nAnatomical terminology\n[edit on Wikidata]\n\nA finger is a limb of the human body and a type of digit, an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of humans and other primates.[1][2] Normally humans have five digits,[3] the bones of which are termed phalanges,[2] on each hand, although some people have more or fewer than five due to congenital disorders such as polydactyly or oligodactyly, or accidental or medical amputations. The first digit is the thumb, followed by index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and little finger or pinky. According to different definitions, the thumb can be called a finger, or not.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Anatomy\n    \u2022 1.1 Skeleton\n    \u2022 1.2 Muscles\n    \u2022 1.3 Skin\n    \u2022 1.4 Fingertip wrinkling in water\n    \u2022 1.5 Brain representation\n    \u2022 1.6 Other animals\n  \u2022 2 Clinical significance\n    \u2022 2.1 Anomalies, injuries and diseases\n  \u2022 3 History\n    \u2022 3.1 Etymology\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 Notes\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nAnatomy\n\nSkeleton\n\nIllustration depicting the bones of the human hand\n\nThe thumb (connected to the trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm.\n\nThe palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones, one to each of the five digits. Human hands contain fourteen digital bones, also called phalanges, or phalanx bones: two in the thumb (the thumb has no middle phalanx) and three in each of the four fingers. These are the distal phalanx, carrying the nail, the middle phalanx, and the proximal phalanx.\n\nSesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue. Many exist around the palm at the bases of the digits; the exact number varies between different people.\n\nThe articulations are: interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones, and metacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal bones.\n\nMuscles\n\nFile:Temporal-Control-and-Hand-Movement-Efficiency-in-Skilled-Music-Performance-pone.0050901.s001.ogvPlay media\nThe precision of finger movements in space and time is highlighted in this motion tracking of two pianists' fingers playing the same piece (slow motion, no sound).[4]\n\nEach finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct. Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement.\n\nFingers do not contain muscles (other than arrector pili). The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm. The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand.\n\nMuscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. The extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.\n\nThe fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (opponens and abductor brevis muscle), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.\n\nThe extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box. Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used for instance for pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments. The 1st compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. The 2nd compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis. The 3rd compartment contains extensor pollicis longus. The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor digititorum communis are within the 4th compartment. Extensor digiti minimi is in the fifth, and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the 6th.\n\nThe intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles (thenar referring to the thumb, hypothenar to the small finger), the dorsal and palmar interossei muscles (between the metacarpal bones) and the lumbrical muscles. The lumbricals arise from the deep flexor (and are special because they have no bony origin) and insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism.\n\nSkin\n\nAside from the genitals, the fingertips possess the highest concentration of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin,[citation needed] making them extremely sensitive to temperature, pressure, vibration, texture and moisture. Recent studies suggest fingers can feel nano-scale wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface, a level of sensitivity not previously recorded.[5] This makes the fingers commonly used sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects encountered in the world, making them prone to injury.\n\nThe pulp of a finger is the fleshy mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger.[6]\n\nFingertip wrinkling in water\n\nAlthough a common phenomenon, the underlying functions and mechanism of fingertip wrinkling following immersion in water are relatively unexplored. Originally it was assumed[by whom?] that the wrinkles were simply the result of the skin swelling in water,[citation needed] but it is now understood that the furrows are caused by the blood vessels constricting due to signalling by the sympathetic nervous system in response to water exposure.[7][8] One hypothesis for why this occurs, the \u201crain tread\u201d hypothesis, posits that the wrinkles may help the fingers grip things when wet, possibly being an adaption from a time when humans dealt with rain and dew in forested primate habitats.[7] A 2013 study supporting this hypothesis found that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects.[9] However, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips.[8]\n\nBrain representation\n\nEach finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b,[10] part of area 1[11] and a distributed, overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area.[12]\n\nThe somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand: in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed, shortened fingers. However, not only are the fingers of their hands fused, but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand. The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand. Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32-year-old man with the initials O. G.. They touched O. G.\u2019s fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans. Before the surgery, the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together; afterward, the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand.[13]\n\nOther animals\n\nChimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for manipulation, and (arguably) have fingers on their lower limbs as well. The term 'finger' is not applied to the digits of most other animals, such as canines, felines, or ungulates, none of which can engage in fine manipulation with their forelimbs as a primate can.\n\nClinical significance\n\nAnomalies, injuries and diseases\n\nRadiograph of Type 1 Syndactyly\n\nA rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans, in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits; this is known as polydactyly. A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly. Extra fingers can be functional. One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they \"gave him some advantages in playing the piano\".[14]\n\nPhalanges are commonly fractured. A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control, such as with a mallet finger. They can be damaged by cold, including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury (NFCI); and heat, including burns.\n\nThe fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing. Raynaud's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers.\n\nResearch has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone, and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length[15] and risk for development of alcohol dependence[16] or video game addiction.[17]\n\nHistory\n\nEtymology\n\nEnglish dictionaries describe finger as meaning either one of the five digits including the thumb, or one of the four excluding the thumb (in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index finger closest to the thumb).[1][2][18] Linguistically, it appears that the original sense was to include the thumb as a finger: the word is derived from Old English th\u016bma.[non sequitur] The name pinkie derives from Dutch pinkje, of uncertain origin. In English only the digits on the hand are known as fingers. However, in some languages the translated version of fingers can mean either the digits on the hand or feet. In English a digit on a foot has the distinct name of toe.\n\nSee also\n\n  \u2022 Finger snapping\n  \u2022 Fingerprint\n  \u2022 Nail (anatomy)\n  \u2022 Paroxysmal hand hematoma\n\nNotes\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Chambers 1998 page 603\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c Oxford Illustrated pages 311,380\n  3. Jump up ^ Tracy L. Kivell; Pierre Lemelin; Brian G. Richmond; Daniel Schmitt (10 August 2016). The Evolution of the Primate Hand: Anatomical, Developmental, Functional, and Paleontological Evidence. Springer. pp.\u00a07\u2013. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4939-3646-5.\n  4. Jump up ^ Goebl, W.; Palmer, C. (2013). Balasubramaniam, Ramesh, ed. \"Temporal Control and Hand Movement Efficiency in Skilled Music Performance\". PLoS ONE. 8 (1): e50901. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0050901. PMC\u00a03536780. PMID\u00a023300946.\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Feeling small: Fingers can detect nano-scale wrinkles even on a seemingly smooth surface\". Science Daily. September 16, 2013.\n  6. Jump up ^ medilexicon.com > Medical Dictionary - 'Pulp Of Finger' Citing: Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 2006\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Changizi, M.; Weber, R.; Kotecha, R.; Palazzo, J. (2011). \"Are Wet-Induced Wrinkled Fingers Primate Rain Treads?\". Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 77 (4): 286\u201390. doi:10.1159\/000328223. PMID\u00a021701145.\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Haseleu, Julia; Omerba\u0161i\u0107, Damir; Frenzel, Henning; Gross, Manfred; Lewin, Gary R. (2014). Goldreich, Daniel, ed. \"Water-Induced Finger Wrinkles Do Not Affect Touch Acuity or Dexterity in Handling Wet Objects\". PLoS ONE. 9: e84949. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0084949. PMC\u00a03885627. PMID\u00a024416318.\n  9. Jump up ^ Kareklas, K.; Nettle, D.; Smulders, T. V. (2013). \"Water-induced finger wrinkles improve handling of wet objects\". Biology Letters. 9 (2): 20120999. doi:10.1098\/rsbl.2012.0999. PMC\u00a03639753. PMID\u00a023302867.\n  10. Jump up ^ Van Westen, D; Fransson, P; Olsrud, J; Ros\u00e9n, B; Lundborg, G; Larsson, EM (2004). \"Fingersomatotopy in area 3b: an fMRI-study\". BMC Neurosci. 5: 28. doi:10.1186\/1471-2202-5-28. PMC\u00a0517711. PMID\u00a015320953.\n  11. Jump up ^ Nelson, AJ; Chen, R (2008). \"Digit somatotopy within cortical areas of the postcentral gyrus in humans\". Cereb Cortex. 18 (10): 2341\u201351. doi:10.1093\/cercor\/bhm257. PMID\u00a018245039.\n  12. Jump up ^ Kleinschmidt, A; Nitschke, MF; Frahm, J (1997). \"Somatotopy in the human motor cortex hand area. A high-resolution functional MRI study\". Eur J Neurosci. 9 (10): 2178\u201386. doi:10.1111\/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01384.x. PMID\u00a09421177.\n  13. Jump up ^ Mogilner, A; Grossman, JA; Ribary, U; Joliot, M; Volkmann, J; Rapaport, D; Beasley, RW; Llin\u00e1s, RR (1993). \"Somatosensory cortical plasticity in adult humans revealed by magnetoencephalography\". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 90 (8): 3593\u20137. doi:10.1073\/pnas.90.8.3593. PMC\u00a046347. PMID\u00a08386377.\n  14. Jump up ^ Dwight, T (1892). \"Fusion of hands\". Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 4: 473\u2013486.\n  15. Jump up ^ Researchers Find Association Between Penile Length and Ratio of Length of Men's Fingers\n  16. Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J; Erhard, G; Lenz, B; Kraus, T; Sperling, W; Bayerlein, K; Biermann, T; Stoessel, C (2011). \"Low digit ratio 2D:4D in alcohol dependent patients\". PLoS ONE. 6 (4): e19332. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0019332. PMC\u00a03081847. PMID\u00a021547078.\n  17. Jump up ^ Kornhuber, J.; Zenses, EM; Lenz, B; Stoessel, C; Bouna-Pyrrou, P; Rehbein, F; Kliem, S; M\u00f6\u00dfle, T (2013). \"Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction\". PLoS ONE. 8 (11): e79539. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0079539. PMC\u00a03827365. PMID\u00a024236143.\n  18. Jump up ^ Oxford Advanced page 326\n\nReferences\n\n  \u2022 The Chambers Dictionary. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. 2000 [1998]. ISBN\u00a00-550-14000-X.\n  \u2022 The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. 1976 [1975].\n  \u2022 Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press. 1974 [1974]. ISBN\u00a00-19-431102-3.\n\nExternal links\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Fingers.\nLook up finger in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHuman regional anatomy\nHead\n  \u2022 Ear\n  \u2022 Face\n    \u2022 Cheek\n    \u2022 Chin\n    \u2022 Eye\n    \u2022 Mouth\n    \u2022 Nose\n    \u2022 Forehead\n  \u2022 Jaw\n  \u2022 Occiput\n  \u2022 Scalp\n  \u2022 Temple\nNeck\n  \u2022 Adam's apple\n  \u2022 Throat\nTrunk\n  \u2022 Abdomen\n    \u2022 Waist\n    \u2022 Midriff\n    \u2022 Navel\n  \u2022 Back\n  \u2022 Thorax\n    \u2022 Breast\n  \u2022 Pelvis\n    \u2022 Sex organs\nLimbs\nArm\n  \u2022 Shoulder\n  \u2022 Axilla\n  \u2022 Brachium\n  \u2022 Elbow\n  \u2022 Forearm\n  \u2022 Wrist\n  \u2022 Hand\n  \u2022 Finger\n    \u2022 Thumb\n    \u2022 Index\n    \u2022 Middle\n    \u2022 Ring\n    \u2022 Little\nLeg\n  \u2022 Buttocks\n  \u2022 Hip\n  \u2022 Thigh\n  \u2022 Knee\n  \u2022 Calf\n  \u2022 Foot\n    \u2022 Ankle\n    \u2022 Heel\n    \u2022 Sole\n  \u2022 Toe\nOther\n  \u2022 \u00c9corch\u00e9\nGeneral anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Finger&oldid=835420359\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Fingers\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2013\n  \u2022 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing video clips\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Ava\u00f1e'\u1ebd\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u1403\u14c4\u1483\u144e\u1450\u1466\/inuktitut\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc\n  \u2022 M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Walon\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Zazaki\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 8 April 2018, at 16:28\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8813271174674506413","title":"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)","text":"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\"\nBetterThanI'veEverBeen.JPG\nSingle by Kanye West, Nas, KRS-One (and Rakim on the remix)\nReleased February 20, 2007\nFormat\n  \u2022 Digital download\n  \u2022 vinyl\nRecorded 2007\nGenre Hip hop\nLength 4:07\n4:42 (DJ Premier Remix)\nLabel Nike\nSongwriter(s)\n  \u2022 Biddu\n  \u2022 Carl Douglas\n  \u2022 William Griffin\n  \u2022 Nasir Jones\n  \u2022 Lawrence Parker\n  \u2022 Kanye West\nProducer(s)\n  \u2022 Rick Rubin\n  \u2022 DJ Premier\nMusic video\n\"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\" on YouTube\n\n\"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\" is Grammy-nominated collaboration song between Kanye West, Nas, KRS-One and that is co-produced by Rick Rubin and DJ Premier. The song was released as a single on February 20, 2007 by Nike Records. It was performed live at the Nike Air Force Ones 25th anniversary party shown on MTV2.\n\nIts remix, \"Better Than I've Ever Been DJ Premier Remix\", is produced by DJ Premier, and it features Rakim along with the aforementioned rappers. It features DJ Premier's signature scratches from prior songs such as Nas' \"One Love\" and \"It Ain't Hard to Tell\". The song was nominated for Best Rap Collaboration at the 50th Grammy Awards in 2008.\n\nProceeds from the song's sales go towards youth leadership programs through the Force4Change Fund.\n\nThe song is often misinterpreted as a DJ Premier track featuring Rakim, Nas and KRS-ONE and excluding Kanye West. This is due to a popular upload of the music video on YouTube where DJ Premier is credited as the artist and Kanye West's opening verse is removed from the video.[1]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Track listing\n  \u2022 2 Music video\n  \u2022 3 Samples\n  \u2022 4 References\n\nTrack listing[edit]\n\nSide A: \u201cBetter Than I\u2019ve Ever Been\u201d (prod. Rick Rubin) featuring Kanye West, Nas, and KRS-One \u2013 full song \u2013 instrumental \u2013 a cappella\n\nSide B: \u201cClassic (Better Than I\u2019ve Ever Been DJ Premier Remix)\u201d featuring Kanye West, Nas, KRS-One, and Rakim \u2013 full song \u2013 instrumental \u2013 a cappella\n\nMusic video[edit]\n\nMusic Video for Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been) can be found in citation. [2]\n\nSamples[edit]\n\nThe original beat by Rick Rubin samples the song \"Give Me the Night\", performed by George Benson, off his Give Me the Night album.\n\nDJ Premier's remix contains samples from \"Dance the Kung-Fu\" by Carl Douglas.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ GSweed (2011-03-09), Dj Premier - Classic(feat. Rakim, Nas & Krs One), retrieved 2017-10-22\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Official Video Remastered By James Beilke \/ \u00a9Zimbalam\".\u00a0\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nKanye West songs\nThe College Dropout\n  \u2022 \"All Falls Down\"\n  \u2022 \"I'll Fly Away\"\n  \u2022 \"Jesus Walks\"\n  \u2022 \"The New Workout Plan\"\n  \u2022 \"Slow Jamz\"\n  \u2022 \"School Spirit (Skit 1)\"\n  \u2022 \"School Spirit\"\n  \u2022 \"School Spirit (Skit 2)\"\n  \u2022 \"Two Words\"\n  \u2022 \"Through the Wire\"\nLate Registration\n  \u2022 \"Heard 'Em Say\"\n  \u2022 \"Touch the Sky\"\n  \u2022 \"Gold Digger\"\n  \u2022 \"Drive Slow\"\n  \u2022 \"Diamonds from Sierra Leone (Remix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Hey Mama\n  \u2022 \"Gone\"\n  \u2022 \"Diamonds from Sierra Leone\"\nCan't Tell Me Nothing\n  \u2022 \"Stronger\" (Snippet)\n  \u2022 \"Us Placers\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Tell Me Nothing\"\n  \u2022 \"Stay Up\" (Snippet)\n  \u2022 \"Pro Nails\"\n  \u2022 \"Because of You\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Buy You a Drank\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Throw Some D's\" (Interlude)\n  \u2022 \"Throw Some D's\" (Remix)\nGraduation\n  \u2022 \"Good Morning\"\n  \u2022 \"Champion\"\n  \u2022 \"Stronger\"\n  \u2022 \"I Wonder\"\n  \u2022 \"Good Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Tell Me Nothing\"\n  \u2022 \"Barry Bonds\"\n  \u2022 \"Flashing Lights\"\n  \u2022 \"Everything I Am\n  \u2022 \"Homecoming\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Brother\"\n808s & Heartbreak\n  \u2022 \"Welcome to Heartbreak\"\n  \u2022 \"Heartless\"\n  \u2022 \"Amazing\"\n  \u2022 \"Love Lockdown\"\n  \u2022 \"Paranoid\"\n  \u2022 \"See You in My Nightmares\"\nMy Beautiful Dark\nTwisted Fantasy\n  \u2022 \"Dark Fantasy\"\n  \u2022 \"Gorgeous\"\n  \u2022 \"Power\"\n  \u2022 \"All of the Lights\"\n  \u2022 \"Monster\"\n  \u2022 \"So Appalled\"\n  \u2022 \"Devil in a New Dress\"\n  \u2022 \"Runaway\"\n  \u2022 \"Hell of a Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Blame Game\"\n  \u2022 \"Lost in the World\"\n  \u2022 \"Who Will Survive in America\"\n  \u2022 \"See Me Now\"\nWatch the Throne\n  \u2022 \"No Church in the Wild\"\n  \u2022 \"Lift Off\"\n  \u2022 \"Niggas in Paris\"\n  \u2022 \"Otis\"\n  \u2022 \"Gotta Have It\"\n  \u2022 \"Welcome to the Jungle\"\n  \u2022 \"Who Gon Stop Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Made in America\"\n  \u2022 \"Why I Love You\"\nDeluxe\n  \u2022 \"Illest Motherfucker Alive\"\n  \u2022 \"H\u2022A\u2022M\"\n  \u2022 \"Primetime\"\n  \u2022 \"The Joy\"\nCruel Summer\n  \u2022 \"To the World\"\n  \u2022 \"Clique\"\n  \u2022 \"Mercy\"\n  \u2022 \"New God Flow\"\n  \u2022 \"Cold\"\n  \u2022 \"The One\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't Like\"\nYeezus\n  \u2022 \"On Sight\"\n  \u2022 \"Black Skinhead\"\n  \u2022 \"I Am a God\"\n  \u2022 \"New Slaves\"\n  \u2022 \"Hold My Liquor\"\n  \u2022 \"I'm In It\"\n  \u2022 \"Blood on the Leaves\"\n  \u2022 \"Guilt Trip\"\n  \u2022 \"Send It Up\"\n  \u2022 \"Bound 2\"\nThe Life of Pablo\n  \u2022 \"Ultralight Beam\"\n  \u2022 \"Father Stretch My Hands\"\n  \u2022 \"Famous\"\n  \u2022 \"Feedback\"\n  \u2022 \"Low Lights\"\n  \u2022 \"Highlights\"\n  \u2022 \"Freestyle 4\"\n  \u2022 \"I Love Kanye\"\n  \u2022 \"Waves\"\n  \u2022 \"FML\"\n  \u2022 \"Real Friends\"\n  \u2022 \"Wolves\"\n  \u2022 \"Frank's Track\"\n  \u2022 \"Siiiiiiiiilver Surffffeeeeer Intermission\"\n  \u2022 \"30 Hours\"\n  \u2022 \"No More Parties in LA\"\n  \u2022 \"Facts (Charlie Heat Version)\"\n  \u2022 \"Fade\"\n  \u2022 \"Saint Pablo\"\nYe\n  \u2022 \"I Thought About Killing You\"\n  \u2022 \"Yikes\"\n  \u2022 \"All Mine\"\n  \u2022 \"Wouldn't Leave\"\n  \u2022 \"No Mistakes\"\n  \u2022 \"Ghost Town\"\n  \u2022 \"Violent Crimes\"\nOther singles\n  \u2022 \"Impossible\"\n  \u2022 \"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\"\n  \u2022 \"We Are the World 25 for Haiti\"\n  \u2022 \"Christmas in Harlem\"\n  \u2022 \"Only One\"\n  \u2022 \"FourFiveSeconds\"\n  \u2022 \"All Day\"\n  \u2022 \"Champions\"\n  \u2022 \"Lift Yourself\"\n  \u2022 \"Ye vs. the People\"\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"Welcome 2 Chicago\"\n  \u2022 \"Get By\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"This Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Talk About Our Love\"\n  \u2022 \"The Food\"\n  \u2022 \"I Changed My Mind\"\n  \u2022 \"Down and Out\"\n  \u2022 \"The Corner\"\n  \u2022 \"Go!\"\n  \u2022 \"Number One\"\n  \u2022 \"Extravaganza\"\n  \u2022 \"Back Like That\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Grammy Family\"\n  \u2022 \"Number One\"\n  \u2022 \"Wouldn't Get Far\"\n  \u2022 \"I Still Love H.E.R.\"\n  \u2022 \"This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Because of You\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Buy U a Drank (Shawty Snappin')\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Pro Nails\"\n  \u2022 \"American Boy\"\n  \u2022 \"Lollipop\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Put On\"\n  \u2022 \"Stay Up! (Viagra)\"\n  \u2022 \"Swagga Like Us\"\n  \u2022 \"Go Hard\"\n  \u2022 \"Knock You Down\"\n  \u2022 \"Kinda Like a Big Deal\"\n  \u2022 \"Walkin' on the Moon\"\n  \u2022 \"Supernova\"\n  \u2022 \"Maybach Music 2\"\n  \u2022 \"Make Her Say\"\n  \u2022 \"Digital Girl\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Run This Town\"\n  \u2022 \"Forever\"\n  \u2022 \"Erase Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Alors on danse\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Deuces\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"In for The Kill\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Start It Up\"\n  \u2022 \"Hurricane 2.0\"\n  \u2022 \"E.T.\"\n  \u2022 \"Marvin & Chardonnay\"\n  \u2022 \"I Wish You Would\"\n  \u2022 \"Pride n Joy\"\n  \u2022 \"Birthday Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Diamonds\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Scape Goat (The Fix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Thank You\"\n  \u2022 \"I Won\"\n  \u2022 \"Blessings\"\n  \u2022 \"U Mad\"\n  \u2022 \"One Man Can Change the World\"\n  \u2022 \"Pop Style\"\n  \u2022 \"That Part\"\n  \u2022 \"Friends\"\n  \u2022 \"Ballin\"\n  \u2022 \"Timmy Turner\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Feel Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Love Yourself\"\n  \u2022 \"Glow\"\n  \u2022 \"Watch\"\nOther songs\n  \u2022 \"Champions\"\n  \u2022 \"Jesus Walks\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"It's Alright\"\n  \u2022 \"The New Workout Plan\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Two Words\" (Cinematic)\n  \u2022 \"My Girlfriend\"\n  \u2022 \"Billie Jean 2008\"\n  \u2022 \"Lord Lord Lord\"\n  \u2022 \"Looking for Trouble\"\n  \u2022 \"White Dress\"\n  \u2022 \"Facts\"\n  \u2022 \"XTCY\"\nFeatured songs\n  \u2022 \"Confessions Part II\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Tell Me When to Go\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Excuse Me Miss\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Side 2 Side\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"My Drink n My 2 Step\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Beat Goes On\"\n  \u2022 \"Everyone Nose (All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom)\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Therapy\"\n  \u2022 \"Ego\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Pretty Girl Rock\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Sanctified\"\n  \u2022 \"Drunk in Love\" (Remix)\n  \u2022 \"Pussy Print\"\n  \u2022 \"Cops Shot the Kid\"\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNas singles\nIllmatic\n  \u2022 \"Halftime\"\n  \u2022 \"It Ain't Hard to Tell\"\n  \u2022 \"Life's a Bitch\"\n  \u2022 \"The World Is Yours\"\n  \u2022 \"One Love\"\n  \u2022 \"N.Y. State of Mind\"\n  \u2022 \"One Time 4 Your Mind\"\nIt Was Written\n  \u2022 \"If I Ruled the World (Imagine That)\"\n  \u2022 \"I Gave You Power\"\n  \u2022 \"Street Dreams\"\n  \u2022 \"The Message\"\nThe Firm: The Album\n  \u2022 \"Firm Biz\"\n  \u2022 \"Phone Tap\"\nI Am...\n  \u2022 \"Nas Is Like\"\n  \u2022 \"Hate Me Now\"\nNastradamus\n  \u2022 \"Nastradamus\"\n  \u2022 \"You Owe Me\"\nStillmatic\n  \u2022 \"Rule\"\n  \u2022 \"Got Ur Self a Gun\"\n  \u2022 \"One Mic\"\n  \u2022 \"Ether\"\nGod's Son\n  \u2022 \"Made You Look\"\n  \u2022 \"I Can\"\n  \u2022 \"Get Down\"\nStreet's Disciple\n  \u2022 \"Thief's Theme\"\n  \u2022 \"Bridging the Gap\"\n  \u2022 \"Just a Moment\"\nHip Hop Is Dead\n  \u2022 \"Hip Hop Is Dead\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Forget About You\"\nUntitled\n  \u2022 \"Hero\"\n  \u2022 \"Make the World Go Round\"\n  \u2022 \"N.I.G.G.E.R. (The Slave and the Master)\"\nLife Is Good\n  \u2022 \"Nasty\"\n  \u2022 \"The Don\"\n  \u2022 \"Daughters\"\n  \u2022 \"Cherry Wine\"\n  \u2022 \"Bye Baby\"\nNasir\n  \u2022 \"Cops Shot the Kid\"\nOther singles\n  \u2022 \"Escobar '97\"\n  \u2022 \"Oochie Wally\"\n  \u2022 \"Surviving the Times\"\n  \u2022 \"Less Than an Hour\"\n  \u2022 \"Be a Nigger Too\"\n  \u2022 \"As We Enter\"\nCollaborations\n  \u2022 \"Fast Life\"\n  \u2022 \"Head over Heels\"\n  \u2022 \"Love Is All We Need\"\n  \u2022 \"Grand Finale\"\n  \u2022 \"Hot Boyz\"\n  \u2022 \"Did You Ever Think\"\n  \u2022 \"It's Mine\"\n  \u2022 \"I've Got to Have It\"\n  \u2022 \"What's Going On\"\n  \u2022 \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\"\n  \u2022 \"Thugz Mansion\"\n  \u2022 \"In Public\"\n  \u2022 \"Blindfold Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Classic (Better Than I've Ever Been)\"\n  \u2022 \"My President\"\n  \u2022 \"Too Many Rappers\"\n  \u2022 \"Fall in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Ghetto Dreams\"\n  \u2022 \"Champion\"\n  \u2022 \"Free\"\n  \u2022 \"Something to Believe In\"\n  \u2022 \"Chains\"\nOther songs\n  \u2022 \"Made Nas Proud\"\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRakim\nSolo albums\n  \u2022 The 18th Letter (1997)\n  \u2022 The Master (1999)\n  \u2022 The Archive: Live, Lost & Found (2008)\n  \u2022 The Seventh Seal (2009)\nEric B. & Rakim\n  \u2022 Paid in Full (1987)\n  \u2022 Follow the Leader (1988)\n  \u2022 Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990)\n  \u2022 Don't Sweat the Technique (1992)\nFeatured singles\n  \u2022 \"Guilty All the Same\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nKRS-One\nB.D.P. albums\n  \u2022 Criminal Minded\n  \u2022 By All Means Necessary\n  \u2022 Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop\n  \u2022 Edutainment\n  \u2022 Sex and Violence\nKRS-One albums\n  \u2022 Return of the Boom Bap\n  \u2022 KRS-One\n  \u2022 I Got Next\n  \u2022 The Sneak Attack\n  \u2022 Spiritual Minded\n  \u2022 Kristyles\n  \u2022 Keep Right\n  \u2022 Life\n  \u2022 Adventures in Emceein\n  \u2022 Maximum Strength 2008\n  \u2022 Back to the L.A.B. (Lyrical Ass Beating)\n  \u2022 The BDP Album\n  \u2022 Just Like That\n  \u2022 Never Forget\nLive albums\n  \u2022 Live Hardcore Worldwide\nCollaborative albums\n  \u2022 Hip Hop Lives (with Marley Marl)\n  \u2022 Survival Skills (with Buckshot)\n  \u2022 The Just-Ice and KRS-One EP Vol.1 (with Just-Ice)\n  \u2022 Meta-Historical (with True Master)\n  \u2022 Godsville (with Showbiz)\n  \u2022 Royalty Check (with Bumpy Knuckles)\n  \u2022 Return of the Boom Bip (with DJ Premier)\nMixtapes\n  \u2022 The Mix Tape\n  \u2022 Prophets vs. Profits\nKRS-One Presents...\n  \u2022 Peedo & the Luna Empire\n  \u2022 It's All Good (Greenie album)\nCompilation albums\n  \u2022 Man & His Music\n  \u2022 Best of B-Boy Records\n  \u2022 A Retrospective\nGroups\n  \u2022 Boogie Down Productions\n  \u2022 Group Therapy\nFilmography\n  \u2022 I'm Gonna Git You Sucka\n  \u2022 Who's the Man?\n  \u2022 Beef\n  \u2022 Beef II\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 B-Boy Records\n  \u2022 Scott La Rock\n  \u2022 Stop the Violence Movement\n  \u2022 Suicide, it's a suicide\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book:KRS-One\n  \u2022 Portal Portal:Hip hop\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Classic_(Better_Than_I%27ve_Ever_Been)&oldid=856887670\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 2007 singles\n  \u2022 Rakim songs\n  \u2022 Nas songs\n  \u2022 Kanye West songs\n  \u2022 KRS-One songs\n  \u2022 Song recordings produced by DJ Premier\n  \u2022 Songs written by Nas\n  \u2022 2007 songs\n  \u2022 Song recordings produced by Rick Rubin\n  \u2022 Songs written by Biddu\n  \u2022 Songs written by KRS-One\n  \u2022 Songs written by Kanye West\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles lacking sources from December 2009\n  \u2022 All articles lacking sources\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Polski\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 August 2018, at 05:22\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5849650513678839700","title":"Can't Take My Eyes Off You","text":"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"I Love You Baby\" redirects here. For the film of that name, see I Love You Baby (film).\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\nCan't Take My Eyes Off You.jpg\nCover of the 1967 US single\nSingle by Frankie Valli\nfrom the album Frankie Valli: Solo[1]\nB-side \"The Trouble With Me\"\nReleased May\u00a01967\u00a0(1967-05)\nFormat 7\"\nRecorded April 1967\nGenre Pop rock\nLength 2:58\nLabel Philips\nSongwriter(s)\n  \u2022 Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 Bob Gaudio\nProducer(s) Bob Crewe\nFrankie Valli singles chronology\n\"The Proud One\"\n(1966)\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n(1967)\n\"I Make a Fool of Myself\"\n(1967)\n\"The Proud One\"\n(1966)\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n(1967)\n\"I Make a Fool of Myself\"\n(1967)\n\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind \"Windy\" by The Association.[2] It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli's biggest solo hit until he hit #1 in 1974 with \"My Eyes Adored You\".[3]\n\n\"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club's name or a popular player's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing \"Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la!\"). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake-up song on the STS-126 space shuttle mission, to celebrate the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson, one of the mission's crew members.\n\nThe song is frequently erroneously attributed to Frank Sinatra.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Credits\n  \u2022 2 Charts\n    \u2022 2.1 Weekly charts\n    \u2022 2.2 Year-end charts\n  \u2022 3 Notable cover versions\n    \u2022 3.1 1967\u20131969\n    \u2022 3.2 1970\u20131989\n    \u2022 3.3 1990\u20131999\n    \u2022 3.4 2000\u20132009\n    \u2022 3.5 2010\u2013present\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nCredits[edit]\n\nThe song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio.[4] The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone as the engineer.\n\nCharts[edit]\n\nWeekly charts[edit]\n\nChart (1967) Peak\nposition\nCanada RPM Top Singles[5] 2\nUS Billboard Hot 100[6] 2\nUS Cash Box Top 100[7] 1\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\nChart (1967) Rank\nCanada[8] 18\nUS Billboard Hot 100[9] 10\nUS Cash Box [10] 3\n\nNotable cover versions[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nThe song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:\n\n1967\u20131969[edit]\n\n  \u2022 The Lettermen (#7 in 1967, in a medley with \"Goin' Out of My Head\")\n  \u2022 A version by Andy Williams made it to #5 on the UK singles chart in 1968.[11] The arranger and producer was Nick DeCaro and the conductor was Eddie Karam.[12] This version is included in the soundtrack of the 2001 film Bridget Jones's Diary. In 2002 he recorded a new version of the song, as a duet with British actress and singer Denise van Outen, which reached #23 in the UK singles charts.[13]\n  \u2022 Vicki Carr recorded a cover of the song on her 1967 album It Must Be Him.\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson (#52 in 1969)\n  \u2022 Engelbert Humperdinck covered the song on his 1968 album A Man Without Love.[14]\n  \u2022 The Easybeats covered the song on their 1968 album Vigil, only released on the UK\/European version of the album.\n  \u2022 The Supremes performed the song for the first time in 1969, in one of Diana Ross' last performance on TV with the group, with Mary Wilson on lead.\n  \u2022 A translated version in Swedish was recorded by Anni-Frid Lyngstad (later of ABBA) and was released as the B-side to her debut single \"Din\" in 1967. The recording has also been released on Lyngstad's compilation albums.[15]\n\n1970\u20131989[edit]\n\n  \u2022 In 1970, Brook Benton recorded the song on his album Brook Benton Today.[16]\n  \u2022 In 1972, Bobby Darin performed the song on his summer television series, Dean Martin Presents: The Bobby Darin Amusement Company, and this version was included in the 2004 album Aces Back to Back.\n  \u2022 In 1974, Anna Maria Alberghetti performed the song as part of a medley on the 1974 Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon.\n  \u2022 In 1975, Julio Iglesias sang the song on his TV show.\n  \u2022 Shirley Bassey recorded this as a United Artist Single in 1976.\n  \u2022 In 1978 actors Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken and John Cazale sang the lyrics in the movie The Deer Hunter.\n  \u2022 Maureen McGovern (#27 on the US Adult Contemporary chart in 1979; #5 Canadian AC in 1980).[17]\n  \u2022 In 1982, San Francisco based disco band Boys Town Gang performed a disco version of the song which reached number one in the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and number four in the United Kingdom.[18][19] This version was also successful in Japan, receiving a gold digital certification by the RIAJ in 2011, and is also on games such as Just Dance 4.\n  \u2022 In 1987, Hong Kong singer Prudence Liew recorded a Cantonese version and released it as the fourth single from her sophomore album, Why.\n  \u2022 In 1989, Michelle Pfeiffer sang the song in The Fabulous Baker Boys.\n\n1990\u20131999[edit]\n\n  \u2022 1991, onwards various versions from by disco singer Gloria Gaynor.[20]\n  \u2022 1991, Pet Shop Boys used part of the song on their cover version of U2's \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", which reached #4 in the U.K. and #72 in the U.S.\n  \u2022 1992, Dutch singers Gerard Joling and Tatjana \u0160imi\u0107 recorded a duet version of the song (including a rap segment by Darrell Bell), which peaked at #5 in the Dutch Top 40 charts.[21]\n  \u2022 1993, the song was recorded by a-ha singer Morten Harket for the soundtrack of the movie Coneheads (1993).[22]\n  \u2022 1994, Russian singer Philipp Kirkorov recorded this song for his album I'm not a Rafael.\n  \u2022 1995, Christian rock band Daniel Amos recorded a version of the song on their album Songs of the Heart.\n  \u2022 1996, Manic Street Preachers recorded a version of the song and used it as the third B-side on their single \"Australia\", the fourth to be taken from the hit album Everything Must Go.\n  \u2022 1997, German singer Tommy Fischer released his German disco version \"Weil ich dich liebe\" (covered in 2008 by Two 4 Pop)\n  \u2022 1997, Xysma, the pioneering Finnish grindcore band, covered the song in their later career after transforming into a rock band on their EP Singles.\n  \u2022 1998, Lauryn Hill (#35 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and #2 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart in 1998 and #8 on the Australian Singles Charts).[23] This version was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance in 1999.\n  \u2022 1999, Heath Ledger sang the song in the film 10 Things I Hate About You.\n  \u2022 1999, Denise Richards sang the song in the film Drop Dead Gorgeous.\n\n2000\u20132009[edit]\n\n  \u2022 2000, Japanese singer Ringo Sheena, for the single \"Tsumi to Batsu\".\n  \u2022 2000, Hong Kong singer Leon Lai did a Cantonese version in his album Beijing Station.\n  \u2022 2000, Sheena Easton recorded her version for her album Fabulous.\n  \u2022 2001, Jimmy Somerville released his version as a single.\n  \u2022 2001, British group Muse, for the single \"Dead Star\" \/ \"In Your World\".\n  \u2022 2002, Japanese singer Tommy february6, on her eponymous album.\n  \u2022 2004, Jennifer Pe\u00f1a recorded a Latin version of the song, \"No Hay Nadie Igual Como T\u00fa\", which reached #33 on the Latin charts.\n  \u2022 2004, Bad Manners, for The Ultimate Bad Collection - Crooners.\n  \u2022 2006, Barry Manilow including this song on his album The Greatest Songs of the Sixties.\n  \u2022 2007, Greek singer Efi Thodi included this song in her album I Love You Baby.\n  \u2022 2008, John Barrowman recorded a cover for his album Music Music Music.\n  \u2022 2008, Chinese soft rock duet Yu Quan recorded a cover as an EP titled Fall in Love with Your Beauty.\n  \u2022 2008, Frankie Valli's version of the song was played by NASA as the morning wake-up call for astronaut Christopher Ferguson, in honor of his anniversary while he was on the STS-126 Space Shuttle mission.[24]\n\n2010\u2013present[edit]\n\n  \u2022 In 2010, A cappella group Straight No Chaser included a cover of the song on their album With a Twist.\n  \u2022 In 2010, Clay Aiken included a cover of the song on his album Tried and True.\n  \u2022 In 2011, Japanese R&B singer Misia, included a cover of the song as a B-side to her single \"Kioku\". The song was later included on her cover album, Misia no Mori: Forest Covers.\n  \u2022 In 2011, Taiwanese-American singer-songwriter Joanna Wang, included a cover of the song on her cover album, The Things We Do for Love.\n  \u2022 2011, Stereophonics frontman Kelly Jones sang an acoustic version of the song in tribute to former Wales national football team manager Gary Speed. The song has been an adopted anthem for Welsh football fans during Speed's playing career with Wales after being used in a BBC Wales promo for the 1994 World Cup qualifying campaign.[25]\n  \u2022 In 2013, South Korean girl group Girls' Generation performed a version of this song as part of their Japan 2nd Tour \uff5eGirls\uff06Peace\uff5e[26] and 2013 Girls' Generation World Tour - Girls & Peace.[27]\n  \u2022 In 2013, the vocal harmony group The Overtones covered the song for the official soundtrack of the German movie Buddy, and also included the song on the Christmas and Mother's Day editions of their 2013 platinum selling album, Saturday Night at the Movies.\n  \u2022 In 2014, John Lloyd Young covered the song for the movie Jersey Boys about the band The Four Seasons where he played Frankie Valli. He was also the original performer on the Broadway musical of the same name which premiered in 2005.\n  \u2022 Jessie J recorded her version in 2016, for the French cosmetics brand Make Up For Ever.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Official Frankie Valli Site\". Retrieved 2017-11-25.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Billboard Hot 100\". 1967-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-31.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Bronson, Fred. The Billboard book of number 1 hits. p.\u00a0398.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Frankie Valli - Can't Take My Eyes Off You \/ The Trouble With Me (Vinyl)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-15.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN\u00a00-89820-089-X\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, July 15, 1967\". Tropicalglen.com. 1967-12-23. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-15.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Musicoutfitters.com\". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1967\". Tropicalglen.com. 1967-12-23. Retrieved 2017-04-18.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 40 | Official Charts Company\". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Love, Andy by Andy Williams, album sleeve, 1967. New York: Columbia Records CS 9566\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Official Singles Chart Top 40 | Official Charts Company\". Officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Engelbert Humperdinck - A Man Without Love (Vinyl, LP)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Du \u00e4r s\u00e5 underbart rar - recording\". musicbrainz.com. Retrieved 2016-03-11.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Brook Benton - Brook Benton Today (Vinyl, LP, Album)\". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada\". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Top 40-lijst van week 24, 1982\". Top40.nl. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p.\u00a074. ISBN\u00a01-904994-10-5.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Gloria Gaynor - Can't Take My Eyes Off You - YourDancefloorTV on YouTube. Retrieved June 9, 2012.\n  21. Jump up ^ \"JAARLIJST 1992\". Members.chello.nl. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Coneheads - Original Soundtrack | Songs, Reviews, Credits\". AllMusic. 1993-07-20. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Lauryn Hill | Awards\". AllMusic. 1975-05-26. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"MP3 file\". Spaceflight.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-30.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ [1][dead link]\n  26. Jump up ^ Girls' Generation Second Japan Arena Tour Set List Retrieved April 5th, 2013.\n  27. Jump up ^ 2013 Girls' Generation World Tour Set List. Retrieved June 9, 2013.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \"Official Frankie Valli Site\". Retrieved 2010-2-16.\n  \u2022 Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics\n  \u2022 RIAA - Gold & Platinum Searchable Database\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAndy Williams\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Andy Williams Sings Steve Allen\n  \u2022 Andy Williams Sings Rodgers and Hammerstein\n  \u2022 Two Time Winners\n  \u2022 To You Sweetheart, Aloha\n  \u2022 Lonely Street\n  \u2022 The Village of St. Bernadette\n  \u2022 Under Paris Skies\n  \u2022 Danny Boy and Other Songs I Love to Sing\n  \u2022 Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes\n  \u2022 Warm and Willing\n  \u2022 Days of Wine and Roses and Other TV Requests\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Christmas Album\n  \u2022 The Wonderful World of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 The Academy Award-Winning \"Call Me Irresponsible\" and Other Hit Songs from the Movies\n  \u2022 The Great Songs from \"My Fair Lady\" and Other Broadway Hits\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Dear Heart\n  \u2022 Merry Christmas\n  \u2022 The Shadow of Your Smile\n  \u2022 In the Arms of Love\n  \u2022 Born Free\n  \u2022 Love, Andy\n  \u2022 Honey\n  \u2022 Happy Heart\n  \u2022 Get Together with Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Show\n  \u2022 Love Story\n  \u2022 You've Got a Friend\n  \u2022 Love Theme from \"The Godfather\"\n  \u2022 Alone Again (Naturally)\n  \u2022 Solitaire\n  \u2022 The Way We Were\n  \u2022 Christmas Present\n  \u2022 You Lay So Easy on My Mind\n  \u2022 The Other Side of Me\n  \u2022 Andy\n  \u2022 Let's Love While We Can\n  \u2022 Greatest Love Classics\n  \u2022 Close Enough for Love\n  \u2022 I Still Believe in Santa Claus\n  \u2022 Nashville\n  \u2022 We Need a Little Christmas\n  \u2022 I Don't Remember Ever Growing Up\nCompilations\n  \u2022 Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Best\n  \u2022 Million Seller Songs\n  \u2022 Canadian Sunset\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Newest Hits\n  \u2022 May Each Day\n  \u2022 The Andy Williams Sound of Music\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits\n  \u2022 The Impossible Dream\n  \u2022 Love Story\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits Vol. 2 (CBS)\n  \u2022 Andy Williams' Greatest Hits Vol. 2\n  \u2022 Reflections\n  \u2022 The Best of Andy Williams (1992)\n  \u2022 Personal Christmas Collection\n  \u2022 16 Most Requested Songs: Encore!\n  \u2022 The Best of Andy Williams (1996)\n  \u2022 The Love Songs\n  \u2022 In the Lounge with...\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Andy Williams (2000)\n  \u2022 Andy\n  \u2022 The Essential Andy Williams\n  \u2022 B Sides and Rarities\n  \u2022 Music to Watch Girls By: The Very Best of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 Moon River: The Very Best of Andy Williams\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Andy Williams (2009)\n  \u2022 The Classic Christmas Album\nLive albums\n  \u2022 Greatest Hits\n  \u2022 The New Andy Williams Christmas Album\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Walk Hand in Hand\"\n  \u2022 \"Canadian Sunset\"\n  \u2022 \"Butterfly\"\n  \u2022 \"I Like Your Kind of Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Lips of Wine\"\n  \u2022 \"Are You Sincere?\"\n  \u2022 \"Promise Me, Love\"\n  \u2022 \"The Hawaiian Wedding Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Lonely Street\"\n  \u2022 \"The Village of St. Bernadette\"\n  \u2022 \"Danny Boy\"\n  \u2022 \"Fly by Night\"\n  \u2022 \"Stranger on the Shore\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't You Believe It\"\n  \u2022 \"Twilight Time\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Get Used to Losing You\"\n  \u2022 \"Days of Wine and Roses\"\n  \u2022 \"Hopeless\"\n  \u2022 \"A Fool Never Learns\"\n  \u2022 \"Charade\"\n  \u2022 \"Wrong for Each Other\"\n  \u2022 \"On the Street Where You Live\"\n  \u2022 \"Almost There\"\n  \u2022 \"Dear Heart\"\n  \u2022 \"...and Roses and Roses\"\n  \u2022 \"Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars (Corcovado)\"\n  \u2022 \"May Each Day\"\n  \u2022 \"You're Gonna Hear from Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Bye Bye Blues\"\n  \u2022 \"How Can I Tell Her It's Over\"\n  \u2022 \"In the Arms of Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Music to Watch Girls By\"\n  \u2022 \"Holly\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Sweet Memories\"\n  \u2022 \"Battle Hymn of the Republic\"\n  \u2022 \"Happy Heart\"\n  \u2022 \"Live and Learn\"\n  \u2022 \"A Woman's Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Help Falling in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"One Day of Your Life\"\n  \u2022 \"It's So Easy\"\n  \u2022 \"Home Lovin' Man\"\n  \u2022 \"(Where Do I Begin?) Love Story\"\n  \u2022 \"A Song for You\"\n  \u2022 \"You've Got a Friend\"\n  \u2022 \"Speak Softly Love (Love Theme from The Godfather)\"\n  \u2022 \"MacArthur Park\"\n  \u2022 \"Solitaire\"\n  \u2022 \"Love's Theme\"\n  \u2022 \"Another Lonely Song\"\n  \u2022 \"Cry Softly\"\n  \u2022 \"Sad Eyes\"\n  \u2022 \"The Other Side of Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell It Like It Is\"\n  \u2022 \"It's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year\"\nB-Sides\n  \u2022 \"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\"\n  \u2022 \"I Want to Be Wanted\"\n  \u2022 \"Summertime\"\n  \u2022 \"So Rare\"\n  \u2022 \"Emily\"\n  \u2022 \"Red Roses for a Blue Lady\"\n  \u2022 \"I'll Remember You\"\n  \u2022 \"Something\"\n  \u2022 \"My Love\"\n  \u2022 \"They Long to Be Close to You \"\n  \u2022 \"I Love My Friend\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 The Williams Brothers\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Four Seasons\n  \u2022 Frankie Valli\n  \u2022 Tommy DeVito\n  \u2022 Bob Gaudio\n  \u2022 Nick Massi\n  \u2022 Charles Calello\n  \u2022 Joe Long\n  \u2022 Gerry Polci\nAlbums\n  \u2022 Sherry & 11 Others (1962)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Greetings (1962)\n  \u2022 Big Girls Don't Cry and Twelve Others (1963)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Sing Ain't That a Shame and 11 Others (1963)\n  \u2022 Golden Hits of the 4 Seasons (1963)\n  \u2022 Dawn (1964)\n  \u2022 Rag Doll (1964)\n  \u2022 Born to Wonder (1964)\n  \u2022 Stay and Other Great Hits (1964)\n  \u2022 4 Seasons Entertain You (1965)\n  \u2022 The 4 Seasons Sing Big Hits by Burt Bacharach... Hal David... Bob Dylan (1965)\n  \u2022 Working My Way Back to You and More Great New Hits (1966)\n  \u2022 Lets Hang On (1966)\n  \u2022 On Stage with The Four Seasons (1965)\n  \u2022 New Gold Hits (1967)\n  \u2022 Edizione D'Oro (Gold Edition) (1968)\n  \u2022 The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette (1969)\n  \u2022 Half and Half (1970)\n  \u2022 Chameleon (1972)\n  \u2022 Who Loves You (1975)\n  \u2022 Helicon (1977)\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Frankie Valli & The Four Seasons (2002)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Bermuda\"\n  \u2022 \"Sherry\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Girls Don't Cry\"\n  \u2022 \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\"\n  \u2022 \"Walk Like a Man\"\n  \u2022 \"Ain't That a Shame\"\n  \u2022 \"Candy Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"New Mexican Rose\"\n  \u2022 \"Dawn (Go Away)\"\n  \u2022 \"Stay\"\n  \u2022 \"Ronnie\"\n  \u2022 \"Alone (Why Must I Be Alone)\"\n  \u2022 \"Rag Doll\"\n  \u2022 \"Silence Is Golden\"\n  \u2022 \"Save It for Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Sincerely\"\n  \u2022 \"Big Man in Town\"\n  \u2022 \"I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus\"\n  \u2022 \"Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)\"\n  \u2022 \"Since I Don't Have You\"\n  \u2022 \"Girl Come Running\"\n  \u2022 \"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)\"\n  \u2022 \"Let's Hang On!\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't Think Twice\"\n  \u2022 \"Working My Way Back to You\"\n  \u2022 \"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'bout Me)\"\n  \u2022 \"On the Good Ship Lollipop\"\n  \u2022 \"I've Got You Under My Skin\"\n  \u2022 \"The Proud One\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell It to the Rain\"\n  \u2022 \"Beggin'\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"C'mon Marianne\"\n  \u2022 \"Lonesome Road\"\n  \u2022 \"Watch the Flowers Grow\"\n  \u2022 \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\"\n  \u2022 \"My Eyes Adored You\"\n  \u2022 \"Our Day Will Come\"\n  \u2022 \"Who Loves You\"\n  \u2022 \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\"\n  \u2022 \"Silver Star\"\n  \u2022 \"Grease\"\nRelated topics\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Members\n  \u2022 Albums\n  \u2022 Songs\n  \u2022 The Four Lovers\n  \u2022 The Wonder Who?\n  \u2022 Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 \"Ces soir\u00e9es-l\u00e0\"\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys: Original Broadway Cast Recording\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys (musical)\n  \u2022 Jersey Boys (film)\nWikipedia book Book:The Four Seasons\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nJimmy Somerville\n  \u2022 Discography\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Read My Lips\n  \u2022 Dare to Love\n  \u2022 Manage the Damage\n  \u2022 Home Again\nCompilations\n  \u2022 The Singles Collection 1984\/1990\n  \u2022 The Very Best of Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat and The Communards\n  \u2022 For a Friend: The Best of Bronski Beat, The Communards & Jimmy Somerville\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"Suspicious Minds\"\n  \u2022 \"Comment te dire adieu\"\n  \u2022 \"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)\"\n  \u2022 \"Read My Lips (Enough Is Enough)\"\n  \u2022 \"To Love Somebody\"\n  \u2022 \"Smalltown Boy ('91 Remix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Gimme Shelter\"\n  \u2022 \"Heartbeat\"\n  \u2022 \"Hurt So Good\"\n  \u2022 \"By Your Side\"\n  \u2022 \"The Number One Song in Heaven\"\n  \u2022 \"Why? (Almighty Mix)\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\"\nOther songs\n  \u2022 \"Love to Love You Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"Johnny Remember Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Lover Man\"\n  \u2022 \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\"\n  \u2022 \"From This Moment On\"\n  \u2022 \"Someday We'll Be Together\"\n  \u2022 \"But Not Tonight\"\n  \u2022 \"I Was Born This Way\"\n  \u2022 \"Tell Me Why\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Bronski Beat\n  \u2022 The Communards\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNancy Wilson\nAlbums\n  \u2022 Like in Love\n  \u2022 Something Wonderful\n  \u2022 The Swingin's Mutual!\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson\/Cannonball Adderley\n  \u2022 Broadway \u2013 My Way\n  \u2022 Hollywood \u2013 My Way\n  \u2022 Yesterday's Love Songs\/Today's Blues\n  \u2022 Today, Tomorrow, Forever\n  \u2022 The Nancy Wilson Show!\n  \u2022 Tender Loving Care\n  \u2022 Lush Life\n  \u2022 Welcome to My Love\n  \u2022 But Beautiful\n  \u2022 Love, Nancy\n  \u2022 A Nancy Wilson Christmas\n  \u2022 R.S.V.P. (Rare Songs, Very Personal)\n  \u2022 Turned to Blue\nSongs\n  \u2022 \"(You Don't Know) How Glad I Am\"\n  \u2022 \"Uptight (Everything's Alright) \"\n  \u2022 \"You've Got Your Troubles\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"She Called Me Baby\"\n  \u2022 \"Love Won't Let Me Wait\"\n  \u2022 \"I Can't Make You Love Me\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Discography\n  \u2022 Jazz Profiles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Lettermen\n  \u2022 Tony Butala\n  \u2022 Bobby Poynton\n  \u2022 Donovan Tea\nStudio albums\n  \u2022 Once Upon a Time (1962)\n  \u2022 The Best of The Lettermen (1966)\n  \u2022 I Have Dreamed (1969)\n  \u2022 Spin Away (1972)\nSingles\n  \u2022 \"The 7th Dawn\"\n  \u2022 \"Allentown Jail\"\n  \u2022 \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\"\n  \u2022 \"Chanson D'Amour\"\n  \u2022 \"Come Back Silly Girl\"\n  \u2022 \"Eastward\"\n  \u2022 \"How Is Julie?\"\n  \u2022 \"Hurt So Bad\"\n  \u2022 \"I Have Dreamed\"\n  \u2022 \"Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Our Winter Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Put Your Head on My Shoulder\"\n  \u2022 \"Secretly\"\n  \u2022 \"Shangri-La\"\n  \u2022 \"She Cried\"\n  \u2022 \"Silly Boy (She Doesn't Love You)\"\n  \u2022 \"Sweet September\"\n  \u2022 \"Theme from A Summer Place\"\n  \u2022 \"Turn Around, Look at Me\"\n  \u2022 \"The Way You Look Tonight\"\n  \u2022 \"When I Fall in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"Where or When\"\nRelated\n  \u2022 Vocal Group Hall of Fame\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Can%27t_Take_My_Eyes_Off_You&oldid=835262141\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1967 singles\n  \u2022 1968 singles\n  \u2022 1969 singles\n  \u2022 Songs written by Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 Songs written by Bob Gaudio\n  \u2022 Frankie Valli songs\n  \u2022 The Four Seasons (band) songs\n  \u2022 Jay and the Americans songs\n  \u2022 Andy Williams songs\n  \u2022 Lauryn Hill songs\n  \u2022 Barry Manilow songs\n  \u2022 The Lettermen songs\n  \u2022 Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) songs\n  \u2022 Schlager songs\n  \u2022 Maureen McGovern songs\n  \u2022 Oricon International Singles Chart number-one singles\n  \u2022 Number-one singles in the Netherlands\n  \u2022 Song recordings produced by Bob Crewe\n  \u2022 1967 songs\n  \u2022 Philips Records singles\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from September 2016\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from February 2018\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 7 April 2018, at 16:06.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"3826548350287995880","title":"Midian","text":"Midian\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor other uses, see Midian (disambiguation).\nMidian.png\n\nMidian (\/\u02c8m\u026adi\u0259n\/; Hebrew: \u05de\u05b4\u05d3\u05b0\u05d9\u05b8\u05df\u202c), Madyan (Arabic: \u0645\u064e\u0640\u062f\u0652\u064a\u064e\u0640\u0646\u200e), or Madiam (Greek: \u039c\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc)[1] is a geographical place mentioned in the Torah and Qur\u2019an. William G. Dever states that biblical Midian was in the \"northwest Arabian Peninsula, on the east shore of the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea\", an area which he notes was \"never extensively settled until the 8th\u20137th century B.C.\"[2]\n\nAccording to the Book of Genesis, the Midianites were the descendants of Midian, who was a son of Abraham and his wife Keturah: \"Abraham took a wife, and her name was Keturah. And she bare him Zimran, and Jokshan, and Medan, and Midian, and Ishbak, and Shuah\" (Genesis 25:1\u20132, King James Version).[3]\n\nSome scholars have suggested that Midian was not a geographical area but a league of tribes.[4][5]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Land or tribal league?\n  \u2022 2 Religion\n    \u2022 2.1 In the Bible\n    \u2022 2.2 In the Qur\u2019an\n  \u2022 3 Pottery\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 Further reading\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nLand or tribal league?[edit]\n\nSome scholars have suggested that 'Midian' does not refer to geographic places or a specific tribe, but to a confederation or 'league' of tribes brought together as a collective for worship purposes. Paul Haupt first made this suggestion in 1909,[6] describing Midian as a 'cultic collective' (Kultgenossenschaft) or an 'amphictyony', meaning 'an association (Bund) of different tribes in the vicinity of a sanctuary'. Elath, on the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba was suggested as the location of the first shrine, with a second sanctuary located at Kadesh.\n\nLater writers have questioned the identified sanctuary locations but supported the thesis of a Midianite league. George Mendenhall suggested that the Midianites were a non-Semitic confederate group,[7] and William Dumbrell maintained the same case:\n\n\"We believe that Haupt's proposal is to be adopted, and that Midian, rather than depicting a land, is a general term for an amorphous league of the Late Bronze Age, of wide geographical range, who, after a series of reverses, the most prominent of which are recorded in Judges 6\u20137, largely disappeared from the historical scene...'[8]\n\nReligion[edit]\n\nIt is uncertain which deities the Midianites worshipped. Through their apparent religio-political connection with the Moabites[9] they are thought to have worshipped a multitude, including Baal-peor and the Queen of Heaven, Ashteroth. According to Karel van der Toorn, \"By the 14th century BC, before the cult of Yahweh had reached Israel, groups of Edomite and Midianites worshipped Yahweh as their god.\" [10]\n\nAn Egyptian temple of Hathor at Timna continued to be used during the Midianite occupation of the site (terminal Late Bronze Age \/ Early Iron Age); the Midianites transformed the Hathor mining temple into a desert tent-shrine. In addition to the discovery of post-holes, large quantities of red and yellow decayed cloth with beads woven into it, along with numerous copper rings\/wire used to suspend the curtains, were found all along two walls of the shrine. Beno Rothenberg,[11] the excavator of the site, suggested that the Midianites were making offerings to Hathor, especially since a large number of Midianite votive vessels (25%) were discovered in the shrine. However, whether Hathor or some other deity was the object of devotion during this period is difficult to ascertain. A small bronze snake with gilded head was also discovered in the naos of the Timna mining shrine, along with a hoard of metal objects that included a small bronze figurine of a bearded male god, which according to Rothenberg was Midianite in origin. Michael Homan[12] observes that the Midianite tent-shrine at Timna is one of the closest parallels to the biblical Tabernacle.\n\nIn the Bible[edit]\n\nFive kings of Midian slain by Israel (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible)\n  1. Midian was the son of Abraham [13]\n  2. Joseph was sold by the Midianites who came across him and they sold him to the Ishmaelites [14]\n  3. Midian was where Moses spent forty years in voluntary exile after killing an Egyptian.[15]\n  4. Moses married Zipporah the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian [16] (also known as Reuel).\n  5. Jethro advised Moses on establishing a system of delegated legal decision-making [17]\n  6. Moses asked Hobab, the son of Reuel the Midianite, to accompany the Israelites travelling towards the promised land because of his local knowledge, although Hobab preferred to return to his homeland [18]\n  7. Cozbi, daughter of the Midianite chief Zur, was speared by Phinehas together with Zimri. Zimri was the son of a Simeonite chief, while Cozbi was a Midianite woman taken into his family by Zimri.[19] The Midianite women's seductions of Israelites to their idol Baal-Peor (or Baal-phegor) is described as the cause of offense to God, even though the Midianites were racially akin to the Israelites as descendants of Abraham, and Moses' own wife Zipporah was Midianite. Ignoring this, at least one modern day movement has interpreted this story as a prohibition against miscegenation.\n  8. Soon after, Yahweh instructed Moses to collect an army and destroy Midian.[20] Some commentators, for example the Pulpit Commentary and Gill's Exposition of the Bible, have noted that God's command focused on attacking the Midianites and not the Moabites,[21] and similarly Moses in Deuteronomy directed that the Israelites should not harass the Moabites.[22]\n  9. The Israelites killed every Midianite male, including Zur and four other named chiefs, and brought back the women and children as prisoners of war\n  10. Moses condemned the Midianite women as the cause of the enmity between the Israelites and the Midianites, and ordered every woman who had slept with a man to be killed (Numbers 31:17), but 32,000 girls who have never slept with a man were kept as slaves (Book of Numbers 31:35).[23]\n  11. Israel was oppressed by Midian for seven years during the time of the Judges (Judges 6:1\u20136). Gideon was called by God to deliver Israel from Midian's armies (Judges 6:7\u20139). He killed the Midianite princes Oreb and Zeeb, then pursued their kings Zebah and Zalmunna as far as Karkor, slaying them as well.\n  12. Hadad the Edomite, opposing King Solomon, passed through Midian and Paran while fleeing from Edom to Egypt.[24]\n  13. Isaiah (60:6) speaks of camels from Midian and Ephah coming to \"cover your land,\" along with the gold and frankincense from Sheba. This passage, taken by the Gospel of Matthew as a foreshadowing of the Magi's gifts to the infant Jesus, has been incorporated into the Christmas liturgy.\n\nIn the Qur\u2019an[edit]\n\nShuaib Caves in Al-Bada'a, Tabuk Region\n\nThe people of Midian are mentioned extensively in the Arabic Qur\u2019an. The word 'Madyan' appears 10 times in it. The people are also called \u02bea\u1e63\u1e25abu l-\u02beaykah (Arabic: \u0623\u0635\u0640\u062d\u0640\u0627\u0628\u064f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u064a\u0640\u0643\u0640\u0629\u200e, \"Companions of the Wood\").[25][26][27][28]\n\nSurah 9 (Al-Tawbah), verse 70 says \"Has not the story reached them of those before them? \u2013 The people of N\u016b\u1e25 (Noah), \u02bf\u0100d and Thamud, the people of Ibrahim (Abraham), the dwellers [literally, comrades] of Madyan (Midian) and the cities overthrown [i.e. the people to whom L\u016bt (Lot) preached], to them came their Messengers with clear proofs. So it was not Allah who wronged them, but they used to wrong themselves.\"\n\nIn Surah 7 (Al-\u02beA\u02bfr\u0101f) Madyan is mentioned as one of several peoples who were warned by prophets to repent lest judgment fall on them. The story of Madyan is the last, coming after that of Lot preaching to his people (referring to the destruction of the Cities of the Plain). Madyan was warned by the prophet Shu\u02bfaib to repent of using false weights and measures and lying in wait along the road. But they rejected Shu\u02bfayb, and consequently were destroyed by a tremor (rajfa, v. 91). Abdullah Yusuf Ali in his commentary (1934) writes, \"The fate of the Madyan people is described in the same terms as that of the Tham\u016bd in verse 78 above. An earthquake seized them by night, and they were buried in their own homes, no longer to vex Allah's earth. But a supplementary detail is mentioned in [Qur'an] 26:189, 'the punishment of a day of overshadowing gloom,' which may be understood to mean a shower of ashes and cinders accompanying a volcanic eruption. Thus a day of terror drove them into their homes, and the earthquake finished them.\"[29] A number of scholars have proposed that the biblical description of devouring fire on Mount Sinai refers to an erupting volcano in the land of biblical Midian identified as Hala-'l Badr in northwestern Saudi Arabia.\n\nPottery[edit]\n\nMidianite pottery, also called Qurayyah Painted Ware (QPW), is found at numerous sites stretching from the southern Levant to NW Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz; Qurayyah in NW Saudi Arabia is thought to be its original location of manufacture.[30] The pottery is bichrome \/ polychrome style and it dates as early as the 13th century BC; its many geometric, human, and animal motifs are painted in browns and dark reds on a pinkish-tan slip. \"Midianite\" pottery is found in its largest quantities at metallurgical sites in the southern Levant, especially Timna.[31] Because of the Mycenaean motifs on Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall,[32] Peter Parr,[33] and Beno Rothenberg[34] have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \u02bf\u0100d\n  \u2022 Balak\n  \u2022 Eglon\n  \u2022 Ishmaelites\n  \u2022 Kedar\n  \u2022 History of ancient Israel and Judah\n  \u2022 Tabuk, Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 Thamud\n  \u2022 The Bible and history\n  \u2022 Midian war\n  \u2022 Genocides in history\n  \u2022 Sodom and Gomorrah\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Also \u039c\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 for \"Midianite\".\n  2. Jump up ^ Dever, William G. Who were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. (24 May 2006) ISBN\u00a0978-0-8028-4416-3 p. 34\n  3. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.biblegateway.com\/passage\/?search=Genesis%2025:1-2&version=KJV\n  4. Jump up ^ William J. Dumbrell, Midian: A Land or a League?, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 25, Fasc. 2, No. 2a. Jubilee Number (May, 1975), pp. 323\u201337\n  5. Jump up ^ Bromiley Geoffrey W. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8028-3783-7. p. 350.\n  6. Jump up ^ Paul Haupt, Midian und Sinai, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenl\u00e4ndischen Gesellschaft 63, 1909, p. 56, available online in German at http:\/\/menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de\/dmg\/periodical\/pageview\/55820, quoted in Dumbrell accessed 1 August 2015\n  7. Jump up ^ The Incident at Beth Baal Peor, The Tenth Generation, 1973\n  8. Jump up ^ William J. Dumbrell, Midian: A Land or a League?, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 25, Fasc. 2, No. 2a. Jubilee Number (May, 1975), p. 32\n  9. Jump up ^ Numbers 22:4, 7\n  10. Jump up ^ Karel van der Toorn, Family Religion in Babylonia, Ugarit, and Israel: Continuity and Change in the Forms of Religious Life (Leiden: E. J. Brill), p. 283.\n  11. Jump up ^ Beno Rothenberg, Timna: Valley of the Biblical Copper Mines (London: Thames and Hudson, 1972).\n  12. Jump up ^ Michael M. Homan, To Your Tents, O Israel!: The Terminology, Function, Form, and Symbolism of the Tents in the Bible and the Ancient Near East, Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 12 (Brill: 2002), p. 118\n  13. Jump up ^ Genesis 25:1\u20132\n  14. Jump up ^ Genesis 37:28\n  15. Jump up ^ Exodus 2:11\u201315\n  16. Jump up ^ Exodus 2:21\n  17. Jump up ^ Exodus 18\n  18. Jump up ^ Numbers 10:29\u201331\n  19. Jump up ^ Numbers 25:6\u20138, 14\u201315\n  20. Jump up ^ Numbers 25:17 and Numbers 31:1\n  21. Jump up ^ Pulpit Commentary and Gill's Exposition of the Bible, http:\/\/biblehub.com\/numbers\/25-17.htm accessed 1 July 2015\n  22. Jump up ^ Deuteronomy 2:9\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Bible Gateway passage: Numbers 31 \u2013 New International Version\". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2017-08-14.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ 1 Kings 11:17\u201318\n  25. Jump up ^ Quran\u00a0%3Averse%3D78 15 :78\u201379\n  26. Jump up ^ Quran\u00a0%3Averse%3D176 26 :176\u2013189\n  27. Jump up ^ Quran\u00a0%3Averse%3D13 38 :13\u201315\n  28. Jump up ^ Quran\u00a0%3Averse%3D12 50 :12\u201314\n  29. Jump up ^ Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. [chrome-extension:\/\/klbibkeccnjlkjkiokjodocebajanakg\/suspended.html#uri=https:\/\/archive.org\/stream\/TheHolyQuranEnglishTranslationoftheMeaningandCommentary\/The%20Holy%20Quran%20-%20Abdullah%20Yusuf%20Ali%20IFTA_djvu.txt The Holy Quran \u2013 English Translation of the Meaning and Commentary] Check |url= value (help). King Fahd Holy Qur-an Printing Complex. Retrieved 4 March 2017.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ B. Rothenberg and J.Glass, \"The Midianite Pottery,\" in Midian, Moab, and Edom: The History and Archaeology of the Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia, JSOT Supplement Series 24, ed. John F.A. Sawyer and David J.A. Clines (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983), pp. 65\u2013124.\n  31. Jump up ^ Tebes, \"Pottery Makers and Premodern Exchange in the Fringes of Egypt: An Approximation to the Distribution of Iron Age Midianite Pottery,\" Buried History 43 (2007), pp. 11\u201326.\n  32. Jump up ^ George Mendenhall, \"Qurayya and the Midianites,\" in Studies in the History of Arabia, Vol. 3, ed. A. R. Al-Ansary (Riyadh: King Saud University), pp. 137\u201345\n  33. Jump up ^ Peter J. Parr, \"Further Reflections on Late Second Millennium Settlement in North West Arabia,\" in Retrieving the Past: Essays on Archaeologial Research and Methodology, ed. J. D. Seger (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), pp. 213\u201318.\n  34. Jump up ^ Rothenberg, \"Egyptian Chariots, Midianites from Hijaz\/ Midian (Northwest Arabia) and Amalekites from the Negev in the Timna Mines: Rock drawings in the Ancient Copper Mines of the Arabah \u2013 new aspects of the region\u2019s history II,\" Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies, newsletter no. 23 (2003), p. 12.\n  \u2022 \u00a0This article\u00a0incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:\u00a0Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901\u20131906). \"article name needed\". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.\u00a0\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Clines, David and John Sawyer, eds. \"Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia\". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series, No. 24. Sheffield Academic Press, 1983.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Singer, Isidore and M. Seligsohn. \"Midian and Midianites\". Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk and Wagnalls, 1901\u20131906, which cites to:\n  \u2022 Archaeology of Timna\n  \u2022 Another Timna archaeology site\n  \u2022 Richard Burton's account of his travels in \"The Land of Midian\"\n  \u2022 Spring of Harod \u2013 Ma'ayan Harod\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPeople and things in the Quran\nhide\nCharacters\nNon-humans\n  \u2022 All\u0101h (\"The God\")\n    \u2022 Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Kar\u012bm (Generous)\n  \u2022 Beings in Paradise\n    \u2022 Ghilm\u0101n or Wild\u0101n\n    \u2022 \u1e24\u016br\nAnimals\nRelated\n  \u2022 The baqarah (cow) of Israelites\n  \u2022 The dhi\u2019b (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph\n  \u2022 The f\u012bl (elephant) of the Abyssinians)\n  \u2022 \u1e24im\u0101r (Domesticated donkey)\n  \u2022 The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon\n  \u2022 The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave\n  \u2022 The namlah (female ant) of Solomon\n  \u2022 The n\u016bn (fish or whale) of Jonah\n  \u2022 The n\u0101qat (she-camel) of Saleh\nNon-related\n  \u2022 D\u0101bbat al-Ar\u1e0d (Beast of the Earth)\n  \u2022 \u1e24im\u0101r (Wild ass)\n  \u2022 Qaswarah (\"Lion\", \"beast of prey\" or \"hunter\")\nAngels\n  \u2022 Angels of Hell\n    \u2022 M\u0101lik\n    \u2022 Zab\u0101niyah\n  \u2022 Angel of the Trumpet (Isr\u0101f\u012bl or Raphael)\n  \u2022 Jibr\u012bl (Gabriel)\n  \u2022 M\u012bk\u0101l (Michael)\n  \u2022 \u2018Izr\u0101\u2019\u012bl Malakul-Mawt (Azrael, Angel of Death)\n  \u2022 Ri\u1e0dw\u0101n\n  \u2022 Munkar\n  \u2022 Nakir\n  \u2022 Harut and Marut\n  \u2022 Kir\u0101man K\u0101tib\u012bn (Honourable Scribes)\n    \u2022 Raqib\n    \u2022 Atid\nJinn\n  \u2022 \u2018Ifr\u012bt\n  \u2022 Jann\n  \u2022 M\u0101rid (\"Rebellious one\")\n    \u2022 Shay\u0101\u1e6d\u012bn (Demons)\n      \u2022 Ibl\u012bs the (Chief) Shay\u1e6d\u0101n (Devil)\n  \u2022 Qar\u012bn\nProphets\nMentioned\n  \u2022 \u0100dam (Adam)\n  \u2022 Al-Yasa\u2018 (Elisha)\n  \u2022 Ayy\u016bb (Job)\n  \u2022 D\u0101w\u016bd (David)\n  \u2022 Dh\u016bl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)\n  \u2022 H\u0101r\u016bn (Aaron)\n  \u2022 H\u016bd (Eber?)\n  \u2022 Idr\u012bs (Enoch?)\n  \u2022 Ily\u0101s (Elijah)\n  \u2022 \u2018Imr\u0101n (Joachim the father of Maryam)\n  \u2022 Is\u1e25\u0101q (Isaac)\n  \u2022 Ism\u0101\u2018\u012bl (Ishmael)\n    \u2022 Dhabih Ullah\n  \u2022 Isma'il \u1e62\u0101diq al-Wa\u2018d (Fulfiller of the Promise)\n  \u2022 L\u016b\u1e6d (Lot)\n  \u2022 \u1e62\u0101li\u1e25\n  \u2022 Shu\u2018ayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)\n  \u2022 Sulaym\u0101n ibn D\u0101w\u016bd (Solomon son of David)\n  \u2022 \u2018Uzair (Ezra?)\n  \u2022 Ya\u1e25y\u0101 ibn Zakariyy\u0101 (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)\n  \u2022 Ya\u2018q\u016bb (Jacob)\n    \u2022 Isr\u0101\u2019\u012bl (Israel)\n  \u2022 Y\u016bnus (Jonah)\n    \u2022 Dh\u016bn-N\u016bn (\"He of the Fish (or Whale)\" or \"Owner of the Fish (or Whale)\")\n    \u2022 \u1e62\u0101\u1e25ib al-\u1e24\u016bt (\"Companion of the Whale\")\n  \u2022 Y\u016bsuf ibn Ya\u2018q\u016bb (Joseph son of Jacob)\n  \u2022 Zakariyy\u0101 (Zechariah)\nUlu-l-\u2018Azm\n  \u2022 Mu\u1e25ammad\n    \u2022 A\u1e25mad\n    \u2022 Other names and titles of Muhammad\n  \u2022 \u02bf\u012as\u0101 (Jesus)\n    \u2022 Al-Mas\u012b\u1e25 (The Messiah)\n    \u2022 Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)\n  \u2022 M\u016bs\u0101 Kal\u012bmull\u0101h (Moses He who spoke to God)\n  \u2022 Ibr\u0101h\u012bm Khal\u012blull\u0101h (Abraham Friend of God)\n  \u2022 N\u016b\u1e25 (Noah)\nDebatable ones\n  \u2022 Dh\u016bl-Qarnain (Cyrus the Great?)\n  \u2022 Luqm\u0101n\n  \u2022 Maryam (Mary)\n  \u2022 \u1e6c\u0101l\u016bt (Saul or Gideon?)\nImplied\n  \u2022 Irmiy\u0101 (Jeremiah)\n  \u2022 \u1e62am\u016b\u2019\u012bl (Samuel)\n  \u2022 Y\u016bsha\u2018 ibn N\u016bn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)\nPeople of Prophets\nEvil ones\n  \u2022 \u0100zar (possibly Terah)\n  \u2022 Fir\u2018awn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)\n  \u2022 H\u0101m\u0101n\n  \u2022 J\u0101l\u016bt (Goliath)\n  \u2022 Q\u0101r\u016bn (Korah, cousin of Moses)\n  \u2022 As-S\u0101mir\u012b\n  \u2022 Ab\u012b Lahab\n  \u2022 Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)\nGood ones\n  \u2022 Adam's immediate relatives\n    \u2022 Martyred son\n    \u2022 Wife\n  \u2022 Believer of Ya-Sin\n  \u2022 Family of Noah\n    \u2022 Father Lamech\n    \u2022 Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos\n  \u2022 Luqman's son\n  \u2022 People of Aaron and Moses\n    \u2022 Believer of Fir'aun Family (Hizbil\/Hizqil ibn Sabura)\n    \u2022 Imra\u2019at Fir\u2018awn (\u0100siy\u00e1 bint Muz\u0101\u1e25im or Bithiah)\n    \u2022 Khidr\n    \u2022 Magicians of the Pharaoh\n    \u2022 Moses' wife\n    \u2022 Moses' sister-in-law\n    \u2022 Mother\n    \u2022 Sister\n  \u2022 People of Abraham\n    \u2022 Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo\n    \u2022 Ishmael's mother\n    \u2022 Isaac's mother\n  \u2022 People of Jesus\n    \u2022 Disciples (including Peter)\n    \u2022 Mary's mother\n    \u2022 Zechariah's wife\n  \u2022 People of Joseph\n    \u2022 Brothers (including Biny\u0101min (Benjamin) and Simeon)\n    \u2022 Egyptians\n      \u2022 \u2018Az\u012bz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)\n      \u2022 Malik (King Ar-Rayy\u0101n ibn Al-Wal\u012bd))\n      \u2022 Wife of \u2018Az\u012bz (Zulaykhah)\n    \u2022 Mother\n  \u2022 People of Solomon\n    \u2022 Mother\n    \u2022 Queen of Sheba\n    \u2022 Vizier\n  \u2022 Zayd\nImplied or not specified\n  \u2022 Abrahah\n  \u2022 Bal'am\/Balaam\n  \u2022 Barsisa\n  \u2022 Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua\n  \u2022 Luqman's son\n  \u2022 Nebuchadnezzar II\n  \u2022 Nimrod\n  \u2022 Rahmah the wife of Ayyub\n  \u2022 Shaddad\nGroups\nMentioned\n  \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b al-Jannah\n    \u2022 People of Paradise\n    \u2022 People of the Burnt Garden\n  \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)\n  \u2022 Christian apostles\n    \u2022 \u1e24aw\u0101riyy\u016bn (Disciples of Jesus)\n  \u2022 Companions of Noah's Ark\n  \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b al-Kahf war-Raq\u012bm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?\n  \u2022 Companions of the Elephant\n  \u2022 People of al-Ukhd\u016bd\n  \u2022 People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin\n  \u2022 People of Yathrib or Medina\n  \u2022 Qawm L\u016b\u1e6d (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)\n  \u2022 Nation of Noah\nTribes, ethnicities or families\n  \u2022 A\u2018r\u0101b (Arabs or Bedouins)\n    \u2022 \u02bf\u0100d (people of Hud)\n    \u2022 Companions of the Rass\n    \u2022 Qawm Tubba\u2018 (People of Tubba)\n      \u2022 People of Saba\u2019 or Sheba\n    \u2022 Quraysh\n    \u2022 Tham\u016bd (people of Saleh)\n      \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b al-\u1e24ijr (\"Companions of the Stoneland\")\n  \u2022 \u2018Ajam\n  \u2022 Ar-R\u016bm (literally \"The Romans\")\n  \u2022 Ban\u012b Isr\u0101\u2019\u012bl (Children of Israel)\n  \u2022 Mu\u2019tafik\u0101t (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah)\n  \u2022 People of Ibrahim\n  \u2022 People of Ilyas\n  \u2022 People of Nuh\n  \u2022 People of Shuaib\n    \u2022 Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)\n    \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b al-Aykah (\"Companions of the Wood\")\n  \u2022 Qawm Y\u016bnus (People of Jonah)\n  \u2022 Ya'juj and Ma'juj\/Gog and Magog\n  \u2022 Ahl al-Bayt (\"People of the Household\")\n    \u2022 Household of Abraham\n      \u2022 Brothers of Y\u016bsuf\n      \u2022 Daughters of Abraham's nephew Lot (Ritha, Za'ura, et al.)\n      \u2022 Progeny of Imran\n      \u2022 Household of Moses\n      \u2022 Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim\n        \u2022 Daughters of Muhammad\n        \u2022 Wives of Muhammad\n    \u2022 Household of Salih\n  \u2022 People of Fir'aun\n  \u2022 Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)\n    \u2022 A\u1e63\u1e25\u0101b Mu\u1e25ammad (Companions of Muhammad)\n      \u2022 An\u1e63\u0101r (Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers')\n      \u2022 Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)\n  \u2022 People of Mecca\n    \u2022 Umm Jamil (wife of Abu Lahab)\n  \u2022 Children of Ayyub\n  \u2022 Dead son of Sulaiman\n  \u2022 Qabil\/Cain (son of Adam)\n  \u2022 Wali'ah or Wa'ilah\/Waala (wife of Nuh)\n  \u2022 Walihah or Wahilah (wife of Lut)\n  \u2022 Ya\u2019j\u016bj wa Ma\u2019j\u016bj (Gog and Magog)\n  \u2022 Yam or Kan'an (son of Nuh)\nImplicitly\nmentioned\n  \u2022 Amalek\n  \u2022 Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)\n  \u2022 Banu Nadir\n  \u2022 Banu Qaynuqa\n  \u2022 Banu Qurayza\n  \u2022 Iranian people\n  \u2022 Umayyad Dynasty\n  \u2022 Aus & Khazraj\n  \u2022 People of Quba\nReligious groups\n  \u2022 Ahl al-dhimmah (Dhimmi)\n  \u2022 K\u0101fir\u016bn (Infidels)\n  \u2022 Zoroastrians\n  \u2022 Mun\u0101fiq\u016bn (Hypocrites)\n  \u2022 Muslims\n  \u2022 People of the Book (Ahl al-Kit\u0101b)\n    \u2022 Na\u1e63\u0101r\u0101 (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)\n      \u2022 Ruhban (Christian monks)\n      \u2022 Qissis (Christian priest)\n    \u2022 Yah\u016bd (Jews)\n      \u2022 Ahb\u0101r (Jewish scholars)\n      \u2022 Rabbani\/Rabbi\n    \u2022 Sabians\n  \u2022 Polytheists\n    \u2022 Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad\n    \u2022 Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot\nLocations\nMentioned\n  \u2022 Al-Ar\u1e0d Al-Muqaddasah (\"The Holy Land\")\n    \u2022 'Blessed' Land\n  \u2022 In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)\n    \u2022 Al-A\u1e25q\u0101f (\"The Sandy Plains,\" or \"the Wind-curved Sand-hills\")\n      \u2022 Iram dh\u0101t al-\u2018Im\u0101d (Iram of the Pillars)\n    \u2022 Al-Mad\u012bnah (formerly Yathrib)\n    \u2022 \u2018Araf\u0101t\n    \u2022 Al-\u1e24ijr (Hegra)\n    \u2022 Badr\n    \u2022 \u1e24unayn\n    \u2022 Makkah (Mecca)\n      \u2022 Bakkah\n      \u2022 \u1e24araman \u0100minan (\"Sanctuary (which is) Secure\")\n      \u2022 Ka\u2018bah (Kaaba)\n      \u2022 Maq\u0101m Ibr\u0101h\u012bm (Station of Abraham)\n      \u2022 Safa and Marwah\n    \u2022 Saba\u2019 (Sheba)\n      \u2022 \u2018Arim Saba\u2019 (Dam of Sheba)\n    \u2022 Rass\n  \u2022 Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally \"The Garden\")\n  \u2022 Jahannam (Hell)\n  \u2022 In Mesopotamia:\n    \u2022 Al-J\u016bdiyy\n      \u2022 Munzalanm-Mub\u0101rakan (\"Place-of-Landing Blessed\")\n    \u2022 B\u0101bil (Babylon)\n    \u2022 Qaryat Y\u016bnus (\"Township of Jonah,\" that is Nineveh)\n  \u2022 Door of Hittah\n  \u2022 Madyan (Midian)\n  \u2022 Majma\u2018 al-Ba\u1e25rayn\n  \u2022 Mi\u1e63r (Mainland Egypt)\n  \u2022 Salsab\u012bl (A river in Paradise)\n  \u2022 Sinai Region or T\u012bh Desert\n    \u2022 Al-W\u0101d Al-Muqaddas \u1e6cuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)\n      \u2022 Al-W\u0101dil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)\n    \u2022 Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor\nReligious locations\n  \u2022 Bay'a (Church)\n  \u2022 Mi\u1e25r\u0101b\n  \u2022 Monastery\n  \u2022 Masjid (Mosque, literally \"Place of Prostration\")\n    \u2022 Al-Mash\u2018ar Al-\u1e24ar\u0101m (\"The Sacred Grove\")\n    \u2022 Al-Masjid Al-Aq\u1e63\u0101 (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally \"The Farthest Place-of-Prostration\")\n    \u2022 Al-Masjid Al-\u1e24ar\u0101m (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)\n    \u2022 Masjid al-Dirar\n    \u2022 A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:\n      \u2022 Masjid Qub\u0101\u2019 (Quba Mosque)\n      \u2022 The Prophet's Mosque\n  \u2022 Salat (Synagogue)\nImplied\n  \u2022 Antioch\n    \u2022 Antakya\n  \u2022 Arabia\n  \u2022 Ayla\n  \u2022 Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn\n  \u2022 Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha\n  \u2022 Bil\u0101d ar-R\u0101fidayn (Mesopotamia)\n  \u2022 Canaan\n  \u2022 Cave of Seven Sleepers\n  \u2022 D\u0101r an-Nadwa\n  \u2022 Al-\u1e24ij\u0101z (literally \"The Barrier\")\n    \u2022 Black Stone (Al-\u1e24ajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il\n    \u2022 Cave of Hira & Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)\n    \u2022 Ta'if\n  \u2022 Hudaybiyyah\n  \u2022 Jordan River\n  \u2022 Nile River\n  \u2022 Palestine River\n  \u2022 Paradise of Shaddad\nPlant matter\n  \u2022 Ba\u1e63al (Onion)\n  \u2022 F\u016bm (Garlic or wheat)\n  \u2022 Sha\u1e6d\u2019 (Shoot)\n  \u2022 S\u016bq (Plant stem)\n  \u2022 Zar\u2018 (Seed)\nFruits\n  \u2022 \u2018Adas (Lentil)\n  \u2022 Baql (Herb)\n  \u2022 \u1e24abb dhul-\u2018a\u1e63f (Corn of the husk)\n  \u2022 Qith-th\u0101\u2019 (Cucumber)\n  \u2022 Rumm\u0101n (Pomegranate)\n  \u2022 T\u012bn (Fig)\n  \u2022 Ukul kham\u1e6d (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba)\n  \u2022 Zayt\u016bn (Olive)\n  \u2022 In Paradise\n    \u2022 Forbidden fruit of Adam\nBushes, trees or plants\n  \u2022 Plants of Sheba\n    \u2022 Athl (Tamarisk)\n    \u2022 Sidr (Lote-tree)\n  \u2022 L\u012bnah (Tender Palm tree)\n  \u2022 Nakhl (Date palm)\n  \u2022 Ray\u1e25\u0101n (Scented plant)\n  \u2022 Sidrat al-Muntah\u0101\n  \u2022 Zaqq\u016bm\nIslamic holy books\n  \u2022 Al-Inj\u012bl (The Gospel of Jesus)\n  \u2022 Al-Qur\u2019\u0101n (The Book of Muhammad)\n  \u2022 \u1e62u\u1e25uf-i Ibr\u0101h\u012bm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)\n  \u2022 At-Tawr\u0101t (The Torah)\n    \u2022 \u1e62u\u1e25uf-i-M\u016bs\u0101 (Scroll(s) of Moses)\n    \u2022 Tablets of Stone\n  \u2022 Az-Zab\u016br (The Psalms of David)\n  \u2022 Umm al-Kit\u0101b (\"Mother of the Book(s)\")\nObjects of people or beings\n  \u2022 Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles\n  \u2022 Noah's Ark\n  \u2022 Staff of Musa\n  \u2022 T\u0101b\u016bt as-Sak\u012bnah (Casket of Shekhinah)\n  \u2022 Throne of Bilqis\n  \u2022 Trumpet of Israfil\nMentioned idols\n(cult images)\n  \u2022 'Ans\u0101b\n  \u2022 Idols of Israelites:\n    \u2022 Baal\n    \u2022 The \u2018ijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites\n  \u2022 Idols of Noah's people:\n    \u2022 Nasr\n    \u2022 Suw\u0101\u2018\n    \u2022 Wadd\n    \u2022 Yagh\u016bth\n    \u2022 Ya\u2018\u016bq\n  \u2022 Idols of Quraysh:\n    \u2022 Al-L\u0101t\n    \u2022 Al-\u2018Uzz\u00e1\n    \u2022 Man\u0101t\n  \u2022 Jibt and \u1e6c\u0101gh\u016bt\nCelestial bodies\nMa\u1e63\u0101b\u012b\u1e25 (literally 'lamps'):\n  \u2022 Al-Qamar (The Moon)\n  \u2022 Kaw\u0101kib (Planets)\n    \u2022 Al-Ar\u1e0d (The Earth)\n  \u2022 Nuj\u016bm (Stars)\n    \u2022 Ash-Shams (The Sun)\nLiquids\n  \u2022 M\u0101\u2019 (Water or fluid)\n    \u2022 Nahr (River)\n    \u2022 Yamm (River or sea)\n  \u2022 Shar\u0101b (Drink)\n  \u2022 Events, incidents, occasions or times\n    \u2022 Incident of Ifk\n    \u2022 Laylat al-Qadr\n    \u2022 Mubahalah\n    \u2022 Sayl al-\u2018Arim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)\n    \u2022 The Farewell Pilgrimage\n    \u2022 Treaty of Hudaybiyyah\n    Battles or military expeditions\n    \u2022 Battle of al-A\u1e25z\u0101b (\"the Confederates\")\n    \u2022 Battle of Badr\n    \u2022 Battle of Hunayn\n    \u2022 Battle of Khaybar\n    \u2022 Battle of Tabouk\n    \u2022 Battle of Uhud\n    \u2022 Conquest of Mecca\n    Days\n    \u2022 Al-Jumu\u2018ah (The Friday)\n    \u2022 As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)\n    \u2022 Days of battles\n    \u2022 Days of Hajj\n    \u2022 Doomsday\n    Months of the Islamic calendar\n    \u2022 Four holy months\n    \u2022 Rama\u1e0d\u0101n\n    Pilgrimages\n    \u2022 Al-\u1e24ajj (literally \"The Pilgrimmage\", the Greater Pilgrimage)\n    \u2022 Al-\u2018Umrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)\n    Times for Prayer or Remembrance\n    Times for Du\u02bf\u0101\u02be ('Invocation'), \u1e62al\u0101h and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Ta\u1e25m\u012bd ('Praising'), Takb\u012br and Tasb\u012b\u1e25):\n    \u2022 Al-\u2018Ashiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)\n    \u2022 Al-Ghuduww (\"The Mornings\")\n      \u2022 Al-Bukrah (\"The Morning\")\n      \u2022 A\u1e63-\u1e62ab\u0101\u1e25 (\"The Morning\")\n    \u2022 Al-Layl (\"The Night\")\n      \u2022 Al-\u2018Ish\u0101\u2019 (\"The Late-Night\")\n    \u2022 A\u1e93-\u1e92uhr (\"The Noon\")\n    \u2022 Dul\u016bk ash-Shams (\"Decline of the Sun\")\n      \u2022 Al-Mas\u0101\u2019 (\"The Evening\")\n      \u2022 Qabl al-Ghur\u016bb (\"Before the Setting (of the Sun)\")\n        \u2022 Al-A\u1e63\u012bl (\"The Afternoon\")\n        \u2022 Al-A\u1e63r (\"The Afternoon\")\n    \u2022 Qabl \u1e6dul\u016b\u2018 ash-Shams (\"Before the rising of the Sun\")\n      \u2022 Al-Fajr (\"The Dawn\")\n    Implied\n    \u2022 Event of Ghadir Khumm\n    \u2022 Laylat al-Mabit\n    \u2022 The first pilgrimage\n    Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name \/ Biblical name (title or relationship)\n    Retrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Midian&oldid=851843210\"\n    Categories:\n    \u2022 Midian\n    \u2022 Hebrew Bible nations\n    \u2022 Ancient peoples of the Near East\n    \u2022 Semitic-speaking peoples\n    \u2022 Massacres in the Bible\n    Hidden categories:\n    \u2022 Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text\n    \u2022 Pages with URL errors\n    \u2022 Articles containing Hebrew-language text\n    \u2022 Articles containing Arabic-language text\n    \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia\n    \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia with no article parameter\n    \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia\n\n    Navigation menu\n\n    Personal tools\n\n    \u2022 Not logged in\n    \u2022 Talk\n    \u2022 Contributions\n    \u2022 Create account\n    \u2022 Log in\n\n    Namespaces\n\n    \u2022 Article\n    \u2022 Talk\n\n    Variants\n\n    Views\n\n    \u2022 Read\n    \u2022 Edit\n    \u2022 View history\n\n    More\n\n    Navigation\n\n    \u2022 Main page\n    \u2022 Contents\n    \u2022 Featured content\n    \u2022 Current events\n    \u2022 Random article\n    \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n    \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\n    Interaction\n\n    \u2022 Help\n    \u2022 About Wikipedia\n    \u2022 Community portal\n    \u2022 Recent changes\n    \u2022 Contact page\n\n    Tools\n\n    \u2022 What links here\n    \u2022 Related changes\n    \u2022 Upload file\n    \u2022 Special pages\n    \u2022 Permanent link\n    \u2022 Page information\n    \u2022 Wikidata item\n    \u2022 Cite this page\n\n    Print\/export\n\n    \u2022 Create a book\n    \u2022 Download as PDF\n    \u2022 Printable version\n\n    Languages\n\n    \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n    \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n    \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n    \u2022 Brezhoneg\n    \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n    \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n    \u2022 Deutsch\n    \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n    \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n    \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n    \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n    \u2022 Italiano\n    \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n    \u2022 Norsk\n    \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n    \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n    \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n    Edit links\n    \u2022 This page was last edited on 24 July 2018, at 23:46\u00a0(UTC).\n    \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n    \u2022 Privacy policy\n    \u2022 About Wikipedia\n    \u2022 Disclaimers\n    \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n    \u2022 Developers\n    \u2022 Cookie statement\n    \u2022 Mobile view\n    \u2022 Enable previews\n    \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n    \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2004142463825664481","title":"Industrial Revolution","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nIndustrial Revolution\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nA Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution and mechanized factories, powered by a central water wheel or steam engine, were the new workplace.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system.\n\nTextiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[1]:40\n\nThe Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were of British origin.[2] By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation[3], controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa, and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company.[4] The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.[1]:15\n\nThe Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.[5][6][7]\n\nGDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy,[8] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.[9] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.[10]\n\nThe precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.[11][12][13][14] Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[11] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[12] Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,[15] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.[1]\n\nAn economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.[1][16][17][18]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Etymology\n  \u2022 2 Important technological developments\n    \u2022 2.1 Textile manufacture\n      \u2022 2.1.1 British textile industry statistics\n      \u2022 2.1.2 Cotton\n      \u2022 2.1.3 Trade and textiles\n      \u2022 2.1.4 Pre-mechanized European textile production\n      \u2022 2.1.5 Invention of textile machinery\n      \u2022 2.1.6 Wool\n      \u2022 2.1.7 Silk\n    \u2022 2.2 Iron industry\n      \u2022 2.2.1 UK iron production statistics\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Iron process innovations\n    \u2022 2.3 Steam power\n    \u2022 2.4 Machine tools\n    \u2022 2.5 Chemicals\n    \u2022 2.6 Cement\n    \u2022 2.7 Gas lighting\n    \u2022 2.8 Glass making\n    \u2022 2.9 Paper machine\n    \u2022 2.10 Agriculture\n    \u2022 2.11 Mining\n    \u2022 2.12 Transportation\n      \u2022 2.12.1 Canals and improved waterways\n      \u2022 2.12.2 Roads\n      \u2022 2.12.3 Railways\n    \u2022 2.13 Other developments\n  \u2022 3 Social effects\n    \u2022 3.1 Factory system\n    \u2022 3.2 Standards of living\n      \u2022 3.2.1 Food and nutrition\n      \u2022 3.2.2 Housing\n      \u2022 3.2.3 Sanitation\n      \u2022 3.2.4 Water supply\n      \u2022 3.2.5 Increase in literacy\n    \u2022 3.3 Clothing and consumer goods\n    \u2022 3.4 Population increase\n    \u2022 3.5 Urbanization\n    \u2022 3.6 Impact on women and family life\n    \u2022 3.7 Labour conditions\n      \u2022 3.7.1 Social structure and working conditions\n      \u2022 3.7.2 Factories and urbanisation\n      \u2022 3.7.3 Child labour\n      \u2022 3.7.4 Organisation of labour\n      \u2022 3.7.5 Luddites\n      \u2022 3.7.6 Destruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc.\n      \u2022 3.7.7 Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery\n    \u2022 3.8 Impact on environment\n  \u2022 4 Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom\n    \u2022 4.1 Continental Europe\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Belgium\n        \u2022 4.1.1.1 Demographic effects\n      \u2022 4.1.2 France\n      \u2022 4.1.3 Germany\n      \u2022 4.1.4 Sweden\n    \u2022 4.2 Japan\n    \u2022 4.3 United States\n  \u2022 5 Second Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 6 Causes\n    \u2022 6.1 Causes in Europe\n    \u2022 6.2 Causes in Britain\n    \u2022 6.3 Transfer of knowledge\n      \u2022 6.3.1 Protestant work ethic\n  \u2022 7 Opposition from Romanticism\n  \u2022 8 See also\n  \u2022 9 References\n    \u2022 9.1 Sources\n  \u2022 10 External links\n\nEtymology\n\nThe earliest recorded use of the term \"Industrial Revolution\" seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise.[19] In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for \"Industry\": \"The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the [19th] century.\" The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in J\u00e9r\u00f4me-Adolphe Blanqui's description in 1837 of la r\u00e9volution industrielle.[20] Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of \"an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society\". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.[21]\n\nSome historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.\n\nImportant technological developments\n\nThe commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,[22] beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:\n\n  \u2022 Textiles \u2013 mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.[23] The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.[17] Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.[1]\n  \u2022 Steam power \u2013 the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.[1]:82 The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation.[24] Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.\n  \u2022 Iron making \u2013 the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production.[1]:89\u201393 Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces,[25][26] resulting in economies of scale. The steam engine began being used to power blast air in the mid 1750s, enabling a large increase iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power.[27] The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge.[28] The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.\n  \u2022 Invention of machine tools \u2013 The first machine tools were invented. These included the screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine and the milling machine. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques.[29]\n\nTextile manufacture\n\nMain article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution\n\nBritish textile industry statistics\n\nIn 1750 Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by cottage industry in Lancashire. The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in shops of master weavers. In 1787 raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded and spun on machines.[1]:41\u201342\n\nThe share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801 and 22.4% in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.[30]\n\nWages in Lancashire, a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about six times those in India in 1770, when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India.[30]\n\nCotton\n\nParts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange. In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.[30]\n\nThe early Spanish explorers found Native Americans growing a previously unknown species of good quality cotton: Gossypium hirsutum. Cotton plantations were eventually established in the West Indies and the Americas which provided Britain with a source of this difficult to obtain raw material.[30] A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi, USA in 1806 became the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick.\n\nTrade and textiles\n\nThe Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid-1760s cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.[30]\n\nEuropean colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution.\n\nPre-mechanized European textile production\n\nBy 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.[30]\n\nBritish cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labor cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's.[31] In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.[1][32]\n\nThe demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian, a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft. Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew.[32]\n\nOn the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver.[1][32][33]:823\n\nInvention of textile machinery\n\nThe flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay, with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, Robert, invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors.[33]:821\u201322\n\nLewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.\n\nModel of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal. Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.\n\nIn 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.[34] The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting.[35] It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about \u00a36 for a 40-spindle model in 1792,[36] and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.[33]:825\u201327\n\nThe spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.[33]:827\u201330 For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name.\n\nThe only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton. The mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour.\n\nSamuel Crompton's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779. Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating.[33]:832 Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.[33]:832\n\nInterior of Marshall's Temple Works\n\nRealising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom which was more conventional.[33]:834 Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.[37]\n\nThe demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin. With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day.[17]\n\nThese advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs, of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power \u2013 first horse power and then water power\u2014which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.[38]\n\nAlthough mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the industry.[30]\n\nWool\n\nThe earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less than that of cotton.[1][4]\n\nSilk\n\nLombe's Mill site today, rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill\n\nArguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, becasue the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London.[39][40]\n\nIron industry\n\nThe reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and silica. This opened the way to increased iron production.\nThe Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron.[41]\nHorizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall\n\nUK iron production statistics\n\nBar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horse shoes, wagon tires, chains, etc. and for structural shapes. A small amount of bar iron was converted into steel. Cast iron was used for pots, stoves and other items where its brittleness was tolerable. Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses. Bar iron was also made by the bloomery process, which was the predominant iron smelting process until the late 18th century.\n\nIn the UK in 1720 there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke. In 1750 charcoal iron production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons. In 1788 the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons. In 1806 charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons.[27]:125\n\nIn 1750 the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke. In 1796 the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons. In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons.[27]:125\n\nIron process innovations\n\nA major change in the iron industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal,[42] and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century.[1][27]:122 By 1750 coke had generally replaced charcoal in smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in making glass. In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and coke produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content. Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts. Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content.[27]:122\u2013125 A minority of coals are coking.\n\nAnother factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This was solved by the steam engine.[27]\n\nUse of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.)\n\nBy 1709 Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale.[43] However, the coke pig iron he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs.\n\nCoke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron until 1755-56, when Darby's son Abraham Darby II built furnaces at Horsehay and Ketley where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale). These new furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by Newcomen steam engines. The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines would not produce a steady air blast. Abraham Darby III installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768. The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country.[27]:123\u2013125\n\nSteam engines made the use higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace. In 1757 iron master John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces.[44] The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by John Smeaton.[27]:124, 135 Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping. James Watt had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine. In 1774 John Wilkinson, who built a cast iron blowing cylinder for his iron works, invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders. After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders.[17] After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting.[27]:124\n\nThe solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the slag and the use of low sulfur coal. Use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag. The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height.[27]:123\u2013125 In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century.[45]\n\nAs cast iron was became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings. A famous early example was the Iron Bridge built in 1778 with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III.[41] However, most cast iron was converted to wrought iron, which was turned into hardware items such as nails, wire, chains, agricultural implements, tools and wagon tires.\n\nEurope relied on the bloomery for most of its wrought iron until the large scale production of cast iron. Conversion of cast iron was done in a finery forge, as it long had been. An improved refining process known as potting and stamping was developed, but this was superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784.[1]:91 Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost.\n\nPuddling was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob a large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40.[46] Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised. Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron. Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a trip hammer. A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles and rails.\n\nThe puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide.[47] In 1838 John Hall patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom. The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time.[27]:166 Hall's process also used iron scale or rust, which reacted with carbon in the molten iron. Hall's process, called wet puddling, reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%.[1]:93\n\nPuddling became widely used after 1800. Up to that time British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies. Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785 and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron.\n\nHot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke;[48] however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved.[49] Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive;[50] however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.\n\nShortly before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process.\n\nThe supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.\n\nSteam power\n\nMain article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution\nA Watt steam engine. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.\n\nThe development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000\u00a0hp.[51]\n\nThe first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its \"brand name\", The Miner's Friend). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.\n\nThe first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of 5\u00a0hp (3.7\u00a0kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.[52]\n\nNewcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.\n\nA fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt. With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20\u201325% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's. Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795.\n\nBy 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10\u00a0hp (3.7 to 7.5\u00a0kW).\n\nUntil about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.\n\nThe development of machine tools, such as the engine lathe, planing, milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.\n\nSmall industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century. These included crank-powered, treadle-powered and horse-powered workshop and light industrial machinery.[53]\n\nMachine tools\n\nMain article: Machine tool\nSee also: Interchangeable parts\nMaudslay's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800\nThe Middletown milling machine of circa 1818, associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North\n\nPre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen \u2013 millwrights built water and windmills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners.\n\nThe demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms.\n\nBefore the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve.[29][17]\n\nThe first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. Wilkinson's boring machine differed from earlier cantilevered machines used for boring cannon in that the cutting tool was mounted on a beam that ran through the cylinder being bored and was supported outside on both ends.[17]\n\nThe planing machine, the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.[29][17]\n\nHenry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen. In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template.[17][33]:392\u201395 The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears.[17]:31, 36\n\nMaudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth.[17]\n\nJames Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.\n\nThe impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century.[29]\n\nIn the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.[54]\n\nChemicals\n\nThe large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50\u00a0kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.\n\nThe production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,[55] and also to potash (potassium carbonate) produced from hardwood ashes.\n\nThese two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.\n\nThe development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.\n\nAfter 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.[56] Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860\u20131914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists.[57]\n\nCement\n\nThe Thames Tunnel (opened 1843).\nCement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.\n\nIn 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400\u00a0\u00b0C (2,552\u00a0\u00b0F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel.[58] Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later.\n\nGas lighting\n\nMain article: Gas lighting\n\nAnother major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton & Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.\n\nGlass making\n\nMain article: Glass production\nThe Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851\n\nA new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.\n\nPaper machine\n\nMain article: Paper machine\n\nA machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint-L\u00e9ger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today.\n\nThe method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.[59]\n\nAgriculture\n\nMain article: British Agricultural Revolution\n\nThe British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy.[60] However, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.[61]\n\nIndustrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine.\n\nJethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.[62]\n\nJoseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough.[63][64][65][66] The threshing machine, invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail, a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour.[67]:286 It took several decades to diffuse[68] and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.\n\nMachine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters.[29]\n\nMining\n\nCoal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales, started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Cornish engine, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine.\n\nCoal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.\n\nTransportation\n\nMain article: Transport during the British Industrial Revolution\nSee also: Productivity improving technologies (economic history) \u00a7\u00a0Infrastructures\n\nAt the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed 50% between 1750 and 1830.[69]\n\nThe Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.\n\nCanals and improved waterways\n\nMain article: History of the British canal system\nThe Bridgewater Canal, famous because of its commercial success, crossing the Manchester Ship Canal, one of the last canals to be built.\n\nBefore and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening and building navigation locks. Britain had over 1000 miles of navigable rivers and streams by 1750.[1]:46\n\nCanals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.[33][70]\n\nBuilding of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand Canal in China, \"the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence,\" parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804\u00a0km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing.[71]\n\nIn the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost \u00a3168,000 (\u00a322,589,130 as of 2013[update]),[72][73] but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half.[74] This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania.[75] New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.\n\nBy the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world,[76] and opened Manchester as a port. However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper.\n\nBritain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.\n\nRoads\n\nConstruction of the first macadam road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones \"so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring\".[77]\n\nFrance was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European Continent and in the U.K. were in bad condition and dangerously rutted.[70][78]\n\nMuch of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the first 'macadamised' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816.[79] The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.\n\nRailways\n\nMain article: History of rail transport in Great Britain\nPainting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success.\n\nReducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England.\n\n\u201cA good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.\u201d[80]\n\nRailways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800.\n\nWagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy\n\nSteam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.\n\nThe rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials, which demonstrated Robert Stephenson's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace.\n\nOn 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington.[81] The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool. The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania.\n\nConstruction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.\n\nOther developments\n\nOther developments included more efficient water wheels, based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton[82] the beginnings of a machine industry[17][83] and the rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar) by John Smeaton, which had been lost for 1300 years.[84]\n\nSocial effects\n\nMain article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution\n\nFactory system\n\nMain article: Factory system\n\nPrior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods.\n\nIn Britain by the 16th century the putting-out system, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as cottage industry, was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system.[85]\n\nSome early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers.[86] Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.\n\nThe majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers.[30] Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution, Threshing machine)\n\nThe change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx, however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.[87]\n\nStandards of living\n\nSome economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr., say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that \"for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth\u00a0... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.\"[5] Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.[6][7]\n\nDuring the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730\u20131749 to 31.8% in 1810\u20131829.[88]\n\nThe effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s.[89] A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards.[89] During 1813\u20131913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.[90][91][92]\n\nFood and nutrition\n\nMain article: British Agricultural Revolution\n\nChronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45\u201350 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century.[93]\n\nFood supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815-1846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine.\n\nThe initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices.[61] In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus.[1][67][94][95] This condition is called the Malthusian trap, and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships.[96] Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.[67]\n\nHousing\n\nThe very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London.[97] The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms.[98][99] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.[100] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s.[101][102][103]\n\nA large expos\u00e9 literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high.[104] Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions.\n\nConditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house.\n\nSanitation\n\nIn The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described how untreated sewage created awful odors and turned the rivers green in industrial cities.\n\nIn 1854 John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home cesspit. Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems.\n\nWater supply\n\nPre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems and pumping of water was done by water wheels. Pipes were typically made of wood. Steam powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households.[78]\n\nIncrease in literacy\n\nThe invention of the paper machine and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.\n\nClothing and consumer goods\n\nWedgwood tea and coffee service\n\nConsumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. Watches and household clocks became popular consumer items.\n\nMeeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain, created goods such as tableware, which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.[105]\n\nPopulation increase\n\nThe Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.[106]\n\nAccording to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.[107] Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s.[108][109] Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.[110]\n\nUrbanization\n\nThe growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities,[111] compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century).[112] Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.[113]\n\nImpact on women and family life\n\nWomen's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women.[114][115] Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.[116]\n\nIn a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation.[117] Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the \"family wage economy\" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the \"family consumer economy,\" in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.[118]\n\nLabour conditions\n\nSocial structure and working conditions\n\nIn terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life;[119] however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children.[30] Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel \u2013 child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.[120]\n\nFactories and urbanisation\n\nMain article: Factory system\nManchester, England (\"Cottonopolis\"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys\n\nIndustrialisation led to the creation of the factory. The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed \"Cottonopolis\", and the world's first industrial city.[121] Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there.[122]\n\nFor much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.\n\nIn other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.\n\nBy 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.\n\nChild labour\n\nSee also: Child labour \u00a7\u00a0The Industrial Revolution\nA young \"drawer\" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.[123] In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly.[88][124] There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.[125]\n\nChild labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders,[126] 10\u201320% of an adult male's wage.[127] Children as young as four were employed.[127] Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm.[127] Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions.[127] Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25.[127] Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as \"pauper apprentices\", working without wages for board and lodging.[127] Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape.[127] Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated.[127] Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw.[127] Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.[127]\n\nReports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines[128] and textile factories,[129] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.\n\nPoliticians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.[127] About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.[130]\n\nOrganisation of labour\n\nSee also: Trade union \u00a7\u00a0History\n\nThe Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.\n\nThe main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.\n\nIn 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s, the Chartist movement was the first large-scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.\n\nWorking people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.\n\nUnions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.[131]\n\nEventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party.\n\nLuddites\n\nMain article: Luddite\nRefer to caption\nLuddites smashing a power loom in 1812\n\nThe rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life.\n\nUnrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.\n\nDestruction of hand textile production in India, China, etc.\n\nThe traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.[30]\n\nEffect on cotton production and expansion of slavery\n\nCheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in subtropical regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in Hispaniola, but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to the widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil. The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made slavery attractive. America's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand.[132] The U.S. Civil war created a \"cotton famine\" that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa.\n\nImpact on environment\n\nLevels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.\n\nThe origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[133] The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.\n\nThe manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812\u20131820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity.[134] The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.[135]\n\nIn industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.[136] Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.[137]\n\nIndustrialisation beyond the United Kingdom\n\nContinental Europe\n\nThe Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.\n\nBelgium\n\nBelgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Li\u00e8ge and Charleroi. The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill. His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.[138]\n\nWallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word \"houille\" was coined in Wallonia),[139] the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, 'Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Li\u00e8ge, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'.[140] Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: \"It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain.\"[141] \"The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent.\"[142] Michel De Coster, Professor at the Universit\u00e9 de Li\u00e8ge wrote also: \"The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated.\" [143]\n\nDemographic effects\n\nWallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:\n\nThe industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Li\u00e8ge, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Li\u00e8ge where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.[144]\n\nFrance\n\nMain article: Economic history of France\n\nThe industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take-off.[145] Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice L\u00e9vy-Leboyer:\n\n  \u2022 French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789\u20131815),\n  \u2022 industrialisation, along with Britain (1815\u20131860),\n  \u2022 economic slowdown (1860\u20131905),\n  \u2022 renewal of the growth after 1905.\n\nGermany\n\nMain article: Economic history of Germany\n\nBased on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical.[146]\n\nGermany's political disunity \u2013 with three dozen states \u2013 and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France[147]\n\nSweden\n\nMain article: Economic history of Sweden\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nDuring the period 1790\u20131815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s.\n\nDuring 1815\u20131850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuh\u00e4radsbygden and forestry in Norrland. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.\n\nDuring 1850\u20131890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.\n\nDuring 1890\u20131930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile.\n\nJapan\n\nMain articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan\n\nThe industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan).\n\nIn 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1882,[148] used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.\n\nModern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.[149]\n\nUnited States\n\nMain articles: American system of manufacturing, Interchangeable parts, Economic history of the United States, Technological and industrial history of the United States, and Industrial Revolution in the United States\nSee also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts\nSlater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.\n\nDuring the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy.[150] The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.[151][152]\n\nImportant American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts, the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century.\n\nOliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production.[29]\n\nThe United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States, which has fast-moving rivers. The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production. In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest.\n\nThomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,[153] and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill.[154]\n\nIn 1793, Samuel Slater (1768\u20131835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills.[155] Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of \"America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72\u00a0km) from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development.\n\nMerchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, using 5.6 miles (9.0\u00a0km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.\n\nA major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The milling machine, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard. The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing.[29]\n\nPrecision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry.[156] and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.\n\nSecond Industrial Revolution\n\nMain article: Second Industrial Revolution\nS\u00e4chsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany, 1868\n\nSteel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a \"Second Industrial Revolution\", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality.[33][157] Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century.\n\nThis Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries, petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.\n\nThe increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.\n\nA new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.\n\nBy the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's stock markets.\n\nCauses\n\nRegional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution.\n\nThe causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories.[158] The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century.[159] A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.[160]\n\nUntil the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.[161] However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.[162]\n\nLewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates.[163] He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that \"the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock\". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.\n\nThe presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them.[164] Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.\n\nGovernments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.[165] Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch, or Jonathan Hornblower, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power.[166][167]\n\nCauses in Europe\n\nMain article: Great Divergence\nInterior of the London Coal Exchange, c. 1808.\nEuropean 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth.\n\nOne question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity[168] or the Middle Ages.[169] Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes[170] (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), \"modern\" government, \"modern\" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.[171]\n\nChina was the world's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society.[172][173] Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars[174]) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.[175]\n\nHistorians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred.[176] The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism), resulting in very different worldviews.[177] Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea.[178]\n\nRegarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: \"The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain.\"[179] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas, Sikhs, Bengal Subah, and Kingdom of Mysore. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors \u2013 agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over.[citation needed]\n\nEconomic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an \"integrated market for ideas\" where Europe's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters.[180]\n\nCauses in Britain\n\nAs the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies.\n\nGreat Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution.[181] Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism).[1]\n\n\"An unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself.\"\n\n\u2013 British historian Jeremy Black on the BBC's Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here.[105]\n\nGeographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe.[1]:332\n\nThere were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self-interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution.[105] These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.[182]\n\nThe debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution.[183] Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of Britain's industrial output.[184]\n\nWilliam Bell Scott Iron and Coal, 1855\u201360\n\nInstead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy[185]). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position \u2013 an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.\n\nWilliam and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe, 1716, Sir James Thornhill. Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William III and Mary II who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king Louis XIV.[186]\n\nAnother theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.\n\nThe stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.[187] (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's The Servile State.)\n\nThe French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, Letters on the English (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. \"Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker\u2019s word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another\u2019s throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.\"[188]\n\nBritain's population grew 280% 1550\u20131820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50\u201380%. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750\u20131800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02\u00a0ha) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy.\n\nIn 1700, 5\/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.[189]\n\nEconomic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur.[190] These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.[190]\n\nTransfer of knowledge\n\nA Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766). Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances\n\nKnowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.\n\nAnother means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, \"They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution\".[191] Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.\n\nThere were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802\u20131819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et M\u00e9tiers and Diderot's Encyclop\u00e9die explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.\n\nPeriodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.\n\nProtestant work ethic\n\nMain article: Protestant work ethic\n\nAnother theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.[192] The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.\n\nDissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences \u2013 areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.\n\nHistorians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.\n\nOpposition from Romanticism\n\nMain article: Romanticism\n\nDuring the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes.[193] Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of \"nature\" in art and language, in contrast to \"monstrous\" machines and factories; the \"Dark satanic mills\" of Blake's poem \"And did those feet in ancient time\". Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry.[194]\n\nSee also\n\nGeneral\n  \u2022 Automation\n  \u2022 Capitalism in the nineteenth century\n  \u2022 Capitalist mode of production\n  \u2022 Carboniferous period\n  \u2022 Coal\n  \u2022 Deindustrialization\n  \u2022 Digital Revolution\n  \u2022 Division of labour\n  \u2022 Dual revolution\n  \u2022 Economic history of the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Hydraulics\n  \u2022 Human timeline\n  \u2022 Industrial Age\n  \u2022 Industrial society\n  \u2022 Information revolution\n  \u2022 Laissez-faire\n  \u2022 Law of the handicap of a head start \u2013 Dialectics of progress\n  \u2022 Machine Age\n  \u2022 Steam\n  \u2022 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism\nOther\n  \u2022 Chinese industrialization\n  \u2022 Petroleum Revolution\n  \u2022 Science and invention in Birmingham\n\nReferences\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Horn, Jeff; Rosenband, Leonard; Smith, Merritt (2010). Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution. Cambridge MA, USA, London: MIT Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0262515627.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Reisman, George (1998). Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life. Jameson Books. p.\u00a0127. ISBN\u00a00-915463- 73-3.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Landes, David (1999). The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN\u00a0978-0393318883.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). Lectures on Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp.\u00a0109\u201310. ISBN\u00a0978-0-674-01601-9.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Feinstein, Charles (September 1998). \"Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution\". Journal of Economic History. 58 (3): 625\u201358. doi:10.1017\/s0022050700021100. Retrieved 6 May 2014.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Szreter & Mooney; Mooney (February 1998). \"Urbanization, Mortality, and the Standard of Living Debate: New Estimates of the Expectation of Life at Birth in Nineteenth-Century British Cities\". The Economic History Review. 51 (1): 104. doi:10.1111\/1468-0289.00084. Retrieved 6 May 2014.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Robert Lucas, Jr. (2003). \"The Industrial Revolution\". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Archived from the original on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 14 November 2007. it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Lucas, Robert (2003). \"The Industrial Revolution Past and Future\". Archived from the original on 27 November 2007. [consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ McCloskey, Deidre (2004). \"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004\".\u00a0\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789\u20131848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., p. 27 ISBN\u00a00-349-10484-0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-01079-9 Read it\n  13. Jump up ^ Berg, Maxine; Hudson, Pat (1992). \"Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution\". The Economic History Review. The Economic History Review, Vol. 45, No. 1. 45 (1): 24\u201350. doi:10.2307\/2598327. JSTOR\u00a02598327.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution Archived 9 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine. by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006.\n  15. Jump up ^ Gupta, Bishnupriya. \"Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600-1850\" (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. Retrieved 5 December 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Taylor, George Rogers. The Transportation Revolution, 1815\u20131860. ISBN\u00a0978-0-87332-101-3.\u00a0\n  17. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN\u00a016011753\u00a0. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN\u00a027-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN\u00a0978-0-917914-73-7).\n  18. Jump up ^ Hunter 1985\n  19. Jump up ^ Crouzet, Fran\u00e7ois (1996). \"France\". In Teich, Mikul\u00e1\u0161; Porter, Roy. The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA. Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a045. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-40940-7. LCCN\u00a095025377.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ BLANQUI J\u00e9r\u00f4me-Adolphe, Histoire de l'\u00e9conomie politique en Europe depuis les anciens jusqu'\u00e0 nos jours, 1837, ISBN\u00a0978-0-543-94762-8\n  21. Jump up ^ Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. London: Edward Arnold. p.\u00a011. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7131-6531-9.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). \"The Industrial Revolution \u2013 Innovations\". Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. Retrieved 30 January 2011.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Ayres 1989, p.\u00a017\n  24. Jump up ^ Hunter & year-1985\n  25. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p.\u00a0218. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Rosen, William (2012). The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention. University Of Chicago Pres. p.\u00a0149. ISBN\u00a0978-0-226-72634-2.\u00a0\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. ISBN\u00a0978-0901462886.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p.\u00a091. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN\u00a0978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN\u00a083016269\u00a0\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. US: Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. ISBN\u00a0978-0-375-71396-5.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Gupta, Bishnupriya. \"Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600-1850\" (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. Retrieved 5 December 2016.\u00a0\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ayres, Robert (1989). \"Technological Transformations and Long Waves\" (PDF): 16\u201317.\u00a0\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j McNeil 1990\n  34. Jump up ^ R. Ray Gehani (1998). \"Management of Technology and Operations\". p. 63. John Wiley and Sons, 1998\n  35. Jump up ^ Ayres 1989, p.\u00a01\n  36. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p.\u00a063. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Ayres 1989, p.\u00a018\n  38. Jump up ^ G. E. Mingay (1986). \"The Transformation of Britain, 1830\u20131939\". p. 25. Routledge, 1986\n  39. Jump up ^ Hills, Richard L. \"Cotchett, Thomas\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093\/ref:odnb\/75296.\u00a0 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)\n  40. Jump up ^ Fairclough, K. R. \"Sorocold, George\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093\/ref:odnb\/47971.\u00a0 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Ironbridge Gorge\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved December 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Gordon, Robert B (1996). American Iron 1607\u20131900. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p.\u00a0156. ISBN\u00a00-8018-6816-5.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Adams, Ryan (July 27, 2012). \"Danny Boyle's intro on Olympics programme\". Awards Daily. Retrieved December 20, 2017.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster. p.\u00a065.\u00a0 Based on the works of Joseph Needham\n  45. Jump up ^ Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Landes & year-1969, p.\u00a0218\n  47. Jump up ^ [1]\n  48. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p.\u00a092. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Ayres 1989, p.\u00a021\n  50. Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a090. ISBN\u00a00-521-27367-6.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p.\u00a0104. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Rolt and Allen, 145\n  53. Jump up ^ Hunter&Bryant 1991\n  54. Jump up ^ Economics 323\u20132: Economic History of the United States Since 1865 http:\/\/faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu\/~jmokyr\/Graphs-and-Tables.PDF\n  55. Jump up ^ Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (June 1952). \"Chemical Revolution\". Ayer Co: 65\u201390. ISBN\u00a00-8369-1909-2.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ Lion Hirth, State, Cartels and Growth: The German Chemical Industry (2007) p 20\n  57. Jump up ^ Johann P. Murmann, Knowledge and competitive advantage: the co-evolution of firms, technology, and national institutions (2003) pp\u00a053\u201354\n  58. Jump up ^ Properties of Concrete Published lecture notes from University of Memphis Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 17 October 2007.\n  59. Jump up ^ Misa, Thomas J. (1995). A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1965\u20131925. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. p.\u00a0243. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8018-6502-2.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ Overton, Mark (1996). Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation if the agrarian economy 1500\u20131850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-56859-3.\u00a0\n  61. ^ Jump up to: a b Pomeranz, Kenneth (2000), The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton University Press, ISBN\u00a0978-0-691-09010-8\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Temple 1986, p.\u00a026\n  63. Jump up ^ Overton 1996, p.\u00a0122\n  64. Jump up ^ \"The Rotherham Plow\". Rotherham: The Unofficial Website. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ Temple 1986, pp.\u00a018, 20\n  66. Jump up ^ \"The Rotherham Plow\". Rotherham.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.\u00a0\n  67. ^ Jump up to: a b c Clark 2007\n  68. Jump up ^ Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). A New Economic View of American History. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p.\u00a0282. ISBN\u00a00-393-96315-2.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ Coren, Michael J. (31 January 2018). \"The speed of Europe's 18th-century sailing ships is revamping history's view of the Industrial Revolution\". Quartz. Retrieved 31 January 2018.\u00a0\n  70. ^ Jump up to: a b Gr\u00fcbler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport (PDF). Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ Donald Langmead. Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats. ABC-CLIO. p.\u00a037. ISBN\u00a0978-1-57607-112-0. Retrieved 15 February 2013.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). \"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 6 November 2017.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ Timbs 1860, p.\u00a0363\n  74. Jump up ^ The Times newspaper: Bridgewater Collieries, London, 1 December 1913, retrieved 19 July 2008\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ Kindleberger 1993, pp.\u00a0192\u201393\n  76. Jump up ^ \"1 January 1894: Opening of the Manchester ship canal\". The Guardian. 1 January 1894. Retrieved 28 July 2012. Six years in the making, the world's largest navigation canal gives the city direct access to the sea\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ \"1823 \u2013 First American Macadam Road\" (Painting \u2013 Carl Rakeman) US Department of Transportation \u2013 Federal Highway Administration (Accessed 10 October 2008)\n  78. ^ Jump up to: a b Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730\u20131930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charolttesville: University Press of Virginia. p.\u00a018.\u00a0\u201cThere exist everywhere roads suitable for hauling\u201d.Robert Fulton on roads in France\n  79. Jump up ^ Richard Brown (1991). \"Society and Economy in Modern Britain 1700\u20131850\" p. 136. Routledge, 1991\n  80. Jump up ^ Fling, Harry M. (1868). Railroads of the United States, Their History and Statistics. Philadelphia: John. E. Potter and Co. pp.\u00a012, 13.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ Herbert L. Sussman (2009). \"Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine\". p. 2. ABC-CLIO, 2009\n  82. Jump up ^ Rosen, William (2012). The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention. University Of Chicago Press. p.\u00a0127. ISBN\u00a0978-0-226-72634-2.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ Musson; Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. University of Toronto Press. p.\u00a0477.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (2008) \"Building construction: the reintroduction of modern concrete\"\n  85. Jump up ^ Landes & year-1969, pp.\u00a057\u201359\n  86. Jump up ^ Landes & year-1969, p.\u00a059\n  87. Jump up ^ Hunt, E. K.; Lautzenheiser, Mark (2014). History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective. PHI Learning. ISBN\u00a0978-0765625991.\u00a0\n  88. ^ Jump up to: a b Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, p. 30 ISBN\u00a00-415-38218-1\n  89. ^ Jump up to: a b Woodward, D. (1981) Wage rates and living standards in pre-industrial England Past & Present 1981 91(1):28\u201346\n  90. Jump up ^ Crafts, N; Mills, Terence C. (1994). \"Trends in Real Wages in Britain, 1750\u20131913\". Explorations in Economic History. 31 (2): 176. doi:10.1006\/exeh.1994.1007.\u00a0\n  91. Jump up ^ Nardinelli, Clark (2008). \"Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living\" The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Liberty Fund\n  92. Jump up ^ R.M. Hartwell, The Rising Standard of Living in England, 1800\u20131850, Economic History Review, 1963, p. 398 ISBN\u00a00-631-18071-0\n  93. Jump up ^ Fogel, Robert W. (2004). The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700\u20132100. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-80878-2.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ Malthus, Thomas (1798). An Essay on the Principle of Population (PDF). London. Retrieved 12 February 2016.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham>\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ Wells, David A. (1891). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society. New York: D. Appleton and Co. ISBN\u00a00-543-72474-3.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ Gregory Clark, \"Shelter from the storm: housing and the industrial revolution, 1550\u20131909.\" Journal of Economic History 62#2 (2002): 489\u2013511.\n  98. Jump up ^ H.J. Dyos, \"The speculative builders and developers of Victorian London.\" Victorian Studies 11 (1968): 641\u201390. in JSTOR\n  99. Jump up ^ Christopher Powell, The British building industry since 1800: An economic history (Taylor & Francis, 1996).\n  100. Jump up ^ P. Kemp, \"Housing landlordism in late nineteenth-century Britain.\" Environment and Planning A 14.11 (1982): 1437\u201347.\n  101. Jump up ^ H.J. Dyos, \"The Slums of Victorian London.\" Victorian Studies 11.1 (1967): 5\u201340. in JSTOR\n  102. Jump up ^ Anthony S. Wohl, The eternal slum: housing and social policy in Victorian London (1977).\n  103. Jump up ^ Martin J. Daunton, House and home in the Victorian city: working-class housing, 1850\u20131914 (1983).\n  104. Jump up ^ Enid Gauldie, Cruel habitations: a history of working-class housing 1780-1918 (Allen & Unwin, 1974).\n  105. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here\". BBC. 11 January 2017.\u00a0\n  106. Jump up ^ Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc. p.\u00a03. ISBN\u00a00-7131-6531-6.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ \"The UK population: past, present and future \u2013 Chapter 1\" (PDF). Statistics.gov.uk\n  108. Jump up ^ \"A portrait of Britain in 2031\". The Independent. 24 October 2007.\n  109. Jump up ^ BBC \u2013 History \u2013 Victorian Medicine \u2013 From Fluke to Theory. Published: 1 February 2002.\n  110. Jump up ^ \"Modernization \u2013 Population Change\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n  111. Jump up ^ \"Human Population: Urbanization\". Population Reference Bureau. Archived 26 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine.\n  112. Jump up ^ \"Human Population: Population Growth: Question and Answer\". Population Reference Bureau. Archived 8 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine.\n  113. Jump up ^ Manchester (England, United Kingdom). Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n  114. Jump up ^ Eleanor Amico, ed. Reader's guide to women's studies (1998) pp 102\u20134, 306\u20138.\n  115. Jump up ^ Janet Thomas, \"Women and capitalism: oppression or emancipation? A review article.\" Comparative studies in society and history 30#3 (1988): 534\u201349. in JSTOR\n  116. Jump up ^ Alice Clark, Working life of women in the seventeenth century (1919).\n  117. Jump up ^ Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers in the Industrial Revolution (1930).\n  118. Jump up ^ Louise Tilly and Joan Wallach Scott, Women, work, and family (1987).\n  119. Jump up ^ \"United States History \u2013 The Struggles of Labor\". Library of Congress Country Studies.\n  120. Jump up ^ R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, pp.\u00a0339\u201341 ISBN\u00a00-416-19500-8\n  121. Jump up ^ \"Manchester \u2013 the first industrial city\". Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2012.\u00a0\n  122. Jump up ^ \"Life in Industrial Towns\".\u00a0\n  123. Jump up ^ Dunn, James (1905). From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life. ISBN\u00a01-4344-6870-4.\u00a0\n  124. Jump up ^ Bar, Michael; Leukhina, Oksana (2007). \"Demographic Transition and Industrial Revolution: A Macroeconomic Investigation\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2007. The decrease [in mortality] beginning in the second half of the 18th century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the mortality rates for the age groups 5\u201310, 10\u201315, and 15\u201325 began in the mid-19th century, while that for the age group 0\u20135 began three decades later\u00a0. Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the average Briton was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, p. 28). Population size statistics from mortality.org put the mean age at about 26.\n  125. Jump up ^ \"Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills\". Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.\n  126. Jump up ^ The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England, Laura Del Col, West Virginia University.\n  127. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Venning, Annabel (17 September 2010). \"Britain's child slaves: They started at 4am, lived off acorns and had nails put through their ears for shoddy work. Yet, says a new book, their misery helped forge Britain\". dailymail.co.uk. London. Retrieved 19 September 2010.\u00a0\n  128. Jump up ^ \"Testimony Gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission\". 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ \"The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England\". 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008.\u00a0\n  130. Jump up ^ \"Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor\". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.\n  131. Jump up ^ \"General Strike 1842\". Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.\u00a0 From chartists.net. Retrieved 13 November 2006.\n  132. Jump up ^ Beckert, Sven (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. US: Vintage Books Division Penguin Random House. ISBN\u00a0978-0375-71396-5.\u00a0\n  133. Jump up ^ Fleming, James R.; Bethany R. Knorr. \"History of the Clean Air Act\". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 14 February 2006.\u00a0\n  134. Jump up ^ Leslie Tomory, \"The Environmental History of the Early British Gas Industry, 1812\u20131830.\" Environmental history 17#1 (2012): 29\u201354.\n  135. Jump up ^ Joel A. Tarr, \"Toxic Legacy: The Environmental Impact of the Manufactured Gas Industry in the United States.\" Technology and culture 55#1 (2014): 107\u201347. online\n  136. Jump up ^ Harold L. Platt, Shock cities: the environmental transformation and reform of Manchester and Chicago (2005) excerpt.\n  137. Jump up ^ Brian William Clapp, An environmental history of Britain since the industrial revolution (Routledge, 2014).\n  138. Jump up ^ Chris Evans, G\u00f6ran Ryd\u00e9n, The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Nineteenth-Century Europe Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham2005, pp.\u00a037\u201338 ISBN\u00a00-7546-3390-X.\n  139. Jump up ^ a word from Walloon origin\n  140. Jump up ^ Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes', in M. Neven and I. Devos (editors), 'Recent work in Belgian Historical Demography', in Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, XXXI, 2001, 3\u20134, pp.\u00a0347\u201359 FLWI.ugent.be Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine.\n  141. Jump up ^ Philippe Raxhon, Le si\u00e8cle des forges ou la Wallonie dans le creuset belge (1794\u20131914), in B. Demoulin and JL Kupper (editors), Histoire de la Wallonie, Privat, Toulouse, 2004, pp.\u00a0233\u201376, p. 246 ISBN\u00a02-7089-4779-6\n  142. Jump up ^ \"European Route of Industrial Heritage\". En.erih.net. Archived from the original on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.\u00a0\n  143. Jump up ^ Michel De Coster, Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, ISBN\u00a0978-2-296-03394-8, pp.\u00a0122\u201323\n  144. Jump up ^ Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, Breaking stereotypes, art. cit., pp.\u00a0315\u201316\n  145. Jump up ^ Jean Marczewski, \u00ab\u00a0Y a-t-il eu un \"take-off\" en France\u00a0?\u00a0\u00bb, 1961, dans les Cahiers de l'ISEA\n  146. Jump up ^ Haber 1958\n  147. Jump up ^ Allan Mitchell, Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815\u20131914 (2000)\n  148. Jump up ^ \"History\". Bank of Japan. Retrieved 5 May 2015.\u00a0\n  149. Jump up ^ G.C. Allen, Short Economic History of Modern Japan (1972)\n  150. Jump up ^ Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). A New Economic View of American History. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p.\u00a0469. ISBN\u00a00-393-96315-2.\u00a0\n  151. Jump up ^ Chandler Jr., Alfred D. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0674940529.\u00a0\n  152. Jump up ^ Taylor, George Rogers (1969). The Transportation Revolution, 1815\u20131860. ISBN\u00a0978-0873321013.\u00a0\n  153. Jump up ^ Bagnall, William R. The Textile Industries of the United States: Including Sketches and Notices of Cotton, Woolen, Silk, and Linen Manufacturers in the Colonial Period. Vol. I. The Riverside Press, 1893.\n  154. Jump up ^ \"Made In Beverly \u2013 A History of Beverly Industry\", by Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Historic District Commission. 1989.\n  155. Jump up ^ Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (1998): Samuel Slater\n  156. Jump up ^ Thomson, Ross (1989). The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0807818671.\u00a0\n  157. Jump up ^ Morison, Elting E. (1966). Men, Machines and Modern Times. Cambridga, Ma and London, UK: The M.I.T Press.\u00a0\n  158. Jump up ^ Steven Kreis (11 October 2006). \"The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England\". Historyguide.org. Retrieved 30 January 2011.\u00a0\n  159. Jump up ^ \"Scientific Revolution\". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 28 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine. 31 October 2009.\n  160. Jump up ^ Baten, J\u00f6rg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. pp.\u00a013\u201316. ISBN\u00a09781107507180.\u00a0\n  161. Jump up ^ Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University Press US. ISBN\u00a00-7131-6531-6\n  162. Jump up ^ Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). \"How Modern Is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the \"Production Era\"\". The Journal of Marketing. New York City, NY: American Marketing Association. 52 (1): 108\u201325. doi:10.2307\/1251689. JSTOR\u00a01251689.\u00a0\n  163. Jump up ^ \"Technics & Civilization\". Lewis Mumford. Retrieved 8 January 2009.\u00a0\n  164. Jump up ^ Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-29609-9 Read it\n  165. Jump up ^ Eric Schiff, Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869\u20131912; Switzerland, 1850\u20131907, Princeton University Press, 1971.\n  166. Jump up ^ Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, Against Intellectual Monopoly, \"Chapter 1, final online version January 2, 2008\" (PDF).\u00a0\u00a0(55\u00a0KB), p. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-87928-6\n  167. Jump up ^ Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton-Century Company in 1934 under the former title: The Story of Energy]. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp.\u00a013\u201314. ISBN\u00a00-486-21071-5.\u00a0\n  168. Jump up ^ Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece? J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved January 2007.\n  169. Jump up ^ The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England |The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 \u2013 Accessed January 2007\n  170. Jump up ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). \"Western Civilization: Since 1500\". p.607.\n  171. Jump up ^ Eric Bond; Sheena Gingerich; Oliver Archer-Antonsen; Liam Purcell; Elizabeth Macklem (17 February 2003). \"The Industrial Revolution \u2013 Causes\". Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. Retrieved 30 January 2011.\u00a0\n  172. Jump up ^ Temple, Robert (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham>\u00a0\n  173. Jump up ^ Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. ISBN\u00a00-87951-397-7<A companion to the PBS Series \u201cThe Genius That Was China\u201d>\u00a0\n  174. Jump up ^ \"Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 \u2013 Simulating early modern growth\" (PDF).\u00a0\u00a0(254\u00a0KB) Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History\/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007.\n  175. Jump up ^ Landes, David (1999). The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN\u00a0978-0393318883.\u00a0\n  176. Jump up ^ David S. Landes (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp.\u00a020\u201332. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  177. Jump up ^ Merson 1990, pp.\u00a034\u201335\n  178. Jump up ^ How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor Iain Stewart\n  179. Jump up ^ South Asian History Archived 27 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine. \u2013 Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published 1947). Retrieved January 2007.\n  180. Jump up ^ \"Mokyr, J.: A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. (eBook and Hardcover)\". press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 9 March 2017.\u00a0\n  181. Jump up ^ Julian Hoppit, \"The Nation, the State, and the First Industrial Revolution,\" Journal of British Studies (April 2011) 50#2 pp.\u00a0307\u201331\n  182. Jump up ^ Kiely, Ray (November 2011). \"Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis\". UGL Press Limited: 25\u201326.\n  183. Jump up ^ Digital History; Steven Mintz. \"Was slavery the engine of economic growth? Digital History\". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2011.\u00a0\n  184. Jump up ^ The Industrial Revolution by Pat Hudson, pg. 198. Books.google.com. 1992. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7131-6531-9. Retrieved 30 January 2011.\u00a0\n  185. Jump up ^ The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced every 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be seen as a similar factor.\n  186. Jump up ^ Old Naval College Archived 26 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine.\n  187. Jump up ^ Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, pp.\u00a029\u201330, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966.\n  188. Jump up ^ Voltaire, Fran\u00e7ois Marie Arouet de. (1909\u201314) [1734]. \"Letter VI \u2013 On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English\". www.bartleby.com. The Harvard Classics. Retrieved 22 July 2017.\u00a0\n  189. Jump up ^ E A Wrigley, Continuity chance and change.\n  190. ^ Jump up to: a b Crafts, Nicholas (2011-04-01). \"Explaining the first Industrial Revolution: two views\". European Review of Economic History. 15 (1): 153\u2013168. doi:10.1017\/S1361491610000201. ISSN\u00a01361-4916.\u00a0\n  191. Jump up ^ \"The Lunar Society\". Archived from the original on 7 February 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2008.\u00a0CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles.\n  192. Jump up ^ Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation. Northwich: Arley Hall Press. ISBN\u00a00-9518382-4-5.\u00a0 Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example.\n  193. Jump up ^ Michael L\u00f6wy and Robert Sayre, eds., Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity (Duke University Press, 2001).\n  194. Jump up ^ AJ George, The development of French romanticism: the impact of the industrial revolution on literature (1955)\n\nSources\n\n  \u2022 Ashton, Thomas S. (1948). \"The Industrial Revolution (1760\u20131830)\". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Berlanstein, Lenard R., ed. (1992). The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth-century Europe. London and New York: Routledge.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Clapham, J. H. (1926). \"An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820\u20131850\". Cambridge University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Clapham, J. H. The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914 (1921) online, a famous classic, filled with details.\n  \u2022 Clark, Gregory (2007). A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton University Press. ISBN\u00a00-691-12135-4.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Daunton, M. J. (1995). \"Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1700\u20131850\". Oxford University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Dunham, Arthur Louis (1955). \"The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815\u20131848\". New York: Exposition Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Gatrell, Peter (2004). \"Farm to factory: a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution\". The Economic History Review. 57 (4): 794. doi:10.1111\/j.1468-0289.2004.00295_21.x.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Griffin, Emma (2010). Short History of the British Industrial Revolution. Palgrave.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1958). The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century: A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1971). The Chemical Industry: 1900\u20131930: International Growth and Technological Change.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Jacob, Margaret C. (1997). \"Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West\". Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Kindleberger, Charles Poor (1993). A Financial History of Western Europe. Oxford University Press US. ISBN\u00a00-19-507738-5.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Kisch, Herbert (1989). \"From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts\". Oxford University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997)\n  \u2022 Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN\u00a00-521-09418-6.\u00a0\n  \u2022 McNeil, Ian, ed. (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN\u00a00-415-14792-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Maddison, Angus (2003). \"The World Economy: Historical Statistics\". Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).\u00a0\n  \u2022 Mantoux, Paul (1961) [1928]. \"The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century\" (First English translation 1928 ed.).\u00a0\n  \u2022 McLaughlin Green, Constance (1939). \"Holyoke, Massachusetts: A Case History of the Industrial Revolution in America\". New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850\u20131914 (1977)\n  \u2022 Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780\u20131870 (1973)\n  \u2022 Mokyr, Joel (1999). \"The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective\".\u00a0\n  \u2022 More, Charles (2000). \"Understanding the Industrial Revolution\". London: Routledge.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Olson, James S. Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America (2001)\n  \u2022 Pollard, Sidney (1981). \"Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760\u20131970\". Oxford University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700\u20131920 (2 vol. 2007)\n  \u2022 Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN\u00a016011753\u00a0. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN\u00a027-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN\u00a0978-0-917914-73-7).\n  \u2022 Smelser, Neil J. (1959). \"Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry\". University of Chicago Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Staley, David J. ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology (3 vol 2011), 2000pp\n  \u2022 Stearns, Peter N. (1998). \"The Industrial Revolution in World History\". Westview Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Smil, Vaclav (1994). \"Energy in World History\". Westview Press. Archived from the original on 18 July 2007.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Snooks, G.D. (2000). \"Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary?\". London: Routledge.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Szostak, Rick (1991). \"The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France\". Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Timbs, John (1860). Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts: A Book for Old and Young. Harper & Brothers.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Toynbee, Arnold (1884). Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England. ISBN\u00a01-4191-2952-X. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Uglow, Jenny (2002). \"The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730\u20131810\". London: Faber and Faber.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Usher, Abbott Payson (1920). \"An Introduction to the Industrial History of England\". University of Michigan Press.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Chambliss, William J. (editor), Problems of Industrial Society, Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, December 1973. ISBN\u00a0978-0-201-00958-3\n  \u2022 Hawke, Gary. \"Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution\" in Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault, eds. The Industrial Revolution and British Society (1993) pp 54\u201378\n  \u2022 McCloskey, Deirdre (2004). \"Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson)\". Times Higher Education Supplement. 15 (January). Retrieved 12 February 2016.\u00a0\n\nExternal links\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Industrial revolution.\nWikiquote has quotations related to: Industrial Revolution\nWikiversity quiz on this Industrial Revolution article\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution at Curlie (based on DMOZ)\n  \u2022 Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities\n  \u2022 Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution\n    \u2022 The Industrial Revolution \u2013 Articles, Video, Pictures, and Facts\n  \u2022 \"The Day the World Took Off\" Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question \"Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did.\"\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Industrial Revolution\nThemes\n  \u2022 Coal\n  \u2022 Coal\u00a0mining\n  \u2022 Coke\n  \u2022 Cotton\n  \u2022 Industry\n  \u2022 Invention\n  \u2022 Iron\n  \u2022 Machinery, Manufacturing\n  \u2022 Metallurgy\n  \u2022 Sociology\n  \u2022 Steam\u00a0power\n  \u2022 Steel\n  \u2022 Technology\n  \u2022 Textiles, Water\u00a0power\n  \u2022 Workforce\nMaquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg\nPeople\/\ngroups\n  \u2022 Richard\u00a0Arkwright\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0Boulsover\n  \u2022 Matthew\u00a0Boulton\n  \u2022 James\u00a0Brindley\n  \u2022 Isambard\u00a0Kingdom\u00a0Brunel\n  \u2022 Edmund\u00a0Cartwright\n  \u2022 Henry\u00a0Cort\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0and\u00a0George\u00a0Cranege\n  \u2022 Samuel\u00a0Crompton\n  \u2022 Abraham\u00a0Darby\u00a0I\n  \u2022 Abraham\u00a0Darby\u00a0II\n  \u2022 Abraham\u00a0Darby\u00a0III\n  \u2022 Francis\u00a0Egerton,\u00a03rd\u00a0Duke\u00a0of\u00a0Bridgewater\n  \u2022 William\u00a0Fairbairn\n  \u2022 James\u00a0Hargreaves\n  \u2022 Hawks\u00a0family\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0Highs\n  \u2022 Eaton\u00a0Hodgkinson\n  \u2022 Benjamin\u00a0Huntsman\n  \u2022 Joseph\u00a0Marie\u00a0Jacquard, John\u00a0Kay\u00a0(flying\u00a0shuttle)\n  \u2022 John\u00a0Kay\u00a0(spinning\u00a0frame)\n  \u2022 Francis\u00a0Cabot\u00a0Lowell\n  \u2022 Lunar\u00a0Society\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0Newcomen\n  \u2022 Robert\u00a0Owen\n  \u2022 Lewis\u00a0Paul\n  \u2022 William\u00a0Radcliffe\n  \u2022 Richard\u00a0Roberts\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0Savery\n  \u2022 Samuel\u00a0Slater\n  \u2022 John\u00a0Smeaton\n  \u2022 George\u00a0Stephenson\n  \u2022 Robert\u00a0Stephenson\n  \u2022 Thomas\u00a0Telford\n  \u2022 Richard\u00a0Trevithick\n  \u2022 James\u00a0Watt\n  \u2022 John\u00a0Wilkinson\n  \u2022 John\u00a0Wyatt\nPlaces\n  \u2022 Abbeydale\u00a0Industrial\u00a0Hamlet\n  \u2022 Bridgewater\u00a0Canal\n  \u2022 Broseley\n  \u2022 Coalbrookdale\n  \u2022 Cromford\n  \u2022 Derwent\u00a0Valley\u00a0Mills\n  \u2022 Ironbridge\n  \u2022 New\u00a0Lanark\n  \u2022 Portsmouth\u00a0Block\u00a0Mills\n  \u2022 Quarry\u00a0Bank\u00a0Mill\n  \u2022 Soho\u00a0Foundry\n  \u2022 Stockton\u00a0and\u00a0Darlington\u00a0Railway\nInvention\/\ntechnology\n  \u2022 Blast\u00a0furnace\n  \u2022 Canal\n  \u2022 Cotton\u00a0mill\n  \u2022 Crucible\u00a0steel\n  \u2022 Factory\n  \u2022 Flying\u00a0shuttle\n  \u2022 Newcomen\u00a0steam\u00a0engine\n  \u2022 Power\u00a0loom\n  \u2022 Railway\n  \u2022 Reverberatory\u00a0furnace\n  \u2022 Sheffield\u00a0plate\n  \u2022 Spinning\u00a0frame\n  \u2022 Spinning\u00a0jenny\n  \u2022 Steam\u00a0engine\n  \u2022 Stephenson's\u00a0Rocket\n  \u2022 Water\u00a0frame\n  \u2022 Watt\u00a0steam\u00a0engine\nSocial impact\n  \u2022 Bourgeoisie\n  \u2022 Child\u00a0labour\n  \u2022 History\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0Co-operative\u00a0Movement\n  \u2022 Cottage\u00a0industry\n  \u2022 Factory\u00a0Acts\n  \u2022 Industrial\u00a0unrest\n  \u2022 Luddite\n  \u2022 Proletariat\n  \u2022 Rochdale\u00a0Pioneers\n  \u2022 Urbanization\n  \u2022 Industrial warfare\nReference\n  \u2022 History\u00a0of\u00a0technology\n  \u2022 History\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0British\u00a0canal\u00a0system\n  \u2022 Industrial\u00a0archaeology\n  \u2022 List\u00a0of\u00a0United\u00a0Kingdom-related\u00a0topics\n  \u2022 Timeline\u00a0of\u00a0clothing\u00a0and\u00a0textiles\u00a0technology\n  \u2022 Timeline\u00a0of\u00a0invention\n  \u2022 Timeline\u00a0of\u00a0materials\u00a0technology\n  \u2022 Timeline\u00a0of\u00a0steam\u00a0power\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Commons page Commons\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of technology\n  \u2022 History of technology cultures\n  \u2022 Prehistoric technology\n  \u2022 Neolithic\n  \u2022 Ancient Egypt\n  \u2022 Mayan\n  \u2022 Ancient Greek\n  \u2022 Roman\n  \u2022 Chinese\n  \u2022 Indian\n  \u2022 Byzantine\n  \u2022 Medieval Islam\n  \u2022 Medieval Europe\n  \u2022 Renaissance\n  \u2022 Ottoman\n  \u2022 Great Divergence\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 Modern\n  \u2022 History of technology domains\n  \u2022 History of biotechnology\n  \u2022 History of communication\n  \u2022 History of computing hardware\n  \u2022 History of electrical engineering\n  \u2022 History of materials science\n  \u2022 History of measurement\n  \u2022 History of medicine\n  \u2022 History of nuclear technology\n  \u2022 History of transport\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nEconomy of the United Kingdom\nCompanies\n  \u2022 Co-operatives\n  \u2022 Employee-owned companies\n  \u2022 FTSE 100 Index\n  \u2022 FTSE 250 Index\n  \u2022 FTSE Fledgling Index\n  \u2022 FTSE SmallCap Index\n  \u2022 Government-owned companies\nCurrency,\ngovernance,\nregulation\n  \u2022 Bank of England\n    \u2022 Governor of the Bank of England\n  \u2022 Budget\n  \u2022 Company law\n  \u2022 Competition and Markets Authority\n  \u2022 Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy\n  \u2022 Financial Conduct Authority\n  \u2022 Gilts\n  \u2022 HM Revenue and Customs\n  \u2022 HM Treasury\n    \u2022 Chancellor of the Exchequer\n    \u2022 Debt Management Office\n  \u2022 Monetary Policy Committee\n  \u2022 Office for Budget Responsibility\n  \u2022 Pound sterling\n    \u2022 Banknotes\n    \u2022 Coinage\n  \u2022 Taxation\n  \u2022 UK Statistics Authority\n  \u2022 UK Trade & Investment\nHistory\nChronological\n  \u2022 1659\u20131849 Navigation Acts\n  \u2022 Agricultural Revolution\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 Financial Revolution\n  \u2022 Panic of 1796\u201397\n  \u2022 1815\u201346 Corn Laws\n  \u2022 New Imperialism 1830s\u20131945\n  \u2022 Second Industrial Revolution 1860s\u20131914\n  \u2022 1873\u201379 Long Depression\n  \u2022 1926 general strike\n  \u2022 1929\u201339 Great Depression\n  \u2022 1948\u201352 Marshall Plan\n  \u2022 1974 Three-Day Week\n  \u2022 1979 Winter of Discontent\n  \u2022 1986 Big Bang\n  \u2022 1992 Black Wednesday\n  \u2022 Late-2000s recession\n  \u2022 2008 bank rescue package\n  \u2022 2009 bank rescue package\nRecurrent\n  \u2022 Economic geography\n  \u2022 Free trade\n  \u2022 Gold standard\n  \u2022 Recessions and recoveries\n  \u2022 National champions policy\n  \u2022 Economic liberalism\n  \u2022 Privatisation\n  \u2022 Nationalisation\nNations,\nregions,\ncities\nEngland\n  \u2022 Atlantic Gateway\n  \u2022 Birmingham\n    \u2022 Big City Plan\n  \u2022 Bristol\n  \u2022 Cornwall\n  \u2022 Croydon\n    \u2022 Croydon Vision 2020\n  \u2022 Devon\n  \u2022 Expansion plans for Milton Keynes\n  \u2022 Fishing\n  \u2022 Leeds\n  \u2022 List of counties by GVA\n  \u2022 Liverpool\n  \u2022 London\n    \u2022 East London Tech City\n    \u2022 London Plan\n  \u2022 M4 corridor\n  \u2022 M11 Corridor\n  \u2022 Manchester\n  \u2022 Reading\n  \u2022 Sheffield\n  \u2022 Silicon Fen\n  \u2022 Thames Gateway\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transport\nN. Ireland\n  \u2022 Belfast\n  \u2022 Transport\nScotland\n  \u2022 Aberdeen\n  \u2022 Agriculture\n  \u2022 Edinburgh\n  \u2022 Industrialisation\n  \u2022 Fishing\n  \u2022 Oil and gas\n  \u2022 Renewable energy\n  \u2022 Silicon Glen\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transport\n  \u2022 Whisky\nWales\n  \u2022 Cardiff\u00a0(Cardiff Bay)\n  \u2022 Swansea\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transport\nPeople\nand labour\n  \u2022 Billionaires\n  \u2022 Businesspeople\n  \u2022 Demography\n  \u2022 Income\n    \u2022 Poverty\n  \u2022 Labour law\n    \u2022 Equal opportunities\n    \u2022 Minimum wage\n    \u2022 Working Time Directive\n  \u2022 Pensions\n  \u2022 Trades unions\n    \u2022 Trades Union Congress\n  \u2022 Unemployment\nSectors\nResource and\nproduction\n  \u2022 Energy\/Renewable energy\n    \u2022 Biodiesel\n    \u2022 Coal\n    \u2022 Geothermal\n    \u2022 Fracking\n    \u2022 Hydroelectricity\n    \u2022 Marine\n    \u2022 North Sea oil\n    \u2022 Solar\n    \u2022 Wind\n  \u2022 Food\n    \u2022 Agriculture\n      \u2022 Cider\n      \u2022 Wine\n      \u2022 Beer\n    \u2022 Fishing\n      \u2022 English\n      \u2022 Scottish\n  \u2022 Materials\n    \u2022 Forestry\n    \u2022 Mining\nFinancial\nservices\n  \u2022 Baltic Exchange\n  \u2022 Banking\n    \u2022 List of banks\n    \u2022 List of UK building societies\n  \u2022 Canary Wharf\n  \u2022 The City\n  \u2022 Royal Albert Dock (future)\n  \u2022 Euronext.liffe\n  \u2022 Glasgow International Financial Services District\n  \u2022 Insurance\n    \u2022 Lloyd's of London\n  \u2022 LCH\n  \u2022 London Interbank Offered Rate\n  \u2022 London Metal Exchange\n  \u2022 London Platinum and Palladium Market\n  \u2022 London Stock Exchange\n    \u2022 Alternative Investment Market\nOther\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Entertainment & Media\n    \u2022 Cinema\n    \u2022 Gambling\n    \u2022 Newspapers\n    \u2022 Radio\n    \u2022 Television\n    \u2022 Theatre\n  \u2022 Healthcare\n  \u2022 Legal services\n  \u2022 Manufacturing\n    \u2022 Aerospace\n    \u2022 Automotive\n    \u2022 Pharmaceuticals\n    \u2022 Exports\n  \u2022 Property\n    \u2022 Architecture\n    \u2022 Construction\n    \u2022 Housing\n    \u2022 Real estate\n  \u2022 Science and technology\n    \u2022 Internet\n    \u2022 Telecommunications\n  \u2022 Supermarkets\n  \u2022 Tourism\n  \u2022 Transport\n    \u2022 Aviation\n    \u2022 Rail\n      \u2022 Inter-city\n      \u2022 High-speed\nTrade and\nbusiness\norganisations\n  \u2022 Business organisations\n  \u2022 British Bankers' Association\n  \u2022 British Chambers of Commerce\n  \u2022 Confederation of British Industry\n  \u2022 Co-operatives UK\n  \u2022 EEF\n  \u2022 Federation of Small Businesses\n  \u2022 Industry trade groups\n  \u2022 Institute of Directors\n  \u2022 UK Payments Administration\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Commons page Commons\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nAspects of capitalism (academic views)\nGeneral\n  \u2022 Business cycle\n  \u2022 Competition\n  \u2022 Economic bubble\n  \u2022 Economic development\n  \u2022 Entrepreneurship\n  \u2022 Ecoprenuership\n  \u2022 Externalities\n  \u2022 Financial Revolution\n  \u2022 Globalization\n  \u2022 History of capitalist theory\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 Innovation\n  \u2022 Invention\n  \u2022 Market failure\n  \u2022 Merit\n  \u2022 Multinational corporation\n  \u2022 Oligopoly\n  \u2022 Privatization\n  \u2022 Profit\n  \u2022 Property rights\n  \u2022 Regulation\n  \u2022 Wage labour\n  \u2022 Wealth\nIdeology\n  \u2022 American Dream\n  \u2022 Bipartisanship\n  \u2022 Democracy\n  \u2022 Free market\n  \u2022 Individualism\n  \u2022 Laissez-faire\n  \u2022 Liberalism\n  \u2022 Libertarianism\n  \u2022 Neoliberalism\nCultural aspects\n  \u2022 Culture of capitalism\n  \u2022 Advertising\n  \u2022 Consumerism\n  \u2022 Decentralization\n  \u2022 Economic mobility\n  \u2022 Liberty\n  \u2022 Mainstream\n  \u2022 Philanthropy\n  \u2022 Private foundation\n  \u2022 Rule of law\n  \u2022 Social alienation\n  \u2022 Spontaneous order\nSocial aspects\n  \u2022 Economic inequality\n  \u2022 Employment\n  \u2022 Freedom of association\n  \u2022 Labour market flexibility\n  \u2022 Labour supply\n  \u2022 Productivity\n  \u2022 Prosperity\n  \u2022 Social venture capital\n  \u2022 Unemployment\nCriticism\n  \u2022 Criticism\n  \u2022 Anti-capitalism\n  \u2022 Market fundamentalism\n  \u2022 Marxism\n  \u2022 Wage slavery\nAntithesis\n  \u2022 Anarchism\n  \u2022 Anarcho-syndicalism\n  \u2022 Communism\n  \u2022 Eco-socialism\n  \u2022 Libertarian socialism\n  \u2022 Mercantilism\n  \u2022 Post-scarcity economy\n  \u2022 Sharing economy\n  \u2022 Social anarchism\n  \u2022 Socialism\n  \u2022 Syndicalism\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of Europe\nPrehistory\n  \u2022 Paleolithic Europe\n  \u2022 Neolithic Europe\n  \u2022 Bronze Age Europe\n  \u2022 Iron Age Europe\nClassical antiquity\n  \u2022 Classical Greece\n  \u2022 Roman Republic\n  \u2022 Hellenistic period\n  \u2022 Roman Empire\n  \u2022 Early Christianity\n  \u2022 Crisis of the Third Century\n  \u2022 Fall of the Western Roman Empire\n  \u2022 Late antiquity\nMiddle Ages\n  \u2022 Early Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Migration Period\n  \u2022 Christianization\n  \u2022 Francia\n  \u2022 Byzantine Empire\n  \u2022 Maritime republics\n  \u2022 Viking Age\n  \u2022 Kievan Rus'\n  \u2022 Holy Roman Empire\n  \u2022 High Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Feudalism\n  \u2022 Crusades\n  \u2022 Mongol invasion\n  \u2022 Late Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Hundred Years' War\n  \u2022 Kalmar Union\n  \u2022 Renaissance\nEarly modern\n  \u2022 Reformation\n  \u2022 Age of Discovery\n  \u2022 Baroque\n  \u2022 Thirty Years' War\n  \u2022 Absolute monarchy\n  \u2022 Ottoman Empire\n  \u2022 Portuguese Empire\n  \u2022 Spanish Empire\n  \u2022 Early modern France\n  \u2022 Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth\n  \u2022 Swedish Empire\n  \u2022 Dutch Republic\n  \u2022 British Empire\n  \u2022 Habsburg Monarchy\n  \u2022 Russian Empire\n  \u2022 Age of Enlightenment\nModern\n  \u2022 Great Divergence\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 French Revolution\n  \u2022 Napoleonic Wars\n  \u2022 Nationalism\n  \u2022 Revolutions of 1848\n  \u2022 World War I\n  \u2022 Russian Revolution\n  \u2022 Interwar period\n  \u2022 World War II\n  \u2022 Cold War\n  \u2022 European integration\nSee also\n  \u2022 Art of Europe\n  \u2022 Genetic history of Europe\n  \u2022 History of the Mediterranean region\n  \u2022 History of the European Union\n  \u2022 History of Western civilization\n  \u2022 Maritime history of Europe\n  \u2022 Military history of Europe\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 GND: 4072790-7\n  \u2022 HDS: 13825\n  \u2022 NDL: 00570120\n  \u2022 Emblem-money.svgBusiness and economics portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&oldid=836894850\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 Industrial history\n  \u2022 History of technology\n  \u2022 18th century in technology\n  \u2022 19th century in technology\n  \u2022 Early Modern Britain\n  \u2022 Modern Europe\n  \u2022 Modern history of the United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Revolutions by type\n  \u2022 Theories of history\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB\n  \u2022 CS1: Julian\u2013Gregorian uncertainty\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from November 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017\n  \u2022 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters\n  \u2022 Articles with Curlie links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikibooks\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0410\u0434\u044b\u0433\u044d\u0431\u0437\u044d\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 Alemannisch\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Estreme\u00f1u\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fiji Hindi\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u8d1b\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Ilokano\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0439-\u043c\u0430\u043b\u043a\u044a\u0430\u0440\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u0ea5\u0eb2\u0ea7\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Malti\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Mirand\u00e9s\n  \u2022 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\n  \u2022 \u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648\n  \u2022 Patois\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Qaraqalpaqsha\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Sicilianu\n  \u2022 \u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 V\u00f5ro\n  \u2022 \u6587\u8a00\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u5434\u8bed\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u017demait\u0117\u0161ka\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\n  \u2022 Kab\u0269y\u025b\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 17 April 2018, at 14:02.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5319006839104362913","title":"Old Course at St Andrews","text":"Old Course at St Andrews\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nOld Course\n18th Green and Clubhouse.jpg\nR&A Clubhouse and 18th green in 2004\nClub information\nCoordinates 56\u00b020\u203235\u2033N 2\u00b048\u203211\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff56.343\u00b0N 2.803\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 56.343; -2.803Coordinates: 56\u00b020\u203235\u2033N 2\u00b048\u203211\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff56.343\u00b0N 2.803\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 56.343; -2.803\nLocation St Andrews, Scotland\nEstablished 1552\nType Public\nOwned by Fife Council[1]\nOperated by St Andrews Links Trust\nTotal holes 18\nTournaments hosted The Open Championship, Alfred Dunhill Links Championship\nWebsite Old Course\nPar 72\nLength 7,305 yards (6,680\u00a0m)\nCourse record 61; Ross Fisher (2017)\nSt Andrews is located in Scotland\nSt Andrews\nSt Andrews\nLocation in Scotland\nSt Andrews is located in Fife\nSt Andrews\nSt Andrews\nLocation in Fife, Scotland\n\nThe Old Course at St Andrews is considered the oldest golf course in the world,[2][3] a public course over common land in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is held in trust by The St Andrews Links Trust under an act of Parliament. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews club house sits adjacent to the first tee, although it is but one of many clubs that have playing privileges on the course, along with the general public.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n    \u2022 1.1 Governance\n    \u2022 1.2 Influence on modern golf\n    \u2022 1.3 Old Course and Bobby Jones\n  \u2022 2 Features\n  \u2022 3 The Open Championship\n  \u2022 4 Scorecard\n  \u2022 5 Women's British Open\n  \u2022 6 Senior Open Championship\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe Old Course at St Andrews is considered by many to be the \"home of golf\" because the sport was first played on the Links at St Andrews in the early 15th century.[4] Golf was becoming increasingly popular in Scotland until in 1457, when James II of Scotland banned golf because he felt that young men were playing too much golf instead of practising their archery.[4] The ban was upheld by the following kings of Scotland until 1502, when King James IV became a golfer himself and removed the ban.[5]\n\nGovernance[edit]\n\nIn 1552, Archbishop John Hamilton gave the townspeople of St. Andrews the right to play on the links. In 1754, 22 noblemen, professors, and landowners founded the Society of St Andrews Golfers. This society would eventually become the precursor to the Royal and Ancient which is the governing body for golf everywhere outside of the United States and Mexico.[6] St Andrews Links had a scare when they went bankrupt in 1797.[6] The Town Council of St. Andrews decided to allow rabbit farming on the golf course to challenge golf for popularity. Twenty years of legal battling between the golfers and rabbit farmers ended in 1821 when a local landowner and golfer named James Cheape of Strathtyrum bought the land and is credited with saving the links for golf.[4] The course evolved without the help of any one architect for many years, though notable contributions to its design were made by Daw Anderson in the 1850s and Old Tom Morris (1865\u20131908), who designed the 1st and 18th holes. Originally, it was played over the same set of fairways out and back to the same holes. As interest in the game increased, groups of golfers would often be playing the same hole, but going in different directions.[4]\n\nInfluence on modern golf[edit]\n\nThe Old Course was pivotal to the development of how the game is played today. For instance, in 1764, the course had 22 holes. The members would play the same hole going out and in with the exception of the 11th and 22nd holes. The members decided that the first four and last four holes on the course were too short and should be combined into four total holes (two in and two out). St Andrews then had 18 holes and that was how the standard of 18 holes was created.[7] Around 1863, Old Tom Morris had the 1st green separated from the 17th green, producing the current 18-hole layout with seven double greens and four single greens. The Old Course is home of The Open Championship, the oldest of golf's major championships. The Old Course has hosted this major 29 times since 1873, most recently in 2015. The 29 Open Championships that the Old Course has hosted is more than any other course, and The Open is currently played there every five years.\n\nOld Course and Bobby Jones[edit]\n\nBobby Jones (who later founded Augusta National) first played St Andrews in the 1921 Open Championship. During the third round, he infamously hit his ball into a bunker on the 11th hole. After he took four swings at the ball and still could not get out, after losing his temper, he continued the round, but did not turn in score card, thus disqualifying himself. However, he did continue to play in the fourth round. Six years later, when the Open Championship returned to St Andrews, Jones also returned. Not only did he win, he also became the first amateur to win back-to-back Open Championships. He won wire-to-wire, shooting a 285 (7-under-par), which was the lowest score at either a U.S. Open or Open Championship at the time. He ended up winning the tournament by a decisive six strokes.\n\nIn 1930, Jones returned to St Andrews for the British Amateur.[8] He won, beating Roger Wethered by a score of 7 and 6 in the final match. He subsequently won the other three majors, making him the only man in the history of the sport to win the Grand Slam. Jones went on to fall in love with the Old Course for the rest of his life. Years later, he said \"If I had to select one course upon which to play the match of my life, I should have selected the Old Course.\" In 1958 the town of St Andrews gave Jones the key to the city; he was only the second American to receive the honour (after Benjamin Franklin in 1759). After he received the key, he said \"I could take out of my life everything but my experiences here in St. Andrews and I would still have had a rich and full life.\"[9]\n\nFeatures[edit]\n\n\"I'm very sentimental and the place gets to me every time I go there. St Andrews was always where I wanted to finish my major career.\"\n\u2014Jack Nicklaus on finishing his career at St Andrews, 2005.[10]\nThe Swilcan Bridge is one of the most iconic attractions in golf\nThe 18th hole towards the clubhouse of the R&A in 2006.\nA largely unchanged view in 1891.\n\nOne of the unique features of the Old Course are the large double greens. Seven greens are shared by two holes each, with hole numbers adding up to 18 (2nd paired with 16th, 3rd with 15th, all the way up to 8th and 10th). The Swilcan Bridge, spanning the first and 18th holes, has become a famous icon for golf in the world.[11] Everyone who plays the 18th hole walks over this 700-year-old bridge, and many iconic pictures of the farewells of the most iconic golfers in history have been taken on this bridge.[12] A life-size stone replica of the Bridge is situated at the World Golf Hall of Fame museum in St. Augustine, Florida.[12] Only the 1st, 9th, 17th and 18th holes have their own greens. Another unique feature is that the course can be played in either direction, clockwise or anti-clockwise. Along with that, the Old Course has 112 bunkers which are all individually named and have their own unique story and history behind them. The two most famous are the 10\u00a0ft deep \"Hell Bunker\"[13] on the 14th hole, and the \"Road Bunker\" on the 17th hole. Countless professional golfers have seen their dreams of winning the Open Championship squandered by hitting their balls into those bunkers.\n\nThe Old Course is also home of The Road Hole, the par-4 17th, one of the world's most famous golf holes. Among its unique features are:\n\n  \u2022 Players using the back tees cannot see where their tee shots land. This is not unusual except that they must take aim over a corner of replica railway sheds which lie beyond the out of bounds wall. The original sheds were torn down when the rail line running next to the course closed, and after several Opens were played without the tee shot being blind, replicas of the sheds were created in preparation for the 1984 Open.\n  \u2022 Other than rough, the primary hazard in front of the green is a sand trap known as the \"Road Bunker.\"\n  \u2022 Over the back of the green, hazards include a tarmac roadway, as well as an old stone wall. Both are in play; a wayward shot can lead a player to take their next stroke off the roadway or to hit the face of the wall and take their chances with the ensuing bounce.\n\nThe general method of play today is counterclockwise, although clockwise play has been permitted on one day each year in recent years, and for several special one off events since. Originally, the course was reversed every week in order to let the grass recover better. One other unusual thing about the Old Course is that it is closed on Sundays to let the course rest.[14] On some Sundays, the course turns into a park for all the townspeople who come out to stroll, picnic and otherwise enjoy the grounds. As a general rule, Sunday play is allowed on the course on only four occasions:\n\n  \u2022 The final day of the Dunhill Links Championship, an annual event on the European Tour.\n  \u2022 The final day of any R&A sanctioned Open Championships \u2013 men and women, and the men over 50 when it is held at the Old Course; this happens roughly once every five years for the men; the women's championship began its turn on the rotation in 2007, and the over-50 championship began in 2018.\n  \u2022 The final day of two top amateur events, the St Andrews Links Trophy and the St Rule Trophy.\n\nSunday play may also occur when the Old Course hosts other major events; for example, when it hosted the Curtis Cup in 2008.\n\nWhile winning the Open Championship is a crowning achievement for any golfer, a win at St Andrews is considered particularly important due to the course's long tradition. Past winners at St Andrews include Tiger Woods (twice), Louis Oosthuizen, John Daly, Zach Johnson (first Monday finish since 1988), Nick Faldo, Seve Ballesteros, Jack Nicklaus (twice), Tony Lema, Kel Nagle, Bobby Locke, Peter Thomson, Sam Snead, Dick Burton, Denny Shute, Bobby Jones, Jock Hutchison, James Braid (twice), John Henry Taylor (twice), Hugh Kirkaldy, Jack Burns, Bob Martin (twice), Jamie Anderson, Tom Kidd, Lorena Ochoa, and most recently Stacy Lewis at the 2013 Women's British Open.\n\nIn 2005 the Old Course was ranked as the greatest golf course outside the United States, by Golf Digest.\n\nSince 1990, the Old Course has been unique on the Open roster in holding the Championship every five years. However, this sequence has been broken with the announcement that the 2020 Championship will be at Royal St. George's. The reason for this is that the 2021 Championship will be the 150th, and is expected to be played on the Old Course although no official announcement has yet been made.\n\nThe Open Championship[edit]\n\nThe \"road bunker\" at the 17th hole.\nR&A Clubhouse on the Old Course.\n\nThe Open Championship has been staged at the Old Course at St Andrews 29 times. The following is a list of the champions:\n\nYear Winner Score Notes\nR1 R2 R3 R4 Total\n1873 Scotland Tom Kidd 91 88 \u2013 \u2013 179 This was the first time the Open Championship was played on an 18-hole course. Instead of three rounds of 12 holes, there were two rounds of 18. Kidd won \u00a311.\n1876 Scotland Bob Martin 1st 86 90 \u2013 \u2013 176 Due to a controversial ruling, Bob Martin finished in a tie for first. In protest, his opponent Davie Strath refused to participate so Martin walked the course and became the Open Champion. He won \u00a310.\n1879 Scotland Jamie Anderson 3rd 84 85 \u2013 \u2013 169 With this win, Jamie Anderson became the first person to break 170 in the Open Championship. He won \u00a310.\n1882 Scotland Bob Ferguson 3rd 83 88 \u2013 \u2013 171 This was the third straight Open Championship for Ferguson. He won \u00a312.\n1885 Scotland Bob Martin 2nd 84 87 \u2013 \u2013 171 The second of Martin's Open Championship wins, he won \u00a310.\n1888 Scotland Jack Burns 86 85 \u2013 \u2013 171 Burns won after his score was re-added, giving him a one-stroke victory. The winners share was \u00a38.\n1891 Scotland Hugh Kirkaldy 83 83 \u2013 \u2013 166 Kirkaldy set the tournament record with his 166. This was also the last Open Championship that was 36 holes. The winners share was \u00a310.\n1895 England J.H. Taylor 2nd 86 78 80 78 322 This was the first Open to be played over two days (36 holes a day) and a total of 72 holes at St Andrews. He shot the first sub-80 rounds at St Andrews. The winners share was \u00a330.\n1900 England J.H. Taylor 3rd 79 77 78 75 309 This open marked the first time the \"Great Triumvirate\" finished 1-2-3. That was the name given to the three golfers who dominated the game in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. From 1894 to 1914, J.H. Taylor, Harry Vardon, and James Braid combined to win 16 Open Championships. This was Taylor's third of five Open Championships. The winners share was \u00a350.\n1905 Scotland James Braid 2nd 81 78 78 81 318 This was the first Open to be played over three days, with 36 holes on the last day. This was Braid's second of five Open Championships. The winners share was \u00a350.\n1910 Scotland James Braid 5th 76 73 74 76 299 This Open was the last of Braid's five Open Championships. With this win he became the first person to break 300 in a four-round Open at St Andrews, and was the first to win five Open Championships. The winners share was \u00a350.\n1921 United States Jock Hutchison\nScotland\n72 75 79 70 296 PO Born in Scotland, Hutchison was the first American citizen to win the Open Championship with this win. This was also the first time Bobby Jones played St Andrews. He ended up walking off the course after he took four shots to get out of a bunker on the 11th hole. The winners share was \u00a375.\n1927 United States Bobby Jones (a) 2nd 68 72 73 72 285 (\u22123) This win marked Bobby Jones' first Open championship win at St Andrews, his second straight Open Championship, fourth professional major, and his 7th career major (he was a three-time winner of the U.S. Amateur). As an amateur, Jones received no prize money. Aubrey Boomer and Fred Robson finished in a tie for second, and the winners and second place share of \u00a375 for first place and \u00a350 for second place were combined and divided into two, so each player earned 62 pounds and 10 shillings.\n1933 United States Denny Shute 73 73 73 73 292 (+4) PO Shute won the Open title by five strokes in a playoff against Craig Wood. Leo Diegel could have joined them but he whiffed a putt on the 72nd hole, finishing one shot off the lead. The winners share was \u00a3100.\n1939 England Dick Burton 70 72 77 71 290 (\u22122) The 1939 Open was the last Open until 1946 because of World War II. The Royal Air Force used the fairways of the Old Course as runways. Burton held the Claret Jug the longest (7 years), until the tournament resumed in 1946, also at St Andrews. The winners share was \u00a3100.\n1946 United States Sam Snead 71 70 74 75 290 (\u22122) Even though Sam Snead won the first Open Championship to be played since 1939, he still lost money because of the high travel expenses; his winner's share was \u00a3150. When taking the train into St Andrews, Sam Snead is quoted for looking out of the window and saying \"Say, that looks like an old abandoned golf course\" about the Old Course.\n1955 Australia Peter Thomson 2nd 71 68 70 72 281 (\u22127) This was the second of Thomson's three straight Open titles, and five overall. His winner's share was \u00a31,000.\n1957 South Africa Bobby Locke 4th 69 72 68 70 279 (\u22129) Between 1949 and 1957, Locke won the Open title four times. He survived a possible disqualification when he marked his ball on the 72nd green, and played his ball without replacing his ball mark. The R&A decided that because he had a three shot lead, and he didn't gain an advantage, that in the spirit of the game, he should not be disqualified. The winner's share was \u00a31,000.\n1960 Australia Kel Nagle 69 67 71 71 278 (\u221210) This was the 100th anniversary of the Open Championship, although due to wars it wasn't the 100th Open Championship to be played. Arnold Palmer finished second and is credited with returning the Open to the eyes of Americans. The winner's share was \u00a31,250.\n1964 United States Tony Lema 73 68 68 70 279 (\u22129) From 1962 to 1966, Lema won 12 times on tour, but this was his only major. He beat Jack Nicklaus by five strokes, and his winner's share was \u00a31,500. Tragically, Lema and his pregnant wife were killed in a plane crash two years later.\n1970 United States Jack Nicklaus 2nd 68 69 73 73 283 (\u22125)PO Doug Sanders missed a tough two and a half-foot (0.75 m) putt on the 72nd hole, bogeyed, and ended up tied with Nicklaus. The playoff the next day came down to 18th hole and Nicklaus birdied to win; it was his second Open title and eighth overall major; the winner's share was \u00a35,250.\n1978 United States Jack Nicklaus 3rd 71 72 69 69 281 (\u22127) Nicklaus completed the career Grand Slam (winning all four majors in your career at least once) for the third time making it his third Open Championship. The winner's share was \u00a312,500\n1984 Spain Seve Ballesteros 2nd 69 68 70 69 276 (\u221212) The leaderboard for the final day was full of the best golfers in the world at the time. Ballesteros beat Bernhard Langer, Tom Watson, Fred Couples, Lanny Wadkins, Nick Faldo, and Greg Norman to make an epic final round at St Andrews. Ballesteros birdied the 72nd hole to win by two, and his fist pump is an iconic image to this day. His winner's share was \u00a350,000.\n1990 England Nick Faldo 2nd 67 65 67 71 270 (\u221218) Faldo set the Open championship scoring record shooting 18 under par, winning his second major of the year, his second Open Championship and his fourth overall major. The winner's share was \u00a385,000.\n1995 United States John Daly 67 71 73 71 282 (\u22126)PO This Open was significant because it was the first that Tiger Woods played in, and the last that Arnold Palmer played in, getting to have his farewell at St Andrews. John Daly beat Costantino Rocca in a four-hole playoff to win the Open title and \u00a3125,000.\n2000 United States Tiger Woods 1st 67 66 67 69 269 (\u221219) Winning the 2000 British Open was Tiger Woods' second consecutive major championship, completing the career grand slam; he would win the next two major championships as well for four consecutive major victories - the \"Tiger Slam\". He didn't hit a single bunker the entire tournament, won by eight strokes, and set the new Open Championship scoring record with 19 under par. The winner's share was \u00a3500,000.\n2005 United States Tiger Woods 2nd 66 67 71 70 274 (\u221214) This was Jack Nicklaus's last Open Championship and like Arnold Palmer, he finished on the Old Course. This was also Tiger's 10th major championship and the fourth one he had won by five or more strokes, and the winner's share was \u00a3720,000.\n2010 South Africa Louis Oosthuizen 65 67 69 71 272 (\u221216) On the 150th anniversary of the first Open Championship, Oosthuizen played consistently well, winning the Open title by shooting a 16 under par 272 and winning by seven strokes. Rory McIlroy shot a 63 in the opening round and the winner's share was \u00a3850,000.\n2015 United States Zach Johnson 66 71 70 66 273 (\u221215)PO In the 144th playing of the Open Championship, Zach Johnson emerged from a three-man playoff to win the tournament. Tom Watson was given a special exemption by the R & A in order that he could finish his Open career at the Old Course. The tournament finished on Monday due to the extremely high winds that arose during Saturday's round. Johnson defeated Louis Oosthuizen and Marc Leishman in a four-hole playoff.\n  \u2022 Note: Multiple winners of The Open Championship have superscript ordinal designating which in their respective careers.\n  \u2022 (a) denotes amateur\n\nSources:[15][16]\n\nScorecard[edit]\n\nMain article: 2015 Open Championship\nHole Name Yards Par Hole Name Yards Par\n1 Burn 376 4 10 Bobby Jones 386 4\n2 Dyke 453 4 11 High (In) 174 3\n3 Cartgate (Out) 397 4 12 Heathery (In) 348 4\n4 Ginger Beer 480 4 13 Hole O'Cross (In) 465 4\n5 Hole O'Cross (Out) 568 5 14 Long 618 5\n6 Heathery (Out) 412 4 15 Cartgate (In) 455 4\n7 High (Out) 371 4 16 Corner of the Dyke 423 4\n8 Short 175 3 17 Road 495 4\n9 End 352 4 18 Tom Morris 357 4\nOut 3,584 36 In 3,721 36\nSource:[3] Total 7,305 72\nOld Course\nTee Rating\/Slope 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Out 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 In Total\nWhite 73.1 \/ 132 376 411 370 419 514 374 359 166 347 3336 340 174 316 418 530 414 381 455 357 3385 6721\nYellow 71.4 \/ 129 355 395 337 411 514 360 349 154 289 3164 311 164 304 388 523 391 345 436 361 3223 6387\nPar 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 36 4 3 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 36 72\nLadies' 75.6 \/ 138 339 375 321 401 454 325 335 145 261 2956 296 150 304 377 487 369 325 426 342 3076 6032\nPar Ladies' 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 4 38 4 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 38 76\n\nWomen's British Open[edit]\n\nWinners of the Women's British Open at the Old Course at St Andrews:\n\nYear Winner Score\n2007 Mexico Lorena Ochoa 287 (\u22125)\n2013 United States Stacy Lewis 280 (\u20138)\n\nSenior Open Championship[edit]\n\nWinners of the Senior Open Championship at the Old Course at St Andrews:\n\nYear Winner Score\n2018\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Golf in Scotland\n  \u2022 St Andrews Links\n  \u2022 The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"St Andrews Link Trust appointment\". Scottish Government website. 14 January 2002. Retrieved 24 June 2014.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Scottish Golf History \u2013 Oldest Golf Sites\". Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b \"St Andrews \u2013 The Old Course\". Archived from the original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"The Old Course Experience \u2013 A Brief History of The Links\". Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Andrew Leibs (2004). \"Sports and Games of the Renaissance\". p. 69. Greenwood Publishing Group,\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b \"St Andrews \u2013 A Brief History of The Links\". Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Forrest L. Richardson (2002). \"Routing the Golf Course: The Art & Science That Forms the Golf Journey\". p. 46. John Wiley & Sons\n  8. Jump up ^ Kelly, Morgan (14 June 2005). \"Jones' 1930 feat still stands test of time\". USA Today. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ DiMeglio, Steve (15 July 2010). \"History, mythology combine at St Andrews, the home of golf\". USA Today. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Nicklaus set for St Andrews bow\". BBC Sport. 3 July 2005.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Hauser, Melanie (9 July 2010). \"Old Course's humble Swilcan Bridge one of golf's great attractions\". PGA of America.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Ross, Helen (12 July 2010). \"Swilcan Bridge replica a true World Golf Hall of Fame highlight\". PGA of America.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Prunty, Brendan (15 July 2010). \"At the British Open at St Andrews, it's the bunkers (in addition to everything else) that will drive players mad\". NJ.com. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Borden, Sam (12 June 2015). \"Sundays on the Old Course at St. Andrews: No Golfers Allowed\". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2015. Ground staff ask that people avoid greens and bunkers. On Sundays, locals and tourists explore the Old Course at St. Andrews as it enjoys a weekly rest.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"British Open: Event's history at St Andrews\". USA Today. 11 July 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2013.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Prize Money at the Major Championships\". Golf Today. Retrieved 4 March 2014.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Golf Course Histories \u2013 comparison of 1932 v 2012 course aerials (nb. 2012 aerial dates prior to November 2012 changes)\n  \u2022 BBC Golf on the Old Course \u2013 a review by former European Tour player Ken Brown and several supporting features.\n  \u2022 St Andrews Links Trust\n  \u2022 The Old Course Hotel, Golf Resort & Spa\n  \u2022 Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews\n  \u2022 St Andrews Open\n  \u2022 Golf Club Atlas Guide\n  \u2022 St Andrews Golf Development Group \u2013 info on Old Course and online booking for other St Andrews courses\n  \u2022 3D Course Planner at ProVisualizer\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nTopics on St Andrews\nEntertainment\n  \u2022 Barron Theatre\n  \u2022 Byre Theatre\n  \u2022 New Picture House\nDiocese of St Andrews.jpg\nGolf\n  \u2022 Ladies' Golf Union\n  \u2022 Links\n  \u2022 Old Course\n    \u2022 Swilken Bridge\n  \u2022 The Royal and Ancient\n  \u2022 Strathtyrum\nMonuments\n  \u2022 St Andrews Sarcophagus\nMuseums\n  \u2022 British Golf Museum\n  \u2022 Museum of the University of St Andrews\n  \u2022 St Andrews Castle\n  \u2022 St Andrews Cathedral\n  \u2022 St Andrews Museum\nReligious houses,\npast and present\n  \u2022 All Saints\n  \u2022 Blackfriars\n  \u2022 Greyfriars\n  \u2022 Holy Trinity Church\n  \u2022 Hospital of St Leonard\n  \u2022 Hospital of St Nicholas\n  \u2022 St Andrews Cathedral Priory\n  \u2022 St Leonard's Chapel\n  \u2022 St Mary's Collegiate Church\n  \u2022 St Salvator's Chapel\nSchools\n  \u2022 Madras College\n  \u2022 St Leonards School\n  \u2022 New Park School\nUniversity colleges,\npast and present\n  \u2022 St Leonard's College\n  \u2022 St Mary's College\n  \u2022 The Pedagogy\n  \u2022 St Salvator's College\n  \u2022 United College\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 East Sands\n  \u2022 Kinness burn\n  \u2022 West Sands\n  \u2022 Siege of St Andrews Castle\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Open Championship rota courses\nCurrent rota courses\n  \u2022 St Andrews\n  \u2022 Carnoustie\n  \u2022 Muirfield\n  \u2022 Turnberry\n  \u2022 Royal Troon\n  \u2022 Royal St George's (Sandwich)\n  \u2022 Royal Birkdale\n  \u2022 Royal Lytham & St Annes\n  \u2022 Royal Liverpool (Hoylake)\n  \u2022 Royal Portrush\nFormer rota courses\n  \u2022 Prestwick\n  \u2022 Musselburgh\n  \u2022 Royal Cinque Ports\n  \u2022 Prince's\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGolf\nOverview\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Glossary\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Rules\n    \u2022 penalties\n    \u2022 playoffs\n    \u2022 etiquette\n  \u2022 Stroke play\n    \u2022 scoring\n    \u2022 handicap\n  \u2022 Match play\n    \u2022 four-ball\n    \u2022 alternate shot\n  \u2022 Golf course\n    \u2022 links\n    \u2022 teeing ground\n    \u2022 hazards\n  \u2022 Equipment\n    \u2022 golf clubs\n    \u2022 golf ball\n    \u2022 tee\nTechnical\n  \u2022 Golf stroke mechanics\n  \u2022 Instruction\n  \u2022 Drive\nGolfers\n  \u2022 Professional golfer\n    \u2022 tours\n  \u2022 Male golfers\n  \u2022 Female golfers\n  \u2022 Men's major winners\n  \u2022 Women's major winners\n  \u2022 Senior major winners\n  \u2022 Olympic medalists\nMost wins\n  \u2022 Asian Tour\n  \u2022 Australasia Tour\n  \u2022 Challenge Tour\n  \u2022 European Tour\n  \u2022 European Senior Tour\n  \u2022 Japan Golf Tour\n  \u2022 Ladies European Tour\n  \u2022 LPGA Tour\n  \u2022 PGA Tour\n  \u2022 PGA Tour Champions\n  \u2022 Sunshine Tour\n  \u2022 Web.com Tour\nMajors\nMen\n  \u2022 Masters Tournament\n  \u2022 U.S. Open\n  \u2022 The Open Championship\n  \u2022 PGA Championship\nWomen\n  \u2022 ANA Inspiration\n  \u2022 U.S. Women's Open\n  \u2022 Women's PGA Championship\n  \u2022 Women's British Open\n  \u2022 The Evian Championship\nSenior\n  \u2022 The Tradition\n  \u2022 Senior PGA Championship\n  \u2022 U.S. Senior Open\n  \u2022 Senior Players Championship\n  \u2022 Senior Open Championship\nSenior Women's\n  \u2022 Senior LPGA Championship\n  \u2022 U.S. Senior Women's Open\nInternational events\nMulti-sport event\n  \u2022 Asian Games\n  \u2022 Inter-Allied Games\n  \u2022 Island Games\n  \u2022 Pacific Games\n  \u2022 Pan American Games\n  \u2022 Summer Olympics\n  \u2022 Summer Universiade\n  \u2022 Youth Olympic Games\nTeam\n  \u2022 Curtis Cup\n  \u2022 EurAsia Cup\n  \u2022 International Crown\n  \u2022 Presidents Cup\n  \u2022 Ryder Cup\n  \u2022 Solheim Cup\n  \u2022 Walker Cup\nRankings\n  \u2022 Men\n  \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Amateur\nCountries\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 China\n  \u2022 India\n  \u2022 Ireland\n  \u2022 Philippines\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Scotland\n  \u2022 Thailand\n  \u2022 United States\nVenues\n  \u2022 Driving range\n  \u2022 Lists of golf courses\n    \u2022 Canada\n    \u2022 Hawaii\n    \u2022 India\n    \u2022 North Dakota\n    \u2022 Philippines\n    \u2022 Portugal\n    \u2022 United Kingdom\n    \u2022 links courses\n    \u2022 designed by Jack Nicklaus\nYears\n  \u2022 1353\u20131850\n  \u2022 1851\u20131945\n  \u2022 1945\u201399\n  \u2022 2000\u201305\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\n  \u2022 2018\nGoverning bodies\n  \u2022 International Golf Federation\n  \u2022 The R&A\n  \u2022 United States Golf Association\n  \u2022 Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland)\n  \u2022 Professional Golfers' Association of America\n  \u2022 LPGA\n  \u2022 PGA Tour\n  \u2022 PGA European Tour\n  \u2022 American Society of Golf Course Architects\n  \u2022 World Golf Teachers Federation\nVariations\n  \u2022 Beach golf\n  \u2022 GolfCross\n  \u2022 Hickory golf\n  \u2022 Indoor golf\n  \u2022 Long drive\n  \u2022 Miniature golf\n  \u2022 Park golf\n  \u2022 Pitch and putt\n  \u2022 Shotgun start\n  \u2022 Skins game\n  \u2022 Snow golf\n  \u2022 Speed golf\n  \u2022 Urban golf\nMiscellaneous\n  \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 Architects\n  \u2022 Caddie\n  \u2022 Greenskeeper\n  \u2022 World Golf Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 British Golf Museum\n  \u2022 USGA Museum\n  \u2022 Jack Nicklaus Museum\n  \u2022 Caddie Hall of Fame\n  \u2022 Evans Scholars Foundation\nMedia\n  \u2022 Golf Channel\n    \u2022 personalities\n  \u2022 Golf Digest\n  \u2022 Golf Magazine\n  \u2022 Golf World\n  \u2022 Golfweek\n  \u2022 Links\n  \u2022 Travel + Leisure Golf\n  \u2022 Video games\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Commons page Commons\n  \u2022 WikiProjectWikiProject\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Old_Course_at_St_Andrews&oldid=812721619\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Golf clubs and courses in Fife\n  \u2022 The Open Championship venues\n  \u2022 Curtis Cup venues\n  \u2022 Walker Cup venues\n  \u2022 Sports venues in Fife\n  \u2022 Tourist attractions in Fife\n  \u2022 St Andrews\n  \u2022 1552 establishments in Scotland\n  \u2022 16th century in sports\n  \u2022 1550s in Scotland\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Coordinates on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 29 November 2017, at 13:53.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-348265892013363322","title":"Germanium","text":"This is a featured article. Click here for more information.\n\nGermanium\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nNot to be confused with geranium.\nGermanium,\u00a0\u00a032Ge\nGrayish lustrous block with uneven cleaved surface\nGeneral properties\nPronunciation \/d\u0292\u0259r\u02c8me\u026ani\u0259m\/\nj\u0259r-MAY-nee-\u0259m\nAppearance grayish-white\nStandard atomic weight (Ar,\u00a0standard) 7001726300000000000\u266072.630(8)[1]\nGermanium in the periodic table\nHydrogen Helium\nLithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon\nSodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon\nPotassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton\nRubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon\nCaesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon\nFrancium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson\nSi\n\u2191\nGe\n\u2193\nSn\ngallium \u2190 germanium \u2192 arsenic\nAtomic number (Z) 32\nGroup, period group\u00a014 (carbon group), period\u00a04\nBlock p-block\nElement category \u00a0 metalloid\nElectron configuration [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2\nElectrons per shell\n2, 8, 18, 4\nPhysical properties\nPhase (at\u00a0STP) solid\nMelting\u00a0point 1211.40\u00a0K \u200b(938.25\u00a0\u00b0C, \u200b1720.85\u00a0\u00b0F)\nBoiling\u00a0point 3106\u00a0K \u200b(2833\u00a0\u00b0C, \u200b5131\u00a0\u00b0F)\nDensity (near\u00a0r.t.) 5.323\u00a0g\/cm3\nwhen\u00a0liquid (at\u00a0m.p.) 5.60\u00a0g\/cm3\nHeat\u00a0of\u00a0fusion 36.94\u00a0kJ\/mol\nHeat of vaporization 334\u00a0kJ\/mol\nMolar heat capacity 23.222\u00a0J\/(mol\u00b7K)\nVapor\u00a0pressure\nP\u00a0(Pa) 1 10 100 1\u00a0k 10\u00a0k 100\u00a0k\nat\u00a0T\u00a0(K) 1644 1814 2023 2287 2633 3104\nAtomic properties\nOxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, \u22121, \u22122, \u22123, \u22124 \u200b(an amphoteric oxide)\nElectronegativity Pauling\u00a0scale: 2.01\nIonization energies\n  \u2022 1st:\u00a0762\u00a0kJ\/mol\n  \u2022 2nd:\u00a01537.5\u00a0kJ\/mol\n  \u2022 3rd:\u00a03302.1\u00a0kJ\/mol\nAtomic radius empirical: 122\u00a0pm\nCovalent radius 122\u00a0pm\nVan der Waals radius 211\u00a0pm\nColor lines in a spectral range\nSpectral lines\nMiscellanea\nCrystal structure \u200bface-centered\u00a0diamond-cubic\nDiamond cubic crystal structure for germanium\nSpeed of sound thin\u00a0rod 5400\u00a0m\/s (at\u00a020\u00a0\u00b0C)\nThermal expansion 6.0\u00a0\u00b5m\/(m\u00b7K)\nThermal conductivity 60.2\u00a0W\/(m\u00b7K)\nElectrical resistivity 1\u00a0\u03a9\u00b7m (at\u00a020\u00a0\u00b0C)\nBand gap 0.67\u00a0eV (at\u00a0300\u00a0K)\nMagnetic ordering diamagnetic[2]\nMagnetic susceptibility \u221276.84\u00b710\u22126\u00a0cm3\/mol[3]\nYoung's modulus 103\u00a0GPa[4]\nShear modulus 41\u00a0GPa[4]\nBulk modulus 75\u00a0GPa[4]\nPoisson ratio 0.26[4]\nMohs hardness 6.0\nCAS Number 7440-56-4\nHistory\nNaming after Germany, homeland of the discoverer\nPrediction Dmitri Mendeleev (1871)\nDiscovery Clemens Winkler (1886)\nMain isotopes of germanium\nIso\u00adtope Abun\u00addance Half-life (t1\/2) Decay mode Pro\u00adduct\n68Ge syn 270.8\u00a0d \u03b5 68Ga\n70Ge 20.52% stable\n71Ge syn 11.3 d \u03b5 71Ga\n72Ge 27.45% stable\n73Ge 7.76% stable\n74Ge 36.52% stable\n76Ge 7.75% 1.78\u00d71021\u00a0y \u03b2\u2212\u03b2\u2212 76Se\n  \u2022 view\n  \u2022 talk\n  \u2022 edit\n| references | in Wikidata\n\nGermanium is a chemical element with symbol\u00a0Ge and atomic number\u00a032. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Pure germanium is a semiconductor with an appearance similar to elemental silicon. Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with oxygen in nature.\n\nBecause it seldom appears in high concentration, germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry. Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth's crust. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties from its position on his periodic table, and called the element ekasilicon. Nearly two decades later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler found the new element along with silver and sulfur, in a rare mineral called argyrodite. Although the new element somewhat resembled arsenic and antimony in appearance, the combining ratios in compounds agreed with Mendeleev's predictions for a relative of silicon. Winkler named the element after his country, Germany. Today, germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite (the primary ore of zinc), though germanium is also recovered commercially from silver, lead, and copper ores.\n\nGermanium \"metal\" (isolated germanium) is used as a semiconductor in transistors and various other electronic devices. Historically, the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium. Today, the amount of germanium produced for semiconductor electronics is one fiftieth the amount of ultra-high purity silicon produced for the same. Presently, the major end uses are fibre-optic systems, infrared optics, solar cell applications, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Germanium compounds are also used for polymerization catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of nanowires. This element forms a large number of organometallic compounds, such as tetraethylgermane, useful in organometallic chemistry.\n\nGermanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism. Some complex organic germanium compounds are being investigated as possible pharmaceuticals, though none have yet proven successful. Similar to silicon and aluminum, natural germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral toxicity. However, synthetic soluble germanium salts are nephrotoxic, and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with halogens and hydrogen are irritants and toxins.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Characteristics\n    \u2022 2.1 Chemistry\n    \u2022 2.2 Isotopes\n    \u2022 2.3 Occurrence\n  \u2022 3 Production\n  \u2022 4 Applications\n    \u2022 4.1 Optics\n    \u2022 4.2 Electronics\n    \u2022 4.3 Other uses\n    \u2022 4.4 Germanium and health\n  \u2022 5 Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds\n  \u2022 6 Future\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 Footnotes\n  \u2022 9 References\n  \u2022 10 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nSee also: History of the transistor\nSamples of germanium compounds prepared by Clemens Winkler, discoverer of the element\n\nIn his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown chemical elements, including one that would fill a gap in the carbon family in his Periodic Table of the Elements, located between silicon and tin.[5] Because of its position in his Periodic Table, Mendeleev called it ekasilicon (Es), and he estimated its atomic weight to be about 72.0.\n\nIn mid-1885, at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new mineral was discovered and named argyrodite because of the high silver content.[n 1] The chemist Clemens Winkler analyzed this new mineral, which proved to be a combination of silver, sulfur, and a new element. Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to antimony.[7][8] Before Winkler published his results on the new element, he decided that he would name his element neptunium, since the recent discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence.[n 2] However, the name \"neptunium\" had already been given to another proposed chemical element (though not the element that today bears the name neptunium, which was discovered in 1940).[n 3] So instead, Winkler named the new element germanium (from the Latin word, Germania, for Germany) in honor of his homeland.[8] Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag8GeS6.\n\nBecause this new element showed some similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev's predicted element \"ekasilicon\" confirmed that place on the periodic table.[8][15] With further material from 500\u00a0kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887.[7][8][16] He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride (GeCl\n4\n), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the element.[17]\n\nWinkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including fluorides, chlorides, sulfides, dioxide, and tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4), the first organogermane.[7] The physical data from those compounds \u2014 which corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions \u2014 made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity. Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data:[7]\n\nProperty Ekasilicon Germanium\natomic mass 72.64 72.59\ndensity (g\/cm3) 5.5 5.35\nmelting point (\u00b0C) high 947\ncolor gray gray\noxide type refractory dioxide refractory dioxide\noxide density (g\/cm3) 4.7 4.7\noxide activity feebly basic feebly basic\nchloride boiling point (\u00b0C) under 100 86 (GeCl4)\nchloride density (g\/cm3) 1.9 1.9\n\nUntil the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal.[18] Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an electronic semiconductor were recognized. During World War II, small amounts of germanium were used in some special electronic devices, mostly diodes.[19][20] The first major use was the point-contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse detection during the War.[18] The first silicon-germanium alloys were obtained in 1955.[21] Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s, the annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons.[22]\n\nThe development of the germanium transistor in 1948[23] opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics.[24] From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers.[25] For example, the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor electronics.[26]\n\nMeanwhile, the demand for germanium for fiber optic communication networks, infrared night vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically.[22] These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.[25] The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146\u00a0ton (132\u00a0t) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987.[22]\n\nGermanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and quartz. While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg,[22] the price of germanium was almost $800 per kg.[22]\n\nCharacteristics[edit]\n\nUnder standard conditions, germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.[27] This form constitutes an allotrope known as \u03b1-germanium, which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure, the same as diamond.[25] At pressures above 120 kbar, it becomes the allotrope \u03b2-germanium with the same structure as \u03b2-tin.[28] Like silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. freezes) from the molten state.[28]\n\nGermanium is a semiconductor. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010,[29] making it one of the purest materials ever obtained.[30] The first metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium, uranium, and rhodium.[31]\n\nPure germanium spontaneously extrudes very long screw dislocations, and this is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium; depending on what they eventually touch, they may lead to an electrical short.\n\nChemistry[edit]\n\nSee also: Category:Germanium compounds.\n\nElemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250\u00a0\u00b0C.[32] Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ([GeO\n3\n]2\u2212\n). Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state +4 although many +2 compounds are known.[33] Other oxidation states are rare: +3 is found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and +3 and +1 are found on the surface of oxides,[34] or negative oxidation states in germanes, such as \u22124 in GeH\n4\n. Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as Ge42\u2212, Ge94\u2212, Ge92\u2212, [(Ge9)2]6\u2212 have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand.[33][35] The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers\u2014similar to the ozonides O3\u2212.\n\nTwo oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (GeO\n2\n, germania) and germanium monoxide, (GeO).[28] The dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium disulfide (GeS\n2\n), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates.[28] The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal.[28] The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to infrared light.[36][37] Bismuth germanate, Bi4Ge3O12, (BGO) is used as a scintillator.[38]\n\nBinary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide (GeS\n2\n), diselenide (GeSe\n2\n), and the monosulfide (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and telluride (GeTe).[33] GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV).[33] The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element.[39] By heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.[28] Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.[40]\n\nSkeletal chemical structure of a tetrahedral molecule with germanium atom in its center bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The Ge-H distance is 152.51 picometers.\nGermane is similar to methane.\n\nFour tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1\u00a0\u00b0C by heating the metal with chlorine.[28] All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide.[28] GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds.[33] All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids.[33] Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula GenCl2n+2 are known.[28] The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure.[41]\n\nGermane (GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to methane. Polygermanes\u2014compounds that are similar to alkanes\u2014with formula GenH2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known.[33] The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues.[33] GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3\u2212 anion.[33] The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.[33]\n\nSkeletal chemical structures outlining an additive chemical reaction including an organogermanium compound.\nNucleophilic addition with an organogermanium compound.\n\nThe first organogermanium compound was synthesized by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane (Ge(C\n2\nH\n5\n)\n4\n).[7] Organogermanes of the type R4Ge (where R is an alkyl) such as tetramethylgermane (Ge(CH\n3\n)\n4\n) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane ((CH\n3\n)\n2\nCHCH\n2\nGeH\n3\n) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications. Many germanium reactive intermediates are known: germyl free radicals, germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to carbynes).[42][43] The organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities.[44]\n\nUsing a ligand called Eind (1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-octaethyl-s-hydrindacen-4-yl) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen (germanone).[45]\n\nIsotopes[edit]\n\nMain article: Isotopes of germanium\n\nGermanium occurs in 5 natural isotopes: 70\nGe\n, 72\nGe\n, 73\nGe\n, 74\nGe\n, and 76\nGe\n. Of these, 76\nGe\nis very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of 7028561725280000000\u26601.78\u00d71021\u00a0years. 74\nGe\nis the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%. 76\nGe\nis the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%.[46] When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope 72\nGe\nwill generate stable 77\nSe\n, releasing high energy electrons in the process.[47] Because of this, it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries.[47]\n\nAt least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most stable of these is 68\nGe\n, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 7007234100800000000\u2660270.95\u00a0days. The least stable is 60\nGe\n, with a half-life of 6998300000000000000\u266030\u00a0ms. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by beta decay, 61\nGe\nand 64\nGe\ndecay by\n\u03b2+\ndelayed proton emission.[46] 84\nGe\nthrough 87\nGe\nisotopes also exhibit minor\n\u03b2\u2212\ndelayed neutron emission decay paths.[46]\n\nOccurrence[edit]\n\nSee also: Category:Germanium minerals.\n\nGermanium is created by stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.[48] Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars[49] and in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[50]\n\nGermanium's abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 1.6\u00a0ppm.[51] Only a few minerals like argyrodite, briartite, germanite, and renierite contain appreciable amounts of germanium, and none in mineable deposits.[25][52] Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate.[51] An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, discovered by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits.[53][54] The highest concentration ever found was in Hartley coal ash with as much as 1.6% germanium.[53][54] The coal deposits near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600\u00a0tonnes of germanium.[51]\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nA brown block of irregular shape and surface, about 6 cm in size.\nRenierite\n\nAbout 118\u00a0tonnes of germanium was produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in China (80 t), Russia (5 t) and United States (3 t).[25] Germanium is recovered as a by-product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3%,[55] especially from low-temperature sediment-hosted, massive Zn\u2013Pb\u2013Cu(\u2013Ba) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn\u2013Pb deposits.[56] A recent study found that at least 10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves, particularly those hosted by Mississippi-Valley type deposits, while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves.[57][58] In 2007 35% of the demand was met by recycled germanium.[51]\n\nWhile it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also found in silver, lead, and copper ores. Another source of germanium is fly ash of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium. Russia and China used this as a source for germanium.[59] Russia's deposits are located in the far east of Sakhalin Island, and northeast of Vladivostok. The deposits in China are located mainly in the lignite mines near Lincang, Yunnan; coal is also mined near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia.[51]\n\nYear Cost\n($\/kg)[60]\n1999 1,400\n2000 1,250\n2001 890\n2002 620\n2003 380\n2004 600\n2005 660\n2006 880\n2007 1,240\n2008 1,490\n2009 950\n2010 940\n2011 1,625\n2012 1,680\n2013 1,875\n2014 1,900\n2015 1,760\n2016 950\n\nThe ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air in a process known as roasting:\n\nGeS2 + 3 O2 \u2192 GeO2 + 2 SO2\n\nSome of the germanium is left in the dust produced, while the rest is converted to germanates, which are then leached (together with zinc) from the cinder by sulfuric acid. After neutralization, only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate. After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation:[59]\n\nGeO2 + 4 HCl \u2192 GeCl4 + 2 H2O\nGeO2 + 2 Cl2 \u2192 GeCl4 + O2\n\nGermanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed.[59] The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass. It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen, producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production:\n\nGeO2 + 2 H2 \u2192 Ge + 2 H2O\n\nThe germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon:[61]\n\nGeO2 + C \u2192 Ge + CO2\n\nApplications[edit]\n\nA drawing of four concentric cylinders.\nA typical single-mode optical fiber. Germanium oxide is a dopant of the core silica (Item 1).\n1. Core 8\u00a0\u00b5m\n2. Cladding 125\u00a0\u00b5m\n3. Buffer 250\u00a0\u00b5m\n4. Jacket 400\u00a0\u00b5m\n\nThe major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optics, 30% infrared optics, 15% polymerization catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications.[25] The remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.[25]\n\nOptics[edit]\n\nThe notable properties of germania (GeO2) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion. These make it especially useful for wide-angle camera lenses, microscopy, and the core part of optical fibers.[62][63] It has replaced titania as the dopant for silica fiber, eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle.[64] At the end of 2002, the fiber optics industry consumed 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this is less than 10% of worldwide consumption.[63] GeSbTe is a phase change material used for its optic properties, such as that used in rewritable DVDs.[65]\n\nBecause germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths, it is an important infrared optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14\u00a0micron range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, mobile night vision, and fire fighting applications.[61] It is used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive infrared detectors.[63] It has a very high refractive index (4.0) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse.[66][67]\n\nElectronics[edit]\n\nSilicon-germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high-speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.[68] Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide (GaAs) in wireless communications devices.[25] The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip industry.[25]\n\nSolar panels are a major use of germanium. Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications. High-brightness LEDs, used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens, are an important application.[25]\n\nBecause germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells.[69] The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.[70]\n\nGermanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips.[25] Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps[29] and solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs).[25] Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the \"fuzz\"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face.[71]\n\nOther uses[edit]\n\nPhoto of a standard transparent plastic bottle.\nA PET bottle\n\nGermanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).[72] The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan.[72] In the United States, germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts.[25]\n\nDue to the similarity between silica (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2), the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be replaced by GeO2.[73]\n\nIn recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it reduces firescale, increases tarnish resistance, and improves precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof silver alloy trademarked Argentium contains 1.2% germanium.[25]\n\nSemiconductor detectors made of single crystal high-purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources\u2014for example in airport security.[74] Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications.[75] Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter.[76] Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur.[77]\n\nGermanium is emerging as an important material for spintronics and spin-based quantum computing applications. In 2010, researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport [78] and more recently donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long coherence times.[79]\n\nGermanium and health[edit]\n\nGermanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals.[22] Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact. This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials, and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested.[25] For similar reasons, end-use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard. Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see precautions, below).[80]\n\nGermanium supplements, made from both organic and inorganic germanium, have been marketed as an alternative medicine capable of treating leukemia and lung cancer.[22] There is, however, no medical evidence of benefit; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful.[81]\n\nSome germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA-allowed injectable solutions. Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably the citrate-lactate salt, resulted in some cases of renal dysfunction, hepatic steatosis, and peripheral neuropathy in individuals using them over a long term. Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels. A more recent organic form, beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (propagermanium), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects.[82]\n\nU.S. Food and Drug Administration research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when used as a nutritional supplement, \"presents potential human health hazard\".[44]\n\nCertain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against certain bacteria.[27]\n\nPrecautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds[edit]\n\nSome of germanium's artificially-produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure. For example, germanium chloride and germane (GeH4) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.[83]\n\nFuture[edit]\n\nAs of the year 2000, about 15% of United States consumption of germanium was used for infrared optics technology and 50% for fiber-optics. Over the past 20 years, infrared use has consistently decreased; fiber optic demand, however, is slowly increasing. In America, 30\u201350% of current fiber optic lines are unused dark fiber, sparking discussion of over-production and a future reduction in demand. Worldwide, demand is increasing dramatically as countries such as China are installing fiber optic telecommunication lines throughout the country.[84]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Transistor\n  \u2022 Vitrain\nBooks\nView or order collections of articles\n  \u2022 Germanium\n  \u2022 Period 4 elements\n  \u2022 Carbon group\n  \u2022 Chemical elements (sorted\u00a0alphabetically)\n  \u2022 Chemical elements (sorted by number)\n\nPortals\nAccess related topics\n  \u2022 Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svgChemistry portal\n\nFind out more on Wikipedia's\nSister projects\n  \u2022 Media\n    from Commons\n  \u2022 Definitions\n    from Wiktionary\n\nFootnotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing.[6]\n  2. Jump up ^ Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted, the existence of the planet Neptune had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier, using the calculation methods of celestial mechanics. They did this in attempts to explain the fact that the planet Uranus, upon very close observation, appeared to be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky.[9] James Challis started searching for it in July 1846, and he sighted this planet on September 23, 1846.[10]\n  3. Jump up ^ R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath tantalum in the periodic table, which he named neptunium, after the Greek god of the oceans and seas.[11][12] However this metal was later recognized to be an alloy of the elements niobium and tantalum.[13] The name \"neptunium\" was much later given to the synthetic element one step past uranium in the Periodic Table, which was discovered by nuclear physics researchers in 1940.[14]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Meija, J.; et al. (2016). \"Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)\". Pure Appl. Chem. 88 (3): 265\u201391. doi:10.1515\/pac-2015-0305.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.\n  3. Jump up ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp.\u00a0E110. ISBN\u00a00-8493-0464-4.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Properties of Germanium\". Ioffe Institute.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Kaji, Masanori (2002). \"D. I. Mendeleev's concept of chemical elements and The Principles of Chemistry\" (PDF). Bulletin for the History of Chemistry. 27 (1): 4\u201316. Retrieved 2008-08-20.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Argyrodite\u2014Ag\n    8\n    GeS\n    6\n    (PDF) (Report). Mineral Data Publishing. Retrieved 2008-09-01.\n    \u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Winkler, Clemens (1887). \"Mittheilungen \u00fcber des Germanium. Zweite Abhandlung\". J. Prak. Chemie (in German). 36 (1): 177\u2013209. doi:10.1002\/prac.18870360119. Retrieved 2008-08-20.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Winkler, Clemens (1887). \"Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element\". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 19 (1): 210\u2013211. doi:10.1002\/cber.18860190156. Archived from the original on December 7, 2008.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Adams, J. C. (November 13, 1846). \"Explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus, on the hypothesis of disturbance by a more distant planet\". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Blackwell Publishing. 7: 149\u2013152. Bibcode:1846MNRAS...7..149A. doi:10.1093\/mnras\/7.9.149.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Challis, Rev. J. (November 13, 1846). \"Account of observations at the Cambridge observatory for detecting the planet exterior to Uranus\". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Blackwell Publishing. 7: 145\u2013149. Bibcode:1846MNRAS...7..145C. doi:10.1093\/mnras\/7.9.145.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Sears, Robert (July 1877). \"Scientific Miscellany\". The Galaxy. Columbus, O[hio]: Siebert & Lilley. 24 (1): 131. ISBN\u00a00-665-50166-8. OCLC\u00a016890343.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Editor's Scientific Record\". Harper's new monthly magazine. 55 (325): 152\u2013153. June 1877.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ van der Krogt, Peter. \"Elementymology & Elements Multidict: Niobium\". Retrieved 2008-08-20.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Westgren, A. (1964). \"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1951: presentation speech\". Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942\u20131962. Elsevier.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Germanium, a New Non-Metallic Element\". The Manufacturer and Builder: 181. 1887. Retrieved 2008-08-20.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Brunck, O. (1886). \"Obituary: Clemens Winkler\". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 39 (4): 4491\u20134548. doi:10.1002\/cber.190603904164.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ de Boisbaudran, M. Lecoq (1886). \"Sur le poids atomique du germanium\". Comptes rendus (in French). 103: 452. Retrieved 2008-08-20.\u00a0\n  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Haller, E. E. \"Germanium: From Its Discovery to SiGe Devices\" (PDF). Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, and Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ W. K. (1953-05-10). \"Germanium for Electronic Devices\". NY Times. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"1941 \u2013 Semiconductor diode rectifiers serve in WW II\". Computer History Museum. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"SiGe History\". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 2008-08-05. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Halford, Bethany (2003). \"Germanium\". Chemical & Engineering News. American Chemical Society. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Bardeen, J.; Brattain, W. H. (1948). \"The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode\". Physical Review. 74 (2): 230\u2013231. Bibcode:1948PhRv...74..230B. doi:10.1103\/PhysRev.74.230.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Electronics History 4 \u2013 Transistors\". National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o U.S. Geological Survey (2008). \"Germanium\u2014Statistics and Information\". U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. Retrieved 2008-08-28. Select 2008\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Teal, Gordon K. (July 1976). \"Single Crystals of Germanium and Silicon-Basic to the Transistor and Integrated Circuit\". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. ED-23 (7): 621\u2013639. Bibcode:1976ITED...23..621T. doi:10.1109\/T-ED.1976.18464.\u00a0\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.\u00a0506\u2013510. ISBN\u00a00-19-850341-5.\u00a0\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (102nd ed.). de Gruyter. ISBN\u00a0978-3-11-017770-1. OCLC\u00a0145623740.\u00a0\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Germanium\". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-08-28.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Chardin, B. (2001). \"Dark Matter: Direct Detection\". In Binetruy, B. The Primordial Universe: 28 June \u2013 23 July 1999. Springer. p.\u00a0308. ISBN\u00a03-540-41046-5.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ L\u00e9vy, F.; Sheikin, I.; Grenier, B.; Huxley, A. (August 2005). \"Magnetic field-induced superconductivity in the ferromagnet URhGe\". Science. 309 (5739): 1343\u20131346. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1343L. doi:10.1126\/science.1115498. PMID\u00a016123293.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Tabet, N; Salim, Mushtaq A. (1998). \"KRXPS study of the oxidation of Ge(001) surface\". Applied Surface Science. 134 (1\u20134): 275\u2013282. Bibcode:1998ApSS..134..275T. doi:10.1016\/S0169-4332(98)00251-7.\u00a0\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN\u00a00-08-037941-9.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Tabet, N; Salim, M. A.; Al-Oteibi, A. L. (1999). \"XPS study of the growth kinetics of thin films obtained by thermal oxidation of germanium substrates\". Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena. 101\u2013103: 233\u2013238. doi:10.1016\/S0368-2048(98)00451-4.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Xu, Li; Sevov, Slavi C. (1999). \"Oxidative Coupling of Deltahedral [Ge9]4\u2212 Zintl Ions\". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121 (39): 9245\u20139246. doi:10.1021\/ja992269s.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Bayya, Shyam S.; Sanghera, Jasbinder S.; Aggarwal, Ishwar D.; Wojcik, Joshua A. (2002). \"Infrared Transparent Germanate Glass-Ceramics\". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 85 (12): 3114\u20133116. doi:10.1111\/j.1151-2916.2002.tb00594.x.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ Drugoveiko, O. P.; Evstrop'ev, K. K.; Kondrat'eva, B. S.; Petrov, Yu. A.; Shevyakov, A. M. (1975). \"Infrared reflectance and transmission spectra of germanium dioxide and its hydrolysis products\". Journal of Applied Spectroscopy. 22 (2): 191\u2013193. Bibcode:1975JApSp..22..191D. doi:10.1007\/BF00614256.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Lightstone, A. W.; McIntyre, R. J.; Lecomte, R.; Schmitt, D. (1986). \"A Bismuth Germanate-Avalanche Photodiode Module Designed for Use in High Resolution Positron Emission Tomography\". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 33 (1): 456\u2013459. Bibcode:1986ITNS...33..456L. doi:10.1109\/TNS.1986.4337142.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Johnson, Otto H. (1952). \"Germanium and its Inorganic Compounds\". Chem. Rev. 51 (3): 431\u2013469. doi:10.1021\/cr60160a002.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Fr\u00f6ba, Michael; Oberender, Nadine (1997). \"First synthesis of mesostructured thiogermanates\". Chemical Communications (18): 1729\u20131730. doi:10.1039\/a703634e.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Beattie, I. R.; Jones, P.J.; Reid, G.; Webster, M. (1998). \"The Crystal Structure and Raman Spectrum of Ge5Cl12\u00b7GeCl4 and the Vibrational Spectrum of Ge2Cl6\". Inorg. Chem. 37 (23): 6032\u20136034. doi:10.1021\/ic9807341. PMID\u00a011670739.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Satge, Jacques (1984). \"Reactive intermediates in organogermanium chemistry\". Pure Appl. Chem. 56 (1): 137\u2013150. doi:10.1351\/pac198456010137.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Quane, Denis; Bottei, Rudolph S. (1963). \"Organogermanium Chemistry\". Chemical Reviews. 63 (4): 403\u2013442. doi:10.1021\/cr60224a004.\u00a0\n  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Tao, S. H.; Bolger, P. M. (June 1997). \"Hazard Assessment of Germanium Supplements\". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 25 (3): 211\u2013219. doi:10.1006\/rtph.1997.1098. PMID\u00a09237323.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ Broadwith, Phillip (25 March 2012). \"Germanium-oxygen double bond takes centre stage\". Chemistry World. Retrieved 2014-05-15.\u00a0\n  46. ^ Jump up to: a b c Audi, G.; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A. H. (2003). \"Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties\". Nuclear Physics A. Atomic Mass Data Center. 729 (1): 3\u2013128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016\/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.\u00a0\n  47. ^ Jump up to: a b Perreault, Bruce A. \"Alpha Fusion Electrical Energy Valve\", US Patent 7800286, issued September 21, 2010. PDF copy at the Wayback Machine (archived October 12, 2007).\n  48. Jump up ^ Sterling, N. C.; Dinerstein, Harriet L.; Bowers, Charles W. (2002). \"Discovery of Enhanced Germanium Abundances in Planetary Nebulae with the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer\". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 578 (1): L55\u2013L58. arXiv:astro-ph\/0208516\u202fFreely accessible. Bibcode:2002ApJ...578L..55S. doi:10.1086\/344473.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Cowan, John (2003-05-01). \"Astronomy: Elements of surprise\". Nature. 423 (29): 29. Bibcode:2003Natur.423...29C. doi:10.1038\/423029a. PMID\u00a012721614.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Kunde, V.; Hanel, R.; Maguire, W.; Gautier, D.; Baluteau, J. P.; Marten, A.; Chedin, A.; Husson, N.; Scott, N. (1982). \"The tropospheric gas composition of Jupiter's north equatorial belt \/NH3, PH3, CH3D, GeH4, H2O\/ and the Jovian D\/H isotopic ratio\". Astrophysical Journal. 263: 443\u2013467. Bibcode:1982ApJ...263..443K. doi:10.1086\/160516.\u00a0\n  51. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e H\u00f6ll, R.; Kling, M.; Schroll, E. (2007). \"Metallogenesis of germanium\u2014A review\". Ore Geology Reviews. 30 (3\u20134): 145\u2013180. doi:10.1016\/j.oregeorev.2005.07.034.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ \"The distribution of gallium, germanium and indium in conventional and non-conventional resources - Implications for global availability (PDF Download Available)\". ResearchGate. doi:10.13140\/rg.2.2.20956.18564. Retrieved 2017-06-10.\u00a0\n  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Goldschmidt, V. M. (1930). \"Ueber das Vorkommen des Germaniums in Steinkohlen und Steinkohlenprodukten\". Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu G\u00f6ttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse: 141\u2013167.\u00a0\n  54. ^ Jump up to: a b Goldschmidt, V. M.; Peters, Cl. (1933). \"Zur Geochemie des Germaniums\". Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu G\u00f6ttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse: 141\u2013167.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ Bernstein, L (1985). \"Germanium geochemistry and mineralogy\". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 49 (11): 2409\u20132422. Bibcode:1985GeCoA..49.2409B. doi:10.1016\/0016-7037(85)90241-8.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ Frenzel, Max; Hirsch, Tamino; Gutzmer, Jens (July 2016). \"Gallium, germanium, indium and other minor and trace elements in sphalerite as a function of deposit type \u2013 A meta-analysis\". Ore Geology Reviews. Elsevier. 76: 52\u201378. doi:10.1016\/j.oregeorev.2015.12.017.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ Frenzel, Max; Ketris, Marina P.; Gutzmer, Jens (2013-12-29). \"On the geological availability of germanium\". Mineralium Deposita. 49 (4): 471\u2013486. Bibcode:2014MinDe..49..471F. doi:10.1007\/s00126-013-0506-z. ISSN\u00a00026-4598.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Frenzel, Max; Ketris, Marina P.; Gutzmer, Jens (2014-01-19). \"Erratum to: On the geological availability of germanium\". Mineralium Deposita. 49 (4): 487\u2013487. Bibcode:2014MinDe..49..487F. doi:10.1007\/s00126-014-0509-4. ISSN\u00a00026-4598.\u00a0\n  59. ^ Jump up to: a b c Naumov, A. V. (2007). \"World market of germanium and its prospects\". Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals. 48 (4): 265\u2013272. doi:10.3103\/S1067821207040049.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ R.N. Soar (1977). \"USGS Minerals Information\". U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Geological Survey. January 2003, January 2004, January 2005, January 2006, January 2007,January 2010. ISBN\u00a00-85934-039-2. OCLC\u00a016437701.\u00a0\n  61. ^ Jump up to: a b Moskalyk, R. R. (2004). \"Review of germanium processing worldwide\". Minerals Engineering. 17 (3): 393\u2013402. doi:10.1016\/j.mineng.2003.11.014.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Rieke, G. H. (2007). \"Infrared Detector Arrays for Astronomy\". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 45 (1): 77\u2013115. Bibcode:2007ARA&A..45...77R. doi:10.1146\/annurev.astro.44.051905.092436.\u00a0\n  63. ^ Jump up to: a b c Brown, Jr., Robert D. (2000). \"Germanium\" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-22.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Chapter III: Optical Fiber For Communications\" (PDF). Stanford Research Institute. Retrieved 2008-08-22.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD\" (PDF) (First ed.). Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2008-09-22.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ Lettington, Alan H. (1998). \"Applications of diamond-like carbon thin films\". Carbon. 36 (5\u20136): 555\u2013560. doi:10.1016\/S0008-6223(98)00062-1.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ Gardos, Michael N.; Bonnie L. Soriano; Steven H. Propst (1990). Feldman, Albert; Holly, Sandor, eds. \"Study on correlating rain erosion resistance with sliding abrasion resistance of DLC on germanium\". Proc. SPIE. SPIE Proceedings. 1325 (Mechanical Properties): 99. doi:10.1117\/12.22449.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ Washio, K. (2003). \"SiGe HBT and BiCMOS technologies for optical transmission and wireless communication systems\". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 50 (3): 656\u2013668. Bibcode:2003ITED...50..656W. doi:10.1109\/TED.2003.810484.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ Bailey, Sheila G.; Raffaelle, Ryne; Emery, Keith (2002). \"Space and terrestrial photovoltaics: synergy and diversity\". Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications. 10 (6): 399\u2013406. doi:10.1002\/pip.446.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ Crisp, D.; Pathare, A.; Ewell, R. C. (2004). \"The performance of gallium arsenide\/germanium solar cells at the Martian surface\". Acta Astronautica. 54 (2): 83\u2013101. Bibcode:2004AcAau..54...83C. doi:10.1016\/S0094-5765(02)00287-4.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ Szweda, Roy (2005). \"Germanium phoenix\". III-Vs Review. 18 (7): 55. doi:10.1016\/S0961-1290(05)71310-7.\u00a0\n  72. ^ Jump up to: a b Thiele, Ulrich K. (2001). \"The Current Status of Catalysis and Catalyst Development for the Industrial Process of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Polycondensation\". International Journal of Polymeric Materials. 50 (3): 387\u2013394. doi:10.1080\/00914030108035115.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ Fang, Li; Kulkarni, Sameer; Alhooshani, Khalid; Malik, Abdul (2007). \"Germania-Based, Sol-Gel Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Coatings for Capillary Microextraction and Gas Chromatography\". Anal. Chem. 79 (24): 9441\u20139451. doi:10.1021\/ac071056f. PMID\u00a017994707.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ Keyser, Ronald; Twomey, Timothy; Upp, Daniel. \"Performance of Light-Weight, Battery-Operated, High Purity Germanium Detectors for Field Use\" (PDF). Oak Ridge Technical Enterprise Corporation (ORTEC). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 26, 2007. Retrieved 2008-09-06.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ Ahmed, F. U.; Yunus, S. M.; Kamal, I.; Begum, S.; Khan, Aysha A.; Ahsan, M. H.; Ahmad, A. A. Z. (1996). \"Optimization of Germanium for Neutron Diffractometers\". International Journal of Modern Physics E. 5 (1): 131\u2013151. Bibcode:1996IJMPE...5..131A. doi:10.1142\/S0218301396000062.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ Diehl, R.; Prantzos, N.; Vonballmoos, P. (2006). \"Astrophysical constraints from gamma-ray spectroscopy\". Nuclear Physics A. 777: 70\u201397. arXiv:astro-ph\/0502324\u202fFreely accessible. Bibcode:2006NuPhA.777...70D. doi:10.1016\/j.nuclphysa.2005.02.155.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ Eugene P. Bertin, Principles and practice of X-ray spectrometric analysis, Chapter 5.4-Analyzer crystals, Table 5.1, p. 123; Plenum Press,1970\n  78. Jump up ^ Shen, C.; Trypiniotis, T.; Lee, K. Y.; Holmes, S. N.; Mansell, R.; Husain, M.; Shah, V.; Li, X. V.; Kurebayashi, H. (2010-10-18). \"Spin transport in germanium at room temperature\". Applied Physics Letters. 97 (16): 162104. Bibcode:2010ApPhL..97p2104S. doi:10.1063\/1.3505337. ISSN\u00a00003-6951.\u00a0\n  79. Jump up ^ Sigillito, A. J.; Jock, R. M.; Tyryshkin, A. M.; Beeman, J. W.; Haller, E. E.; Itoh, K. M.; Lyon, S. A. (2015-12-07). \"Electron Spin Coherence of Shallow Donors in Natural and Isotopically Enriched Germanium\". Physical Review Letters. 115 (24): 247601. arXiv:1506.05767\u202fFreely accessible. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.115x7601S. doi:10.1103\/PhysRevLett.115.247601. PMID\u00a026705654.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ Brown Jr., Robert D. Commodity Survey:Germanium (PDF) (Report). US Geological Surveys. Retrieved 2008-09-09.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ Ades TB, ed. (2009). \"Germanium\". American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed.). American Cancer Society. pp.\u00a0360\u2013363. ISBN\u00a09780944235713.\u00a0\n  82. Jump up ^ Baselt, R. (2008). Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man (8th ed.). Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications. pp.\u00a0693\u2013694.\u00a0\n  83. Jump up ^ Gerber, G. B.; L\u00e9onard, A. (1997). \"Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of germanium compounds\". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 387 (3): 141\u2013146. doi:10.1016\/S1383-5742(97)00034-3.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ \"Germanium\" Mineral Commodity Profile, U.S. Geological Survey, 2005.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica article Germanium.\n  \u2022 Germanium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPeriodic table\n(Large cells)\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18\n1 H He\n2 Li Be B C N O F Ne\n3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar\n4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr\n5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe\n6 Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn\n7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og\nAlkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lan\u00adthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-\u200btransition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown\nchemical\nproperties\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGermanium compounds\nGe(II)\n  \u2022 GeCl2\n  \u2022 GeF2\n  \u2022 GeI2\n  \u2022 GeO\n  \u2022 Ge(OH)2\n  \u2022 GeS\n  \u2022 GeSe\n  \u2022 GeTe\nGe(IV)\n  \u2022 GeF4\n  \u2022 GeCl4\n  \u2022 GeO2\n  \u2022 GeS2\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 LCCN: sh85054449\n  \u2022 GND: 4135644-5\n  \u2022 BNF: cb122010330 (data)\n  \u2022 NDL: 00562424\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Germanium&oldid=811553754\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Germanium\n  \u2022 Chemical elements\n  \u2022 Metalloids\n  \u2022 Infrared sensor materials\n  \u2022 Optical materials\n  \u2022 Group IV semiconductors\n  \u2022 Chemical elements predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 German-language sources (de)\n  \u2022 CS1 French-language sources (fr)\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Featured articles\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Aragon\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Arm\u00e3neashti\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u092d\u094b\u091c\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Corsu\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fiji Hindi\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Furlan\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 Gaelg\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u0425\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0433\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Interlingua\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 \u041a\u043e\u043c\u0438\n  \u2022 Krey\u00f2l ayisyen\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u044b\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Ligure\n  \u2022 Limburgs\n  \u2022 Livvinkarjala\n  \u2022 La .lojban.\n  \u2022 Lumbaart\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 M\u00ecng-d\u0115\u0324ng-ng\u1e73\u0304\n  \u2022 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\n  \u2022 \u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Nordfriisk\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 \u0b13\u0b21\u0b3c\u0b3f\u0b06\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 \u092a\u093e\u0932\u093f\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 Piemont\u00e8is\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 Runa Simi\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Seeltersk\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Sicilianu\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 Soomaaliga\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Basa Sunda\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 \u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 \u0626\u06c7\u064a\u063a\u06c7\u0631\u0686\u06d5 \/ Uyghurche\n  \u2022 Veps\u00e4n kel\u2019\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u6587\u8a00\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 Yor\u00f9b\u00e1\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\n  \u2022 Kab\u0269y\u025b\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 22 November 2017, at 10:40.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"9073322926089785912","title":"At the Center of the Storm","text":"At the Center of the Storm\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nAt the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA\nGeorgeTenetBook.jpg\nBook cover\nAuthor George Tenet with Bill Harlow\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nSubject Central Intelligence Agency\nGenre Memoir\nPublisher HarperCollins\nPublication date\nApril 30, 2007\nMedia\u00a0type Hardcover\nPages 576\nISBN 0-06-114778-8\nOCLC 71163669\nDewey Decimal\n327.12730092 B 22\nLC\u00a0Class JK468.I6 T42 2007\n\nAt the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA is a memoir co-written by former Director of the Central Intelligence Agency George Tenet with Bill Harlow, former CIA Director of Public Affairs. The book was released on April 30, 2007 and outlines Tenet's version of 9\/11, the War on Terrorism, the 2001 War in Afghanistan, the run-up to the 2003 Iraq war, rough interrogation and other events.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 60 Minutes interview\n  \u2022 2 Criticism\n  \u2022 3 Erratum\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 Related memoirs\n  \u2022 6 References\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\n60 Minutes interview[edit]\n\nOn April 29, 2007, Tenet was interviewed about his memoir on 60 Minutes.[2] Tenet outlined the content of his book including allegations that are contrary to the George W. Bush administration positions.\n\nCriticism[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Tenet faced accusations of hypocrisy from former espionage officials on the book's release date, for not speaking out earlier against the White House's push to invade Iraq.[3]\n  \u2022 Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice disputes Tenet's claim that the Bush administration, before the U.S. led invasion of Iraq in March 2003, never had a serious debate about whether Iraq posed an imminent threat or whether to tighten existing sanctions.[4]\n  \u2022 CIA veteran, Michael Scheuer, states, \"Sadly but fittingly, 'At the Center of the Storm' is likely to remind us that sometimes what lies at the center of a storm is a deafening silence.\"[5]\n  \u2022 Robert Baer, author and former CIA field officer assigned to the Middle East states, \"It's not that Tenet is responsible for getting us into Iraq. It's that he failed in not making a full disclosure to Congress and the White House that we were taking a leap into a bottomless black abyss. He should have resigned when he realized Bush would use bad intelligence to deceive the American people. This is what we get when we have a politicized CIA director.\"[6]\n  \u2022 Douglas Feith, the former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, whom Tenet criticizes in his book, states: \"The problem with George Tenet is that he doesn't seem to care to get his facts straight. He is not meticulous. He is willing to make up stories that suit his purposes and to suppress information that does not.\" In reference to Tenet's error regarding Richard Perle (see below), Feith wrote that \"The date, the physical descriptions, the quotation marks are all, in the words of Gilbert and Sullivan's 'Mikado,' merely corroborative detail, intended to give artistic verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narrative.\" The memoir, Feith said, \"... does offer insight into Mr. Tenet. It allows you to hear the way he talked -- fast, loose, blustery, emotional, imprecise, from the 'gut.' Mr. Tenet proudly refers to the guidance of his 'gut' several times in the book -- a strange boast from someone whose stock-in-trade should be accuracy and precision.\"[7]\n\nErratum[edit]\n\n  \u2022 A key conversation with then Pentagon advisor Richard Perle on September 12, 2001, in which Tenet claims Perle told him that \"Iraq had to pay for the attack\" could not have occurred as Perle was stranded in Paris and did not return to Washington, D.C. until three days later;[4] however, in an interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer during an episode of The Situation Room Perle admitted that the two men indeed crossed each other one morning, as claimed by Tenet, but only later in the same week and not on September 12.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 2001 anthrax attacks\n  \u2022 Abu Ghraib prison\n  \u2022 Command responsibility\n  \u2022 Extraordinary rendition\n  \u2022 Governments' positions pre-2003 invasion of Iraq\n  \u2022 Guantanamo Bay detention camp\n  \u2022 Homeland Security Act\n  \u2022 Iraq and weapons of mass destruction\n  \u2022 Iraq disarmament crisis\n  \u2022 Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq\n  \u2022 Plausible deniability\n  \u2022 Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq\n  \u2022 UN Security Council and the Iraq war\n  \u2022 Unlawful combatant\n  \u2022 USA PATRIOT Act\n  \u2022 Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq\n  \u2022 Waterboarding\n\nRelated memoirs[edit]\n\n  \u2022 A Journey by Tony Blair\n  \u2022 Decision Points by George W. Bush\n  \u2022 In My Time: A Personal and Political Memoir by Dick Cheney\n  \u2022 Known and Unknown: A Memoir by Donald Rumsfeld\n  \u2022 Spoken from the Heart by Laura Bush\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ HarperCollins - Official homepage\n  2. Jump up ^ CBS News (2007-04-25). \"George Tenet: At The Center Of The Storm\". Retrieved 2007-04-29.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Fox News. \"Ex-CIA director faces criticism over memoir\". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2007-05-18. Retrieved 2007-04-30.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Associated Press. \"Tenet Memoir Draws Heat From Key Players\". Retrieved 2015-11-16.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ The Washington Post (2007-04-29). \"Tenet Tries to Shift the Blame. Don't Buy It\". Retrieved 2007-04-29.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ TIME. \"George Tenet's Real Failure\". Retrieved 2007-05-03.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ The Wall Street Journal. \"Inside the Inside Story\". Archived from the original on 2007-05-08. Retrieved 2007-05-04.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikinews has related news: Ex-CIA Director George Tenet's memoir published\n  \u2022 Excerpt of 60 Minutes interview with George Tenet at YouTube.\n  \u2022 HarperCollins book description.\nReviews\n  \u2022 Bloomberg. \"Tenet Attacks Woodward's `Slam Dunk' Story, Lets Bush Off Hook\". Retrieved 2007-05-02.\u00a0\n  \u2022 MSNBC. \"Tenet claims CIA was a scapegoat for war\". Retrieved 2007-04-30.\u00a0\n  \u2022 ABC News. \"Former CIA Director Breaks Ranks With Bush, Rattles Washington\". Retrieved 2007-04-30.\u00a0\n  \u2022 The New York Times (2007-04-28). \"An Ex-C.I.A. Chief on Iraq and the Slam Dunk That Wasn't\". Retrieved 2007-04-28.\u00a0\n  \u2022 BBC News (2007-04-27). \"Ex-CIA chief pens critical memoir\". Retrieved 2007-04-27.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Reuters. \"Ex-CIA chief says 'slam dunk' Iraq quote misused\". Retrieved 2007-04-26.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=At_the_Center_of_the_Storm&oldid=823413557\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 American memoirs\n  \u2022 Political memoirs\n  \u2022 2007 non-fiction books\n  \u2022 War on Terror books\n  \u2022 War in Afghanistan (2001\u2013present) books\n  \u2022 Books about the 2003 invasion of Iraq\n  \u2022 Books on anti-terrorism policy of the United States\n  \u2022 Books about George W. Bush\n  \u2022 Books about the Central Intelligence Agency\n  \u2022 Books about the September 11 attacks\n  \u2022 HarperCollins books\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages to import images to Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 1 February 2018, at 02:43.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"952171663479727723","title":"College World Series","text":"College World Series\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor NCAA Division II, see NCAA Division II Baseball Championship. For NCAA Division III, see NCAA Division III Baseball Championship. For the women's softball championship, see Women's College World Series.\nCollege World Series\nCollege World Series logo\nFirst played 1947\nMost recently played 2017\nCurrent champions Florida (1st title)\nCurrent runners-up LSU\nMost titles USC (12)\n\nThe College World Series, or CWS, is an annual June baseball tournament held in Omaha, Nebraska. The CWS is the culmination of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Baseball Championship tournament\u2014featuring 64 teams in the first round\u2014which determines the NCAA Division I college baseball champion. The eight participating teams are split into two, four-team, double-elimination brackets, with the winners of each bracket playing in a best-of-three championship series.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n    \u2022 1.1 Contract extension\n  \u2022 2 Format history and changes\n  \u2022 3 Division I champions by year\n  \u2022 4 Team appearances\n  \u2022 5 Most CWS wins\n  \u2022 6 Most CWS Finals appearances\n  \u2022 7 Most appearances without a CWS championship\n  \u2022 8 Most CWS participants by one conference in a year\n  \u2022 9 Championships by conference\n  \u2022 10 See also\n  \u2022 11 Notes\n  \u2022 12 References\n  \u2022 13 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nSince 1950, the College World Series (CWS) has been held in Omaha, Nebraska, and Omaha's Creighton University and their baseball program serves as the permanent host school for the event.[1][2] It was held at Rosenblatt Stadium from 1950 through 2010; starting in 2011, it has been held at TD Ameritrade Park Omaha. Earlier tournaments were held at Hyames Field in Kalamazoo, Michigan (1947\u201348) and Wichita, Kansas (1949). The name \"College World Series\" is derived from that of the Major League Baseball World Series championship; it is currently an MLB trademark licensed to the NCAA.[3]\n\nContract extension[edit]\n\nOn June 10, 2009, the NCAA and College World Series of Omaha, Inc., which is the non-profit group that organizes the event, announced a new 25-year contract extension, keeping the CWS in Omaha through 2035.[4] A memorandum of understanding had been reached by all parties on April 30.[5]\n\nThe currently binding contract began in 2011, the same year the tournament moved from Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium to TD Ameritrade Park Omaha, a new ballpark across from CenturyLink Center Omaha.\n\nFormat history and changes[edit]\n\nSee also: NCAA Division I Baseball Championship \u00a7\u00a0Past formats\n2006 College World Series Championship game at Rosenblatt Stadium in Omaha, Nebraska.\n  \u2022 1947 \u2013 Eight teams were divided into two, four-team, single-elimination playoffs. The two winners then met in a best-of-three final in Kalamazoo, Michigan.\n  \u2022 1948 \u2013 Similar to 1947, but the two, four-team playoffs were changed to double-elimination tournaments. Again in the finals, the two winners met in a best-of-three format in Kalamazoo.\n  \u2022 1949 \u2013 The final was expanded to a four-team, double-elimination format and the site changed to Wichita, Kansas. Eight teams began the playoffs with the four finalists decided by a best-of-three district format.\n  \u2022 1950\u20131987 \u2013 An eight-team, double-elimination format for the College World Series coincided with the move to Omaha in 1950. From 1950 to 1953, a baseball committee chose one team from each of the eight NCAA districts to compete at the CWS, which constituted the entire Division I tournament, as there were no preliminary rounds. (In 1948 and 1949, a selection committee in each of the eight districts chose its district representative based on the committee's own criteria, which might or might not include committee selections, conference champions, and district playoffs.) Through 1987 the College World Series was a pure double-elimination event. That ended with the 1987 College World Series. In 1954, the Division I tournament began having preliminary rounds to determine the eight CWS teams. From 1954 to 1975, the number of teams in the first round of the overall tournament ranged from 21 to 32. The number of first-round teams was increased to 34 in 1976, 36 in 1982, 38 in 1985, 40 in 1986, and 48 in 1987.\n  \u2022 1988\u20131998 \u2013 The format was changed beginning with the 1988 College World Series, when the tournament was divided into 2 four-team double-elimination brackets, with the survivors of each bracket playing in a single championship game. The single-game championship was designed for network television, with the final game on CBS on a Saturday afternoon.\nBefore expanding to 64 teams in 1999, the 1998 Division I tournament began with 48 teams, split into 8 six-team regionals. The 8 regional winners advanced to the College World Series. The regionals were a test of endurance, as teams had to win at least four games over four days, sometimes five if a team dropped into the loser's bracket, placing a premium on pitching. In the last two years of the six-team regional format, the eventual CWS champion \u2013 LSU in 1997 and Southern California in 1998 \u2013 had to battle back from the loser's bracket in the regional to advance to Omaha.\n  \u2022 1999\u20132002 \u2013 With some 293 Division I teams playing, the NCAA expanded the overall tournament to a 64-team Regional field in 1999\u2014with 8 National Seed teams (the top 8 seeds)\u2014divided into 16 four-team regionals (each region seeded 1 to 4). The winners of the 16 \"Regionals\" advance to a second round, consisting of 8 two-team, best-of-three-format \"Super Regionals\". (The National Seed teams that win their regional bracket are placed in different Super Regionals, so that no National Seed teams meet each other in a Super Regional.) The 8 Super Regional winners advance to the CWS in Omaha. While the CWS format remained the same, the expanded field meant that the eight CWS teams now are determined by the second-round Super Regionals. The 64-team bracket is set at the beginning of the championship and teams are not reseeded for the CWS. Since the 1999 College World Series, the four-team brackets in the CWS have been determined by the results of super-regional play, much like the NCAA basketball tournament. Prior to 1999, the four-team brackets were determined by the regional tournaments.\n  \u2022 2003\u2013present \u2013 The championship final became a best-of-three series between the 2 four-team bracket winners, with games scheduled for Saturday, Sunday, and Monday evenings. In the results shown below, Score indicates the score of the championship game(s) only. In 2008, the start of the CWS was moved back one day, and an extra day of rest was added in between bracket play and the championship series.\n\nDivision I champions by year[edit]\n\nYear Champion Coach Score Runner-Up Most Outstanding Player\n1947 California Clint Evans 17\u20138, 8\u20137 Yale\n1948 Southern California Sam Barry 3\u20131, 3\u20138, 9\u20132 Yale\n1949 Texas Bibb Falk 10\u20133 Wake Forest Tom Hamilton, Texas\n1950 Texas Bibb Falk 3\u20130 Washington State Ray VanCleef, Rutgers\n1951 Oklahoma Jack Baer 3\u20132 Tennessee Sidney Hatfield, Tennessee\n1952 Holy Cross Jack Barry 8\u20134 Missouri James O'Neill, Holy Cross\n1953 Michigan Ray Fisher 7\u20135 Texas J.L. Smith, Texas\n1954 Missouri Hi Simmons 4\u20131 Rollins Tom Yewcic, Michigan State\n1955 Wake Forest Taylor Sanford 7\u20136 Western Michigan Tom Borland, Oklahoma A&M\n1956 Minnesota Dick Siebert 12\u20131 Arizona Jerry Thomas, Minnesota\n1957 California George Wolfman 1\u20130 Penn State Cal Emery, Penn State\n1958 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 8\u20137 Missouri Bill Thom, Southern California\n1959 Oklahoma State Toby Greene 5\u20133 Arizona Jim Dobson, Oklahoma State\n1960 Minnesota Dick Siebert 2\u20131 Southern California John Erickson, Minnesota\n1961 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 1\u20130 Oklahoma State Littleton Fowler, Oklahoma State\n1962 Michigan Don Lund 5\u20134 Santa Clara Bob Garibaldi, Santa Clara\n1963 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 5\u20132 Arizona Bud Hollowell, Southern California\n1964 Minnesota Dick Siebert 5\u20131 Missouri Joe Ferris, Maine\n1965 Arizona State Bobby Winkles 2\u20131 Ohio State Sal Bando, Arizona State\n1966 Ohio State Marty Karow 8\u20132 Oklahoma State Steve Arlin, Ohio State\n1967 Arizona State Bobby Winkles 11\u20132 Houston Ron Davini, Arizona State\n1968 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 4\u20133 Southern Illinois Bill Seinsoth, Southern California\n1969 Arizona State Bobby Winkles 10\u20131 Tulsa John Dolinsek, Arizona State\n1970 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 2\u20131 Florida State Gene Ammann, Florida State\n1971 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 7\u20132 Southern Illinois Jerry Tabb, Tulsa\n1972 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 1\u20130 Arizona State Russ McQueen, Southern California\n1973 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 4\u20133 Arizona State Dave Winfield, Minnesota\n1974 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 7\u20133 Miami (FL) George Milke, Southern California\n1975 Texas Cliff Gustafson 5\u20131 South Carolina Mickey Reichenbach, Texas\n1976 Arizona Jerry Kindall 7\u20131 Eastern Michigan Steve Powers, Arizona\n1977 Arizona State Jim Brock 2\u20131 South Carolina Bob Horner, Arizona State\n1978 Southern California Rod Dedeaux 10\u20133 Arizona State Rod Boxberger, Southern California\n1979 Cal State Fullerton Augie Garrido 2\u20131 Arkansas Tony Hudson, Cal State Fullerton\n1980 Arizona Jerry Kindall 5\u20133 Hawaii Terry Francona, Arizona\n1981 Arizona State Jim Brock 7\u20134 Oklahoma State Stan Holmes, Arizona State\n1982 Miami (FL) Ron Fraser 9\u20133 Wichita State Dan Smith, Miami (FL)\n1983 Texas Cliff Gustafson 4\u20133 Alabama Calvin Schiraldi, Texas\n1984 Cal State Fullerton Augie Garrido 3\u20131 Texas John Fishel, Cal State Fullerton\n1985 Miami (FL) Ron Fraser 10\u20136 Texas Greg Ellena, Miami (FL)\n1986 Arizona Jerry Kindall 10\u20132 Florida State Mike Senne, Arizona\n1987 Stanford Mark Marquess 9\u20135 Oklahoma State Paul Carey, Stanford\n1988 Stanford Mark Marquess 9\u20134 Arizona State Lee Plemel, Stanford\n1989 Wichita State Gene Stephenson 5\u20133 Texas Greg Brummett, Wichita State\n1990 Georgia Steve Webber 2\u20131 Oklahoma State Mike Rebhan, Georgia\n1991 LSU Skip Bertman 6\u20133 Wichita State Gary Hymel, LSU\n1992 Pepperdine Andy Lopez 3\u20132 Cal State Fullerton Phil Nevin, Cal State Fullerton\n1993 LSU Skip Bertman 8\u20130 Wichita State Todd Walker, LSU\n1994 Oklahoma Larry Cochell 13\u20135 Georgia Tech Chip Glass, Oklahoma\n1995 Cal State Fullerton Augie Garrido 11\u20135 Southern California Mark Kotsay, Cal State Fullerton\n1996 LSU Skip Bertman 9\u20138 Miami (FL) Pat Burrell, Miami (FL)\n1997 LSU Skip Bertman 13\u20136 Alabama Brandon Larson, LSU\n1998 Southern California Mike Gillespie 21\u201314 Arizona State Wes Rachels, Southern California\n1999 Miami (FL) Jim Morris 6\u20135 Florida State Marshall McDougall, Florida State\n2000 LSU Skip Bertman 6\u20135 Stanford Trey Hodges, LSU\n2001 Miami (FL) Jim Morris 12\u20131 Stanford Charlton Jimerson, Miami (FL)\n2002 Texas Augie Garrido 12\u20136 South Carolina Huston Street, Texas\n2003 Rice Wayne Graham 4\u2013311, 3\u20138, 14\u20132 Stanford John Hudgins, Stanford\n2004 Cal State Fullerton George Horton 6\u20134, 3\u20132 Texas Jason Windsor, Cal State Fullerton\n2005 Texas Augie Garrido 4\u20132, 6\u20132 Florida David Maroul, Texas\n2006 Oregon State Pat Casey 3\u20134, 11\u20137, 3\u20132 North Carolina Jonah Nickerson, Oregon State\n2007 Oregon State Pat Casey 11\u20134, 9\u20133 North Carolina Jorge Luis Reyes, Oregon State\n2008 Fresno State Mike Batesole 6\u20137, 19\u201310, 6\u20131 Georgia Tommy Mendonca, Fresno State\n2009 LSU Paul Mainieri 7\u20136, 1\u20135, 11\u20134 Texas Jared Mitchell, LSU\n2010 South Carolina Ray Tanner 7\u20131, 2\u2013111 UCLA Jackie Bradley, Jr., South Carolina\n2011 South Carolina Ray Tanner 2\u2013111, 5\u20132 Florida Scott Wingo, South Carolina\n2012 Arizona Andy Lopez 5\u20131, 4\u20131 South Carolina Rob Refsnyder, Arizona\n2013 UCLA John Savage 3\u20131, 8\u20130 Mississippi State Adam Plutko, UCLA\n2014 Vanderbilt Tim Corbin 9\u20138, 2\u20137, 3\u20132 Virginia Dansby Swanson, Vanderbilt\n2015 Virginia Brian O'Connor 1\u20135, 3\u20130, 4\u20132 Vanderbilt Josh Sborz, Virginia\n2016 Coastal Carolina Gary Gilmore 0\u20133, 5\u20134, 4\u20133 Arizona Andrew Beckwith, Coastal Carolina\n2017 Florida Kevin O'Sullivan 4\u20133, 6\u20131 LSU Alex Faedo, Florida\n\nTeam appearances[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bold indicates team won the CWS that year\nSchool Appearances Titles Years\nAlabama 5 0 1950, 1983, 1996, 1997, 1999\nArizona 17 4 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1963, 1966, 1970, 1976, 1979, 1980, 1985, 1986, 2004, 2012, 2016\nArizona State 22 5 1964, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1993, 1994, 1998, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010\nArkansas 8 0 1979, 1985, 1987, 1989, 2004, 2009, 2012, 2015\nAuburn 4 0 1967, 1976, 1994, 1997\nBaylor 3 0 1977, 1978, 2005\nBoston College 4 0 1953, 1960, 1961, 1967\nBradley 2 0 1950, 1956\nBYU 2 0 1968, 1971\nCalifornia 6 2 1947, 1957, 1980, 1988, 1992, 2011\nCal State Fullerton 18 4 1975, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2015, 2017\nCal State\nLos Angeles\n1 0 1977\nThe Citadel 1 0 1990\nClemson 12 0 1958, 1959, 1976, 1977, 1980, 1991, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2006, 2010\nCoastal Carolina 1 1 2016\nColgate 1 0 1955\nColorado State[a] 1 0 1950\nConnecticut 5 0 1957, 1959, 1965, 1972, 1979\nCreighton 1 0 1991\nDartmouth 1 0 1970\nDelaware 1 0 1970\nDuke 3 0 1952, 1953, 1961\nEastern Michigan 2 0 1975, 1976\nFlorida 11 1 1988, 1991, 1996, 1998, 2005, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017\nFlorida State 22 0 1957, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2017\nFresno State 4 1 1959, 1988, 1991, 2008\nGeorgia 6 1 1987, 1990, 2001, 2004, 2006, 2008\nGeorgia Southern 2 0 1973, 1990\nGeorgia Tech 3 0 1994, 2002, 2006\nHarvard 4 0 1968, 1971, 1973, 1974\nHawaii 1 0 1980\nHoly Cross 4 1 1952, 1958, 1962, 1963\nHouston 2 0 1953, 1967\nIndiana 1 0 2013\nIndiana State 1 0 1986\nIowa 1 0 1972\nIowa State 2 0 1957, 1970\nIthaca 1 0 1962\nJames Madison 1 0 1983\nKansas 1 0 1993\nKent State 1 0 2012\nLafayette 4 0 1953, 1954, 1958, 1965\nLong Beach State 4 0 1989, 1991, 1993, 1998\nLouisiana-Lafayette 1 0 2000\nLouisville 4 0 2007, 2013, 2014, 2017\nLoyola Marymount 1 0 1986\nLSU 18 6 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2017\nMaine 7 0 1964, 1976, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986\nMassachusetts 2 0 1954, 1969\nMiami (FL) 25 4 1974, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2015, 2016\nMichigan 7 2 1953, 1962, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984\nMichigan State 1 0 1954\nMinnesota 5 3 1956, 1960, 1964, 1973, 1977\nMississippi State 9 0 1971, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1990, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2013\nMissouri 6 1 1952, 1954, 1958, 1962, 1963, 1964\nMissouri State 1 0 2003\nNebraska 3 0 2001, 2002, 2005\nNew Hampshire 1 0 1956\nNew Orleans 1 0 1984\nNYU 2 0 1956, 1969\nNorth Carolina 10 0 1960, 1966, 1978, 1989, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013\nNC State 2 0 1968, 2013\nNortheastern 1 0 1966\nNorthern Colorado[b] 10 0 1952, 1953, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1974\nNotre Dame 2 0 1957, 2002\nOhio 1 0 1970\nOhio State 4 1 1951, 1965, 1966, 1967\nOklahoma 10 2 1951, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1992, 1994, 1995, 2010\nOklahoma State 20 1 1954, 1955, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2016\nMississippi 5 0 1956, 1964, 1969, 1972, 2014\nOral Roberts 1 0 1978\nOregon 1 0 1954\nOregon State 6 2 1952, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2013, 2017\nPenn State 5 0 1952, 1957, 1959, 1963, 1973\nPepperdine 2 1 1979, 1992\nPrinceton 1 0 1951\nRice 7 1 1997, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008\nRider 1 0 1967\nRollins 1 0 1954\nRutgers 1 0 1950\nSt. John's (NY) 6 0 1949, 1960, 1966, 1968, 1978, 1980\nSt. Louis 1 0 1965\nSan Jose State 1 0 2000\nSanta Clara 1 0 1962\nSeton Hall 4 0 1964, 1971, 1974, 1975\nSouth Carolina 11 2 1975, 1977, 1981, 1982, 1985, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012\nSouthern California 21 12 1948, 1949, 1951, 1955, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1978, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001\nSouthern Illinois 5 0 1968, 1969, 1971, 1974, 1977\nSouthern Mississippi 1 0 2009\nSpringfield 2 0 1951, 1955\nStanford 16 2 1953, 1967, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2008\nStony Brook 1 0 2012\nSyracuse 1 0 1961\nTCU 5 0 2010, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017\nTemple 2 0 1972, 1977\nTennessee 4 0 1951, 1995, 2001, 2005\nTexas 35 6 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1992, 1993, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2014\nTexas A&M 6 0 1951, 1964, 1993, 1999, 2011, 2017\nTexas Tech 2 0 2014, 2016\nTexas\u2013Rio Grande Valley[c] 1 0 1971\nTufts 1 0 1950\nTulane 2 0 2001, 2005\nTulsa 2 0 1969, 1971\nUC Irvine 2 0 2007, 2014\nUCLA 5 1 1969, 1997, 2010, 2012, 2013\nUC Santa Barbara 1 0 2016\nUtah 1 0 1951\nVanderbilt 3 1 2011, 2014, 2015\nVirginia 4 1 2009, 2011, 2014, 2015\nWake Forest 2 1 1949, 1955\nWashington State 4 0 1950, 1956, 1965, 1976\nWestern Michigan 6 0 1952, 1955, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1963\nWichita State 7 1 1982, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996\nWisconsin 1 0 1950\nWyoming 1 0 1956\nYale 2 0 1947, 1948\n\nMost CWS wins[edit]\n\nRank School Wins CWS Winning\u00a0% Appearances Wins per appearance\n1 Texas 85 .590 35 2.43\n2 Southern California 74 .740 21 3.52\n3 Arizona State 61 .616 22 2.77\n4 Miami (FL) 48 .533 25 1.92\n5 Arizona 43 .589 17 2.53\n6 LSU 40 .597 18 2.22\n6 Oklahoma State 40 .513 20 2.00\n6 Stanford 40 .580 16 2.50\n9 Cal State Fullerton 34 .523 18 1.89\n10 South Carolina 32 .615 11 2.91\n\n[6] [7]\n\nMost CWS Finals appearances[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bold indicates team won the CWS that year\n  \u2022 Regular indicates team was Runner-up that year\nRank School Champion Runner-up Total Years\n1 Southern California 12 2 14 1948, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963, 1968, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1978, 1995, 1998\n2 Texas 6 6 12 1949, 1950, 1953, 1975, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1989, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2009\n3 Arizona State 5 5 10 1965, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1988, 1998\n4 Arizona 4 4 8 1956, 1959, 1963, 1976, 1980, 1986, 2012, 2016\n5 LSU 6 1 7 1991, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2009, 2017\n6 Miami (FL) 4 2 6 1974, 1982, 1985, 1996, 1999, 2001\n6 South Carolina 2 4 6 1975, 1977, 2002, 2010, 2011, 2012\n6 Oklahoma State 1 5 6 1959, 1961, 1966, 1981, 1987, 1990\n9 Cal State Fullerton 4 1 5 1979, 1984, 1992, 1995, 2004\n9 Stanford 2 3 5 1987, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2003\n\nMost appearances without a CWS championship[edit]\n\nTop 10\nRank School Appearances CWS Winning\u00a0% Runner-up Wins Per Appearance\n1 Florida State 22 .397 3 1.33\n2 Clemson 12 .333 0 1.00\n3 North Carolina 10 .447 2 1.70\n3 Northern Colorado 10 .130 0 0.30\n5 Mississippi State 9 .357 1 1.11\n6 Arkansas 8 .407 1 1.37\n7 Maine 7 .333 0 1.00\n8 Western Michigan 6 .429 1 1.50\n8 St. John's (NY) 6 .333 0 1.00\n8 Texas A&M 6 .143 0 0.33\n\nMost CWS participants by one conference in a year[edit]\n\nMinimum three participants\nNumber Year Conference Programs CWS Winner\n4 1997 SEC Alabama, Auburn, LSU, Mississippi State LSU\n4 2004 SEC Arkansas, Georgia, LSU, South Carolina Cal State Fullerton\n4 2006 ACC Clemson, Georgia Tech, Miami (FL), North Carolina Oregon State\n4 2015 SEC Arkansas, Florida, LSU, Vanderbilt Virginia\n3 1988 Pac-10 Arizona State, California, Stanford Stanford\n3 1990 SEC Georgia, LSU, Mississippi State Georgia\n3 1996 SEC Alabama, Florida, LSU LSU\n3 1998 SEC Florida, LSU, Mississippi State Southern California\n3 2005 Big 12 Baylor, Nebraska, Texas Texas\n3 2008 ACC Florida State, Miami (FL), North Carolina Fresno State\n3 2011 SEC Florida, South Carolina, Vanderbilt South Carolina\n3 2012 SEC Arkansas, Florida, South Carolina Arizona\n3 2014 Big 12 TCU, Texas, Texas Tech Vanderbilt\n3 2016 Big 12 Oklahoma State, TCU, Texas Tech Coastal Carolina\n3 2017 SEC Florida, LSU, Texas A&M Florida\n\nChampionships by conference[edit]\n\nRank Conference Titles\n1 Pac-12 17\n2 Southeastern (SEC) 11\n3 Western Athletic (WAC) 7\n4 Big Ten 6\n4 PCC-CIBA 6\n6 Independents 5\n7 Big Eight 4\n7 Southwest 4\n9 Atlantic Coast (ACC) 2\n9 Big 12 2\n9 Big West (BWC) 2\n9 Big West (SCBA) 2\n13 Big South (BSC) 1\n13 Missouri Valley (MVC) 1\n13 West Coast (WCC) 1\n  \u2022 CIBA was California Intercollegiate Baseball Association that competed as a division under the Pacific Coast Conference which operated under its own Charter.[8]\n  \u2022 Independents = Miami Hurricanes (4) and Holy Cross Crusaders (1)\n  \u2022 SCBA was Southern California Baseball Association (1977\u201384).\n  \u2022 The Big 12 does not claim any national championships, including baseball, that were won as members of the Big Eight and makes no claim to the history or records of the Big Eight.[9][10]\n  \u2022 The Western Athletic Conference claims 7 national championships in baseball by former members.[11] There are no gaps in its existence. The Conference has existed continuously since its inception.[12][13]\n  \u2022 Coastal Carolina won the 2016 CWS as a member of the Big South Conference less than 24 hours before officially joining the Sun Belt Conference.[14]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconBaseball portal\n  \u2022 NCAA Division I Baseball Championship\n  \u2022 NCAA Division II Baseball Championship\n  \u2022 NCAA Division III Baseball Championship\n  \u2022 National Club Baseball Association\n  \u2022 List of college baseball awards\n  \u2022 U.S. college baseball awards\n  \u2022 Pre-NCAA baseball champion\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Known in 1950 as Colorado A&M. At the same time, \"Colorado State\" referred to Colorado State College, now known as the University of Northern Colorado.\n  2. Jump up ^ Prior to 1970, Northern Colorado was known as Colorado State College. Not to be confused with Colorado State University, known in 1950 as Colorado A&M.\n  3. Jump up ^ UTRGV, in full The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, entered into full operation in 2015 following the merger of the University of Texas\u2013Pan American (UTPA) and the University of Texas at Brownsville. UTRGV is credited with UTPA's College World Series appearance because the UTPA athletic program was directly transferred to the new institution.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"College World Series of Omaha, Inc. - Creighton University\". Retrieved 28 June 2017.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ CWS History[permanent dead link]. CWS Omaha, Inc. Retrieved 2017-02-11.\n  3. Jump up ^ NCAA Trademarks \u2013 NCAA.org Archived 2017-05-05 at the Wayback Machine., footnote at bottom: \"College World Series and Women's College World Series: The NCAA is the exclusive licensee of these marks, registered by Major League Baseball, in connection with the NCAA Division I Men's Baseball Championship and the Division I Women's Softball Championship.\"\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-12.\u00a0 NCAA Signs 25-Year Agreement with College World Series of Omaha, Inc.\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-12.\u00a0 NCAA Memorandum of Understanding...\n  6. Jump up ^ \"GENERAL CWS RECORDS\" (PDF). NCAA. 19 April 2017. p.\u00a014. Retrieved 28 June 2017.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"COLLEGE WORLD SERIES\". NCAA. 28 June 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"General CWS Records, All-Time Won-Lost by Conference, Pg 19\" (PDF). NCAA.org. Retrieved June 12, 2016.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Big 12 National Championships\". NeuLion, Inc. Retrieved 1 July 2017.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"The College Football Report's Long (Somewhat) And Illustrious (Kind Of) History Of The Big Six\". The Beachwood Media Company. Retrieved 1 July 2017.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Western Athletic Conference Official Site - National Champions\". Western Athletic Conference. Retrieved 1 July 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Western Athletic Conference Official Site - WAC Timeline\". Western Athletic Conference. Retrieved 1 July 2017.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Baseball_Tournament_Records.pdf\" (PDF). Western Athletic Conference. Retrieved 1 July 2017.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Coastal Carolina to join Sun Belt Conference in July 2016\". Ncaa.com.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 College World Series of Omaha (CWS Omaha, Inc.) official website\n  \u2022 College World Series (NCAA official website)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNCAA Division I Men's College World Series\nBallparks\n  \u2022 Hyames Field (1947, 1948)\n  \u2022 Lawrence\u2013Dumont Stadium (1949)\n  \u2022 Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium (1950\u20132010)\n  \u2022 TD Ameritrade Park Omaha (2011\u2013present)\nTournaments\n  \u2022 1947\n  \u2022 1948\n  \u2022 1949\n  \u2022 1950\n  \u2022 1951\n  \u2022 1952\n  \u2022 1953\n  \u2022 1954\n  \u2022 1955\n  \u2022 1956\n  \u2022 1957\n  \u2022 1958\n  \u2022 1959\n  \u2022 1960\n  \u2022 1961\n  \u2022 1962\n  \u2022 1963\n  \u2022 1964\n  \u2022 1965\n  \u2022 1966\n  \u2022 1967\n  \u2022 1968\n  \u2022 1969\n  \u2022 1970\n  \u2022 1971\n  \u2022 1972\n  \u2022 1973\n  \u2022 1974\n  \u2022 1975\n  \u2022 1976\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 1978\n  \u2022 1979\n  \u2022 1980\n  \u2022 1981\n  \u2022 1982\n  \u2022 1983\n  \u2022 1984\n  \u2022 1985\n  \u2022 1986\n  \u2022 1987\n  \u2022 1988\n  \u2022 1989\n  \u2022 1990\n  \u2022 1991\n  \u2022 1992\n  \u2022 1993\n  \u2022 1994\n  \u2022 1995\n  \u2022 1996\n  \u2022 1997\n  \u2022 1998\n  \u2022 1999\n  \u2022 2000\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2002\n  \u2022 2003\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\nBroadcasters\n  \u2022 CBS television coverage\n  \u2022 Most Outstanding Players\n  \u2022 NCAA Division I Baseball Championship\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNCAA Division I Baseball Champions\n1947\nCalifornia\n1948\nUSC\n1949\nTexas\n1950\nTexas\n1951\nOklahoma\n1952\nHoly Cross\n1953\nMichigan\n1954\nMissouri\n1955\nWake Forest\n1956\nMinnesota\n1957\nCalifornia\n1958\nUSC\n1959\nOklahoma State\n1960\nMinnesota\n1961\nUSC\n1962\nMichigan\n1963\nUSC\n1964\nMinnesota\n1965\nArizona State\n1966\nOhio State\n1967\nArizona State\n1968\nUSC\n1969\nArizona State\n1970\nUSC\n1971\nUSC\n1972\nUSC\n1973\nUSC\n1974\nUSC\n1975\nTexas\n1976\nArizona\n1977\nArizona State\n1978\nUSC\n1979\nCal State Fullerton\n1980\nArizona\n1981\nArizona State\n1982\nMiami\n1983\nTexas\n1984\nCal State Fullerton\n1985\nMiami\n1986\nArizona\n1987\nStanford\n1988\nStanford\n1989\nWichita State\n1990\nGeorgia\n1991\nLSU\n1992\nPepperdine\n1993\nLSU\n1994\nOklahoma\n1995\nCal State Fullerton\n1996\nLSU\n1997\nLSU\n1998\nUSC\n1999\nMiami\n2000\nLSU\n2001\nMiami\n2002\nTexas\n2003\nRice\n2004\nCal State Fullerton\n2005\nTexas\n2006\nOregon State\n2007\nOregon State\n2008\nFresno State\n2009\nLSU\n2010\nSouth Carolina\n2011\nSouth Carolina\n2012\nArizona\n2013\nUCLA\n2014\nVanderbilt\n2015\nVirginia\n2016\nCoastal Carolina\n2017\nFlorida\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNational Collegiate Athletic Association\nNCAA\n  \u2022 Awards\n  \u2022 Hall of Champions\n  \u2022 Conferences\nNCAA logo.svg\nDivision I sports\nand championships\n  \u2022 Institutions\n  \u2022 Athletic directors\n  \u2022 Baseball\n    \u2022 Championship\n    \u2022 CWS\n  \u2022 Basketball\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Cross Country\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Field hockey\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Football\n    \u2022 FBS\n    \u2022 FCS\n  \u2022 Golf\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Ice hockey\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Lacrosse\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Rowing\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Soccer\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Softball\n    \u2022 Championship\n    \u2022 WCWS\n  \u2022 Swimming & Diving\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Tennis\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Track and Field\n    \u2022 Men's indoor and outdoor\n    \u2022 Women's indoor and outdoor\n  \u2022 Volleyball\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Wrestling\n    \u2022 Championship\nDivision II\n  \u2022 Institutions\n  \u2022 Baseball\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Basketball\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Cross Country\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Field hockey\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Football\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Golf\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Gymnastics\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Ice hockey\n    \u2022 Men\n  \u2022 Lacrosse\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Rowing\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Soccer\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Softball\n    \u2022 Championship\/WCWS\n  \u2022 Swimming & Diving\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Tennis\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Track and Field\n    \u2022 Men's indoor and outdoor\n    \u2022 Women's indoor and outdoor\n  \u2022 Volleyball\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Wrestling\n    \u2022 Championship\nDivision III\n  \u2022 Institutions\n  \u2022 Baseball\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Basketball\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Cross Country\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Field hockey\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Football\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Golf\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Ice hockey\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Lacrosse\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Rowing\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Soccer\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Softball\n    \u2022 Championship\/WCWS\n  \u2022 Swimming & Diving\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Tennis\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Track and Field\n    \u2022 Men's indoor and outdoor\n    \u2022 Women's indoor and outdoor\n  \u2022 Volleyball\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Wrestling\n    \u2022 Championship\nSingle-division sports\nand championships\n  \u2022 Beach volleyball\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Bowling\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Boxing\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Fencing\n    \u2022 Championships\n  \u2022 Gymnastics\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Rifle\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Skiing\n    \u2022 Championships\n  \u2022 Trampoline\n    \u2022 Championship\n  \u2022 Water polo\n    \u2022 Men\n    \u2022 Women\nEvents listed in italics have been discontinued.\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=College_World_Series&oldid=797902265\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 College World Series\n  \u2022 Sports in Omaha, Nebraska\n  \u2022 Organizations based in Omaha, Nebraska\n  \u2022 Non-profit organizations based in Nebraska\n  \u2022 Recurring sporting events established in 1947\n  \u2022 Annual sporting events in the United States\n  \u2022 Baseball in Nebraska\n  \u2022 Tourism in Omaha, Nebraska\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from March 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 29 August 2017, at 20:51.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-845211680862088117","title":"The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)","text":"The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nTracy McConnell\nHow I Met Your Mother character\nThe Mother cropped.JPG\nThe Mother appearing in \"The Locket\"\nFirst appearance \"Lucky Penny (unseen)\"\n\"Something New\" (seen)\nLast appearance \"Last Forever\"\nCreated by Carter Bays\nCraig Thomas\nPortrayed by Cristin Milioti\nInformation\nAliases The Mother\nGender Female\nSpouse(s) Ted Mosby\nSignificant other(s) Max (deceased former boyfriend)\nLouis (ex-boyfriend)\nChildren Penny Mosby (daughter, born in 2015, played by Lyndsy Fonseca)\nLuke Mosby (son, born in 2017, played by David Henrie)\nNationality American\n\nTracy McConnell, better known as \"The Mother\", is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from \"Lucky Penny\" to \"The Time Travelers\" as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in \"Something New\" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.\n\nThe story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky's wedding; this scene is shown in \"Last Forever\", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.\n\nAn alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[1][2] In the video, future Ted is heard saying, \"...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...\", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.[3]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Casting\n  \u2022 2 Character history\n    \u2022 2.1 Name\n  \u2022 3 Death\n  \u2022 4 Notes\n  \u2022 5 References\n\nCasting[edit]\n\nDuring its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that \"We didn\u2019t want it to be a big famous star because we didn\u2019t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted\u2019s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience\", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had \"kept the show alive\" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.[4][5]\n\nThey chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene\u2014for the last episode of season 8\u2014having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, \"I had ignorance on my side. So I didn\u2019t know what it meant.\" Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.[5][6]\n\nCharacter history[edit]\n\nThe Mother was born on September 19, 1984.[note 1]\n\nThe Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her \u2014 a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.[7]\n\nIn \"Wait for It\", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In \"No Tomorrow\", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.[7]\n\nOn his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale \"The Leap\", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, \"Definitions\", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom \u2014 Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in \"How Your Mother Met Me\", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.\n\nLater, in \"Girls Versus Suits\", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, \"this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back.\" In \"How Your Mother Met Me\", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.\n\nSome time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.[7]\n\nIn the season 6 opener \"Big Days\" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife \"the day of\" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode \"False Positive\" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode \"Challenge Accepted\", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, \"The Magician's Code\" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother \"the day of\" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the \"Farhampton\" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.\n\nIn the season 8 episode \"Band or DJ?,\" Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding.\n\nThe Mother is first shown meeting Louis in \"How Your Mother Met Me\" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.\n\nThe Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in \"Platonish\". In \"The Locket\", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.\n\nIn \"Bass Player Wanted\", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for \"no reason.\" Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.\n\nIn \"How Your Mother Met Me\", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings \"La Vie en Rose\". Ted hears her singing from his room next door.\n\nIn \"Gary Blauman\", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the \"weirdest place on earth\" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.\n\nIn a flashforward in \"The Lighthouse\", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in \"Unpause\", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.\n\nName[edit]\n\nThe Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, \"Last Forever\". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode \"Belly Full of Turkey\", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says \"...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother\". The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking,[9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy.[10]\n\nDeath[edit]\n\nSee also: Last Forever\n\nIn the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she \"became sick\" and his children saying that she has been \"gone\" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death.[11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning.[12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was \"an amazing character\"[9] and that \"over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy.[13] Kuchman said that \"asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request\", that the finale \"advanced too quickly\" and that \"HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue\".[9]\n\nA petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage.[14][15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene.[16][17] In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[18][1]\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that \"Pilot\" is set.[7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005.[8]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Debnath, Neela (7 September 2014). \"How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release\". The Independent. Retrieved 15 February 2015.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\". Rolling Stone.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rachel (September 23, 2014). \"8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should\u2019ve used its alternative ending\". Metro UK.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (2013-05-13). \"'How I Met Your Mother': Burning questions about the mother\". Entertainment Weekly.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Fallon, Kevin (2013-05-14). \"\u2018How I Met Your Mother\u2019 Mother Revealed: Meet Cristin Milioti\". The Daily Beast.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Fallon, Kevin (2015-11-03). \"How Cristin Milioti Met \u2018Fargo\u2019\u2014And Left \u2018How I Met Your Mother\u2019 Behind\". The Daily Beast.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"How Your Mother Met Me\". How I Met Your Mother. Season 9. Episode 16. January 27, 2014.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Pilot\". How I Met Your Mother. Season 1. Episode 1. September 19, 2005. CBS.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Kuchman, Bill (April 4, 2014). \"'How I Met Your Mother' 'Last Forever' Recap: A Divisive Finale and What It Means for 'HIMYM'\". Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Rullo, Samantha (10 March 2014). \"What is The Mother's Name on 'How I Met Your Mother'? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret\". Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"HIMYM Tomatometer Watch: Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by 'Last Forever'\". Rotten Tomatoes. April 2, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ http:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/Entertainment\/cristin-milioti-sobbed-found-characters-fate-met-mother\/story?id=25947923\n  13. Jump up ^ Kuchman, Bill (March 31, 2014). \"'HIMYM' Finale Instant Reaction\". Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ Guerrero, Danger (April 4, 2014). \"Now There's A Petition To 'Rewrite And Reshoot' The 'How I Met Your Mother' Ending\". Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Maresca, Rachel (April 3, 2014). \"'How I Met Your Mother' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed\". New York Daily News. Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Update for those who've been asking: Alt #himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set. https:\/\/twitter.com\/CarterBays\/status\/452299544995184640\n  17. Jump up ^ James, Lauren (April 5, 2014). \"'How I Met Your Mother' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition, Says Carter Bays\". Contact Music. Retrieved July 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). \"Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved November 16, 2014.\u00a0\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHow I Met Your Mother\nEpisodes\n  \u2022 Season 1\n  \u2022 Season 2\n  \u2022 Season 3\n  \u2022 Season 4\n  \u2022 Season 5\n  \u2022 Season 6\n  \u2022 Season 7\n  \u2022 Season 8\n  \u2022 Season 9\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Ted Mosby\n  \u2022 Marshall Eriksen\n  \u2022 Lily Aldrin\n  \u2022 Barney Stinson\n  \u2022 Robin Scherbatsky\n  \u2022 The Mother (Tracy McConnell)\nSoundtracks\n  \u2022 How I Met Your Music\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 The Bro Code\n  \u2022 Cheerleader effect\n  \u2022 \"Nothing Suits Me Like a Suit\"\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Mother_(How_I_Met_Your_Mother)&oldid=802354471\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 How I Met Your Mother characters\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 2013\n  \u2022 Fictional female musicians\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages using deprecated image syntax\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 25 September 2017, at 17:03.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4193350737396217759","title":"The Blue Lagoon (1980 film)","text":"The Blue Lagoon (1980 film)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThe Blue Lagoon\nBlue lagoon 1980 movie poster.jpg\nPromotional film poster\nDirected by Randal Kleiser\nProduced by Randal Kleiser\nScreenplay by Douglas Day Stewart\nBased on The Blue Lagoon\nby Henry De Vere Stacpoole\nStarring Brooke Shields\nChristopher Atkins\nLeo McKern\nWilliam Daniels\nMusic by Basil Poledouris\nCinematography N\u00e9stor Almendros\nEdited by Robert Gordon\nProduction\ncompany\nColumbia Pictures\nDistributed by Columbia Pictures\nRelease date\n  \u2022 June\u00a020,\u00a01980\u00a0(1980-06-20)\nRunning time\n104 minutes\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nBudget $4.5 million\nBox office $58,853,106 (U.S. and Canada only)\n\nThe Blue Lagoon is a 1980 American romantic adventure drama film directed by Randal Kleiser and filmed on Turtle Island in Fiji.[1] The screenplay by Douglas Day Stewart was based on the 1908 novel The Blue Lagoon by Henry De Vere Stacpoole. The film stars Brooke Shields and Christopher Atkins. The music score was composed by Basil Poledouris and the cinematography was by N\u00e9stor Almendros.\n\nThe film tells the story of two young children marooned on a tropical island paradise in the South Pacific. With neither the guidance nor the restrictions of society, emotional feelings and physical changes arise as they reach puberty and fall in love.\n\nShields was 14 years old at the time of filming and later testified before a U.S. Congressional inquiry that older body doubles were used in some of her nude scenes. Also, throughout the film in frontal shots her breasts were always covered by her long hair or in other ways.[2] The film received a MPAA rating of R in the United States.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n  \u2022 3 Production\n  \u2022 4 Reception\n    \u2022 4.1 Critical reception\n    \u2022 4.2 Box office\n  \u2022 5 Awards and honors\n    \u2022 5.1 Other honors\n  \u2022 6 Versions and adaptations\n    \u2022 6.1 DVD and Blu-ray\n    \u2022 6.2 Streaming\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nIn the early Victorian period, two young child cousins, Richard (Glenn Kohan) and Emmeline Lestrange (Elva Josephson), and a galley cook, Paddy Button (Leo McKern), survive a shipwreck in the South Pacific and reach a lush tropical island. Paddy cares for the small children and forbids them by \"law\" from going to the other side of the island, as he had found remains from bloody human sacrifices. He also warns them against eating a scarlet berry which is apparently deadly. (He calls it the \"never-wake-up berry\".)\n\nPaddy soon dies after a drunken binge, and his body is discovered by Richard and Emmeline. Now alone, the children go to another part of the island and rebuild their home.\n\nYears pass and they both grow into tall, strong, and beautiful teenagers. They live in their hut, spending their days together fishing, swimming, and diving for pearls. Richard and Emmeline (now portrayed by Christopher Atkins and Brooke Shields) begin to fall in love, although this is emotionally stressful for them because of their lack of education on human sexuality. Emmeline is frightened after she has her first menstrual period; confused about it, she refuses to allow Richard to inspect her for what he imagines is a wound. Richard finds himself becoming physically attracted to Emmeline but she, though often fearful of being left alone, does not reciprocate his feelings, inciting Richard to go off alone and masturbate.\n\nSometime later, their relationship suffers a major blow when a ship appears for the first time in years. Richard's desire to leave comes into conflict with Emmeline's desire to stay, and she does not light the signal fire. As a result, the ship passes by without noticing them. When Richard angrily confronts Emmeline about this, she tells him that the island is their home now and that they should stay, to Richard's disbelief. They insult each other and Emmeline reveals that she knows what happens when Richard goes off alone, having caught him in the act of masturbating and threatens to tell her Uncle Arthur about it, which leads him to throw a coconut at her. She throws one back, hitting him on the head. Immediately remorseful, Emmeline rushes over to him but he slaps her and says he wishes she was \"dead n' buried\".\n\nRichard's fury leads him to kick Emmeline out of their hut. They make up for this fight after Emmeline is nearly killed upon stepping on a stonefish and Richard admits to his fear of losing her. Emmeline recovers and after she regains her ability to walk, they go skinny dipping in the lagoon and then swim to shore. Still naked, Richard and Emmeline discover sexual intercourse and passionate love. They regularly make love from then on while occasionally spending their time together in the nude. Emmeline becomes pregnant. During the pregnancy, Emmeline discovers cravings and morning sickness as she continually indulges in coconut and then is discovered by Richard the following morning vomiting by the seashore. Richard and Emmeline have no knowledge of childbirth and human reproduction and assume that the physical change in Emmeline's body is her getting fat. They are stunned when they feel the baby move inside her and assume that it is her stomach causing the movements.\n\nOne night, Emmeline gives birth to a baby boy, whom they name Paddy. Frustrated at not knowing how to feed the baby, Emmeline holds him and learns how to feed him as the baby instinctively starts sucking on her breast. The young parents spend their time playing with Paddy as he grows, teaching him how to swim, fish, and build things.\n\nAs the family plays, a ship led by Richard's father Arthur (William Daniels) approaches the island and sees the family playing on the shore. As they are covered in mud, their appearance is difficult to determine. When they notice the approaching ship, as they are happy with their life on the island with the young Paddy, they exchange looks and tacitly walk away and stay on the island instead of signaling for help. Arthur assumes that these are natives, not the young couple they have been searching for all these years, and the ship passes.\n\nOne day, the young family takes the lifeboat to visit their original homesite. Richard goes off and finds bananas for them to eat, leaving Emmeline and Paddy at the boat. Emmeline looks around the shore of the island and does not notice when Paddy brings a branch of the scarlet berries into the boat. Emmeline and Paddy return to the boat and slowly drift away, until Paddy tosses one of the oars out. Unable to reach the oar, Emmeline shouts to Richard and he swims to her, followed closely by a shark. Emmeline throws the other oar at the shark, striking it and giving Richard time to get into the boat. Though close to shore, they are unable to return or retrieve the oars without risking a shark attack. They paddle with their hands to no avail; the boat is caught in the current and drifts out to sea.\n\nAfter drifting for days in the boat, Richard and Emmeline awake to find Paddy eating the berries he picked. Realizing that these are poisonous berries, they try to stop him, but he has already swallowed some. Hopeless, Richard and Emmeline eat the berries as well, lying down to await death. A few hours later, Arthur's ship finds them floating in the boat. Arthur asks, \"Are they dead?\" and the ship's captain (Gus Mercurio) answers, \"No, sir. They're asleep\".\n\nCast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Brooke Shields as Emmeline Lestrange\n    \u2022 Elva Josephson as Young Emmeline\n  \u2022 Christopher Atkins as Richard Lestrange\n    \u2022 Glenn Kohan as Young Richard\n  \u2022 Bradley Pryce as Little Paddy\n    \u2022 Chad Timmermans as Infant Paddy\n  \u2022 Leo McKern as Paddy Button\n  \u2022 William Daniels as Arthur Lestrange\n  \u2022 Alan Hopgood as Captain\n  \u2022 Gus Mercurio as Officer\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nThe Fiji Crested Iguana became known to herpetologists through The Blue Lagoon.\n\nThe movie was a passion project of Randal Kleiser, who had long admired the original novel. He hired Douglas Day Stewart, who had written Boy in the Plastic Bubble, to write the script, and met up with Richard Franklin, the Australian director, who was looking for work in Hollywood. This gave him the idea to use an Australian crew, which Franklin helped supervise.[3]\n\nThe film was shot in Jamaica and Nanuya Levu, a privately owned island in Fiji.[4] The flora and fauna featured in the film includes an array of animals from multiple continents. As it turned out, the iguanas filmed on Fiji were a species hitherto unknown to biologists; this was noted by the herpetologist John Gibbons when he watched the film, and after traveling to the island where the iguanas were filmed, he described the Fiji crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis) in 1981.[5] The blue lagoon scenes were shot in Comino Island, Malta and Champagne Bay, Vanuatu.[citation needed]\n\nIn the DVD and Blu-ray Disc versions of this film, it was stated that many of Brooke Shields' nude scenes were in fact done by older body doubles. In addition, the film's stunt coordinator, Kathy Troutt, was one of the body doubles, as well as the dolphin trainer. It was also stated that Brooke Shields had done many of her topless scenes with her hair glued to her breasts.[2][6]\n\nUnderwater moving picture photography was performed by Ron and Valerie Taylor.[7]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nCritical reception[edit]\n\n[icon]\nThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2015)\n\nThe Blue Lagoon was panned by critics. It currently holds a score of 11% on Rotten Tomatoes out of 18 reviews.[8] Roger Ebert gave the film 1\u00bd stars out of 4, claiming that the film \"made him itch\".[9] He and Gene Siskel selected the film as one of their \"dogs of the year\" in a 1980 episode of Sneak Previews.[10]\n\nBox office[edit]\n\nThe film was the ninth biggest box office hit of 1980 in North America according to Box Office Mojo, grossing US$58,853,106 in the United States and Canada.[11]\n\nAwards and honors[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Main awards\nNominee: Academy Award for Best Cinematography \u2013 N\u00e9stor Almendros\nNominee: Saturn Award \u2013 Best Fantasy Film\nNominee: Golden Globe Award, New Star of the Year \u2013 Christopher Atkins\n  \u2022 1st Golden Raspberry Award\nWon: Worst Actress (Brooke Shields)\n  \u2022 Young Artist Awards\nNominee: Best Major Motion Picture \u2013 Family Entertainment\nNominee: Best Young Motion Picture Actor \u2013 Christopher Atkins\nNominee: Best Young Motion Picture Actress \u2013 Brooke Shields\n\nOther honors[edit]\n\nThe film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:\n\n  \u2022 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions \u2013 Nominated[12]\n\nVersions and adaptations[edit]\n\nThe Blue Lagoon was based on Henry De Vere Stacpoole's novel by the same name, which first appeared in 1908. The first film adaptation of the book was the British silent 1923 film of that name. There was another British adaptation in the 1949 version. The 1980 version was true to the spirit of the book. It included much more nudity and sex scenes than the 1949 version, though far less nudity and sexual activity than did the book.\n\nThe story was eventually continued in the sequel Return to the Blue Lagoon (1991). This film loosely picks up where The Blue Lagoon left off, except that Richard and Emmeline are found dead in the boat. Their son is rescued. As Paddy's name is unknown to his rescuers, he is renamed Richard after his father.\n\nThe movie was briefly parodied in a flashback scene of the movie Top Secret! (1984). The Quantum Leap episode \"Leaping of the Shrew\" guest-starred Brooke Shields, and was about a young man and woman marooned on a deserted island. It was also parodied in the movie Going Berserk (1983) when John Candy reveals his reoccurring nightmare inspired by the movie. The end of the dream spoofs Christopher Atkins' masturbation scene when Candy is spotted masturbating by the jeering passengers of a ship that happens to pass by.\n\nOn December 9, 2011, the cable TV network Lifetime greenlit the television film Blue Lagoon: The Awakening.[13] It premiered on the channel on June 16, 2012. The male lead from the 1980 film, Christopher Atkins, appears in the 2012 film as one of the teachers on the ship-borne field trip where Emma and Dean are lost at sea and end up on an island. This film is available on DVD.\n\nDVD and Blu-ray[edit]\n\nThe Special Edition DVD, with both widescreen and full-screen versions, was released on October 5, 1999. Its special features include the theatrical trailer, the original featurette, a personal photo album by Brooke Shields, audio commentary by Randal Kleiser and Christopher Atkins, and another commentary by Randal Kleiser, Douglas Day Stewart, and Brooke Shields.[14] The film was re-released in 2005 as part of a two pack with its sequel, Return to the Blue Lagoon.[15]\n\nA limited edition Blu-ray Disc of the film was released on December 11, 2012, by Twilight Time. Special features on the Blu-ray include an isolated score track, original trailer, three original teasers, behind the scenes featurette, An Adventure in Filmmaking: The Making of The Blue Lagoon, as well as audio commentary by Randal Kleiser, Douglas Day Stewart, and Brooke Shields and a second commentary by Randal Kleiser and Christopher Atkins.[16][17][18]\n\nStreaming[edit]\n\nThe 1980 movie was made available for streaming through services such as Amazon Video and Vudu.[19][20]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Paradise\n  \u2022 Return to the Blue Lagoon\n  \u2022 State of nature\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Filming of The Blue Lagoon\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b The Blue Lagoon (DVD special edition). Released October 5, 1999.\n  3. Jump up ^ Scott Murray, \"The Blue Lagoon: Interview with Randal Kleiser\", Cinema Papers, June\u2013July 1980 [166-169, 212]\n  4. Jump up ^ McMurran, Kristin (August 11, 1980). \"Too Much, Too Young?\". People. Retrieved April 28, 2013.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Robert George Sprackland (1992). Giant lizards. Neptune, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications. ISBN\u00a00-86622-634-6.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ The Blue Lagoon (1980) (Blu-Ray) Retrieved November 21, 2013\n  7. Jump up ^ Valerie and Ron Taylor join the action in 'THE BLUE LAGOON', The Australian Women's Weekly, November 19, 1980, pages 64 and 65, Retrieved February 17, 2013\n  8. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.rottentomatoes.com\/m\/blue_lagoon\/\n  9. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.rogerebert.com\/reviews\/the-blue-lagoon-1980\n  10. Jump up ^ Sneak Previews: Worst of 1980\n  11. Jump up ^ 1980 Domestic Grosses\n  12. Jump up ^ \"AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions Nominees\" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-18.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (December 9, 2011). \"Lifetime Greenlights 'Blue Lagoon' Remake\". Retrieved May 2, 2012.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ 1999 DVD Release\n  15. Jump up ^ 2005 DVD Double Feature release\n  16. Jump up ^ The Blue Lagoon Blu-ray\n  17. Jump up ^ Screen Archives\n  18. Jump up ^ The Blue Lagoon Blu-ray, Twilight Time, 2012\n  19. Jump up ^ Amazon.com: The Blue Lagoon\n  20. Jump up ^ Vudu:The Blue Lagoon\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: The Blue Lagoon\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon on IMDb\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon at the TCM Movie Database\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon at AllMovie\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon at the American Film Institute Catalog\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon at Box Office Mojo\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon at Rotten Tomatoes\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nThe Blue Lagoon by Henry De Vere Stacpoole\nNovels\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon (1908)\n  \u2022 The Garden of God (1923)\n  \u2022 The Gates of Morning (1925)\nFilms\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon (1923)\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon (1949)\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon (1980)\n  \u2022 Pengantin Pantai Biru (1983)\n  \u2022 Return to the Blue Lagoon (1991)\n  \u2022 Blue Lagoon: The Awakening (2012)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFilms directed by Randal Kleiser\n  \u2022 Peege (1973)\n  \u2022 Dawn: Portrait of a Teenage Runaway (1976)\n  \u2022 The Boy in the Plastic Bubble (1976)\n  \u2022 The Gathering (1977)\n  \u2022 Grease (1978)\n  \u2022 The Blue Lagoon (1980)\n  \u2022 Summer Lovers (1982)\n  \u2022 Grandview, U.S.A. (1984)\n  \u2022 Flight of the Navigator (1986)\n  \u2022 Big Top Pee-wee (1988)\n  \u2022 Getting It Right (1989)\n  \u2022 White Fang (1991)\n  \u2022 Honey, I Blew Up the Kid (1992)\n  \u2022 It's My Party (1996)\n  \u2022 Shadow of Doubt (1998)\n  \u2022 Love Wrecked (2005)\n  \u2022 Red Riding Hood (2006)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Blue_Lagoon_(1980_film)&oldid=806688146\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1980 films\n  \u2022 English-language films\n  \u2022 1980s adventure films\n  \u2022 1980s romantic drama films\n  \u2022 1980s teen drama films\n  \u2022 1980s teen romance films\n  \u2022 American films\n  \u2022 American adventure drama films\n  \u2022 American coming-of-age films\n  \u2022 American remakes of British films\n  \u2022 American romantic drama films\n  \u2022 American survival films\n  \u2022 American teen drama films\n  \u2022 American teen romance films\n  \u2022 Columbia Pictures films\n  \u2022 Coming-of-age drama films\n  \u2022 Coming-of-age romance films\n  \u2022 Film scores by Basil Poledouris\n  \u2022 Films about castaways\n  \u2022 Films about cousins\n  \u2022 Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents\n  \u2022 Films about virginity\n  \u2022 Films based on British novels\n  \u2022 Films based on romance novels\n  \u2022 Films based on works by Henry De Vere Stacpoole\n  \u2022 Films directed by Randal Kleiser\n  \u2022 Films set in Oceania\n  \u2022 Films set in the 19th century\n  \u2022 Films set in the Victorian era\n  \u2022 Films set on beaches\n  \u2022 Films set on uninhabited islands\n  \u2022 Films shot in Fiji\n  \u2022 Films shot in Jamaica\n  \u2022 Films shot in Vanuatu\n  \u2022 Incest in film\n  \u2022 Screenplays by Douglas Day Stewart\n  \u2022 Teenage pregnancy in film\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013\n  \u2022 Articles to be expanded from April 2015\n  \u2022 All articles to be expanded\n  \u2022 Articles using small message boxes\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 23 October 2017, at 15:23.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"7849364253034974175","title":"History of Europe","text":"History of Europe\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nThe history of Europe covers the peoples inhabiting Europe from prehistory to the present.\n\nThe period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I, and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The Cold War dominated European geo-politics from 1947 to 1989. Unification into a European Union moved forward after 1950, with some setbacks. Today, most countries west of Russia belong to the NATO military alliance, along with the United States and Canada.\n\nEurope depicted by Antwerp cartographer Abraham Ortelius in 1595\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Overview\n  \u2022 2 Prehistory\n  \u2022 3 Minoans and Mycenae 2700\u20131100\u00a0BC\n  \u2022 4 Classical antiquity\n    \u2022 4.1 Ancient Greece\n    \u2022 4.2 The rise of Rome\n    \u2022 4.3 Decline of the Roman Empire\n    \u2022 4.4 Late Antiquity and Migration Period\n  \u2022 5 Middle Ages\n    \u2022 5.1 Byzantium\n    \u2022 5.2 Early Middle Ages\n      \u2022 5.2.1 Feudal Christendom\n    \u2022 5.3 High Middle Ages\n      \u2022 5.3.1 A divided church\n      \u2022 5.3.2 Holy wars\n    \u2022 5.4 Late Middle Ages\n  \u2022 6 Early modern Europe\n    \u2022 6.1 Renaissance\n    \u2022 6.2 Exploration and trade\n    \u2022 6.3 Reformation\n    \u2022 6.4 Mercantilism and colonial expansion\n    \u2022 6.5 Crisis of the 17th century\n    \u2022 6.6 Age of Absolutism\n      \u2022 6.6.1 Thirty Years' War 1618\u20131648\n      \u2022 6.6.2 War of the Spanish Succession\n      \u2022 6.6.3 Prussia\n      \u2022 6.6.4 Russia\n    \u2022 6.7 Enlightenment\n  \u2022 7 From revolution to imperialism (1789\u20131914)\n    \u2022 7.1 Industrial Revolution\n    \u2022 7.2 Era of the French Revolution\n    \u2022 7.3 Napoleon\n      \u2022 7.3.1 Impact of the French Revolution\n    \u2022 7.4 Religion\n      \u2022 7.4.1 Protestantism\n    \u2022 7.5 Nations rising\n      \u2022 7.5.1 Emerging nationalism\n        \u2022 7.5.1.1 Germany\n        \u2022 7.5.1.2 Italy\n        \u2022 7.5.1.3 Greece\n      \u2022 7.5.2 Serbia\n      \u2022 7.5.3 Poland\n      \u2022 7.5.4 Conservative forces\n      \u2022 7.5.5 France under Napoleon III\n      \u2022 7.5.6 Major powers\n      \u2022 7.5.7 Bismarck's Germany\n    \u2022 7.6 Imperialism\n  \u2022 8 1914\u20131945: Two World wars\n    \u2022 8.1 World War I\n    \u2022 8.2 Paris Peace Conference\n    \u2022 8.3 Interwar\n      \u2022 8.3.1 Fascism and authoritarianism\n    \u2022 8.4 Great Depression: 1929\u20131939\n    \u2022 8.5 World War II\n  \u2022 9 Cold War Era\n    \u2022 9.1 Economic recovery\n  \u2022 10 Recent history\n  \u2022 11 Chronology\n  \u2022 12 See also\n  \u2022 13 Notes\n  \u2022 14 References\n  \u2022 15 Bibliography\n    \u2022 15.1 Surveys\n    \u2022 15.2 Geography and atlases\n    \u2022 15.3 Major nations\n    \u2022 15.4 Classical\n    \u2022 15.5 Late Roman\n    \u2022 15.6 Medieval\n    \u2022 15.7 Early modern\n    \u2022 15.8 19th century\n    \u2022 15.9 Since 1900\n    \u2022 15.10 Agriculture and economy\n    \u2022 15.11 Diplomacy\n    \u2022 15.12 Empires and interactions\n    \u2022 15.13 Ideas and science\n    \u2022 15.14 Religion\n    \u2022 15.15 Social\n    \u2022 15.16 Warfare\n    \u2022 15.17 Women and gender\n  \u2022 16 External links\n\nOverview[edit]\n\nSome of the best-known civilizations of prehistoric Europe were the Minoan and the Mycenaean, which flourished during the Bronze Age until they collapsed in a short period of time around 1200 BC.\n\nThe period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of Ancient Greece. After ultimately checking the Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars in the 5th century BC, Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia, Africa, and other parts of Europe. The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. By 300\u00a0AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and Eastern empires. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe grew in strength, and repeated attacks led to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. AD 476 traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages.\n\nIn Western Europe, Germanic peoples became more powerful in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own. Of all of the Germanic peoples, the Franks would rise to a position of hegemony over Western Europe, the Frankish Empire reaching its peak under Charlemagne around 800. This empire was later divided into several parts; West Francia would evolve into the Kingdom of France, while East Francia would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, a precursor to modern Germany and Italy. The British Isles were the site of several large-scale migrations.\n\nThe Viking Age, a period of migrations of Scandinavian peoples, occurred from the late 8th century to the middle 11th century. The Normans, a Viking people who settled in Northern France, had a significant impact on many parts of Europe, from the Norman conquest of England to Southern Italy and Sicily. The Rus' people founded Kievan Rus', which evolved into Russia. After 1000 the Crusades were a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back under Christian rule. The Crusaders opened trade routes which enabled the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom.\n\nThe peasants preparing the fields for the winter with a harrow and sowing for the winter grain, from The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, c.1410\n\nEastern Europe in the High Middle Ages was dominated by the rise and fall of the Mongol Empire. Led by Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a group of steppe nomads who established a decentralized empire which, at its height, extended from China in the east to the Black and Baltic Seas in Europe. As Mongol power waned towards the Late Middle Ages, the Grand Duchy of Moscow rose to become the strongest of the numerous Russian principalities and republics and would grow into the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. The Late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe. The epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period. In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union dominated the political landscape, while England fought with Scotland in the Wars of Scottish Independence and with France in the Hundred Years' War. In Central Europe, the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth became a large territorial empire, while the Holy Roman Empire, which was an elective monarchy, came to be dominated for centuries by the House of Habsburg. Russia continued to expand southward and eastward into former Mongol lands. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire overran Byzantine lands, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, which historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages.\n\nBeginning in the 14th century in Florence and later spreading through Europe, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. Henry VIII seized control of the English Church and its lands. The European religious wars between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia. By the 1490s a series of oceanic explorations marked the Age of Discovery, establishing direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Religious wars continued to be fought in Europe, until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The Spanish crown maintained its hegemony in Europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended a conflict between Spain and France that had begun during the Thirty Years' War. An unprecedented series of major wars and political revolutions took place around Europe and the world in the period between 1610 and 1700.[1]\n\nA Watt steam engine. The steam engine, fuelled primarily by coal, propelled the Industrial Revolution in 19th century Northwestern Europe.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution began in Britain, based on coal, steam, and textile mills. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution under the motto libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9. Napoleon Bonaparte took control, made many reforms inside France, and transformed Western Europe. But his rise stimulated both nationalism and reaction and he was defeated in 1814\u201315 as the old royal conservatives returned to power.\n\nThe period between 1815 and 1871 saw revolutionary attempts in much of Europe (apart from Britain). They all failed however. As industrial work forces grew in Western Europe, socialism and trade union activity developed. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Russia in 1861. Greece and the other Balkan nations began a long slow road to independence from the Ottoman Empire, starting in the 1820s. Italy was unified in its Risorgimento in 1860. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870\u201371, Otto von Bismarck unified the German states into an empire that was politically and militarily dominant until 1914. Most of Europe scrambled for imperial colonies in Africa and Asia in the Age of Empire. Britain and France built the largest empires, while diplomats ensured there were no major wars in Europe, apart from the Crimean War of the 1850s.\n\nThe outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took sides. The 1917 October Revolution led the Russian Empire to become the world's first communist state, the Soviet Union. The Allies, led by Britain and France, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, in 1918. During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles. The war's human and material devastation was unprecedented.\n\nGermany lost its overseas empire and several provinces, had to pay large reparations, and was humiliated by the victors. They in turn had large debts to the United States. The 1920s were prosperous until 1929 when the Great Depression broke out, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, rearmed Germany, and along with Mussolini's Italy sought to assert themselves on the continent by demands and appeasement, leading eventually to the Second World War. Most of the fighting took place on the Eastern Front, and the war ended with the defeat of the Axis powers, leaving the USSR and the United States dominating Eastern and Western Europe respectively. The Iron Curtain now separated the east under Moscow's control from the capitalist West. The United States launched the Marshall Plan from 1948\u201351 and NATO from 1949, and rebuilt industrial economies that all were thriving by the 1950s. France and West Germany took the lead in forming the European Economic Community, which eventually became the European Union (EU). Secularization saw the weakening of Protestant and Catholic churches across most of Europe, except where they were symbols of anti-government resistance, as in Poland. The Revolutions of 1989 brought an end to both Soviet hegemony and communism in Eastern Europe. Germany was reunited, Europe's integration deepened, and both NATO and the EU expanded to the east. The EU came under increasing pressure because of the worldwide recession after 2008.\n\nPrehistory[edit]\n\nMain articles: Prehistoric Europe, Palaeolithic Europe, Mesolithic Europe, Neolithic Europe, Stone Age, Bronze Age Europe, and Iron Age Europe\nAurochs in Palaeolithic cave paintings in Lascaux, France.\n\nHomo erectus migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans. L\u00e9zignan-la-C\u00e8be in France, Orce[2] in Spain, Monte Poggiolo[3] Italy and Kozarnika in Bulgaria are amongst the oldest Palaeolithic sites in Europe.\n\nThe earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000\u00a0BC, usually referred to as the Cro-Magnon man. Some locally developed transitional cultures (Uluzzian in Italy and Greece, Altm\u00fchlian in Germany, Szeletian in Central Europe and Ch\u00e2telperronian in the southwest) use clearly Upper Palaeolithic technologies at very early dates.\n\nNevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the Aurignacian culture. The origins of this culture can be located in the Levant (Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000\u00a0BC, the Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last Neanderthals seem to have been forced to retreat during this process to the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula.\n\nAround 28,000\u00a0BC a new technology\/culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the Gravettian. This technology\/culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the Balkans.\n\nMap showing the Neolithic expansions from the 7th to the 5th millennium BC, including the Cardium Culture in blue.\n\nAround 16,000\u00a0BC, Europe witnessed the appearance of a new culture, known as Magdalenian, possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the Solutrean area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The Hamburg culture prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the Creswellian (also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in the British Islands. Around 12,500\u00a0BC, the W\u00fcrm glaciation ended. Slowly, through the following millennia, temperatures and sea levels rose, changing the environment of prehistoric people. Nevertheless, Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000\u00a0BC, when it quickly evolved into two microlithist cultures: Azilian (Federmesser), in Spain and southern France, and then Sauveterrian, in northern France and Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the Lyngby complex succeeded the Hamburg culture with the influence of the Federmesser group as well. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC.\n\nMinoans and Mycenae 2700\u20131100\u00a0BC[edit]\n\nThe Treasury of Atreus, or Tomb of Agamemnon in Mycenae 1250\u00a0BC\n\nThe first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC.[4] It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist Arthur Evans. Will Durant referred to it as \"the first link in the European chain\".[5]\n\nThe Minoans were replaced by the Mycenaean civilization which flourished during the period roughly between 1600\u00a0BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100\u00a0BC. The major Mycenaean cities were Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, Pylos in Messenia, Athens in Attica, Thebes and Orchomenus in Boeotia, and Iolkos in Thessaly. In Crete, the Mycenaeans occupied Knossos. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus,[6][7] Macedonia,[8][9] on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant,[10] Cyprus[11] and Italy.[12][13] Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world.\n\nQuite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400\u00a0BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called Linear A) to write their early form of Greek in Linear B.\n\nThe Mycenaean civilization perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the Dorian invasion, although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well.[citation needed] Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had definitely disappeared after LH III C, when the sites of Mycenae and Tirynth were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the Greek Dark Ages of traditional historiography.\n\nClassical antiquity[edit]\n\nMain article: Classical antiquity\nThe Parthenon, an ancient Athenian Temple on the Acropolis (hill-top city) fell to Rome in 176\u00a0BC\n\nThe Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in European languages, thought, visual arts and law. Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. Athens was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of Pericles. Citizens' forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great.\n\nThrough his military campaigns, the king of the kingdom of Macedon, Alexander, spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the River Indus. Meanwhile, the Roman Republic strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome\u2014SPQR.\n\nThe Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44\u00a0BC as it approached its height, its dictator Julius Caesar was murdered by senators in an attempt to restore the Republic. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian (ruled as Augustus; and as divi filius, or Son of God, as Julius had adopted him as an heir) usurped the reins of power and fought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the Roman Empire, which lasted for more than four centuries until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.\n\nAncient Greece[edit]\n\nMain articles: Ancient Greece and Hellenistic period\nA mosaic showing Alexander the Great battling Darius III\n\nThe Hellenic civilisation was a collection of city-states or poleis with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music.\n\nThe most powerful city-states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Syracuse. Athens was a powerful Hellenic city-state and governed itself with an early form of direct democracy invented by Cleisthenes; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of Socrates,[14] Plato, and the Platonic Academy.\n\nThe Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean (Asian Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia). By the late 6th century BC, all the Greek city states in Asia Minor had been incorporated into the Persian Empire, while the latter had made territorial gains in the Balkans (such as Macedon, Thrace, Paeonia, etc.) and Eastern Europe proper as well. In the course of 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the Ionian Revolt, which failed. This sparked the first Persian invasion of mainland Greece. At some point during the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars, namely during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, and precisely after the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium, almost all of Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun by the Persians,[15] but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the Battle of Plataea. With the end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians were eventually decisively forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco-Persian Wars and the victory of the Greek city states directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city-states formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival Peloponnesian League. The Peloponnesian Wars ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with Spartan hegemony led to the Corinthian War and the defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra.\n\nHellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as Alexander the Great, invaded neighboring Persia, toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as India, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period.\n\nThe rise of Rome[edit]\n\nMain articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire\nCicero addresses the Roman Senate to denounce Catiline's conspiracy to overthrow the Republic, by Cesare Maccari\n\nMuch of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeats in the three Punic Wars marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors.\n\nThe Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000\u00a0km2 (2,300,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) of land surface, including Britain, Romania and parts of Mesopotamia. Pax Romana, a period of peace, civilisation and an efficient centralised government in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a series of civil wars undermined Rome's economic and social strength.\n\nIn the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western part with a capital in Rome and an Eastern part with the capital in Byzantium, or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan, thus setting the stage for the Church to become the state church of the Roman Empire in about 380.\n\nDecline of the Roman Empire[edit]\n\nMain articles: Decline of the Roman Empire and Crisis of the Third Century\nMap of the partition of the Roman Empire in 395, at the death of Theodosius I: the Western Roman Empire is shown in red and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) is shown in purple\n\nThe Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. The British historian Edward Gibbon argued in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue.\n\nGibbon said that the adoption of Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. \"From the eighteenth century onward\", Glen W. Bowersock has remarked,[16] \"we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears.\" It remains one of the greatest historical questions, and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest.\n\nSome other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a \"fall\", the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation.[17] Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all.\n\nLate Antiquity and Migration Period[edit]\n\nMain articles: Late Antiquity and Migration Period\nA simplified map of migrations from the 2nd to the 5th century. See also the map of the world in 820\u00a0AD.\n\nWhen Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313, declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Nova Roma- it was later named Constantinople (\"City of Constantine\").\n\nIn 395 Theodosius I, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire. The empire was split into two halves: the Western Roman Empire centred in Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire) centred in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by Germanic tribes (see: Migration Period), and in 476 finally fell to the Heruli chieftain Odoacer.\n\nMap showing Europe in 526\u00a0AD with the three dominating powers of the west\n\nRoman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time, feudalism and manorialism arose, two interlocking institutions that provided for division of land and labor, as well as a broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders. Unlike under Roman rule, with its standard laws and military across the empire and its great bureaucracy to administer them and collect taxes, each lord (although having obligations to a higher lord) was largely sovereign in his domain. A peasant's lot could vary greatly depending on the leadership skills and attitudes to justice of the lord toward his people. Tithes or rents were paid to the lord, who in turn owed resources, and armed men in times of war, to his lord, perhaps a regional prince. However, the levels of hierarchy were varied over time and place.\n\nThe western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the Franks (Merovingian dynasty) in Francia 481\u2013843\u00a0AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second, the Visigothic kingdom 418\u2013711\u00a0AD in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain); and third, the Ostrogothic kingdom 493\u2013553\u00a0AD in Italy and parts of the western Balkans The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the Kingdom of the Lombards 568\u2013774\u00a0AD. These new powers of the west built upon the Roman traditions until they evolved into a synthesis of Roman and Germanic cultures. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities. The ongoing invasions and boundary disputes usually meant a more risky and varying life than that under the empire. This meant that in general more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On the other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more remote areas.\n\nIn Italy, Theodoric the Great began the cultural romanization of the new world he had constructed. He made Ravenna a center of Romano-Greek culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in Latin. In Iberia, King Chindasuinth created the Visigothic Code. [18]\n\nIn the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders.\n\nFor the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman\u2013Persian Wars), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun and Umayyad). By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the Bulgarian Empire (see Tervel of Bulgaria).\n\nMiddle Ages[edit]\n\nMain articles: Middle Ages and Medieval demography\n\nThe Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.[19][20]\n\nByzantium[edit]\n\nMain article: Byzantine Empire\nConstantine I and Justinian I offering their fealty to the Virgin Mary inside the Hagia Sophia\n\nMany consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306\u2013337) to be the first \"Byzantine Emperor\". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium, which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma (\"New Rome\").[21] The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian. Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379\u2013395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the pagan Roman religion, or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of Heraclius (c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianisation was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541\u2013542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100\u00a0million people across the world.[22][23] It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700.[24] It also may have contributed to the success of the Muslim conquests.[25][26]\n\nEarly Middle Ages[edit]\n\nMain articles: Early Middle Ages and Muslim Conquest\n\nThe Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000.[27]\n\nFrom the 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the Caliphates. Muslim Arabs first invaded historically Roman territory under Ab\u016b Bakr, first Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, who entered Roman Syria and Roman Mesopotamia. As the Byzantines and neighboring Sasanids were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason(s) being the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine\u2013Sasanian wars, which included the climactic Byzantine\u2013Sasanian War of 602\u2013628, under Umar, the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the Sasanid Persian Empire, and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as Roman Palestine, Roman Egypt, and parts of Asia Minor and Roman North Africa. In the mid 7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region, of which parts would later permanently become part of Russia.[28] This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including Cyprus, Malta, Crete, and Sicily and parts of southern Italy.[29]\n\nThe Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the Moors (Berbers and Arabs) invaded the Christian Visigothic kingdom of Hispania in the year 711, under the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad. They landed at Gibraltar on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior, Musa ibn Nusair. During the eight-year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule \u2013 save for small areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. In 711, Visigothic Hispania was very weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne involving two Visigoth suitors. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis that crossed the Hispano-Visigothic society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire.\n\nThe unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. In 722 Don Pelayo, a nobleman of Visigothic origin, formed an army of 300 Astur soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. In the battle of Covadonga, the Astures defeated the Arab-Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the Reconquista and the establishment of the Kingdom of Asturias, whose first sovereign was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the 'Abb\u0101sids,[30] and, in 756, the Umayyads established an independent emirate in the Iberian Peninsula.[31]\n\nFeudal Christendom[edit]\n\nMain articles: Holy Roman Empire, Charlemagne, Christendom, Caliphate of C\u00f3rdoba, Bulgarian Empire, Medieval England, Medieval Hungary, Medieval Poland, and Kievan Rus'\nEurope in 1000, with most European states already formed\nEurope in 1204.\n\nThe Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, king of the Franks, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards.[32]\n\nTo the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The Empire created the Cyrillic script during the 10th century AD, at the Preslav Literary School. Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus', emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the longships. The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the Arab states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and the newly settled Kingdom of Hungary. The kingdoms of Croatia and Serbia also appeared in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nIn eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 921, after Alm\u0131\u015f I converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of Ahmad ibn Fadlan.[33]\n\nSlavery in the early medieval period had mostly died out in western Europe by about the year 1000\u00a0AD, replaced by serfdom. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000.[34]\n\nHigh Middle Ages[edit]\n\nMain article: High Middle Ages\nEurope in 1092\nEurope in 1097, as the First Crusade to the Holy Land commences\n\nThe slumber of the Dark Ages was shaken by a renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, the East\u2013West Schism, an insoluble split, occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople (modern Istanbul).\n\nThe High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century.[35]\n\nFrom about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased.\n\nIn the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire. In what is known as the \"great clearances\", vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the Elbe river, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Muslims, and the Normans colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.\n\nThe High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. The most famous are the great cathedrals as expressions of Gothic architecture, which evolved from Romanesque architecture. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the famous Italian city-states, such as Florence and Venice. The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuq Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism.\n\nA divided church[edit]\n\nMain articles: East\u2013West Schism and Norman conquest of England\nThe Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings and the events leading to it\n\nThe Great Schism between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by Pope Leo IX asserting authority over three of the seats in the Pentarchy, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid-8th century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. Antioch had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed which the West had adopted customarily. The Orthodox today state that the XXVIIIth Canon of the Council of Chalcedon explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over liturgy. The Schism of Roman Catholic and Orthodox followed centuries of estrangement between the Latin and Greek worlds.\n\nFurther changes were set afoot with a redivision of power in Europe. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. This linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic advantages grew and were to prove decisive until after the Second World War.\n\nHoly wars[edit]\n\nMain articles: Crusades and Reconquista\nThe Siege of Antioch, from a medieval miniature painting, during the First Crusade\n\nAfter the East\u2013West Schism, Western Christianity was adopted by the newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor. The geographic reach of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to the conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary), the Christian Reconquista of Al-Andalus, and the crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century.\n\nEarly signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent city-states such as Venice and Florence; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional Latin. Notable figures of this movement would include Dante Alighieri and Christine de Pizan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter, although an Italian (Venice), relocated to France, writing in French. (See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) Elsewhere, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal.\n\nThe 13th and 14th centuries, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the Age of the Mongols. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal),[36] the Kipchak-Cuman Confederation, Hungary, and Poland (which had remained a sovereign state). Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan \u00d6gedei. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe.[citation needed] The areas of Eastern Europe and most of Central Asia that were under direct Mongol rule became known as the Golden Horde. Under Uzbeg Khan, Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century.[37] The invading Mongols, together with their mostly Turkic subjects, were known as Tatars. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus' through vassalage for over 300 years.\n\n\"Christianization of Lithuania in 1387\", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1889, Royal Castle in Warsaw\n\nIn the Northern Europe, Konrad of Masovia gave Chelmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for a Crusade against the Old Prussians and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were defeated by the Lithuanians, so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Pskov and Novgorod Republics. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice. The Union of Krewo in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410.\n\nLate Middle Ages[edit]\n\nMain articles: Late Middle Ages, Lex mercatoria, Hundred Years' War, and Fall of Constantinople\nThe spread of the \"Black Death\" from 1347 to 1351 through Europe\n\nThe Late Middle Ages span the 14th and 15th centuries.[38] Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315\u20131317 and the Black Death killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:\n\nThe Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village and even religion were broken and the horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. \"People cared no more for dead men than we care for dead goats,\" wrote one survivor.[39]\n\nDepopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the Jacquerie and the Peasants' Revolt. At the same time, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively these events have been called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.[40]\n\nBeginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania and Livonia into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland-Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on. The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922 and included Egypt, Syria and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole.\n\nEarly modern Europe[edit]\n\nMain articles: Early modern Europe; Scientific revolution; and International relations, 1648\u20131814\nGenoese (red) and Venetian (green) maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean and Black Sea\n\nThe Early Modern period spans the centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the French Revolution in 1789. The period is characterised by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress, secularised civic politics and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern Italian republics such as Genoa. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the European colonisation of the Americas and the European witch-hunts.\n\nRenaissance[edit]\n\nMain article: Renaissance\nPortrait of Luca Pacioli, the founder of accounting, by Jacopo de' Barbari (Museo di Capodimonte).\n\nDespite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman as well as more recent Arabic texts[41] led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance.\n\nThe Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and middle Europe during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry.\n\nThe Italian Petrarch (Francesco di Petracco), deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: \"I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time.\" He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the 1430s: \"Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age.\" The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important.\n\nThe Renaissance was inspired by the growth in study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance\u2014a rebirth of civilization itself.[42]\n\nLeonardo da Vinci (1452\u20131519), famed for the diversity of his talents.\n\nImportant political precedents were also set in this period. Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli's political writing in The Prince influenced later absolutism and real-politik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power.\n\nIn all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought\u2014the immediate past being too \"Gothic\" in language, thought and sensibility.\n\nDuring this period, Spain experienced the greatest epoch of cultural splendor in its history. This epoch is known as the Spanish Golden age and took place between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.\n\nExploration and trade[edit]\n\nMain article: Age of Discovery\nCantino planisphere, 1502, earliest chart showing explorations by Gama, Columbus and Cabral\n\nToward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama's circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498.\n\nThe numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494.[43] They were the first states to set up colonies in America and European trading posts (factories) along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511, China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. In 1552, Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered two major Tatar khanates, the Khanate of Kazan and the Astrakhan Khanate. The Yermak's voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of the Tatar Siberian Khanate into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of Siberia, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606[44] and New Zealand in 1642.\n\nReformation[edit]\n\nMain article: Protestant Reformation\nThe Ninety-Five Theses of German monk Martin Luther, which criticized the Catholic Church\nMap of Europe in 1648\n\nWith the development of the printing press, new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses, and concludes in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars.[45]\n\nDuring this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church; his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralised and powerful.\n\nThe Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma. Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits, who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of Saint Philip Neri, who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms.\n\nUnlike many European countries, the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. The Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population.\n\nAnother important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Em\u00e9ric Cruc\u00e9 (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries.\n\nEuropa regina, 1570 print by Sebastian M\u00fcnster of Basel\n\nAnother development was the idea of 'European superiority'. The ideal of civilisation was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: Discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilised; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.1 In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralising power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand, the Parliament in the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights.\n\nAlberico Gentili, the Father of international law.\n\nMercantilism and colonial expansion[edit]\n\nMain article: Mercantilism\nAnimated map showing the evolution of Colonial empires from 1492 to the present\n\nThe Iberian states (Spain and Portugal) were able to dominate New World (American) colonial activity in the 16th century. The Spanish constituted the first global empire and during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, Spain was the most powerful nation in the world, but was increasingly challenged by British, French, and the short-lived Dutch and Swedish colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government, law and economics necessary.\n\nColonial expansion continued in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Haiti, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and others amid European turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars; Haiti unique in abolishing slavery). Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies.\n\nThis expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget.[46] The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of plantations of the West Indies, then the most profitable of all the British colonies, amounted to less than 5% of the British Empire's economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.\n\nCrisis of the 17th century[edit]\n\nContemporary woodcut depicting the Second Defenestration of Prague (1618), which marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt, which began the first part of the Thirty Years' War.\nFurther information: The General Crisis\n\nThe 17th century was an era of crisis.[47][48] Many historians have rejected the idea, while others promote it as an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics,[49] and even art.[50] The Thirty Years' War (1618\u20131648) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations.[51] The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period.[47][48] The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world's first global empire. In Britain the entire Stuart monarchy (England, Scotland, Ireland, and its North American colonies) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe\u2014for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker, a British historian, suggests that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially global cooling.[52][53]\n\nAge of Absolutism[edit]\n\nFurther information: Political absolutism and International relations, 1648\u20131814\nMaria Theresa being crowned Queen of Hungary, St. Martin's Cathedral, Bratislava.\n\n\nThe \"absolute\" rule of powerful monarchs such as Louis XIV (ruled France 1643\u20131715),[54] Peter the Great (ruled Russia 1682\u20131725),[55] Maria Theresa (ruled Habsburg lands 1740\u20131780) and Frederick the Great (ruled Prussia 1740\u201386),[56] produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king.[57]\n\nThroughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the Industrial Revolution after 1750.\n\nThe Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern-day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife.\n\nThirty Years' War 1618\u20131648[edit]\n\nThe Thirty Years' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, across Germany and neighboring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia.[58] Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Bohemia, it quickly developed into a general war involving Catholics versus Protestants for the most part. The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries, Bohemia and Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births.[59]\n\nAfter the Peace of Westphalia, Europe's borders were still stable in 1708\n\nAfter the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought.\n\nMap of Europe in 1794 Samuel Dunn Map of the World\n\nFrom the Union of Krewo (1385) central and eastern Europe was dominated by Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between Sweden, the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth continued dominance central and eastern Europe until series of wars: Khmelnytsky Uprising, Russo-Polish War and the Deluge. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having divided Poland between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation.\n\nWar of the Spanish Succession[edit]\n\nThe War of the Spanish Succession (1701\u20131715) was a major war with France opposed by a coalition of England, the Netherlands, the Austrian Empire, and Prussia. Duke of Marlborough commander the English and Dutch victory at the Battle Blenheim in 1704. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which was based on a balance of power in Europe. Historian Russell Weigley argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost.[60] British historian G. M. Trevelyan argues:\n\nThat Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, \u2014 the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain.[61]\n\nPrussia[edit]\n\nFrederick the Great, king of Prussia 1740\u201386, modernized the Prussian army, introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he fought total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him.[62][63]\n\nRussia[edit]\n\nRussia with its numerous wars and rapid expansion was in a continuous state of financial crisis, which it covered by borrowing from Amsterdam and issuing paper money that caused inflation. Russia boasted a large and powerful army, a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized Church lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained \"a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country.\"[64]\n\nEnlightenment[edit]\n\nMain article: Age of Enlightenment\n\nThe Enlightenment was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of reason rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church).[65] It sought to analyze and reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange.[66] The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in the light of the evidence.[66]\n\nEnlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with Enlightened despots, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe.[67]\n\nOriginating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers Francis Bacon (1562\u20131626), Baruch Spinoza (1632\u20131677), John Locke (1632\u20131704), Pierre Bayle (1647\u20131706), Voltaire (1694\u20131778), Francis Hutcheson, (1694\u20131746), David Hume (1711\u20131776) and physicist Isaac Newton (1643\u20131727).[68] Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as enlightened absolutism. The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790\u20131800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a Counter-Enlightenment began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the Enlightenment was reductionistic insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of imagination, mystery, and sentiment.[69]\n\nIn France, Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great Encyclop\u00e9die (1751\u201372) edited by Denis Diderot (1713\u20131784) and (until 1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717\u20131783) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals who were called philosophes, notably Voltaire (1694\u20131778), Rousseau (1712\u20131778) and Montesquieu (1689\u20131755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain's American colonies.\n\nThe political ideals of the Enlightenment influenced the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Constitution of May 3, 1791.[70]\n\nTaking a long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about 1700 to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to royalty, powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Its great enemy was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain (and Mexico), much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between the Church and Freemasonry.[71][72] Twentieth century totalitarian movements, especially the Fascists and Communists, crushed the Freemasons.[73]\n\nFrom revolution to imperialism (1789\u20131914)[edit]\n\nSee also: 19th century and International relations of the Great Powers (1814\u20131919)\nThe boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.\n\nThe \"long 19th century\", from 1789 to 1914 saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, which was paralleled by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.\n\nIndustrial Revolution[edit]\n\nMain article: Industrial Revolution\nLondon's chimney sky in 1870, by Gustave Dor\u00e9\n\nThe Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th century and early 19th century when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport affected socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. Technological advancements, most notably the invention of the steam engine by Scottish engineer James Watt, were major catalysts in the industrialisation of Britain and, later, the wider world. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[74] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.[75]\n\nEra of the French Revolution[edit]\n\nMain articles: American Revolution, French Revolution, and Napoleonic Wars\n\nHistorians R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton argue:\n\nIn 1789 France fell into revolution, and the world has never since been the same. The French Revolution was by far the most momentous upheaval of the whole revolutionary age. It replaced the \"old regime\" with \"modern society,\" and at its extreme phase became very radical, so much so that all later revolutionary movements have looked back to it as a predecessor to themselves.... From the 1760s to 1848, the role of France was decisive.[76]\n\nThe era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. Tsar Paul I of Russia was assassinated; King Louis XVI of France was executed, as was his queen Marie Antoinette. Furthermore, kings Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand VII of Spain and Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden were deposed as were ultimately the Emperor Napoleon and all of the relatives he had installed on various European thrones. King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Francis II of Austria barely clung to their thrones. King George III of England lost the better part of his empire.[77]\n\nThe American Revolution (1775\u20131783) was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It proclaimed, in the words of Thomas Jefferson, that \"all men are created equal,\" a position based on the principles of the Enlightenment. It rejected aristocracy and established a republican form of government under George Washington that attracted worldwide attention.[78]\n\nThe French Revolution (1789\u20131804) was a product of the same democratic forces in the Atlantic World and had an even greater impact.[79] French historian Fran\u00e7ois Aulard says:\n\nFrom the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity.\"[80]\nThe storming of the Bastille in the French Revolution of 1789\n\nFrench intervention in the American Revolutionary War had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the Estates-General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789.\n\nAt the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the abolition of feudalism, and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people. As anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France's enemies. He was captured and on 12 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined.\n\nOn 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien de Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre, the committee initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions, fueling new terror: A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example Madame Roland and Georges Danton. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies.\n\nThe Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated by the Seventh Coalition in 1815\n\nNapoleon[edit]\n\nNapoleon Bonaparte was one of the world's most famous soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he became Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in 1814. His 100-day comeback in 1815 failed at the Battle of Waterloo, and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies.\n\nNapoleon, despite his youth, was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 on 18 Brumaire (9 November) he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the Consulate, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see Treaty of Pressburg) and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at Friedland. The Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw.\n\nNapoleon's army at the retreat from Russia at the Berezina river\n\nOn 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Arm\u00e9e of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, he was forced to abdicate after the Six Days' Campaign and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see Hundred Days), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 and exiled to a small British island in the South Atlantic.\n\nImpact of the French Revolution[edit]\n\nMain article: Influence of the French Revolution\n\nRoberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4\u00a0million deaths (of whom 1\u00a0million were civilians); 1.4\u00a0million were French deaths.[81]\n\nOutside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, \"meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power.\"[82]\n\nFurthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised property laws, ended seigneurial dues, abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised of divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law was proclaimed for all men.[83]\n\nIn foreign affairs, the French Army down to 1812 was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven.[84] France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler.[85][86]\n\nNapoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797\u201399. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan; Genoa became a republic; the Roman Republic was formed as well as the small Ligurian Republic around Genoa. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the Kingdom of Italy, with his brother as King. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.[87]\n\nMost of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:\n\nFor nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.[88]\n\nLikewise in Switzerland the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:\n\nIt proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.[89]\n\nThe greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized\u2014new names were given, \"left\" and \"right\" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.\n\nBritish historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness. However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was \"an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler\".[90]\n\nReligion[edit]\n\nMain article: Christianity in the 19th century\n\nProtestantism[edit]\n\nHistorian Kenneth Scott Latourette argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology. Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermine the prestige of religion. Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by 1900. Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced romanticism, with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Entirely fresh ideas as expressed by Friedrich Schleiermacher, Soren Kierkegaard, Albrecht Ritschl and Adolf von Harnack restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions. In England, Anglicans emphasize the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals. The stirrings of pietism on the Continent, and evangelicalism in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving quite successful in close cooperation with the imperialism of the British, German, and Dutch empires.[91]\n\nNations rising[edit]\n\nMain articles: International relations of the Great Powers (1814\u20131919), Serbian Revolution, Italian unification, Revolutions of 1848, and Greek War of Independence\nCheering the Revolutions of 1848 in Berlin\n\nEmerging nationalism[edit]\n\nFurther information: Nationalism\n\nThe political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic\/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I.[92][93]\n\nNapoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800\u20131806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity.[94]\n\nGermany[edit]\n\nIn the German states east of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[95] He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. For example, his organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity.[96] In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France.[97]\n\nItaly[edit]\n\nItalian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for Italian unification or the \"Risorgimento\" (meaning the Resurgence or revival). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian nationalism and Italian historiography.[98]\n\nBeginning in 1821, the Greek War of Independence began as a rebellion by Greek revolutionaries against the ruling Ottoman Empire.\nGreece[edit]\nMain article: Greek War of Independence\n\nThe Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russia and Britain intervened to make this nationalist dream become reality.[99]\n\nSerbia[edit]\n\nMain article: History of Serbia\nBreakup of Yugoslavia\n\nFor centuries the Orthodox Christian Serbs were ruled by the Muslim-controlled Ottoman Empire. The success of the Serbian revolution against Ottoman rule in 1817 marked the foundation of modern Principality of Serbia. It achieved de facto independence in 1867 and finally gained recognition by the Great Powers in the Berlin Congress of 1878. The Serbs developed a larger vision for nationalism in Pan-Slavism and with Russian support sought to pull the other Slavs out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[100][101] Austria, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914 but Russia intervened, thus igniting the First World War in which Austria dissolved into nation states.[102]\n\nIn 1918, the region of Vojvodina proclaimed its secession from Austria-Hungary to unite with the pan-Slavic State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918, and the country was named Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was renamed Yugoslavia, which was never able to tame the multiple nationalities and religions and it flew apart in civil war in the 1990s.\n\nPoland[edit]\n\nMain article: History of Poland\n\nThe cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, Germany, Russia and Austria partitioned Poland. Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw, a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as Congress Poland with the tsar as King of Poland. Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted in 1830 and 1863\u201364 but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to Russify the Polish language, culture and religion. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new Centre Party, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party.[103][104]\n\nConservative forces[edit]\n\nAfter the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful balance of power among the various European empires. This was known as the Metternich system. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes. The working classes and some intellectuals became a base for socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas (especially those summarised by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto). The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) called upon the \"racial\" unity (which usually meant a common language and an imagined common ethnicity) to seek national unification and\/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s. European diplomats and intellectuals saw the Greek struggle for independence, with its accounts of Turkish atrocities, in a romantic light.\n\nFrance under Napoleon III[edit]\n\nNapoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, returned to France from exile in 1848, bringing a famous name that promised to stabilize the chaotic political situation. He was elected president and elected himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. He modernized Paris, and build up the economy. He was most famous for his aggressive foreign policy in Europe, Mexico, and worldwide. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and joined the Crimean War on the side of the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after being defeated in the Franco-Prussian War.[105] France gave up monarchs and became the democratic but anti-clerical French Third Republic, which lasted until 1940.[106]\n\nGiuseppe Garibaldi's redshirts during the Battle of Calatafimi, part of the Italian Unification.\n\nMajor powers[edit]\n\nCountry Population in millions (year)\nRussia 71.8 (1870)\nGermany 42.7 (1875)\nAustria-Hungary 37.3 (1876)\nFrance 36.9 (1876)\nGreat Britain 33.7 (1877)\nItaly 26.8 (1876)\nSource: Appleton Annual Cyclopedia: 1877 (1878) p 281\n\nMost European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy merged many small city-states to become united nation-states. Germany in particular increasingly dominated the continent in terms of economics and political power. Meanwhile, on a global scale, Great Britain, with its far-flung British Empire, unmatched Royal Navy, and powerful bankers, became the world's first global power. The sun never set on its territories, while an informal empire operated through British financiers, entrepreneurs, traders and engineers who established operations in many countries, and largely dominated Latin America. The British were especially famous for financing and constructing railways around the world.[107]\n\nBismarck's Germany[edit]\n\nOtto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany\n\nFrom his base in Prussia, Otto von Bismarck in the 1860s engineered a series of short, decisive wars, that unified most of the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. He humiliated France in the process, but kept on good terms with Austria-Hungary. With that accomplished by 1871 he then skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve Germany's new role and keep Europe at peace. He was removed from office in 1890 by an aggressive young Kaiser Wilhelm II, who pursued a disruptive foreign policy that polarized Europe into rival camps. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914.[108]\n\nImperialism[edit]\n\nMain articles: Colonial Empires, History of colonialism, Habsburg Empire, Russian Empire, French colonial empire, British Empire, Dutch Empire, Italian colonial empire, and German colonial empire\nThe Berlin Conference (1884) headed by Otto von Bismarck that regulated European colonization in Africa during the New Imperialism period\n\nColonial empires were the product of the European Age of Discovery from the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the Renaissance. Both the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire quickly grew into the first global political and economic systems with territories spread around the world.\n\nSubsequent major European colonial empires included the French, Dutch, and British empires. The latter, consolidated during the period of British maritime hegemony in the 19th century, became the largest empire in history because of the improved ocean transportation technologies of the time as well as electronic communication through the telegraph, cable, and radio. At its height in 1920, the British Empire covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of its population. Other European countries, such as Belgium, Germany, and Italy, pursued colonial empires as well (mostly in Africa), but they were smaller. Ignoring the oceans, Russia built its Russian Empire through conquest by land in Eastern Europe, and Asia.\n\nBy the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined enough to become a target for other global powers (see History of the Balkans). This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that eventually set the stage for the First World War. In the second half of the 19th century, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of Prussia carried out a series of wars that resulted in the creation of Italy and Germany as nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, Otto von Bismarck engineered a German hegemony of Europe that put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides\u2014the Triple Alliance of 1882 (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente of 1907 (Britain, France and Russia)\u2014formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year.\n\n1914\u20131945: Two World wars[edit]\n\nMilitary alliances leading to World War; Triple Entente in green; Central Powers in brown\n\nGerman-American historian Konrad Jarausch, asked if he agreed that \"the European record of the past century [was] just one gigantic catastrophe\", argues:\n\nIt is true that the first half of the 20th century was full of internecine warfare, economic depression, ethnic cleansing and racist genocide that killed tens of millions of people, more than any other period in human history. But looking only at the disasters creates an incomplete perception, because the second half of the century witnessed a much more positive development in spite of the Cold War. After the defeat of Fascism in 1945, the peaceful revolution of 1989\/90 also liberated the East from Communist control in a quite unexpected fashion. As a result, Europeans generally live more free, prosperous and healthy lives than ever before.[109]\n\nThe \"short twentieth century\", from 1914 to 1991, included the First World War, the Second World War and the Cold War. The First World War used modern technology to kill millions of soldiers. Victory by Britain, France, the United States and other allies drastically changed the map of Europe, ending four major land empires (the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires) and leading to the creation of nation-states across Central and Eastern Europe. The October Revolution in Russia led to the creation of the Soviet Union (1917\u20131991) and the rise of the international communist movement. Widespread economic prosperity was typical of the period before 1914, and 1920\u20131929. After the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, however, democracy collapsed in most of Europe. Fascists took control in Italy, and the even more aggressive Nazi movement led by Adolf Hitler took control of Germany, 1933\u201345. The Second World War was fought on an even larger scale than the First war, killing many more people, and using even more advanced technology. It ended with the division of Europe between East and West, with the East under the control of the Soviet Union and the West dominated by NATO. The two sides engaged in the Cold War, with actual conflict taking place not in Europe but in Asia in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The Imperial system collapsed. The remaining colonial empires ended through the decolonisation of European rule in Africa and Asia. The fall of Soviet Communism (1989\u2013 1991) left the West dominant and enabled the reunification of Germany. It accelerated the process of a European integration to include Eastern Europe. The European Union continues today, but with German economic dominance. Since the worldwide Great Recession of 2008, European growth has been slow, and financial crises have hit Greece and other countries. Social divisiveness has been caused by large-scale immigration and radical Islamic rejection of European norms. While Russia is a weak version of the old Soviet Union, it has been confronting Europe in Ukraine and other areas.\n\nWorld War I[edit]\n\nMain articles: World War I, Home front during World War I, Diplomatic history of World War I, and Economic history of World War I\nTrenches and sand bags were defences against machine guns and artillery on the Western Front, 1914\u20131918\n\nAfter the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by a rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in August 1914, when the First World War started. Over 65\u00a0million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20\u00a0million soldiers and civilians died, and 21\u00a0million were seriously wounded.[110] On one side were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (the Central Powers\/Triple Alliance), while on the other side stood Serbia and the Triple Entente \u2013 the coalition of France, Britain and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and by the United States in 1917. The Western Front involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles like Verdun and the Somme killed hundreds of thousands of men while leaving the stalemate unchanged. Heavy artillery and machine guns caused most of the casualties, supplemented by poison gas. Czarist Russia collapsed in the February Revolution of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on the Eastern Front. After eight months of liberal rule, the October Revolution brought Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union in place of the disintegrated Russian Empire. With American entry into the war in 1917 on the Allied side, and the failure of Germany's spring 1918 offensive, Germany had run out of manpower, while an average of 10,000 American troops were arriving in France every day in the summer of 1918. Germany's allies, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918.[111][112] The victors forced Germany to assume responsibility for the conflict and pay war reparations.\n\nOne factor in determining the outcome of the war was that the Allies had significantly more economic resources they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58\u00a0billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25\u00a0billion. Among the Allies, Britain spent $21\u00a0billion and the U.S. $17\u00a0billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20\u00a0billion.[113]\n\nParis Peace Conference[edit]\n\nMain article: Paris Peace Conference, 1919\nEurope in 1919\nDetail from William Orpen's painting The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919, showing the signing of the peace treaty by a minor German official opposite to the representatives of the winning powers.\n\nThe world war was settled by the victors at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Two dozen nations sent delegations, and there were many nongovernmental groups, but the defeated powers were not invited.[114]\n\nThe \"Big Four\" were President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, George Clemenceau of France, and, of least importance, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others.[115]\n\nThe major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations; the six peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notable the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as \"mandates\", chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism.[116][117]\n\nAs the conference's decisions were enacted unilaterally, and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for its duration Paris was effectively the center of a world government, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany's military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on its shoulders\u00a0\u2013 the humiliation and resentment in Germany is sometimes considered as one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a cause of World War II.\n\nAt the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty.[118]\n\nInterwar[edit]\n\nSee also: Aftermath of World War I, Interwar period, and International relations (1919\u20131939)\nInterwar Europe in 1923\n\nIn the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognised the new states (such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the Ukrainian\u2013Soviet War (1917\u20131921) and the Polish\u2013Soviet War (1919\u20131921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the \"Roaring Twenties\" that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences.\n\nThe Allied victory in the First World War seem to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of \"cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self-determination, free-market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations.\"[119] However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia.[120]\n\nFascism and authoritarianism[edit]\n\nItaly adopted an authoritarian system known as Fascism in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian Stanley G. Payne says Fascism in Italy was:\n\nA primarily political dictatorship....The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy....The Fascist militia was placed under military control....The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders...nor was a major new police elite created....There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience.... Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed....The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.[121]\n\nAuthoritarian regimes were established in the 1930s in Germany, Portugal, Austria, Poland, Greece, the Baltic countries and Spain. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.[122]\n\nGreat Depression: 1929\u20131939[edit]\n\nMain article: Great Depression\n\nAfter the Wall Street Crash of 1929, nearly the whole world sank into a Great Depression, as prices fell, profits fell, and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two thirds.[123]\n\nLiberalism and democracy were discredited. In most of Europe, as well as in Japan and most of Latin America, nation after nation turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when Hitler and his Nazis took power in Germany in 1933. A major civil war took place in Spain, with the nationalists winning. The League of Nations was helpless as Italy conquered Ethiopia and Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and took over most of China starting in 1937.[124]\n\nThe Spanish Civil War (1936\u20131939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalists), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republicans on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the \"International Brigades.\" The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.[125]\n\nWorld War II[edit]\n\nMain articles: Causes of World War II, World War II, Diplomatic history of World War II, and Home front during World War II\n\nIn the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland.\n\nAmerican and Soviet troops meet in April 1945, east of the Elbe River.\n\nAfter allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the \"Pact of Steel\", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the \"Phoney War\" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941.[126]\n\nOver the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and recaptured France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered the Reichstag in Berlin, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May.[127] World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing between 50 and 80\u00a0million deaths, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55\u00a0million).[128]\n\nThis period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942\u201345, separately from the war-related deaths, the Nazis killed an additional number of over 11\u00a0million civilians identified through IBM-enabled censuses, including the majority of the Jews and Gypsies of Europe, millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs, and also homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and allegedly engineered famine had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.[129]\n\nWestern European colonial empires in Asia and Africa disintegrated after World War II\n\nCold War Era[edit]\n\nMain articles: Cold War, NATO, Marshall Plan, and European Economic Community\nEast German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961\nRemains of the \"Iron curtain\" in Dev\u00ednska Nov\u00e1 Ves, Bratislava (Slovakia).\n\nThe world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in the Europe and the world.[130] At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Communist bloc. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies at the time (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Netherlands, West Germany etc.) established the NATO military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) in 1955 established the Warsaw Pact as a counterpoint to NATO. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO.\n\nCommunist states were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became the dominant form of government in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions.[131]\n\nEconomic recovery[edit]\n\nMain articles: Marshall Plan and European Economic Community\n\nThe United States gave away about $20 billion in Marshall Plan grants and other grants and low-interest long-term loans to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and management, and among the member states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against The possibility of a Communist invasion or political takeover.[132] However, the Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs from the United States. Economic historians Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, \" History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program.\" They state:\n\nIt was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II \"mixed economies\" with more \"market\" and less \"controls\" in the mix.[133]\n\nThe Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes:\n\nThe net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan.[134]\n\nWestern Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the European Coal and Steel Community, which grew and evolved into the European Union, and the Council of Europe. The Solidarno\u015b\u0107 movement in the 1980s weakened the Communist government in Poland. At the time the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe, particularly in the USSR. In 1989 the Berlin Wall came down and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany, after making large cash payments to the USSR. In 1991 the Communist Party in Moscow collapsed, ending the USSR, which split into fifteen independent states. The largest, Russia, took the Soviet Union's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent dissolution happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. In the post\u2013Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact.\n\nLooking at the half century after the war historian Walter Lacquer concluded:\n\n\"The postwar generations of European elites aimed to create more democratic societies. They wanted to reduce the extremes of wealth and poverty and provide essential social services in a way that prewar generations had not. They had had quite enough of unrest and conflict. For decades many Continental societies had more or less achieved these aims and had every reason to be proud of their progress. Europe was quiet and civilized. Europe's success was based on recent painful experience: the horrors of two world wars; the lessons of dictatorship; the experiences of fascism and communism. Above all, it was based on a feeling of European identity and common values\u2014or so it appeared at the time.\"[135]\n\nThe post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. As noted by one historical text, \"within a single generation, the working classes of Western Europe came to enjoy the multiple pleasures of the consumer society.\"[136]\n\nWestern Europe's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a global economic crisis. They had obsolescent heavy industry, and suddenly had to pay very high energy prices which caused sharp inflation. Some of them also had inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries. In the important field of computer technology, European nations lagged behind the United States. They also faced high government deficits and growing unrest led by militant labour unions. There was an urgent need for new economic directions. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing, which was sold off to the tenants. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain, led by the militant coal miners. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the British economy, but the controversy never went away as shown by the hostile demonstrations at the time of her death in 2013.[137]\n\nRecent history[edit]\n\nFurther information: History of the European Union\nGermans standing on top of the Berlin Wall at the Brandenburg Gate, November 1989; it would begin to be torn apart in the following days.\nChanges in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War\n\nFollowing the end of the Cold War, the European Economic Community pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the European Economic Area. These countries also entered the Schengen Agreement which lifted border controls between member states.[138]\n\nThe Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The euro was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or eurozone, was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement.\n\nEU did not participate in the Yugoslav Wars, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003\u20132011 Iraq War. NATO has been part of the war in Afghanistan, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States.\n\nIn 2004, the EU gained 10 new members. (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been part of the Soviet Union; Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, five former-communist countries; Malta, and the divided island of Cyprus.) These were followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. Russia's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand \"one inch to the east\" in 1990.[139] Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with Belarus and Ukraine which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a minor war with Georgia in 2008.\n\nSupported by the United States and some European countries, Kosovo's government unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.\n\nPublic opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The European Constitution was rejected in France and the Netherlands, and then (as the Treaty of Lisbon) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009.\n\nThe financial crisis of 2007\u201308 effected Europe, and government responded with austerity measures. Limited ability of the smaller EU nations (most notably Greece) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4\u00a0billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See European sovereign-debt crisis.\n\nBeginning in 2014, Ukraine has been in a state of revolution and unrest with two breakaway regions (Donetsk and Lugansk) attempting to join Russia as full federal subjects. (See War in Donbass.) On 16 March, a referendum was held in Crimea leading to the de facto secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized annexation to the Russian Federation as the Republic of Crimea.\n\nThe future of the EU was plunged into doubt in June 2016 when a United Kingdom membership referendum resulted in the country's intended withdrawal. 52% of the British voters voted to leave the EU, leading into a complex separation process implying political and economic changes for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries.\n\nChronology[edit]\n\n  \u2022 700\u00a0BC: Homer composes The Iliad, an epic poem that represents the first piece of European literature.\n  \u2022 440\u00a0BC: Herodotus defends Athenian political freedom in the Histories.\n  \u2022 323\u00a0BC: Alexander the Great dies and his Macedonian Empire fragments.\n  \u2022 44\u00a0BC: Julius Caesar is murdered. The Roman Republic enters its terminal crisis.\n  \u2022 27\u00a0BC: Establishment of the Roman Empire under Octavian.\n\nAD\n\n  \u2022 45\u201355 (ca): First Christian congregations in mainland Greece and in Rome.\n  \u2022 293: Diocletian reorganizes the Empire by creating the Tetrarchy.\n  \u2022 330: Constantine makes Constantinople into his capital, a new Rome.\n  \u2022 395: Following the death of Theodosius I, the Empire is permanently split into the Eastern Roman Empire (later Byzantium) and the Western Roman Empire.\n  \u2022 476: Odoacer captures Ravenna and deposes the last Roman emperor in the west: traditionally seen as the end date of the Western Roman Empire.\n  \u2022 527: Justinian I is crowned emperor of Byzantium. Orders the editing of Corpus Juris Civilis, Digest (Roman law).\n  \u2022 597: Beginning of Roman Catholic Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England (missions and churches had been in existence well before this date, but their contacts with Rome had been loose or nonexistent)\n  \u2022 600: Saint Columbanus uses the term \"Europe\" in a letter.\n  \u2022 655: Jus patronatus.\n  \u2022 681: Khan Asparukh leads the Bulgars and invades the Byzantine empire in the Battle of Ongal, and creates Bulgaria.\n  \u2022 718: Tervel of Bulgaria helps the Byzantine Empire stop the Arabic invasion of Europe, and breaks the siege of Constantinople.\n  \u2022 722: Battle of Covadonga in the Iberian Peninsula. Pelayo, a noble Visigoth, defeats a Muslim army that tried to conquer the Cantabrian coast. This helps establish the Christian Kingdom of Asturias, and marks the beginning of the Reconquista.\n  \u2022 732: At the Battle of Tours, the Franks stop the advance of the Arabs into Europe.\n  \u2022 800: Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor.\n  \u2022 813: Third Council of Tours: Priests are ordered to preach in the native language of the population.\n  \u2022 843: Treaty of Verdun.\n  \u2022 863: Saints Cyril and Methodius arrive in Great Moravia, initiating Christian mission among the Slav peoples.\n  \u2022 864: Boris I of Bulgaria baptises the whole nation, converting the population from tengri, to Eastern Orthodox Christianity\n  \u2022 872: Unification of Norway.\n  \u2022 886: Cyril and Methodius students \u2013 Sava, Kliment, Naum, Gorazd, Angelariy \u2013 arrive in Bulgaria. The Cyrillic alphabet becomes the official Bulgarian alphabet.\n  \u2022 895: Hungarian people led by \u00c1rp\u00e1d start to settle in the Carpathian Basin.\n  \u2022 917: In the Battle of Achelous (917) Bulgaria defeats the Byzantine empire, and Simeon I of Bulgaria is proclaimed as emperor, thus Bulgaria becomes an empire.\n  \u2022 962: Otto I of East Francia is crowned as \"Emperor\" by the Pope, beginning the Holy Roman Empire.\n  \u2022 988 Kievan Rus adopts Christianity, often seen as the origin of the Russian Orthodox Church-\n  \u2022 1054: Start of the East\u2013West Schism, which divides the Christian church for centuries.\n  \u2022 1066: Successful Norman Invasion of England by William the Conqueror.\n  \u2022 1095: Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade.\n  \u2022 12th century: The 12th century in literature saw an increase in the number of texts. The Renaissance of the 12th century occurs.\n  \u2022 1128: Battle of S\u00e3o Mamede, formation of Portuguese sovereignty.\n  \u2022 1250: Death of emperor Frederick II; end of effective ability of German emperors to exercise control in Italy.\n  \u2022 1303: The period of the Crusades is over.\n  \u2022 1309\u20131378: The Avignon Papacy\n  \u2022 1315\u20131317: The Great Famine of 1315\u20131317 in Northern Europe\n  \u2022 1341: Petrarch, the \"Father of Humanism\", becomes the first poet laureate since antiquity.\n  \u2022 1337\u20131453: The Hundred Years' War between England and France.\n  \u2022 1348\u20131351: Black Death kills about one-third of Europe's population.\n  \u2022 1439: Johannes Gutenberg invents first movable type and the first printing press for books, starting the Printing Revolution.\n  \u2022 1453: Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.\n  \u2022 1492: The Reconquista ends in the Iberian Peninsula. A Spanish expeditionary group, commanded by Christopher Columbus, lands in the New World.\n  \u2022 1497: Vasco da Gama departs to India starting direct trade with Asia.\n  \u2022 1498: Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper in Milan as the Renaissance flourishes.\n  \u2022 1508: Maximilian I the last ruling \"King of the Romans\" and the first \"elected Emperor of the Romans\".\n  \u2022 1517: Martin Luther nails his 95 theses on indulgences to the door of the church in Wittenberg, triggering discussions which would soon lead to the Reformation\n  \u2022 1519: Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebasti\u00e1n Elcano begin first global circumnavigation. Their expedition returns in 1522.\n  \u2022 1519: Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s begins conquest of Mexico for Spain.\n  \u2022 1532: Francisco Pizarro begins the conquest of Peru (the Inca Empire) for Spain.\n  \u2022 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres).\n  \u2022 1547: The Grand Duchy of Moscow becomes the Tsardom of Russia.\n  \u2022 1582: The introduction of the Gregorian calendar; Russia refuses to adopt it until 1918.\n  \u2022 1610: Galileo Galilei uses his telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter.\n  \u2022 1618: The Thirty Years' War brings massive devastation to central Europe.\n  \u2022 1648: The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War, and introduces the principle of the integrity of the nation state.\n  \u2022 1687: Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica, having a profound impact on The Enlightenment.\n  \u2022 1699: Treaty of Karlowitz concludes the Austro-Ottoman War. This marks the end of Ottoman control of Central Europe and the beginning of Ottoman stagnation, establishing the Habsburg Monarchy as the dominant power in Central and Southeastern Europe.\n  \u2022 1700: Outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War. The first would check the aspirations of Louis XIV, king of France to dominate European affairs; the second would lead to Russia's emergence as a great power and a recognizably European state.\n  \u2022 18th century: Age of Enlightenment spurs an intellectual renaissance across Europe.\n  \u2022 1707: The Kingdom of Great Britain is formed by the union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland.\n  \u2022 1712: Thomas Newcomen invents first practical steam engine which begins Industrial Revolution in Britain.\n  \u2022 1721: Foundation of the Russian Empire.\n  \u2022 1775: James Watt invents a new efficient steam engine accelerating the Industrial Revolution in Britain.\n  \u2022 1784: Immanuel Kant publishes Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?.\n  \u2022 1789: Beginning of the French Revolution and end of the absolute monarchy in France.\n  \u2022 1792\u20131802: French Revolutionary Wars.\n  \u2022 1799: Napoleon comes to power as dictator of France.\n  \u2022 1803\u20131815: Napoleonic Wars end in defeat of Napoleon.\n  \u2022 1806: Napoleon abolishes the Holy Roman Empire.\n  \u2022 1814\u201315: Congress of Vienna; Treaty of Vienna; France is reduced to 1789 boundaries; Reactionary forces dominate across Europe.\n  \u2022 1825: George Stephenson opens the Stockton and Darlington Railway the first steam train railway for passenger traffic in the world.\n  \u2022 1836: Louis Daguerre invents first practical photographic method, in effect the first camera.\n  \u2022 1838: SS\u00a0Great Western, the first steamship built for regularly scheduled transatlantic crossings enters service.\n  \u2022 1848: Revolutions of 1848 and publication of The Communist Manifesto.\n  \u2022 1852: Start of the Crimean War, which ends in 1855 in a defeat for Russia.\n  \u2022 1859: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.\n  \u2022 1861: Unification of Italy after victories by Giuseppe Garibaldi.\n  \u2022 1866: First commercially successful transatlantic telegraph cable is completed.\n  \u2022 1860s: Russia emancipates its serfs and Karl Marx completes the first volume of Das Kapital.\n  \u2022 1870: Franco-Prussian War and the fall of the Second French Empire.\n  \u2022 1871: Unification of Germany under the direction of Otto von Bismarck.\n  \u2022 1873: Panic of 1873 occurs. The Long Depression begins.\n  \u2022 1885: Karl Benz invents Benz Patent-Motorwagen, the world's first automobile.\n  \u2022 1885: First permanent citywide electrical tram system in Europe (in Sarajevo).\n  \u2022 1895: Auguste and Louis Lumi\u00e8re begin exhibitions of projected films before the paying public with their cinematograph, a portable camera, printer, and projector.\n  \u2022 1902: Guglielmo Marconi sends first transatlantic radio transmission.\n  \u2022 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria is assassinated; World War I begins.\n  \u2022 1917: Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seize power in the Russian Revolution. The ensuing Russian Civil War lasts until 1922.\n  \u2022 1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires.\n  \u2022 1918: Collapse of the German Empire and monarchic system; founding of Weimar Republic.\n  \u2022 1918: Worldwide Spanish flu epidemic kills millions in Europe.\n  \u2022 1918: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves.\n  \u2022 1919: Versailles Treaty strips Germany of its colonies, several provinces and its navy and air force; limits army; Allies occupy western areas; reparations ordered.\n  \u2022 1920: League of Nations begins operations; largely ineffective; defunct by 1939.\n  \u2022 1921\u201322: Ireland divided; Irish Free State becomes independent and civil war erupts.\n  \u2022 1922: Benito Mussolini and the Fascists take power in Italy.\n  \u2022 1929: Worldwide Great Depression begins with stock market crash in New York City.\n  \u2022 1933: Adolf Hitler and the Nazis take power in Germany.\n  \u2022 1935: Italy conquers Ethiopia; League sanctions are ineffective.\n  \u2022 1936: Start of the Spanish Civil War; ends in 1939 with victory of Nationalists who are aided by Germany and Italy.\n  \u2022 1938: Germany escalates the persecution of Jews with Kristallnacht.\n  \u2022 1938: Appeasement of Germany by Britain and France; Munich agreement splits Czechoslovakia; Germany seized the remainder in 1939.\n  \u2022 1939: Britain and France hurriedly rearm; failed to arrange treaty with USSR.\n  \u2022 1939: Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin agree partition of Eastern Europe in Molotov\u2013Ribbentrop Pact.\n  \u2022 1939: Germany invades Poland, starting the Second World War.\n  \u2022 1940: Great Britain under Winston Churchill becomes the last nation to hold out against the Nazis after winning the Battle of Britain.\n  \u2022 1941: U.S. begins large-scale lend-lease aid to Britain, Free France, the USSR and other Allies; Canada also provides financial aid.\n  \u2022 1941: Germany invades the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa; fails to capture Moscow or Leningrad.\n  \u2022 1942: Nazi Germany commences the Holocaust \u2014 a Final Solution, with the murder of 6\u00a0million Jews.\n  \u2022 1943: After Stalingrad and Kursk, Soviet forces begin recapturing Nazi-occupied territory in the East.\n  \u2022 1944: U.S., British and Canadian armed forces invade Nazi-occupied France at Normandy.\n  \u2022 1945: Hitler commits suicide, Mussolini is murdered. World War II ends with Europe in ruins and Germany defeated.\n  \u2022 1945: United Nations formed.\n  \u2022 1947: The British Empire begins a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan.\n  \u2022 1947: Cold War begins as Europe is polarized East versus West.\n  \u2022 1948\u201351: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the Marshall Plan; stimulates large-scale modernization of European industries and reduction of trade restrictions.\n  \u2022 1949: The NATO alliance is established.\n  \u2022 1955: USSR creates a rival military coalition, the Warsaw Pact.\n  \u2022 1950: The Schuman Declaration begins the process of European integration.\n  \u2022 1954: The French Empire begins to be dismantled; Withdraws from Vietnam.\n  \u2022 1956: Suez Crisis signals the end of the effective power of the British Empire.\n  \u2022 1956: Hungarian Uprising defeated by Soviet military forces.\n  \u2022 1957: Treaties of Rome establish the European Economic Community from 1958.\n  \u2022 1968: The May 1968 events in France lead France to the brink of revolution.\n  \u2022 1968: The Prague Spring is defeated by Warsaw Pact military forces. The Club of Rome is founded.\n  \u2022 1980: The Solidarno\u015b\u0107 movement under Lech Wa\u0142\u0119sa begins open, overground opposition to the Communist rule in Poland.\n  \u2022 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union and begins reforms which inadvertently leads to the fall of Communism and the Soviet Union.\n  \u2022 1986: Chernobyl disaster occurs, the worst nuclear disaster in history.\n  \u2022 1989: Communism overthrown in all the Warsaw Pact countries except the Soviet Union. Fall of the Berlin Wall (opening of unrestrained border crossings between east and west, which effectively deprived the wall of any relevance).\n  \u2022 1990: Reunification of Germany.\n  \u2022 1991: Breakup of Yugoslavia and the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars.\n  \u2022 1991: Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.\n  \u2022 1993: Maastricht Treaty establishes the European Union.\n  \u2022 2002: End of European colonial empires with the independence of East Timor, formerly Portuguese Timor.\n  \u2022 2004: Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus and Malta join the European Union.\n  \u2022 2007: Romania and Bulgaria join the European Union.\n  \u2022 2008: The Great Recession begins. Unemployment rises in some parts of Europe.\n  \u2022 2013: Croatia joins the European Union.\n  \u2022 2014: Revolution in Ukraine and serious tensions between Russia, Ukraine and the European Union.\n  \u2022 2015: European migrant crisis starts.\n  \u2022 2016: United Kingdom votes to leave the European Union.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Atlantic World\n  \u2022 History of Western civilization\n  \u2022 House of European History, Museum scheduled to open in 2016 in Brussels\n  \u2022 List of historians, inclusive of most major historians\n  \u2022 List of history journals#Europe\n  \u2022 List of largest European cities in history\n  \u2022 List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe\n  \u2022 List of sovereign states by date of formation \u00a7 Europe\n  \u2022 Timeline of sovereign states in Europe\n\nNotes[edit]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Geoffrey Parker, \"States Make War But Wars Also Break States,\"Journal of Military History (2010) 74#1 pp 11\u201334\n  2. Jump up ^ \"The Human Journey: Early Settlements in Europe\". www.humanjourney.us. Retrieved 24 March 2017. Human fossil evidence from sites such as Atapuerca in Spain suggests that they were a form of Homo erectus (sometimes called Homo ergaster).\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ National Geographic Italia \u2013 Erano padani i primi abitanti d\u2019Italia(in Italian)\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Ancient Crete\". Oxfordbibliographiesonline.com. 15 February 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2012.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Durant, The Life of Greece; The Story of Civilization Part II, (New York: Simon & Schuster) 1939:11.\n  6. Jump up ^ Hammond, N.G.L. (1976). Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes P. p.\u00a0139. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8155-5047-1.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Tandy, p. xii. \"Figure 1: Map of Epirus showing the locations of known sites with Mycenaean remains\"; Tandy, p. 2. \"The strongest evidence for Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on the Ionian coast known from ancient sources as Glykys Limin (Figure 2-A).\"\n  8. Jump up ^ Borza, Eugene N. (1990). In the shadow of Olympus\u00a0: the emergence of Macedon ([Nachdr.] ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p.\u00a064. ISBN\u00a0978-0-691-00880-6.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Aegeobalkan Prehistory \u2013 Mycenaean Sites\". Retrieved 17 May 2012.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC III, Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 \u2013 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28 May \u2013 1 June 2003\n  11. Jump up ^ Use and appreciation of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy, Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Amsterdam Archaeological Studies\n  12. Jump up ^ The Mycenaeans and Italy: the archaeological and archaeometric ceramic evidence[dead link], University of Glasgow, Department of Archaeology\n  13. Jump up ^ Emilio Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in early Latium, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Socrates\". 1911 Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. 1911. Archived from the original on 29 January 2008. Retrieved 4 March 2008.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns. Warfare in the Ancient World Pen and Sword, 19 jan. 2006 ISBN\u00a01848846304\n  16. Jump up ^ Bowersock, \"The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome\" Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49.8 (May 1996:29\u201343) p. 31.\n  17. Jump up ^ Hunt, Lynn; Thomas R. Martin; Barbara H. Rosenwein; R. Po-chia Hsia; Bonnie G. Smith (2001). The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. A: To 1500. Bedford \/ St. Martins. p.\u00a0256. ISBN\u00a00-312-18365-8. OCLC\u00a0229955165.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Di Berardino, A.; D'Onofrio, G.; Studer, B. (2008). History of Theology: The Middle Ages. Liturgical Press. p.\u00a026. ISBN\u00a09780814659168. Retrieved 18 May 2015.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Susan Wise Bauer, The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (2010)\n  20. Jump up ^ * Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp.\u00a0791\u201394.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  21. Jump up ^ Fletcher, Banister, \"Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture\", Architectural Press; 20 edition (11 September 1996), ISBN\u00a0978-0-7506-2267-7, pp 172\n  22. Jump up ^ \"The History of the Bubonic Plague\". Archived from the original on 18 December 2006.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague\". .niaid.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 7 October 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2010.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Ralph R. Frerichs. \"An Empire's Epidemic\". Ph.ucla.edu. Retrieved 31 January 2010.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Justinian's Flea\". Justiniansflea.com. Retrieved 31 January 2010.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ \"The Great Arab Conquests\". International Herald Tribune. 29 March 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2010.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Events used to mark the period's beginning include the sack of Rome by the Goths (410), the deposition of the last western Roman Emperor (476), the Battle of Tolbiac (496) and the Gothic War (535\u2013552). Particular events taken to mark its end include the founding of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I the Great (962), the Great Schism (1054) and the Norman conquest of England (1066).\n  28. Jump up ^ Hunter, Shireen; et al. (2004). Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security. M.E. Sharpe. p.\u00a03. (..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab conquest of the Iranian Sassanian Empire. \u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Kennedy, Hugh (1995). \"The Muslims in Europe\". In McKitterick, Rosamund, The New Cambridge Medieval History: c.500-c.700, pp. 249\u2013272. Cambridge University Press. 052136292X.\n  30. Jump up ^ Joseph F. O\u00b4Callaghan, Reconquest and crusade in Medieval Spain (2002)\n  31. Jump up ^ George Holmes (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. p.\u00a0371. ISBN\u00a00-19-820073-0.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Michael Frassetto, Early Medieval World, The: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne (2013)\n  33. Jump up ^ Gerald Mako, \"The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered\", Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18, 2011, 199\u2013223.\n  34. Jump up ^ Seymour Drescher and Stanley L. Engerman, eds. A Historical Guide to World Slavery (1998) pp 197\u2013200\n  35. Jump up ^ John H. Mundy, Europe in the high Middle Ages, 1150-1309 (1973) online\n  36. Jump up ^ \"The Destruction of Kiev\". Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2012.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Golden Horde\", in Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 2007.\n  38. Jump up ^ Wallace K. Ferguson, Europe in transition, 1300-1520 (1962) online.\n  39. Jump up ^ Mark Kishlansky et al. Civilization in the West: Volume 1 to 1715 (5th ed. 2003) p. 316\n  40. Jump up ^ Cantor, p. 480.\n  41. Jump up ^ e.g. Ibn al-Shatir: The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir: Latitudes of the Planets\n  42. Jump up ^ Robert A. Nisbet (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. Transaction Publishers. p.\u00a0103.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"kwabs.com\". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press.\n  45. Jump up ^ Euan Cameron, The European Reformation (1991)\n  46. Jump up ^ Conquest in the Americas. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.\u00a0\n  47. ^ Jump up to: a b Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M. Smith, eds. (1997). The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Psychology Press.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  48. ^ Jump up to: a b Trevor Aston, ed. Crisis in Europe 1560\u20131660: Essays from Past and Present (1965)\n  49. Jump up ^ Jan de Vries, \"The Economic Crisis of the Seventeenth Century after Fifty Years,\" Journal of Interdisciplinary History (2009) 40#2 pp. 151\u2013194 in JSTOR\n  50. Jump up ^ Peter Burke, \"The Crisis in the Arts of the Seventeenth Century: A Crisis of Representation?\" Journal of Interdisciplinary History (2009) 40#2 pp. 239\u2013261 in JSTOR\n  51. Jump up ^ Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years' War: Europe's Tragedy (2011)\n  52. Jump up ^ Geoffrey Parker, \"Crisis and Catastrophe: The Global Crisis of the Seventeenth Century Reconsidered,\" American Historical Review (2008) 113#4 pp. 1053\u20131079.\n  53. Jump up ^ J. B. Shank, \"Crisis: A Useful Category of Post-Social Scientific Historical Analysis?\" American Historical Review (2008) 113#4 pp. 1090\u20131099\n  54. Jump up ^ John B. Wolf, Louis XIV (1968)\n  55. Jump up ^ Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (1998).\n  56. Jump up ^ G. P. Gooch, Frederick the Great: The Ruler, the Writer, the Man (1947)\n  57. Jump up ^ Max Beloff, The age of absolutism, 1660\u20131815 (1966).\n  58. Jump up ^ Peter H. Wilson, Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War (2009)\n  59. Jump up ^ Henry Kamen, \"The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War,\" Past and Present (1968) 39#1 pp 44\u201361 in JSTOR\n  60. Jump up ^ Russell Weigley, The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo (1991).\n  61. Jump up ^ G.M. Trevelyan, A shortened history of England (1942) p 363.\n  62. Jump up ^ Paul M. Kennedy, ed. (1991). Grand Strategies in War and Peace. Yale U.P. p.\u00a0106.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  63. Jump up ^ Dennis E. Showalter, The Wars of Frederick the Great (1996)\n  64. Jump up ^ Nicholas Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th ed. 1984), p 284\n  65. Jump up ^ Margaret C. C. Jacob, The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents (2000)\n  66. ^ Jump up to: a b Alan Charles Kors, Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (Oxford UP, 2003)\n  67. Jump up ^ Geoffrey Bruun, The enlightened despots (1967).\n  68. Jump up ^ Sootin, Harry. \"Isaac Newton.\" New York, Messner (1955).\n  69. Jump up ^ Casey, Christopher (30 October 2008). \"\"Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time\": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism\". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived from the original on 13 May 2009. Retrieved 25 June 2009.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ Robert R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution (1964)\n  71. Jump up ^ Richard Weisberger et al., eds., Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (East European Monographs, 2002)\n  72. Jump up ^ Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991).\n  73. Jump up ^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp 634\u2013635\n  74. Jump up ^ Business and Economics. Leading Issues in Economic Development, Oxford University Press US. ISBN\u00a00-19-511589-9 Read it\n  75. Jump up ^ Russell Brown, Lester. Eco-Economy, James & James \/ Earthscan. ISBN\u00a01-85383-904-3 Read it\n  76. Jump up ^ R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (5th ed. 1978), p. 341\n  77. Jump up ^ Steven Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life (2004) p. 388\n  78. Jump up ^ Gordon S. Wood, The radicalism of the American Revolution (2011).\n  79. Jump up ^ R. R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760\u20131800: The Challenge (1959) pp 4\u20135\n  80. Jump up ^ A. Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. (1922). Modern France. A Companion to French Studies. Cambridge UP. p.\u00a0115.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  81. Jump up ^ Andrew Roberts, \"Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,'\" BBC History Magazine (1 November 2014)\n  82. Jump up ^ Roberts, \"Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,\" BBC History Magazine (1 November 2014)\n  83. Jump up ^ Robert R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (New York: McGraw Hill, 1995), pp. 428\u20139.\n  84. Jump up ^ Andrew Roberts, \"Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,\" BBC History Magazine (1 November 2014)\n  85. Jump up ^ William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989) pp 341\u201368\n  86. Jump up ^ Steven T. Ross, European Diplomatic History, 1789\u20131815: France Against Europe (1969)\n  87. Jump up ^ Alexander Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (2003) pp 62\u201365, 78\u201379, 88\u201396, 115\u201317, 154\u201359\n  88. Jump up ^ Frederick B. Artz, Reaction and Revolution: 1814\u20131832 (1934) pp 142\u201343\n  89. Jump up ^ William Martin, Histoire de la Suisse (Paris, 1926), pp 187\u201388, quoted in Crane Brinson, A Decade of Revolution: 1789\u20131799 (1934) p 235\n  90. Jump up ^ Max Hastings, \"Everything Is Owed to Glory,\" Wall Street Journal 31 October 2014\n  91. Jump up ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches (1959) pp 428\u201331\n  92. Jump up ^ John Horne (2012). A Companion to World War I. John Wiley & Sons. pp.\u00a021\u201322.\u00a0\n  93. Jump up ^ Aaron Gillette, \"Why Did They Fight the Great War? A Multi-Level Class Analysis of the Causes of the First World War.\" The History Teacher 40.1 (2006): 45\u201358.\n  94. Jump up ^ Hans Kohn, \"Napoleon and the Age of Nationalism.\" Journal of Modern History (1950): 21\u201337 in JSTOR.\n  95. Jump up ^ Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds. The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).\n  96. Jump up ^ Karen Hagemann, \"Of 'manly valor' and 'German Honor': nation, war, and masculinity in the age of the Prussian uprising against Napoleon.\" Central European History 30#2 (1997): 187\u2013220.\n  97. Jump up ^ Hagen Schulze, The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763\u20131867 (Cambridge UP, 1991).\n  98. Jump up ^ Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, eds., The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-century Italy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).\n  99. Jump up ^ Alister E. McGrath (2012). Christian History: An Introduction. p.\u00a0270. ISBN\u00a0978-1-118-33783-7.\u00a0\n  100. Jump up ^ Louis Levine, \"Pan-Slavism and European Politics.\" Political Science Quarterly 29.4 (1914): 664\u2013686. in JSTOR free\n  101. Jump up ^ Charles Jelavich, Tsarist Russia and Balkan nationalism: Russian influence in the internal affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879\u20131886 (1958).\n  102. Jump up ^ Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012)\n  103. Jump up ^ Richard Blanke, Prussian Poland in the German Empire (1871\u20131900) (1981)\n  104. Jump up ^ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present (2005).\n  105. Jump up ^ J.P.T. Bury, Napoleon III and the Second Empire (1968).\n  106. Jump up ^ Denis Brogan, The French Nation: From Napoleon to P\u00e9tain, 1814\u20131940 (1957).\n  107. Jump up ^ Andrew Porter and William Roger Louis, eds.. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 3, The Nineteenth Century (1999).\n  108. Jump up ^ Theodore S Hamerow, ed., Otto von Bismarck and imperial Germany: a historical assessment (1994)\n  109. Jump up ^ See \"An Interview with Konrad H. Jarausch, author of Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century\", Princeton University Press, June 2015\n  110. Jump up ^ Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013) p xxiii\n  111. Jump up ^ Overviews include David Stevenson, Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy (2005) and Ian F. W. Beckett, The Great War: 1914\u20131918 (2nd ed. 2007)\n  112. Jump up ^ For reference see Martin Gilbert, Atlas of World War I (1995) and Spencer Tucker, ed., The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1996)\n  113. Jump up ^ Gerd Hardach, The First World War, 1914\u20131918 (1977) p 153, using estimated made by H. Menderhausen, The Economics of War (1941) p 305\n  114. Jump up ^ Margaret Macmillan, Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War (2002)\n  115. Jump up ^ by Rene Albrecht-Carrie, Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958) p 363\n  116. Jump up ^ Sally Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918\u20131933 (2nd ed. 2003)\n  117. Jump up ^ Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919\u20131933 (2007)\n  118. Jump up ^ Carole Fink, \"The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights,\" Peace and Change: A journal of peace research (1996) 21#3 pp 273\u201388\n  119. Jump up ^ Nicholas Atkin; Michael Biddiss (2008). Themes in Modern European History, 1890\u20131945. Routledge. pp.\u00a0243\u201344.\u00a0\n  120. Jump up ^ Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, fascism, or social democracy: Social classes and the political origins of regimes in interwar Europe (Oxford UP, 1991).\n  121. Jump up ^ Stanley G. Payne (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914\u20131945. U of Wisconsin Press. p.\u00a0122.\u00a0\n  122. Jump up ^ Martin Blinkhorn, The Fascist Challenge in Gordon Martel, ed. A Companion to Europe: 1900\u20131945 (2011) p 313\n  123. Jump up ^ Charles Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929\u20131939 (2nd ed. 1986)\n  124. Jump up ^ David Clay Large, Between Two Fires: Europe's Path in the 1930s (1991)\n  125. Jump up ^ Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Revolution (1970) pp 262\u201376\n  126. Jump up ^ I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot, eds., The Oxford Companion to World War II (1995) covers every country and major campaign.\n  127. Jump up ^ Norman Davies, No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939\u20131945 (2008)\n  128. Jump up ^ \"Second''Second Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm''\". Users.erols.com. Retrieved 2 May 2012.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ Dinah Shelton, ed., Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity (3 vol. 2004)\n  130. Jump up ^ John Wheeler-Bennett, The Semblance Of Peace: The Political Settlement After The Second World War (1972) thorough diplomatic coverage 1939-1952.\n  131. Jump up ^ Martin Conway, \"The Rise and Fall of Western Europe's Democratic Age, 1945\u0096\u20131973,\" Contemporary European History (2004) 13#1 pp 67\u201388.\n  132. Jump up ^ Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947\u20131952 (1989) pp. 26\u201328, 430\u2013443.\n  133. Jump up ^ DeLong, J. Bradford; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). \"The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program\". In Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nolling, Wilhelm; Layard, Richard. Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today. MIT Press. pp.\u00a0189\u2013230. ISBN\u00a00-262-04136-7 \u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0\n  134. Jump up ^ Mark Kramer, \"The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe,\" Klaus Larresm ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945. Wiley. p.\u00a079.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  135. Jump up ^ Walter Laqueur, \"The Slow Death of Europe\", The National Interest 16 August 2011 online\n  136. Jump up ^ Hay, W.A.; Sicherman, H. (2007). Is There Still a West?: The Future of the Atlantic Alliance. University of Missouri Press, Queen Elizabeth also had a major breakdown causing her to die cause of the stress overload. p.\u00a0107. ISBN\u00a09780826265494. Retrieved 18 May 2015.\u00a0\n  137. Jump up ^ David Priestland, \"Margaret Thatcher?\" \u2018\u2019BBC History Magazine\u2019\u2019 1 May 2013\n  138. Jump up ^ \"A Europe without frontiers\". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 25 June 2007.\u00a0\n  139. Jump up ^ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (26 November 2009). \"NATO's Eastward Expansion: Calming Russian Fears \u2013 SPIEGEL ONLINE\". SPIEGEL ONLINE.\u00a0CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)\n\nBibliography[edit]\n\nSurveys[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Blum, Jerome et al. The European World (2 vol. 2nd ed. 1970) university textbook; part 1, Middle Ages to 1815; part 2 since 1815 online\n  \u2022 Davies, Norman. Europe: A History (1998), advanced university textbook\n  \u2022 Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb Modern Europe: To 1815 (1973) online, university textbook\n    \u2022 Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb Modern Europe: Since 1815 (1973), university textbook\n  \u2022 McKay, John P. et al. A History of Western Society (2 vol 2010) 1300pp; university textbook\n  \u2022 Moncure, James A. ed. Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450\u2013Present (4 vol 1992); 2140pp; historiographical guide to 200 major political and military leaders\n  \u2022 Roberts, J. M. The History of Europe (1997), survey\n  \u2022 Simms, Brendan. Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from 1453 to the Present (2013), survey\n\nGeography and atlases[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Catchpole, Brian. Map History of the Modern World (1982)\n  \u2022 Darby, H. C., and H. Fullard, eds. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas (1970)\n  \u2022 East, W. Gordon. An Historical Geography of Europe (4th ed. 1950)\n  \u2022 Haywood, John. Atlas of world history (1997) online free\n  \u2022 Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann. Anchor Atlas of World History (2 vol. 1978); advanced analytical maps, mostly of Europe\n  \u2022 Pounds, Norman J. G. An Historical Geography of Europe (1990)\n  \u2022 Talbert, Richard J.A. Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World for iPad (Princeton U.P. 2014) ISBN\u00a09781400848768; 102 interactive color maps from archaic Greece to the Late Roman Empire.\n\nMajor nations[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Black, Jeremy. A history of the British Isles (1996)\n  \u2022 Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: A history (2000)\n  \u2022 Clark, Christopher M. Iron kingdom: the rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600\u20131947 (2006)\n  \u2022 Davies, Norman. The Isles: A History (2001), Britain and Ireland\n  \u2022 Duggan, Christopher. A concise history of Italy (2013).\n  \u2022 Fraser, Rebecca. The Story of Britain: From the Romans to the Present: A Narrative History (2006)\n  \u2022 Holborn, Hajo. vol 1: A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation; vol 2: A History of Modern Germany: 1648\u20131840; vol 3: A history of modern Germany: 1840\u20131945 (1959). a standard scholarly survey.\n  \u2022 Kamen, Henry. A concise history of Spain ( 1973)\n  \u2022 Helle, Knut, ed. The Cambridge History of Scandinavia (Vol. 1. 2003)\n  \u2022 Holmes, George, ed. The Oxford illustrated history of medieval Europe (2001).\n  \u2022 Holmes, George, ed. The Oxford illustrated history of Italy (1997)\n  \u2022 Jones, Colin. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (1999)\n  \u2022 Kitchen, Martin The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany (1996).\n  \u2022 Morgan, Kenneth O., ed. The Oxford illustrated history of Britain (1984)\n  \u2022 Price, Roger. A concise history of France (2014)\n  \u2022 Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (2 vol. 2010)\n  \u2022 Sagarra, Eda. A social history of Germany (2003)\n  \u2022 Tombs, Robert, The English and their History (2014) advanced history; online review\n  \u2022 Wilson, Peter H. Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire (2016) 942pp\n\nClassical[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Boardman, John, et al. eds. The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World (2nd ed. 2002) 520pp\n  \u2022 Boardman, John, et al. eds. The Oxford History of the Roman World (2001)\n  \u2022 Cartledge, Paul. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece (2002)\n\nLate Roman[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Heather, Peter. Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe (Oxford University Press; 2010); 734 pages; Examines the migrations, trade, and other phenomena that shaped a recognizable entity of Europe in the first millennium.\n  \u2022 Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284\u2013602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey (2 Vol. 1964)\n  \u2022 Mitchell, Stephen. A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284\u2013641: The Transformation of the Ancient World (2006)\n\nMedieval[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Davis, R. H. C. A History of Medieval Europe (2nd ed. 2000)\n  \u2022 Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in Transition, 1300\u20131520 (1962) online\n  \u2022 Hanawalt, Barbara. The Middle Ages: An Illustrated History (1999)\n  \u2022 Holmes, George, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe (2001)\n  \u2022 Koenigsberger, H. G. Medieval Europe 400\u20131500 (1987)\n  \u2022 Riddle, John M. A history of the Middle Ages, 300\u20131500 (2008)\n\nEarly modern[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Blanning, T. C. W. The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660\u20131789 (2003)\n  \u2022 Cameron, Euan. Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (2001)\n  \u2022 Friedrich, Carl J. The Age of the Baroque, 1610-1660 (1962); Despite the title, this is a wide-ranging Social, cultural, political and diplomatic history of Europe; 14-day borrowing copy\n  \u2022 Hesmyr, Atle. Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era; From Peasant Revolts and Witch Hunts to Constitution Drafting Yeomen (2014)\n  \u2022 McKay, Derek, and Hamish M. Scott. The rise of the great powers 1648-1815 (3rd ed. 2014).\n  \u2022 Rice, Eugene F. The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460\u20131559 (2nd ed. 1994) 240pp\n  \u2022 Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present (3rd ed. 2009, 2 vol), 1412 pp\n  \u2022 Scott, Hamish, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350\u20131750: Volume I: Peoples and Place (2015).\n    \u2022 Scott, Hamish, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350\u20131750: Volume II: Cultures and Power (2015).\n  \u2022 Stoye, John. Europe Unfolding, 1648-1688 (2nd ed. 2000).\n  \u2022 Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648\u20131780 (3rd ed. 2003), overview of each major country and inter-relations\n  \u2022 Wiesner, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450\u20131789 (Cambridge History of Europe) (2006)\n\n19th century[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Anderson, M. S. The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815\u20131914 (3rd ed. 2003)\n  \u2022 Blanning, T. C. W. ed. The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789\u20131914 (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320pp\n  \u2022 Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814 (1938) online.\n  \u2022 Cameron, Rondo. France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800\u20131914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.\n  \u2022 Evans, Richard J. The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815\u20131914 (2016), 934pp\n  \u2022 Gildea, Robert. Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800\u20131914 (Short Oxford History of the Modern World) (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, online 2nd ed, 1996\n  \u2022 Grab, Alexander. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (2003)\n  \u2022 Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939 (1968), 507pp; several hundred short documents\n  \u2022 Mason, David S. A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity (2011), since 1700\n  \u2022 Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire (5 vol. 2006)\n  \u2022 Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (2011)\n  \u2022 Salmi, Hannu. 19th Century Europe: A Cultural History (2008).\n  \u2022 Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848\u20131918 (1954) online free; Advanced diplomatic history\n\nSince 1900[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Brose, Eric Dorn. A History of Europe in the Twentieth Century (2004) 548pp\n  \u2022 Buchanan, Tom. Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Present (Blackwell History of Europe) (2012)\n  \u2022 Cook, Bernard A. Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia (2 vol; 2001), 1465pp\n  \u2022 Davies, Norman. Europe at War 1939\u20131945: No Simple Victory (2008)\n  \u2022 Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot, eds. The Oxford Companion to World War II (2006)\n  \u2022 Jarausch, Konrad H. Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century (2015), 870pp.\n  \u2022 Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (2006)\n  \u2022 Martel, Gordon, ed. A Companion to Europe, 1900\u20131950 (2011) 32 essays by scholars; emphasis on historiography\n  \u2022 Mazower, Mark. Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (2000) 512pp\n  \u2022 Merriman, John, and Jay Winter, eds. Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age War and Reconstruction (5 vol. 2006)\n  \u2022 Paxton, Robert O., and Julie Hessler. Europe in the twentieth century (5th edition 2011.\n  \u2022 Stone, Dan, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History (2015).\n  \u2022 Ther, Philipp. Europe since 1989: A History (Princeton UP, 2016) excerpt, 440pp\n  \u2022 Toynbee, Arnold, ed. Survey Of International Affairs: Hitler's Europe 1939-1946 (1954) online\n  \u2022 Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2005)\n\nAgriculture and economy[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bakels, C. C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300\u00a0BC \u2013 AD 1000 (2009)\n  \u2022 Berend, Iv\u00e1n T. An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe (2013)\n  \u2022 Berend, Iv\u00e1n T. Europe Since 1980 (2010), focus on economic history\n  \u2022 Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe (2 vol 2010), 1700 to present\n  \u2022 Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history. 1965. 511 pp\n  \u2022 Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America (1925). free online edition[permanent dead link]\n  \u2022 Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850\u20131914 (1977)\n  \u2022 Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (1970)\n  \u2022 Pollard, Sidney, ed. Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century (1990), 260pp; global perspective online free\n  \u2022 Pounds, N.J.G. An Economic History of Medieval Europe (1994)\n  \u2022 Slicher van Bath, B. H. The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500\u20131850 (1966)\n  \u2022 Thorp, William Long. Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China (1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790\u20131925\n\nDiplomacy[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Albrecht-Carri\u00e9, Ren\u00e9. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp, basic introduction 1815\u20131955\n  \u2022 Black, Jeremy. A History of Diplomacy (2011)\n  \u2022 Black, Jeremy. European International Relations, 1648\u20131815 (2002)\n  \u2022 Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939 (1968), 507pp; several hundred short documents\n  \u2022 Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline\n  \u2022 Macmillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) cover 1890s to 1914\n  \u2022 Mowat, R. B. History of European Diplomacy, 1451\u20131789 (1928) 324 pages online\n  \u2022 Petrie, Charles. Earlier diplomatic history, 1492\u20131713 (1949), covers all of Europe; online[permanent dead link]\n  \u2022 Petrie, Charles. Diplomatic History, 1713\u20131933 (1946), broad summary online free also online in Questia\n  \u2022 Schroeder, Paul. The Transformation of European Politics 1763\u20131848 (1994) online; advanced diplomatic history\n  \u2022 Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919\u20131933 (2007)\n  \u2022 Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933\u20131939 (2011)\n  \u2022 Taylor, A. J. P The struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848\u20131918 (1954)\n\nEmpires and interactions[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Bayly, C. A. ed. Atlas of the British Empire (1989). survey by scholars; heavily illustrated\n  \u2022 Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781\u20131997 (2008), wide-ranging survey\n  \u2022 Darwin, John. After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400\u20132000 (2008).\n  \u2022 James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1997)\n  \u2022 Tolan, John et al. eds. Europe and the Islamic World: A History (2013) online\n\nIdeas and science[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Heilbron, John L., ed. The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science (2003)\n  \u2022 Outhwaite, William. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2003).\n  \u2022 Wiener, Philip P. Dictionary of the History of Ideas (5 vol 1973)\n\nReligion[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1958\u201369) vol 1, 2, and 4 for detailed country-by-country coverage\n  \u2022 MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2011)\n\nSocial[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Stearns, Peter N., ed. Encyclopedia of European Social History (6 vol 2000), 3000 pp\n  \u2022 Tipton, F. and R. Aldrich. An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1890\u20131939 (1987); An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1939 to the Present (1987)\n\nWarfare[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. World History of Warfare (2002)\n  \u2022 The Cambridge History of the First World War (3 vol 2014) online\n  \u2022 The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol 2015) online\n  \u2022 Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D., eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-860446-4.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Dupuy, R. Ernest, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500\u00a0BC to the Present (1993)\n  \u2022 Goldsworthy, Adrian, and John Keegan. Roman Warfare (2000)\n  \u2022 Horne, John, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012)\n  \u2022 Keegan, John. A History of Warfare (1994)\n  \u2022 Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1989)\n  \u2022 Paret, Peter, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy (1986), ideas of warfare\n  \u2022 Rapport, Mike. The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short Introduction (2013)\n  \u2022 Sheehan, James J. Where Have All the Soldiers Gone? The Transformation of Modern Europe (2008).\n  \u2022 Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.).\u00a0; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy\n  \u2022 Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. A Companion to World War II (2 vol 2013), 1030pp; comprehensive overview by scholars\n\nWomen and gender[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Anderson, Bonnie S. and Judith P. Zinsser. A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present (2nd ed 2000)\n  \u2022 Bridenthal, Renate, et al. eds. Becoming Visible: Women in European History (3rd ed. 1997), 608pp; essays by scholars\n  \u2022 Frey, Linda, Marsha Frey, Joanne Schneider. Women in Western European History: A Select Chronological, Geographical, and Topical Bibliography (1982) online\n  \u2022 Hufton, Olwen. The Prospect Before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe, 1500\u20131800 (1996)\n  \u2022 Herzog, Dagmar. Sexuality in Europe: A Twentieth-Century History (2011)\n  \u2022 Offen, Karen. \"Surveying European Women's History since the Millenium: A Comparative Review\", Journal of Women's History Volume 22, Number 1, Spring 2010 doi:10.1353\/jowh.0.13\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to History of Europe.\nWikibooks has a book on the topic of: European History\nWikiversity has learning resources about European History\nWikivoyage has travel information for European history.\n  \u2022 Media related to Old maps of Europe at Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Media related to Atlas of European history at Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 EurhistXX: The Network for the Contemporary History of Europe, edited in English from Berlin\n  \u2022 Contains information on historical trends in living standards in various European countries\n  \u2022 European History Primary Sources Online access to primary sources for historians\n  \u2022 New York Public Library. \"History of Europe\". Research Guides. USA.\u00a0\n[show]\nLinks to related articles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of Europe\nPrehistory\n  \u2022 Paleolithic Europe\n  \u2022 Neolithic Europe\n  \u2022 Bronze Age Europe\n  \u2022 Iron Age Europe\nClassical antiquity\n  \u2022 Classical Greece\n  \u2022 Roman Republic\n  \u2022 Hellenistic period\n  \u2022 Roman Empire\n  \u2022 Early Christianity\n  \u2022 Crisis of the Third Century\n  \u2022 Fall of the Western Roman Empire\n  \u2022 Late antiquity\nMiddle Ages\n  \u2022 Early Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Migration Period\n  \u2022 Christianization\n  \u2022 Francia\n  \u2022 Byzantine Empire\n  \u2022 Maritime republics\n  \u2022 Viking Age\n  \u2022 Kievan Rus'\n  \u2022 Holy Roman Empire\n  \u2022 High Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Feudalism\n  \u2022 Crusades\n  \u2022 Mongol invasion\n  \u2022 Late Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Hundred Years' War\n  \u2022 Kalmar Union\n  \u2022 Renaissance\nEarly modern\n  \u2022 Reformation\n  \u2022 Age of Discovery\n  \u2022 Baroque\n  \u2022 Thirty Years' War\n  \u2022 Absolute monarchy\n  \u2022 Ottoman Empire\n  \u2022 Portuguese Empire\n  \u2022 Spanish Empire\n  \u2022 Early modern France\n  \u2022 Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth\n  \u2022 Swedish Empire\n  \u2022 Dutch Republic\n  \u2022 British Empire\n  \u2022 Habsburg Monarchy\n  \u2022 Russian Empire\n  \u2022 Age of Enlightenment\nModern\n  \u2022 Great Divergence\n  \u2022 Industrial Revolution\n  \u2022 French Revolution\n  \u2022 Napoleonic Wars\n  \u2022 Nationalism\n  \u2022 Revolutions of 1848\n  \u2022 World War I\n  \u2022 Russian Revolution\n  \u2022 Interwar period\n  \u2022 World War II\n  \u2022 Cold War\n  \u2022 European integration\nSee also\n  \u2022 Art of Europe\n  \u2022 Genetic history of Europe\n  \u2022 History of the Mediterranean region\n  \u2022 History of the European Union\n  \u2022 History of Western civilization\n  \u2022 Maritime history of Europe\n  \u2022 Military history of Europe\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of Europe by country\nSovereign states\n  \u2022 Albania\n  \u2022 Andorra\n  \u2022 Armenia\n  \u2022 Austria\n  \u2022 Azerbaijan\n  \u2022 Belarus\n  \u2022 Belgium\n  \u2022 Bosnia and Herzegovina\n  \u2022 Bulgaria\n  \u2022 Croatia\n  \u2022 Cyprus\n  \u2022 Czech Republic\n  \u2022 Denmark\n  \u2022 Estonia\n  \u2022 Finland\n  \u2022 France\n  \u2022 Georgia\n  \u2022 Germany\n  \u2022 Greece\n  \u2022 Hungary\n  \u2022 Iceland\n  \u2022 Ireland\n  \u2022 Italy\n  \u2022 Kazakhstan\n  \u2022 Latvia\n  \u2022 Liechtenstein\n  \u2022 Lithuania\n  \u2022 Luxembourg\n  \u2022 Macedonia\n  \u2022 Malta\n  \u2022 Moldova\n  \u2022 Monaco\n  \u2022 Montenegro\n  \u2022 Netherlands\n  \u2022 Norway\n  \u2022 Poland\n  \u2022 Portugal\n  \u2022 Romania\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 San Marino\n  \u2022 Serbia\n  \u2022 Slovakia\n  \u2022 Slovenia\n  \u2022 Spain\n  \u2022 Sweden\n  \u2022 Switzerland\n  \u2022 Turkey\n  \u2022 Ukraine\n  \u2022 United Kingdom\n  \u2022 Vatican City\nStates with limited\nrecognition\n  \u2022 Abkhazia\n  \u2022 Artsakh\n  \u2022 Kosovo\n  \u2022 Northern Cyprus\n  \u2022 South Ossetia\n  \u2022 Transnistria\nDependencies and\nother entities\n  \u2022 \u00c5land\n  \u2022 Faroe Islands\n  \u2022 Gibraltar\n  \u2022 Guernsey\n  \u2022 Isle of Man\n  \u2022 Jersey\n  \u2022 Svalbard\nOther entities\n  \u2022 European Union\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPeriods of the history of Europe\n  \u2022 Prehistoric Europe\n  \u2022 Classical antiquity\n  \u2022 Late antiquity\n  \u2022 Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Renaissance\n  \u2022 Early modern\n  \u2022 Modern\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory by continent\n  \u2022 Africa\n  \u2022 Americas (North America\n  \u2022 South America)\n  \u2022 Antarctica\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 Eurasia (Europe\n  \u2022 Asia)\n  \u2022 Oceania\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nEurope\u00a0articles\nHistory\nChronology\n  \u2022 Prehistory\n  \u2022 Classical antiquity\n  \u2022 Late antiquity\n  \u2022 Middle Ages\n  \u2022 Early modernity\n  \u2022 World War I & II\n  \u2022 Pax Europaea\n  \u2022 Crisis situations and unrest since 2000\nBy topic\n  \u2022 Military\n  \u2022 Sovereignty\n    \u2022 predecessor states\nGeography\n  \u2022 Areas and populations\n  \u2022 Countries by area\n    \u2022 European microstates\n  \u2022 Largest metropolitan areas\n  \u2022 Cities\n  \u2022 Extreme points\n  \u2022 Geology\n  \u2022 Islands\n  \u2022 Lakes\n  \u2022 Mountains\n  \u2022 Rivers\n  \u2022 Sovereign states and dependent territories\n    \u2022 by population\n  \u2022 Villages\nPolitics\n  \u2022 Eurosphere\n  \u2022 International organisations\n  \u2022 Integration\n  \u2022 Law\n  \u2022 Politics\n  \u2022 Post-Soviet Europe\n  \u2022 Transatlantic relations\nIntergovernmental\n  \u2022 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)\n  \u2022 Council of Europe (CoE)\n  \u2022 Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO)\n  \u2022 GUAM Organization\n  \u2022 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)\n  \u2022 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)\n    \u2022 statistics\nEuropean Union\n  \u2022 Economy\n    \u2022 relations\n    \u2022 free trade agreements\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 European Economic Area (EEA)\n  \u2022 European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP)\n  \u2022 European Union Customs Union (EUCU)\n  \u2022 Eurozone\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\n  \u2022 Members\n    \u2022 enlargement\n  \u2022 Politics\n  \u2022 Schengen Area\n  \u2022 Statistics\n  \u2022 Visa policy\nEconomy\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Financial (and social) rankings\n  \u2022 Free trade areas\n  \u2022 Energy\n  \u2022 Telecommunications\n  \u2022 Transport\nIntergovernmental\n  \u2022 Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)\n  \u2022 Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia (CUBKR)\n  \u2022 Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC)\n  \u2022 European Free Trade Association (EFTA)\nSovereign states by\n  \u2022 Average wage\n  \u2022 Budget revenues\n    \u2022 per capita\n  \u2022 Corruption index\n  \u2022 GDP (nominal)\n    \u2022 per capita\n  \u2022 GDP (PPP)\n    \u2022 per capita\n  \u2022 GNI (nominal) per capita\n  \u2022 GNI (PPP) per capita\n  \u2022 HDI\n  \u2022 Internet users (%)\n  \u2022 Minimum wage\n  \u2022 Press Freedom Index\n  \u2022 Unemployment rate (%)\n  \u2022 Health expense per capita\n  \u2022 Military spending (%)\n  \u2022 Childhood population (%)\n  \u2022 Urban population (%)\n  \u2022 Life expectancy\n  \u2022 Electricity use per capita\nSociety\n  \u2022 Etiquette\n  \u2022 Social (and financial) rankings\n  \u2022 Languages\n    \u2022 endangered\n  \u2022 Universities\n    \u2022 Bologna Process\n    \u2022 Erasmus\nCulture\n  \u2022 Art\n    \u2022 painting\n    \u2022 sculpture\n  \u2022 Architecture\n  \u2022 Capital of Culture\n  \u2022 Cinema\n    \u2022 film festivals\n  \u2022 Classical music\n  \u2022 Cuisine\n  \u2022 Dance\n  \u2022 Literature\n  \u2022 Philosophy\n  \u2022 Religion\n    \u2022 Christianity\n    \u2022 Islam\n    \u2022 Judaism\n  \u2022 Sport\n  \u2022 Symbols\nDemographics\n  \u2022 Ageing\n  \u2022 Ethnic groups\n    \u2022 genetic history\n  \u2022 Immigration\n  \u2022 Life expectancy\n  \u2022 Retirement\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Portal\n  \u2022 Maps\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&oldid=834244477\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 History of Europe\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with Italian-language external links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from June 2015\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from August 2013\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009\n  \u2022 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from June 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from April 2017\n  \u2022 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikibooks\n  \u2022 Wikivoyage\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 \u0f56\u0f7c\u0f51\u0f0b\u0f61\u0f72\u0f42\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u8d1b\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Interlingue\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Mirand\u00e9s\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Patois\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 \u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 4 April 2018, at 17:55.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-3125861489473759057","title":"Grey's Anatomy (season 14)","text":"Grey's Anatomy (season 14)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nGrey's Anatomy (season\u00a014)\nGrey's Anatomy season 14 poster.jpg\nPromotional poster\nStarring\n  \u2022 Ellen Pompeo\n  \u2022 Justin Chambers\n  \u2022 Chandra Wilson\n  \u2022 James Pickens, Jr.\n  \u2022 Kevin McKidd\n  \u2022 Jessica Capshaw\n  \u2022 Sarah Drew\n  \u2022 Jesse Williams\n  \u2022 Caterina Scorsone\n  \u2022 Camilla Luddington\n  \u2022 Kelly McCreary\n  \u2022 Jason George\n  \u2022 Martin Henderson\n  \u2022 Giacomo Gianniotti\nCountry of origin United States\nNo. of episodes 12\nRelease\nOriginal network ABC\nOriginal release September 28, 2017\u00a0(2017-09-28)\u00a0\u2013 present\nSeason chronology\n\u2190\u00a0Previous\nSeason 13\nList of Grey's Anatomy episodes\n\nThe fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two-hour premiere.[1] The season will consist of 24 episodes,[2][3] with the season's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.\n\nThis season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season.[4] The season also marked the last appearance for Martin Henderson as a series regular.[5]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plots\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n    \u2022 2.1 Main cast\n    \u2022 2.2 Recurring cast\n    \u2022 2.3 Guest cast\n    \u2022 2.4 Casting\n  \u2022 3 Production\n    \u2022 3.1 Development\n  \u2022 4 Episodes\n  \u2022 5 Reception\n    \u2022 5.1 Live + SD ratings\n    \u2022 5.2 Live + 7 Day (DVR) ratings\n  \u2022 6 References\n\nPlots[edit]\n\nThe season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.\n\nThe season picks up right where it left off after the fire in the previous season finale. Grey-Sloan takes on a new, improved appearance after it is repaired of the damages from the fire. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) finds herself in another love triangle with Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson) and his long-lost fianc\u00e9e, Megan Hunt (Abigail Spencer), though she encourages Riggs to resume his relationship with Megan over her. Meredith performs a ground-breaking surgery on Megan, landing her a Harper Avery Award. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) fiddle with the idea of a relationship after Jackson and April Kepner (Sarah Drew) decide to live apart.\n\nTeddy Altman (Kim Raver) returns to Seattle to assist with Megan's reappearance and notices the tension in Owen and Amelia's relationship. With the help of DeLuca's sister, visiting doctor Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) discovers she has a brain tumor that has been impairing her judgment for the last 10 years. After it is removed by her former professor Tom Koracick (Greg Germann), Amelia and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) decide to end their marriage. Meanwhile, after Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) reveals to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) that he tracked down her husband, Alex and Jo reconcile their relationship, with Jo declaring that she will divorce Paul (Matthew Morrison).\n\nA new class of interns is introduced, one of which has a history with Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Ben Warren (Jason George) joins to Fire Academy but has trouble telling his wife, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) threatens to pull funding from Grey-Sloan and fires Bailey as Chief, but he soon after passes away, reinstating Bailey in the position. After Eliza Minnick (Marika Domi\u0144czyk) is fired from Grey-Sloan, she ghosts Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), who subsequently begins dating Carina. Their relationship is short-lived, however, as Arizona inadvertently ends it while preparing for Sofia to return home from New York. Carina begins a sexual relationship with the newly single Owen.\n\nCast[edit]\n\nMain articles: List of Grey's Anatomy cast members and List of Grey's Anatomy characters\n\nMain cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey\n  \u2022 Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev\n  \u2022 Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey\n  \u2022 James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber\n  \u2022 Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt\n  \u2022 Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins\n  \u2022 Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner\n  \u2022 Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery\n  \u2022 Caterina Scorsone as Dr. Amelia Shepherd\n  \u2022 Camilla Luddington as Dr. Jo Wilson\n  \u2022 Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce\n  \u2022 Jason George as Dr. Ben Warren\n  \u2022 Martin Henderson as Dr. Nathan Riggs\n  \u2022 Giacomo Gianniotti as Dr. Andrew DeLuca\n\nRecurring cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery\n  \u2022 Kim Raver as Dr. Teddy Altman[6]\n  \u2022 Abigail Spencer as Dr. Megan Hunt[7]\n  \u2022 Greg Germann as Dr. Tom Koracick[8]\n  \u2022 Matthew Morrison as Dr. Paul Stadler[9]\n  \u2022 Stefania Spampinato as Dr. Carina DeLuca[10]\n  \u2022 Jake Borelli as Dr. Levi Schmitt[11]\n  \u2022 Jeanine Mason as Dr. Sam Bello[11]\n  \u2022 Alex Blue Davis as Dr. Casey Parker[11]\n  \u2022 Rushi Kota as Dr. Vikram Roy[11]\n  \u2022 Jaicy Elliot as Dr. Taryn Helm[11]\n  \u2022 Sophia Taylor Ali as Dr. Dahlia Qadri[11]\n  \u2022 Bethany Joy Lenz as Jenny\n  \u2022 Candis Cayne as Dr. Michelle Velez[12]\n\nGuest cast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Debra Mooney as Evelyn Hunt\n  \u2022 Bill Smitrovich as Dr. Walter Carr\n  \u2022 Chelcie Ross as Dr. Harper Avery\n  \u2022 Kate Burton as Dr. Ellis Grey\n  \u2022 Justin Bruening as Paramedic Matthew Taylor\n  \u2022 Mark Moses as Dr. Larry Maxwell\n  \u2022 Scott Speedman[13]\n\nCasting[edit]\n\nSeries regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball's new HBO drama series Here, Now.[4] Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project.[14] Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw will return for the 14th season.[15] On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver is set to reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc.[6] In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season.[7] After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another special guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal); though details of his role were not disclosed, it was revealed that his character's name would be Tom Koracick and he'd been seen in the episode \"Go Big or Go Home.\"[8] His character turned out to be Amelia's neurosurgery mentor and he re-appeared in the subsequent episode entitled \"Ain't That a Kick in the Head.\"\n\nOn October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson's appearance in the fifth episode of the season would be his last.[16]\n\nOn October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast as of the fourth episode,\"Ain't That a Kick in the Head,\" was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Taylor Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi.[11]\n\nOn January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. [17]\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nDevelopment[edit]\n\nGrey's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017.[3] It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two-hour premiere.[1] Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season.[18] On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season.[19] On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six-episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.[20]\n\nEpisodes[edit]\n\nMain article: List of Grey's Anatomy episodes\n\nThe number in the \"No. overall\" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the \"No. in season\" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. \"U.S. viewers in millions\" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.\n\nNo.\noverall\nNo. in\nseason\nTitle Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers\n(millions)\n294 1 \"Break Down the House\" Debbie Allen Krista Vernoff September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) 8.07[21]\nIn a whirlwind of reunions and a Grey Sloan \"major uplift,\" Meredith finds herself in a complicated love triangle between Nathan and Megan, Owen\u2019s sister who was recently revealed to still be alive after a ten year absence in a hostage camp overseas. With Megan\u2019s reappearance, Teddy Altman comes back to Seattle to support Owen and his mom, which leads to awkward interactions with Amelia. With Stephanie now in Texas at a burn unit, Jo eagerly tries to make Ben her new person. After being \u201cghosted\u201d by Eliza, Arizona hits it off with an Italian girl in a bar whom she takes home with her. When DeLuca comes home, he finds his sister half-naked on his couch with Arizona.\n295 2 \"Get Off on the Pain\" Kevin McKidd Krista Vernoff September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) 8.07[21]\nCarina, DeLuca\u2019s sister, asks to be introduced to Bailey in order to get approval to study the controversial topic of female masturbation and orgasms at her hospital; Bailey obliges due to society's double standard. Meredith works to get everyone to agree that an abdominal wall transplant is the best tactic to treat Megan\u2019s wounds; she even gets Teddy to scrub in to erase any doubts of Meredith\u2019s intentions of being Megan\u2019s surgeon. Jo tries to mend her relationship with Alex, after it\u2019s revealed that Jo slept with one of the new sub-interns. Owen gets called out on his marital status with Amelia, who seems to be avoiding him and his family. Even without the support of Jackson, Amelia fights to remove a patient\u2019s mastoid tumor. She later takes part in Carina's study which leads to her finding a huge tumor in her own brain.\n296 3 \"Go Big or Go Home\" Chandra Wilson Meg Marinis October\u00a05,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-05) 8.06[22]\nAmelia brings in one of her former professors and current head of Neurology at Johns Hopkins, Dr. Tom Koracik to help her come up with a treatment plan for her tumor. Much to her chagrin, Dr Koracik brings to light how impaired her judgment has been over the last ten years; Richard makes sure to let Amelia know that her judgment hasn\u2019t been all that bad and encourages her to come clean to those with whom she\u2019s closest. Bailey is confronted by Harper Avery about all the changes that have been made to the hospital and threatens to withdraw all funding from the foundation; when Bailey stands up to him, Avery fires her. In the end of the episode Avery passes away with a sudden cardiac arrest and then Jackson and Catherine Avery reinstate Bailey back as the chief. Ben and Arizona resort to advice delivered by Carina when one of their patients gets stuck in labor. Meredith turns to her former psychiatrist, who winds up as a patient, to sort out her mood towards everyone instigated by the love triangle involving Nathan and Megan. Jo asks Alex to move back home.\n297 4 \"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?\" Geary McLeod Marlana Hope October\u00a012,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-12) 8.08[23]\nAmelia has her brain tumor removed, but in the days following, she experiences some complications, such as speaking only French, and memory loss. Richard unexpectedly brings Maggie to attend a family dinner hosted by Catherine, which turns awkward when Catherine discloses to Avery his inheritance from Harper\u2019s passing, a quarter billion dollars. Bailey and Richard host interviews with prospective new interns but fail to find a decent candidate. Using her research to justify his entry into the country, Meredith and Nathan team up to bring Megan\u2019s adopted son to America. Amelia and Owen face their fear that their marriage is based on a version of Amelia created by her illness. Arizona learns that Sofia wants to move home. Jo confesses that she hates how much control her ex-husband has over her.\n298 5 \"Danger Zone\" Cecilie Mosli Jalysa Conway October\u00a026,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-26) 7.67[24]\nAs Owen helps Megan make the trip to California where she\u2019ll start her new life with Nathan and her son, Farouk, they reminisce on their time spent in Fallujah, Iraq. During their time overseas, Nathan proposed to Megan by recycling a necklace that wasn\u2019t initially intended for her. Teddy quickly recognized the necklace and the fact that Nathan cheated and pushed him to come clean. Despite the good news of the engagement, Megan dealt with heartbreak of not making strat, which is later revealed to her as Owen\u2019s own doing. Distraught over her brother's betrayal, she gets on a helicopter with one of the shooters who attacked their troops, leading to her disappearance. While Nathan awaits the arrival of Megan and Owen, he bonds with Farouk, who is having trouble acclimating to the free world. He also officially ends his relationship with Meredith, as does Owen with Amelia when he comes to terms with the notion that neither of them are truly happy.\n299 6 \"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby\" Lisa Leone Kiley Donovan November\u00a02,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-02) 7.38[25]\nAs the new surgeon on the cover page of the medical journal, JSA, Meredith performs a rare surgical procedure, made possible by Jo\u2019s persuasion, to try and save a judge from his progressive cancer diagnosis. The men of Grey Sloan take a \u201csick day\u201d and hang out on a Jackson\u2019s newly purchased boat, whereas the women swipe for dates on Tinder. Arizona has broken up with Carina in preparation of Sofia moving back home. Amelia heads back to surgery but struggles with her confidence, recruiting the help of Dr. Koracik and seeking the encouragement of Richard. While Arizona and April repair a woman\u2019s injuries caused by an accidental firing of a gun that was hidden inside her vagina, Bailey and Maggie take care of a hypochondriac who was a victim of the accidental shooting. At the surgeon-intern mixer, Meredith learns that she's been nominated for the annual Harper Avery award; however, the news is overshadowed by the loss of her patient. Jackson gives half his inheritance to Bailey to fund a research competition. Jo learns she's in the running for chief resident and decides to file for divorce from Paul after confiding her situation to the judge. DeLuca recognizes one of the new interns from his past, while Owen and Carina are caught kissing.\n300 7 \"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story\" Debbie Allen Krista Vernoff November\u00a09,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-09) 8.13[26]\nWhen a roller coaster car derails off its tracks, Meredith\u2019s plans to attend the Harper Avery award ceremony are put on hold. Three patients visiting the ER look like former doctors of the hospital: Drs. Cristina Yang, George O\u2019Malley, and Izzie Stevens. Amelia and Owen learn to co-exist in the OR, after Amelia orders a surprise CT which shows a large hematoma that she is able to repair. As Arizona performs surgery on Liza, Izzie\u2019s look-a-like, she reflects on her relationship with Callie and Mark in preparation for Sofia\u2019s return to Seattle. Jo probes Alex to call Izzie and see how she is, to which Alex says he knows how she is: a happily married surgeon with three children. As they wait on Meredith to leave for Boston, Maggie bonds with Zola as they rehearse medical knowledge and talk about Derek. Bailey and Ben fight over his announcement to join the fire department, due to Bailey\u2019s fear that he has commitment issues. Unable to fly out to Boston, in an OR\u2014in front of her friends and colleagues\u2014Meredith is announced the winner of the 2017 Harper Avery award.\n301 8 \"Out of Nowhere\" Kevin McKidd William Harper November\u00a016,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-16) 7.52[27]\nAs the interns struggle to find their stride as surgeons, Jo begins her reign as chief resident. Things take a turn for the worse when the computer system gets hacked at Grey Sloan Memorial, as all of the patients\u2019 records get held hostage for $20 million. Unable to understand why the ransom is so large and unprecedented, Bailey realizes it\u2019s due to the recently announced competition funded by Jackson\u2019s inheritance. Without the use of the technological advancements to which the doctors have become accustomed, they must rely on their instincts to treat their patients; Richard teaches his younger colleagues about how they worked in the \u201cStone Age.\u201d One patient is transported to another hospital by a helicopter which encounters bad turbulence, causing a line to loosen and squirt blood everywhere. Jo gets the scariest surprise of her life when she runs into her abusive husband, Paul, on her way to stop Alex from inadvertently killing their patient.\n302 9 \"1-800-799-7233\" Bill D'Elia Andy Reaser January\u00a018,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-18) 8.27[28]\n\nWhile the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient\u2019s life, and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer-savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as \"a proud trans man.\" After Paul\u2019s fianc\u00e9e, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith has to pretend to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit-and-run.\n\n\nThe episode was followed by a PSA of Camilla Luddington reminding viewers that psychological abuse is a form of domestic violence and providing the number of the National Domestic Violence Hotline: 1-800-799-7233, the episode's title.\n303 10 \"Personal Jesus\" Kevin Sullivan Zoanne Clack January\u00a025,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-25) 8.62[29]\nWith Paul recovering from surgery, Meredith questions the alibi that Alex and Jo provide her. Believing that it\u2019s his fianc\u00e9e, Jenny, who ran him over, Jo feels the need to consult her. April\u2019s patient turns out to be the pregnant wife of her ex-fianc\u00e9, Matthew, proving to be more than an awkward situation, as she helps deliver their baby, and then watches him deal with his wife\u2019s unexpected death. Jackson, Bailey, and April are confronted with racial profiling when police show up with a handcuffed 12-year-old boy whom they shot when he was seen trying to enter his own home by a window. Police officers continue to treat him like a criminal in the ER, prompting Bailey and Ben to give Tucker \u201cthe talk.\u201d When Jo and Jenny go to Paul\u2019s room to announce they are taking him to court, he gets in a bout of rage and falls out of his bed, knocking himself out and becoming brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to take him off life support and have his organs donated. April ends up in the shower with Roy, an intern, after she finds herself questioning her faith.\n304 11 \"(Don't Fear) the Reaper\" Nicole Rubio Elisabeth R. Finch February\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-01) 8.93[30]\nWith her intuition and the more subtle signs of a heart attack, Bailey winds up in the ER at Seattle Presbyterian; however, after her doctors treat her condescendingly, assuming she's imagining the heart attack and really just suffering from her OCD, she calls on Maggie to come save her. When Maggie arrives, she runs into Richard who found his way there based on Bailey\u2019s record of attendance. With her life flashing before her eyes, Bailey reflects on her upbringing and her past as a surgeon with all the stressful fights and struggles she\u2019s gone through to get to this point in her life. Right before she goes under for emergency surgery to save her life, Bailey asks Maggie to call Ben who is able to get there before she wakes up. Ben announces that he\u2019s quit being a firefighter, but Bailey demands that he go back and never do anything other than what he truly loves.\n305 12 \"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger\" Jeannot Szwarc Kiley Donovan February\u00a08,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-08) 7.32[31]\nAs the contest draws near, a competitive edge and tension arise between the doctors and their selected interns vying for millions of dollars. In preparation to surprise Catherine on her birthday, Richard takes salsa dancing lessons with Maggie, who is struggling with the one year anniversary of her mother\u2019s death. Amelia and Alex tag team a pediatric case, in order to save their patient\u2019s ability to sing, as well as retain all mental capabilities. Meredith gets a visit from an old splenectomy patient, who\u2019s back with multiple miniature spleens, which guides Meredith to her idea for the competition, and Jackson gets pulled into his mother\u2019s gender confirmation proposal, despite his wishes.\n306 13 \"You Really Got a Hold on Me\"[32] Nzingha Stewart Stacy McKee March\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-01) TBD\n307 14 \"Games People Play\"[33] Chandra Wilson Jason Ganzel & Julie Wong March\u00a08,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-08) TBD\n\nReception[edit]\n\nLive + SD ratings[edit]\n\nNo. in\nseries\nNo. in\nseason\nEpisode Air date Time slot (EST) Rating\/Share (18\u201349) Viewers (m) 18\u201349 Rank Viewership rank Drama rank\n294 1 \"Break Down the House\" September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) Thursday\n8:00\u00a0p.m.\n2.3\/8[21] 8.07[21] 12[34] 24[34] 3[34]\n295 2 \"Get Off on the Pain\" September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) Thursday\n9:00\u00a0p.m.\n2.3\/8[21] 8.07[21] 12[34] 24[34] 3[34]\n296 3 \"Go Big or Go Home\" October\u00a05,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-05) Thursdays\n8:00\u00a0p.m.\n2.1\/8[22] 8.06[22] 11[35] 21[35] 3[35]\n297 4 \"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?\" October\u00a012,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-12) 2.1\/8[23] 8.08[23] 10[36] 17[36] 2[36]\n298 5 \"Danger Zone\" October\u00a026,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-26) 1.8\/7[24] 7.67[24] 14[37] 22[37] 3[37]\n299 6 \"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby\" November\u00a02,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-02) 1.8\/7[25] 7.38[25] 13[38] 21[38] 3[38]\n300 7 \u201cWho Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story\u201d November\u00a09,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-09) 1.9\/7[26] 8.13[26] 11[39] 19[38] 2[38]\n301 8 \u201cOut of Nowhere\u201d November\u00a016,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-16) 1.8\/7[27] 7.52[27] 13[40] 21[40] 4[40]\n302 9 \"1-800-799-7233\" January\u00a018,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-18) 2.3\/9[28] 8.27[28] 7[41] 14[41] 3[41]\n303 10 \"Personal Jesus\" January\u00a025,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-25) 2.3\/9[29] 8.62[29] 3[42] 7[42] 2[42]\n304 11 \"(Don't Fear) the Reaper\" February\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-01) 2.3\/9[30] 8.93[30] 5[43] 8[43] 2[43]\n305 12 \"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger\" February\u00a08,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-08) 2.0\/8[31] 7.32[31] 6[44] 13[44] 2[44]\n306 13 \"You Really Got a Hold on Me\" March\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-01)\n\nLive + 7 Day (DVR) ratings[edit]\n\nNo. in\nseries\nNo. in\nseason\nEpisode Air date Time slot (EST) 18\u201349 increase Viewers\n(millions) increase\nTotal 18-49 Total viewers\n(millions)\nRef\n294 1 \"Break Down the House\" September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) Thursday\n8:00\u00a0p.m.\n1.6 3.91 3.9 11.99 [45]\n295 2 \"Get Off on the Pain\" September\u00a028,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-09-28) Thursday\n9:00\u00a0p.m.\n1.6 3.91 3.9 11.99 [45]\n296 3 \"Go Big or Go Home\" October\u00a05,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-05) Thursdays\n8:00\u00a0p.m.\n1.6 3.83 3.7 11.89 [46]\n297 4 \"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?\" October\u00a012,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-12) 1.4 3.51 3.5 11.59 [47]\n298 5 \"Danger Zone\" October\u00a026,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-10-26) 1.5 3.54 3.3 11.22 [48]\n299 6 \"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby\" November\u00a02,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-02) 1.5 3.45 3.2 10.84 [49]\n300 7 \u201cWho Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story\u201d November\u00a09,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-09) 1.5 3.53 3.4 11.67 [50]\n301 8 \u201cOut of Nowhere\u201d November\u00a016,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-11-16) 1.5 3.54 3.3 11.07 [51]\n302 9 \"1-800-799-7233\" January\u00a018,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-18) 1.3 3.30 3.6 11.58 [52]\n303 10 \"Personal Jesus\" January\u00a025,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-01-25) 1.3 3.35 3.6 11.98 [53]\n304 11 \"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\" February\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-01) 1.4 3.41 3.7 12.35 [54]\n305 12 \"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger\" February\u00a08,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-02-08)\n306 13 \"You Really Got a Hold on Me\" March\u00a01,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-03-01)\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Mitovich, Matt Webb (July 24, 2017). \"ABC Fall Premiere Dates: XL Grey's Return, Scandal's Swan Song and More\". TVLine. Retrieved July 24, 2017.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"TV shows renewed for 2017\u201318 and beyond\". TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com. 2017-02-13. Retrieved 2017-02-14.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Grey's Anatomy TV show on ABC: season 14 renewal\". canceled TV shows \u2013 TV Series Finale. 2017-02-10. Retrieved 2017-02-14.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Ausiello, Michael (January 31, 2017). \"Grey's Anatomy: [Spoiler] Poised to Exit\". TV Line. Retrieved February 1, 2017.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy Martin Henderson exit Riggs\". EW. Retrieved October 28, 2017.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Andreeva, Nellie (June 20, 2017). \"'Grey's Anatomy': Kim Raver To Make A Return In Season 14\". Deadline. Retrieved June 21, 2017.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Petski, Denise (4 August 2017). \"'Grey's Anatomy': Abigail Spencer Set To Recur In Recasting\". Retrieved 29 September 2017.\u00a0\n  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Nilles, Billy (September 13, 2017). \"Grey's Anatomy Season 14 Admits Greg Germann for Guest-Star Role\". E!. Retrieved September 13, 2017.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Matthew Morrison will return to Grey's Anatomy in 14th season\". Retrieved 29 September 2017.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Grey's Anatomy Adds a Controversial New Doctor for Season 14\". 8 August 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017.\u00a0\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Nilles, Billy (October 9, 2017). \"Meet Grey's Anatomy's New Season 14 Interns\". E!. Retrieved October 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Niles, Billy (2018-01-31). \"Grey's Anatomy Admits Candis Cayne for \"Groundbreaking\" Season 14 Transgender Storyline\". eonline.com. Retrieved 2018-02-01.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ http:\/\/deadline.com\/2018\/02\/scott-speedman-cast-greys-anatomy-guest-star-animal-kingdom-exit-tnt-1202279529\/\n  14. Jump up ^ Schwartz, Ryan (March 16, 2016). \"Grey's Anatomy's Jerrika Hinton Nabs Lead in Shondaland Comedy Pilot\". TVLine. Retrieved May 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (June 28, 2015). \"Grey's Anatomy: Jessica Capshaw Signs Major Contract Extension \u2014 Find Out How Long Arizona's Sticking Around\". TVLine. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ http:\/\/ew.com\/tv\/2017\/10\/26\/greys-anatomy-martin-henderson-exit-riggs\/\n  17. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.eonline.com\/news\/910651\/grey-s-anatomy-admits-candis-cayne-for-groundbreaking-season-14-transgender-storyline.\u00a0 Missing or empty |title= (help)\n  18. Jump up ^ Nilles, Billy (March 30, 2017). \"Why Ellen Pompeo Couldn't Say No to Directing Grey's Anatomy\". E! Online. Retrieved May 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Vernoff, Krista (April 28, 2017). \"Friday afternoon seems as good a time as any to announce this tidbit: I'm returning to #GreysAnatomy for Season 14! #NeverSayNever\". Twitter. Retrieved May 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Corinthios, Aurelie (January 9, 2018). \"Grey's Anatomy Web Series Follows Latest Batch of Newbie Doctors: Meet the B-Team\". People.com. Retrieved January 11, 2018.\u00a0\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Porter, Rick (September 29, 2017). \"'Will & Grace,' 'Superstore,' 'Good Place,' 'Gotham' adjust up; 'How to Get Away' adjusts down: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved September 29, 2017.\u00a0\n  22. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 6, 2017). \"'Grey's Anatomy' and NFL adjust up: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 6, 2017.\u00a0\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 13, 2017). \"'Will & Grace,' 'Grey's Anatomy,' 'Gotham' and NFL adjust up: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 13, 2017.\u00a0\n  24. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 27, 2017). \"NFL adjusts up, scripted shows all unchanged: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (November 3, 2017). \"'Will & Grace' adjusts up, 'Sheldon' and other CBS shows adjust down: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  26. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (November 10, 2017). \"'Big Bang Theory' and 'Thursday Night Football' adjust up: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 10, 2017.\u00a0\n  27. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (November 17, 2017). \"'Supernatural' and NFL adjust up, 'Young Sheldon' adjusts down: Thursday final ratings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved November 17, 2017.\u00a0\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (January 22, 2018). \"'Grey's Anatomy' adjusts up, 'The Four,' 'Scandal' and 'Great News' down: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 22, 2018.\u00a0\n  29. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (January 26, 2018). \"'Grey's Anatomy' adjusts up, 'Big Bang Theory' adjusts down: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 26, 2018.\u00a0\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (February 2, 2018). \"'Big Bang Theory,' 'The Four' adjust up, 'Mom' and 'AP Bio' adjust down: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 2, 2018.\u00a0\n  31. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (February 9, 2018). \"Olympics adjust up: Thursday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 9, 2018.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"(#1413) \"You Really Got a Hold on Me\"\". The Futon Critic. Retrieved February 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"(#1414) \"Games People Play\"\". The Futon Critic. Retrieved February 16, 2018.\u00a0\n  34. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Porter, Rick (October 3, 2017). \"'Big Bang Theory,' 'Sunday Night Football' score in week 1 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  35. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 10, 2017). \"NFL times 2 dominates the week 2 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 11, 2017.\u00a0\n  36. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 17, 2017). \"NFL, 'Big Bang Theory' and 'NCIS' lead week 3's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 17, 2017.\u00a0\n  37. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (October 31, 2017). \"World Series makes FOX No. 1 in week 5's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 1, 2017.\u00a0\n  38. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Porter, Rick (November 7, 2017). \"World Series, 'Big Bang Theory' lead week 6 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 7, 2017.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 14, 2017). \"NFL and 'This Is Us' carry NBC to victory in week 7 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 14, 2017.\u00a0\n  40. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (November 21, 2017). \"NFL carries NBC to victory again: Week 8 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved November 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (January 23, 2018). \"FOX dominates, ABC gets a boost in week 17 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved January 23, 2018.\u00a0\n  42. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (January 30, 2018). \"Grammys and 'NCIS' carry CBS to victory: Week 18 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved January 30, 2018.\u00a0\n  43. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (February 6, 2018). \"Super Bowl LII (obviously) dominates week 19's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved February 6, 2018.\u00a0\n  44. ^ Jump up to: a b c Porter, Rick (February 13, 2018). \"Olympics push NBC to No. 1 for the season: Week 20 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings\". TV By the Numbers. Retrieved February 13, 2018.\u00a0\n  45. ^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 13, 2017). \"'This Is Us' and 'The Good Doctor' score big in premiere week broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 13, 2017.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 18, 2017). \"'The Orville,' 'Once Upon a Time,' 5 more shows double in week 2 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 19, 2017.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 25, 2017). \"'The Good Doctor' is the most-watched show on TV in week 3 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 9, 2017). \"'Grey's Anatomy' keeps rolling along in week 5 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 9, 2017.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 17, 2017). \"'This Is Us' and 12 more shows double in week 6 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 17, 2017.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 27, 2017). \"'This Is Us' rides high in week 7 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 27, 2017.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 5, 2017). \"'Jane the Virgin,' 10 other shows double in week 8 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 5, 2017.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (February 1, 2018). \"'This Is Us,' 'The Good Doctor' both double in week 17 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 1, 2018.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (February 8, 2018). \"'This Is Us' sets NBC records in week 18 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 8, 2018.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (February 15, 2018). \"Closing the book on the Super Bowl 'This Is Us': Week 19 broadcast Live +7 ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 15, 2018.\u00a0\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrey's Anatomy episodes\nSeason 1\n  \u2022 \"A Hard Day's Night\"\n  \u2022 \"If Tomorrow Never Comes\"\nSeason 2\n  \u2022 \"Into You Like a Train\"\n  \u2022 \"It's the End of the World\"\n  \u2022 \"As We Know It\"\n  \u2022 \"Losing My Religion\"\nSeason 3\n  \u2022 \"Time Has Come Today\"\n  \u2022 \"I Am a Tree\"\n  \u2022 \"Great Expectations\"\n  \u2022 \"Wishin' and Hopin'\"\n  \u2022 \"Didn't We Almost Have It All?\"\nSeason 4\n  \u2022 \"A Change Is Gonna Come\"\nSeason 5\n  \u2022 \"What a Difference a Day Makes\"\n  \u2022 \"Stand By Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Elevator Love Letter\"\n  \u2022 \"Now or Never\"\nSeason 6\n  \u2022 \"Good Mourning\"\n  \u2022 \"Goodbye\"\n  \u2022 \"I Always Feel Like Somebody's Watchin' Me\"\n  \u2022 \"Tainted Obligation\"\n  \u2022 \"Invasion\"\n  \u2022 \"I Saw What I Saw\"\n  \u2022 \"Give Peace a Chance\"\n  \u2022 \"Invest in Love\"\n  \u2022 \"I Like You So Much Better When You're Naked\"\n  \u2022 \"Death and All His Friends\"\nSeason 7\n  \u2022 \"Song Beneath the Song\"\nSeason 8\n  \u2022 \"Flight\"\nSeason 9\n  \u2022 \"Going, Going, Gone\"\n  \u2022 \"Beautiful Doom\"\n  \u2022 \"Perfect Storm\"\nSeason 10\n  \u2022 \"Fear (of the Unknown)\"\nSeason 11\n  \u2022 \"I Must Have Lost it on the Wind\"\n  \u2022 \"Puzzle With a Piece Missing\"\n  \u2022 \"Got to Be Real\"\n  \u2022 \"Only Mama Knows\"\n  \u2022 \"Bend & Break\"\n  \u2022 \"Don't Let's Start\"\n  \u2022 \"One Flight Down\"\n  \u2022 \"How to Save a Life\"\n  \u2022 \"She's Leaving Home\"\n  \u2022 \"Time Stops\"\n  \u2022 \"You're My Home\"\nSeason 12\n  \u2022 \"Sledgehammer\"\n  \u2022 \"Guess Who's Coming to Dinner\"\n  \u2022 \"Something Against You\"\n  \u2022 \"Things We Lost in the Fire\"\n  \u2022 \"The Sound of Silence\"\n  \u2022 \"Family Affair\"\nSeason 13\n  \u2022 \"True Colors\"\nSeason 14\n  \u2022 \"Danger Zone\"\n  \u2022 \"Personal Jesus\"\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGrey's Anatomy\nEpisodes\n  \u2022 Season 1\n  \u2022 2\n  \u2022 3\n  \u2022 4\n  \u2022 5\n  \u2022 6\n  \u2022 7\n  \u2022 8\n  \u2022 9\n  \u2022 10\n  \u2022 11\n  \u2022 12\n  \u2022 13\n  \u2022 14\nCharacters\n(cast members)\n  \u2022 Meredith Grey\n  \u2022 Cristina Yang\n  \u2022 Izzie Stevens\n  \u2022 Alex Karev\n  \u2022 George O'Malley\n  \u2022 Miranda Bailey\n  \u2022 Richard Webber\n  \u2022 Preston Burke\n  \u2022 Derek Shepherd\n  \u2022 Addison Montgomery\n  \u2022 Mark Sloan\n  \u2022 Callie Torres\n  \u2022 Lexie Grey\n  \u2022 Erica Hahn\n  \u2022 Owen Hunt\n  \u2022 Sadie Harris\n  \u2022 Arizona Robbins\n  \u2022 Teddy Altman\n  \u2022 Jackson Avery\n  \u2022 April Kepner\n  \u2022 Amelia Shepherd\n  \u2022 Stephanie Edwards\n  \u2022 Maggie Pierce\n  \u2022 Nathan Riggs\nOther\n  \u2022 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 Video game\n  \u2022 Private Practice\n  \u2022 Station 19\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Mexican telenovela)\n  \u2022 A Coraz\u00f3n Abierto (Colombian telenovela)\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\n  \u2022 Category Category\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_14)&oldid=826069485\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy episodes\n  \u2022 2017 American television seasons\n  \u2022 Grey's Anatomy seasons\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Pages with citations lacking titles\n  \u2022 Pages with citations having bare URLs\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 17 February 2018, at 00:51.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8283881852967061701","title":"Blood gas tension","text":"Blood gas tension\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nBlood gas tension refers to the partial pressure of gases in blood.[1] There are several significant purposes for measuring gas tension;[2] the most common gas tensions measured are oxygen tension[3] (PxO2), the carbon dioxide tension[3] (PxCO2) and carbon monoxide tension[3] (PxCO). The subscript x in each symbol represents the source of the gas being measured; \"a\" meaning arterial,[3] \"A\" being alveolar,[3] \"v\" being venous,[3] \"c\" being capillary.[3] Blood gas tests (such as arterial blood gas tests) measure these partial pressures.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Oxygen tension\n  \u2022 2 Carbon dioxide tension\n  \u2022 3 Carbon monoxide tension\n  \u2022 4 Significance\n  \u2022 5 Equations\n    \u2022 5.1 Oxygen content\n    \u2022 5.2 Oxygen saturation\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 References\n\nOxygen tension[edit]\n\nArterial blood oxygen tension (normal)\n\nPaO2 \u2013 Partial pressure of oxygen at sea level (765 mmHg) in arterial blood is between 75 mmHg and 100 mmHg.[4][5][6]\n\nVenous blood oxygen tension (normal)\n\nPvO2 \u2013 Oxygen tension in venous blood at sea level is between 30 mmHg and 40 mmHg.[6][7]\n\nCarbon dioxide tension[edit]\n\nCarbon dioxide is a by-product of food metabolism and in high amounts has toxic effects including: dyspnea, acidosis and altered consciousness.[8]\n\nArterial blood carbon dioxide tension\n\nPaCO2 \u2013 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide at sea level (765 mmHg) in arterial blood is between 35 mmHg and 45 mmHg.[9]\n\nVenous blood carbon dioxide tension\n\nPvCO2 \u2013 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide at sea level in venous blood is between 40 mmHg and 50 mmHg.[9]\n\nCarbon monoxide tension[edit]\n\nArterial carbon monoxide tension (normal)\n\nPaCO \u2013 Partial pressure of CO at sea level (765 mmHg) in arterial blood is approximately 0.02. It can be slightly higher in smokers and people living in dense urban areas.\n\nSignificance[edit]\n\nThe partial pressure of gas in blood is significant because it is directly related to ventilation and oxygenation.[10] When used alongside the pH balance of the blood, the PaCO2 and HCO3 (and Lactate) suggest to the health care practitioner which interventions, if any, should be made.[10][11]\n\nEquations[edit]\n\nOxygen content[edit]\n\nC a O 2 = 1.36 \u2217 H g b \u2217 S a O 2 100 + 0.0031 \u2217 P a O 2 {\\displaystyle C_{a}O_{2}=1.36*Hgb*{\\frac {S_{a}O_{2}}{100}}+0.0031*P_{a}O_{2}} C_{a}O_{2}=1.36*Hgb*{\\frac  {S_{a}O_{2}}{100}}+0.0031*P_{a}O_{2}\n\nThe constant, 1.36, is the amount of oxygen (ml at 1 atmosphere) bound per gram of hemoglobin. The exact value of this constant varies from 1.34 to 1.39, depending on the reference and the way it is derived. The constant 0.0031 represents the amount of oxygen dissolved in plasma. The dissolved-oxygen term is generally small relative to the term for hemoglobin-bound oxygen, but becomes significant at very high PaO2 (as in a hyperbaric chamber) or in severe anemia.[12]\n\nOxygen saturation[edit]\n\nS O 2 = ( 23 , 400 p O 2 3 + 150 p O 2 + 1 ) \u2212 1 {\\displaystyle SO_{2}=({\\frac {23,400}{pO_{2}^{3}+150pO_{2}}}+1)^{-1}} SO_{2}=({\\frac  {23,400}{pO_{2}^{3}+150pO_{2}}}+1)^{{-1}}\n\nThis is an estimation and does not account for differences in temperature, pH and concentrations of 2,3 DPG.[13]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Alveolar air equation\n  \u2022 Fick's laws of diffusion\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Severinghaus JW, Astrup P, Murray JF (1998). \"Blood gas analysis and critical care medicine\". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 157 (4 Pt 2): S114\u201322. PMID\u00a09563770. doi:10.1164\/ajrccm.157.4.nhlb1-9.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Bendjelid K, Sch\u00fctz N, Stotz M, Gerard I, Suter PM, Romand JA (2005). \"Transcutaneous PCO2 monitoring in critically ill adults: clinical evaluation of a new sensor\". Crit Care Med. 33 (10): 2203\u20136. PMID\u00a016215371. doi:10.1097\/01.ccm.0000181734.26070.26.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Yildizda\u015f D, Yapicio\u011flu H, Yilmaz HL, Sertdemir Y (2004). \"Correlation of simultaneously obtained capillary, venous, and arterial blood gases of patients in a paediatric intensive care unit\". Arch Dis Child. 89 (2): 176\u201380. PMC\u00a01719810\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a014736638. doi:10.1136\/adc.2002.016261.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Shapiro BA (1995). \"Temperature correction of blood gas values\". Respir Care Clin N Am. 1 (1): 69\u201376. PMID\u00a09390851.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Malatesha G, Singh NK, Bharija A, Rehani B, Goel A (2007). \"Comparison of arterial and venous pH, bicarbonate, PCO2 and PO2 in initial emergency department assessment\". Emerg Med J. 24 (8): 569\u201371. PMC\u00a02660085\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a017652681. doi:10.1136\/emj.2007.046979.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Chu YC, Chen CZ, Lee CH, Chen CW, Chang HY, Hsiue TR (2003). \"Prediction of arterial blood gas values from venous blood gas values in patients with acute respiratory failure receiving mechanical ventilation\". J Formos Med Assoc. 102 (8): 539\u201343. PMID\u00a014569318.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Walkey AJ, Farber HW, O'Donnell C, Cabral H, Eagan JS, Philippides GJ (2010). \"The accuracy of the central venous blood gas for acid-base monitoring\". J Intensive Care Med. 25 (2): 104\u201310. PMID\u00a020018607. doi:10.1177\/0885066609356164.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Adrogu\u00e9 HJ, Rashad MN, Gorin AB, Yacoub J, Madias NE (1989). \"Assessing acid-base status in circulatory failure. Differences between arterial and central venous blood\". N Engl J Med. 320 (20): 1312\u20136. PMID\u00a02535633. doi:10.1056\/NEJM198905183202004.\u00a0\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Williams AJ (1998). \"ABC of oxygen: assessing and interpreting arterial blood gases and acid-base balance\". BMJ. 317 (7167): 1213\u20136. PMC\u00a01114160\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a09794863. doi:10.1136\/bmj.317.7167.1213.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Hansen JE (1989). \"Arterial blood gases\". Clin Chest Med. 10 (2): 227\u201337. PMID\u00a02661120.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Tobin MJ (1988). \"Respiratory monitoring in the intensive care unit\". Am Rev Respir Dis. 138 (6): 1625\u201342. PMID\u00a03144222. doi:10.1164\/ajrccm\/138.6.1625.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"Oxygen Content\". Retrieved October 7, 2014.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Severinghaus, J. W. (1979). \"Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations\" (PDF). J Appl Physiol. 46 (3): 599\u2013602. PMID\u00a035496.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Blood_gas_tension&oldid=805131789\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Hematology\n  \u2022 Respiratory therapy\n  \u2022 Pulmonology\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 13 October 2017, at 07:57.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5848398952241316926","title":"Scott Joplin","text":"Scott Joplin\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor the biographical film, see Scott Joplin (film). For the painting by Ellen Banks, see Scott Joplin (painting).\nScott Joplin\nScott Joplin 19072.jpg\nScott Joplin in June 1903. This picture also appears on the cover of \"The Cascades\" from 1904.[1]\nBackground information\nBirth name Scott Joplin\nBorn c. late 1867 or 1868 (tombstone says November 24, 1868)\nNortheast Texas, U.S.\nOrigin Texarkana, Texas, U.S.\nDied April 1, 1917(1917-04-01) (aged\u00a048)\nNew York City, New York, U.S.\nGenres\n  \u2022 Ragtime\n  \u2022 march\n  \u2022 waltz\nOccupation(s)\n  \u2022 Composer\n  \u2022 pianist\n  \u2022 music teacher\nInstruments\n  \u2022 Piano\n  \u2022 cornet\n  \u2022 guitar\n  \u2022 mandolin\n  \u2022 violin\n  \u2022 banjo\n  \u2022 vocals\nYears active 1895\u20131917\n\nSignature\n\nSignature of Scott Joplin.svg\n\nScott Joplin (\/\u02c8d\u0292\u0252pl\u026an\/; c. 1867\/68\u00a0or November 24, 1868\u2013 April 1, 1917) was an African-American composer and pianist. Joplin achieved fame for his ragtime compositions and was dubbed the \"King of Ragtime\".[2] During his brief career, he wrote 44 original ragtime pieces, one ragtime ballet, and two operas. One of his first, and most popular pieces, the \"Maple Leaf Rag\", became ragtime's first and most influential hit, and has been recognized as the archetypal rag.[3]\n\nJoplin was born into a musical family of railway laborers in Northeast Texas, and developed his musical knowledge with the help of local teachers. Joplin grew up in Texarkana, where he formed a vocal quartet, and taught mandolin and guitar. During the late 1880s he left his job as a laborer with the railroad, and travelled around the American South as an itinerant musician. He went to Chicago for the World's Fair of 1893, which played a major part in making ragtime a national craze by 1897.\n\nJoplin moved to Sedalia, Missouri, in 1894 and earned a living as a piano teacher; there he taught future ragtime composers Arthur Marshall, Scott Hayden and Brun Campbell. Joplin began publishing music in 1895, and publication of his \"Maple Leaf Rag\" in 1899 brought him fame. This piece had a profound influence on subsequent writers of ragtime. It also brought the composer a steady income for life, though Joplin did not reach this level of success again and frequently had financial problems. In 1901 Joplin moved to St. Louis, where he continued to compose and publish music, and regularly performed in the St. Louis community. The score to his first opera A Guest of Honor was confiscated in 1903 with his belongings because of a non-payment of bills, and is now considered lost.[4] He continued to compose and publish music, and in 1907 moved to New York City to find a producer for a new opera. He attempted to go beyond the limitations of the musical form that made him famous, without much monetary success. His second opera, Treemonisha, was not received well at its partially staged performance in 1915.\n\nIn 1916, Joplin descended into dementia as a result of syphilis. He was admitted to a mental institution in January 1917, and died there three months later at the age of 49. Joplin's death is widely considered to mark the end of ragtime as a mainstream music format, and in the next several years it evolved with other styles into stride, jazz, and eventually big band swing. His music was rediscovered and returned to popularity in the early 1970s with the release of a million-selling album recorded by Joshua Rifkin. This was followed by the Academy Award\u2013winning 1973 movie The Sting that featured several of his compositions including \"The Entertainer\". The opera Treemonisha was finally produced in full to wide acclaim in 1972. In 1976, Joplin was posthumously awarded a Pulitzer Prize.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 Life in the Southern states and Chicago\n  \u2022 3 Life in Missouri\n  \u2022 4 Later years and death\n  \u2022 5 Works\n    \u2022 5.1 Treemonisha\n    \u2022 5.2 Performance skills\n  \u2022 6 Legacy\n    \u2022 6.1 Museum\n  \u2022 7 Revival\n  \u2022 8 Other awards and recognition\n  \u2022 9 Notes\n  \u2022 10 References\n    \u2022 10.1 Bibliography\n      \u2022 10.1.1 Books\n      \u2022 10.1.2 Web-pages\n      \u2022 10.1.3 Journals\n  \u2022 11 External links\n    \u2022 11.1 Recordings and sheet music\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nAccording to author Edward A. Berlin, \"One tenacious myth tells us that Joplin was born in Texarkana, Texas, on November 24, 1868. The location is easily dispensed with: Texarkana was not established until 1873.\" But, based on a letter discovered by musicologist John Tennison in 2015 in the December 19, 1856 edition of the Times-Picayune, it is clear that Texarkana was established as a place-name at least as early as 1856. Consequently, it appears possible that Joplin, born 12 years later, could have been born in Texarkana. Despite evidence to support such a conclusion, some insist that Joplin was born in Linden, Texas, either in late 1867 or early 1868.[5] He was the second of six children (the others being Monroe, Robert, William, Myrtle, and Ossie)[6] born to Giles Joplin, an ex-slave from North Carolina, and Florence Givens, a freeborn African-American woman from Kentucky.[7][8][9]\n\nThe Joplins subsequently moved to Texarkana where Giles worked as a laborer for the railroad and Florence was a cleaner. Joplin's father had played the violin for plantation parties in North Carolina, and his mother sang and played the banjo.[6] Joplin was given a rudimentary musical education by his family and from the age of seven, he was allowed to play the piano while his mother cleaned.[10]\n\nAt some point in the early 1880s, Giles Joplin left the family for another woman. His wife Florence struggled to support her children through domestic work. Biographer Susan Curtis speculated that the mother's support of Joplin's musical education was critical to the parents' separation. Joplin's father wanted the boy to pursue practical employment that would supplement the family income.[11]\n\nAccording to a family friend, the young Joplin was serious and ambitious, studying music and playing the piano after school. While a few local teachers aided him, he received most of his music education from Julius Weiss, a German-born music professor who had immigrated to Texas in the late 1860s and was employed as music tutor to a prominent local business family.[12] Weiss had studied music at university in Germany and was listed in town records as a Professor of music. Impressed by Joplin's talent, and realizing his family's dire straits, Weiss taught him free of charge. He tutored the 11-year-old Joplin until the boy was 16, during which time Weiss introduced him to folk and classical music, including opera. Weiss helped Joplin appreciate music as an \"art as well as an entertainment,\"[13] and helped his mother acquire a used piano. According to Weiss' wife, Lottie, Joplin never forgot Weiss. In his later years, after achieving fame as a composer, Joplin sent his former teacher \"...gifts of money when he was old and ill,\" until Weiss died.[12] At the age of 16, Joplin performed in a vocal quartet with three other boys in and around Texarkana, also playing piano. In addition he taught guitar and mandolin.[13]\n\nLife in the Southern states and Chicago[edit]\n\nIn the late 1880s, having performed at various local events as a teenager, Joplin chose to give up work as a laborer with the railroad and left Texarkana to become a traveling musician.[14] Little is known about his movements at this time, although he is recorded in Texarkana in July 1891 as a member of the Texarkana Minstrels in a performance that happened to be raising money for a monument to Jefferson Davis, President of the Southern Confederacy.[15] He soon discovered, however, that there were few opportunities for black pianists. Churches and brothels were among the few options for steady work. Joplin played pre-ragtime 'jig-piano' in various red-light districts throughout the mid-South, and some claim he was in Sedalia and St. Louis during this time.[16][17]\n\nIn 1893 Joplin was in Chicago for the World's Fair. While in Chicago, he formed his first band playing cornet and began arranging music for the group to perform. Although the World's Fair minimized the involvement of African-Americans, black performers still came to the saloons, caf\u00e9s and brothels that lined the fair. The exposition was attended by 27 million Americans and had a profound effect on many areas of American cultural life, including ragtime. Although specific information is sparse, numerous sources have credited the Chicago World Fair with spreading the popularity of ragtime.[18] Joplin found that his music, as well as that of other black performers, was popular with visitors.[19] By 1897 ragtime had become a national craze in American cities, and was described by the St. Louis Dispatch as \"...a veritable call of the wild, which mightily stirred the pulses of city bred people.\"[20]\n\nLife in Missouri[edit]\n\nMaple Leaf Rag\n1906 recording of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\" by the United States Marine Band. This is the first surviving recording of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\"[21][22][23][24]\n\nProblems playing this file? See media help.\n\nIn 1894 Joplin arrived in Sedalia, Missouri. At first, Joplin stayed with the family of Arthur Marshall, at the time a 13-year-old boy but later one of Joplin's students and a rag-time composer in his own right.[25] There is no record of Joplin having a permanent residence in the town until 1904, as Joplin was making a living as a touring musician.\n\nFront cover of the third edition of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\" sheet music\n\nThere is little precise evidence known about Joplin's activities at this time, although he performed as a solo musician at dances and at the major black clubs in Sedalia, the Black 400 club and the Maple Leaf Club. He performed in the Queen City Cornet Band, and his own six-piece dance orchestra. A tour with his own singing group, the Texas Medley Quartet, gave him his first opportunity to publish his own compositions and it is known that he went to Syracuse, New York and Texas. Two businessmen from New York published Joplin's first two works, the songs \"Please Say You Will\", and \"A Picture of her Face\" in 1895.[26] Joplin's visit to Temple, Texas enabled him to have three pieces published there in 1896, including the \"Great Crush Collision March\", which commemorated a planned train crash on the Missouri\u2013Kansas\u2013Texas Railroad on September 15 that he may have witnessed. The March was described by one of Joplin's biographers as a \"special... early essay in ragtime.\"[27] While in Sedalia he was teaching piano to students who included future ragtime composers Arthur Marshall, Brun Campbell, and Scott Hayden.[28] In turn, Joplin enrolled at the George R. Smith College, where he apparently studied \"...advanced harmony and composition.\" The College records were destroyed in a fire in 1925,[29] and biographer Edward A. Berlin notes that it was unlikely that a small college for African-Americans would be able to provide such a course.[30][31][3]\n\nIn 1899, Joplin married Belle, the sister-in-law of collaborator Scott Hayden. Although there were hundreds of rags in print by the time the \"Maple Leaf Rag\" was published, Joplin was not far behind. His first published rag, \"Original Rags\", had been completed in 1897, the same year as the first ragtime work in print, the \"Mississippi Rag\" by William Krell. The \"Maple Leaf Rag\" was likely to have been known in Sedalia before its publication in 1899; Brun Campbell claimed to have seen the manuscript of the work in around 1898.[32] The exact circumstances that led to the Maple Leaf Rag's publication are unknown, and a number of versions of the event contradict each other. After several unsuccessful approaches to publishers, Joplin signed a contract on August 10, 1899 with John Stillwell Stark, a retailer of musical instruments who later became his most important publisher. The contract stipulated that Joplin would receive a 1% royalty on all sales of the rag, with a minimum sales price of 25 cents.[33] With the inscription \"To the Maple Leaf Club\" prominently visible along the top of at least some editions, it is likely that the rag was named after the Maple Leaf Club, although there is no direct evidence to prove the link, and there were many other possible sources for the name in and around Sedalia at the time.[34]\n\nScott Joplin House in St. Louis, Missouri\n\nThere have been many claims about the sales of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\", for example that Joplin was the first musician to sell 1 million copies of a piece of instrumental music.[3] Joplin's first biographer, Rudi Blesh wrote that during its first six months the piece sold 75,000 copies, and became \"...the first great instrumental sheet music hit in America.\"[35] However, research by Joplin's later biographer Edward A. Berlin demonstrated that this was not the case; the initial print-run of 400 took one year to sell, and under the terms of Joplin's contract with a 1% royalty would have given Joplin an income of $4 (or approximately $115\u00a0at current prices). Later sales were steady, and would have given Joplin an income that would have covered his expenses. In 1909, estimated sales would have given him an income of $600 annually (approximately $15,993\u00a0in current prices).[36]\n\nThe \"Maple Leaf Rag\" did serve as a model for the hundreds of rags to come from future composers, especially in the development of classic ragtime.[37] After the publication of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\", Joplin was soon being described as \"King of rag time writers\", not least by himself[38] on the covers of his own work, such as \"The Easy Winners\" and \"Elite Syncopations\".\n\nAfter the Joplins moved to St. Louis in early 1900, they had a baby daughter who died only a few months after birth. Joplin's relationship with his wife was difficult, as she had no interest in music. They eventually separated and then divorced.[39] About this time, Joplin collaborated with Scott Hayden in the composition of four rags.[40] It was in St. Louis that Joplin produced some of his best-known works, including \"The Entertainer\", \"March Majestic\", and the short theatrical work \"The Ragtime Dance\".\n\nIn June 1904, Joplin married Freddie Alexander of Little Rock, Arkansas, the young woman to whom he had dedicated \"The Chrysanthemum\". She died on September 10, 1904, of complications resulting from a cold, ten weeks after their wedding.[41] Joplin's first work copyrighted after Freddie's death, \"Bethena\", was described by one biographer as \"...an enchantingly beautiful piece that is among the greatest of ragtime waltzes.\"[42]\n\nDuring this time, Joplin created an opera company of 30 people and produced his first opera A Guest of Honor for a national tour. It is not certain how many productions were staged, or even if this was an all-black show or a racially mixed production. During the tour, either in Springfield, Illinois, or Pittsburg, Kansas, someone associated with the company stole the box office receipts. Joplin could not meet the company's payroll or pay for its lodgings at a theatrical boarding house. It is believed that the score for A Guest of Honor was lost and perhaps destroyed because of non-payment of the company's boarding house bill.[43]\n\nLater years and death[edit]\n\nFront cover of the \"Wall Street Rag\" (1909) sheet music\n\nIn 1907, Joplin moved to New York City, which he believed was the best place to find a producer for a new opera. After his move to New York, Joplin met Lottie Stokes, whom he married in 1909.[40] In 1911, unable to find a publisher, Joplin undertook the financial burden of publishing Treemonisha himself in piano-vocal format. In 1915, as a last-ditch effort to see it performed, he invited a small audience to hear it at a rehearsal hall in Harlem. Poorly staged and with only Joplin on piano accompaniment, it was \"a miserable failure\" to a public not ready for \"crude\" black musical forms\u2014so different from the European grand opera of that time.[44] The audience, including potential backers, was indifferent and walked out.[39] Scott writes that \"after a disastrous single performance ... Joplin suffered a breakdown. He was bankrupt, discouraged, and worn out.\" He concludes that few American artists of his generation faced such obstacles: \"Treemonisha went unnoticed and unreviewed, largely because Joplin had abandoned commercial music in favor of art music, a field closed to African Americans.\"[28] In fact, it was not until the 1970s that the opera received a full theatrical staging.\n\nIn 1914, Joplin and Lottie self-published his \"Magnetic Rag\" as the Scott Joplin Music Company, which he had formed the previous December.[45] Biographer Vera Brodsky Lawrence speculates that Joplin was aware of his advancing deterioration due to syphilis and was \"...consciously racing against time.\" In her sleeve notes on the 1992 Deutsche Grammophon release of Treemonisha she notes that he \"...plunged feverishly into the task of orchestrating his opera, day and night, with his friend Sam Patterson standing by to copy out the parts, page by page, as each page of the full score was completed.\"[46]\n\nBy 1916, Joplin was suffering from tertiary syphilis and a resulting descent into insanity.[47][48] In January 1917, he was admitted to Manhattan State Hospital, a mental institution.[49] He died there on April 1 of syphilitic dementia at the age of 49[44][50] and was buried in a pauper's grave that remained unmarked for 57 years. His grave at Saint Michaels Cemetery in East Elmhurst was finally given a marker in 1974, the year The Sting, which showcased his music, won for Best Picture at the Oscars.[51]\n\nWorks[edit]\n\nFurther information: List of compositions by Scott Joplin\nMaple Leaf Rag\n\nThe Entertainer\n\nProblems playing these files? See media help.\n\nThe combination of classical music, the musical atmosphere present around Texarkana (including work songs, gospel hymns, spirituals and dance music) and Joplin's natural ability have been cited as contributing significantly to the invention of a new style that blended African-American musical styles with European forms and melodies, and first became celebrated in the 1890s: ragtime.[11]\n\nWhen Joplin was learning the piano, serious musical circles condemned ragtime because of its association with the vulgar and inane songs \"...cranked out by the tune-smiths of Tin Pan Alley.\"[52] As a composer Joplin refined ragtime, elevating it above the low and unrefined form played by the \"...wandering honky-tonk pianists... playing mere dance music\" of popular imagination.[53] This new art form, the classic rag, combined Afro-American folk music's syncopation and 19th-century European romanticism, with its harmonic schemes and its march-like tempos.[40][54] In the words of one critic, \"Ragtime was basically... an Afro-American version of the polka, or its analog, the Sousa-style march.\"[55] With this as a foundation, Joplin intended his compositions to be played exactly as he wrote them\u00a0\u2013 without improvisation.[28] Joplin wrote his rags as \"classical\" music in miniature form in order to raise ragtime above its \"cheap bordello\" origins and produced work that opera historian Elise Kirk described as, \"... more tuneful, contrapuntal, infectious, and harmonically colorful than any others of his era.\"[16]\n\nSome speculate that Joplin's achievements were influenced by his classically trained German music teacher Julius Weiss, who may have brought a polka rhythmic sensibility from the old country to the 11-year old Joplin.[56] As Curtis put it, \"The educated German could open up the door to a world of learning and music of which young Joplin was largely unaware.\"[52]\n\nJoplin's first and most significant hit, the \"Maple Leaf Rag\", was described as the archetype of the classic rag, and influenced subsequent rag composers for at least 12 years after its initial publication thanks to its rhythmic patterns, melody lines, and harmony,[37] though with the exception of Joseph Lamb, they generally failed to enlarge upon it.[57]\n\nTreemonisha[edit]\n\nTreemonisha (1911)\nMain article: Treemonisha\n\nThe opera's setting is a former slave community in an isolated forest near Joplin's childhood town Texarkana in September 1884. The plot centers on an 18-year-old woman Treemonisha who is taught to read by a white woman, and then leads her community against the influence of conjurers who prey on ignorance and superstition. Treemonisha is abducted and is about to be thrown into a wasps' nest when her friend Remus rescues her. The community realizes the value of education and the liability of their ignorance before choosing her as their teacher and leader.[58][59][60]\n\nJoplin wrote both the score and the libretto for the opera, which largely follows the form of European opera with many conventional arias, ensembles and choruses. In addition the themes of superstition and mysticism evident in Treemonisha are common in the operatic tradition, and certain aspects of the plot echo devices in the work of the German composer Richard Wagner (of which Joplin was aware). A sacred tree Treemonisha sits beneath recalls the tree that Siegmund takes his enchanted sword from in Die Walk\u00fcre, and the retelling of the heroine's origins echos aspects of the opera Siegfried. In addition, African-American folk tales also influence the story\u2014the wasp nest incident is similar to the story of Br'er Rabbit and the briar patch.[61]\n\nTreemonisha is not a ragtime opera\u2014because Joplin employed the styles of ragtime and other black music sparingly, using them to convey \"racial character,\" and to celebrate the music of his childhood at the end of the 19th century. The opera has been seen as a valuable record of rural black music from late 19th century re-created by a \"skilled and sensitive participant.\"[62]\n\nBerlin speculates about parallels between the plot and Joplin's own life. He notes that Lottie Joplin (the composer's third wife) saw a connection between the character Treemonisha's wish to lead her people out of ignorance, and a similar desire in the composer. In addition, it has been speculated that Treemonisha represents Freddie, Joplin's second wife, because the date of the opera's setting was likely to have been the month of her birth.[63]\n\nAt the time of the opera's publication in 1911, the American Musician and Art Journal praised it as, \"...an entirely new form of operatic art.\"[64] Later critics have also praised the opera as occupying a special place in American history, with its heroine, \"...a startlingly early voice for modern civil rights causes, notably the importance of education and knowledge to African American advancement.\"[65] Curtis's conclusion is similar: \"In the end, Treemonisha offered a celebration of literacy, learning, hard work, and community solidarity as the best formula for advancing the race.\"[60] Berlin describes it as a \"...fine opera, certainly more interesting than most operas then being written in the United States,\" but later states that Joplin's own libretto showed the composer, \"...was not a competent dramatist,\" with the book not up to the quality of the music.[66]\n\nAs Rick Benjamin, the founder and director of the Paragon Ragtime Orchestra, found out, Joplin succeeded in performing Treemonisha for paying audiences in Bayonne, New Jersey, in 1913.[67] On 6 December 2011, the centenary of the Joplin piano score's publication, New World Records released an entirely new recording of Treemonisha. August 1984 saw the German premiere of Treemonisha at the Stadttheater Gie\u00dfen.[68] Another performance in Germany, falsely labelling itself as the German premiere, occurred on 25 April 2015 at the Staatsschauspiel Dresden under direction and choreography of Massimo Gerardi\u00a0(de).[69]\n\nPerformance skills[edit]\n\n\"Pleasant Moments\u00a0\u2013 Ragtime Waltz\"\u00a0\u2013 played by Scott Joplin (April 1916)\nAn April 1916 piano roll recording of Scott Joplin. Thought lost until discovered by a collector in New Zealand in 2006.[70]\n\n\"Maple Leaf Rag\"\u00a0\u2013 played by Scott Joplin (June 1916)\nA June 1916 Piano Roll recording of Scott Joplin for The Aeolian Company.\n\nProblems playing these files? See media help.\n\nJoplin's skills as a pianist were described in glowing terms by a Sedalia newspaper in 1898, and fellow ragtime composers Arthur Marshall and Joe Jordan both said that he played the instrument well.[40] However, the son of publisher John Stark stated that Joplin was a rather mediocre pianist and that he composed on paper, rather than at the piano. Artie Matthews recalled the \"delight\" the St. Louis players took in outplaying Joplin.[71]\n\nWhile Joplin never made an audio recording, his playing is preserved on seven piano rolls for use in mechanical player pianos. All seven were made in 1916. Of these, the six released under the Connorized label show evidence of significant editing to correct the performance to strict rhythm and add embellishments,[72] probably by the staff musicians at Connorized.[73] Berlin theorizes that by the time Joplin reached St. Louis, he may have experienced discoordination of the fingers, tremors, and an inability to speak clearly\u2014all symptoms of the syphilis that took his life in 1917.[74] Biographer Blesh described the second roll recording of \"Maple Leaf Rag\" on the UniRecord label from June 1916 as \"...shocking... disorganized and completely distressing to hear.\"[75] While there is disagreement among piano-roll experts as to how much of this is due to the relatively primitive recording and production techniques of the time,[76][77][78][79] Berlin notes that the \"Maple Leaf Rag\" roll was likely to be the truest record of Joplin's playing at the time. The roll, however, may not reflect his abilities earlier in life.[72]\n\nLegacy[edit]\n\n\"Nonpareil\" (1907)\n\nJoplin and his fellow ragtime composers rejuvenated American popular music, fostering an appreciation for African-American music among European-Americans by creating exhilarating and liberating dance tunes. \"Its syncopation and rhythmic drive gave it a vitality and freshness attractive to young urban audiences indifferent to Victorian proprieties ... Joplin's ragtime expressed the intensity and energy of a modern urban America.\"[28]\n\nJoshua Rifkin, a leading Joplin recording artist, wrote, \"A pervasive sense of lyricism infuses his work, and even at his most high-spirited, he cannot repress a hint of melancholy or adversity ... He had little in common with the fast and flashy school of ragtime that grew up after him.\"[80] Joplin historian Bill Ryerson adds that, \"In the hands of authentic practitioners like Joplin, ragtime was a disciplined form capable of astonishing variety and subtlety ... Joplin did for the rag what Chopin did for the mazurka. His style ranged from tones of torment to stunning serenades that incorporated the bolero and the tango.\"[39] Biographer Susan Curtis wrote that Joplin's music had helped to \"revolutionise American music and culture\" by removing Victorian restraint.[81]\n\nComposer and actor Max Morath found it striking that the vast majority of Joplin's work did not enjoy the popularity of the \"Maple Leaf Rag\", because while the compositions were of increasing lyrical beauty and delicate syncopation they remained obscure and unheralded during his lifetime.[57] Joplin apparently realized that his music was ahead of its time: As music historian Ian Whitcomb mentions that Joplin, \"...opined that \"Maple Leaf Rag\" would make him 'King of Ragtime Composers' but he also knew that he would not be a pop hero in his own lifetime. 'When I'm dead twenty-five years, people are going to recognize me,' he told a friend.\" Just over thirty years later he was recognized, and later historian Rudi Blesh wrote a large book about ragtime, which he dedicated to the memory of Joplin.[53]\n\nAlthough he was penniless and disappointed at the end of his life, Joplin set the standard for ragtime compositions and played a key role in the development of ragtime music. And as a pioneer composer and performer, he helped pave the way for young black artists to reach American audiences of both races. After his death, jazz historian Floyd Levin noted: \"Those few who realized his greatness bowed their heads in sorrow. This was the passing of the king of all ragtime writers, the man who gave America a genuine native music.\"[82]\n\nMuseum[edit]\n\nMain article: Scott Joplin House State Historic Site\n\nThe home Joplin rented In St. Louis 1900-1903 was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1976 and was saved from destruction by the local African American community. In 1983, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources made it the first state historic site in Missouri dedicated to the African American heritage. At first it focused entirely on Joplin and ragtime music, ignoring the urban milieu which shaped his musical compositions. A newer heritage project has expanded coverage to include the more complex social history of black urban migration and the transformation of a multi-ethnic neighborhood to the contemporary community. Part of this diverse narrative now includes coverage of uncomfortable topics of racial oppression, poverty, sanitation, prostitution, and sexually transmitted diseases.[83]\n\nRevival[edit]\n\nAfter his death in 1917, Joplin's music and ragtime in general waned in popularity as new forms of musical styles, such as jazz and novelty piano, emerged. Even so, jazz bands and recording artists such as Tommy Dorsey in 1936, Jelly Roll Morton in 1939 and J. Russell Robinson in 1947 released recordings of Joplin compositions. \"Maple Leaf Rag\" was the Joplin piece found most often on 78 rpm records.[84]\n\nIn the 1960s, a small-scale reawakening of interest in classical ragtime was underway among some American music scholars such as Trebor Tichenor, William Bolcom, William Albright and Rudi Blesh. Audiophile Records released a two record set, The Complete Piano Works of Scott Joplin, The Greatest of Ragtime Composers, performed by Knocky Parker, in 1970.[85]\n\nIn 1968, Bolcom and Albright interested Joshua Rifkin, a young musicologist, in the body of Joplin's work. Together, they hosted an occasional ragtime-and-early-jazz evening on WBAI radio.[86] In November 1970, Rifkin released a recording called Scott Joplin: Piano Rags[87] on the classical label Nonesuch. It sold 100,000 copies in its first year and eventually became Nonesuch's first million-selling record.[88] The Billboard \"Best-Selling Classical LPs\" chart for September 28, 1974 has the record at number 5, with the follow-up \"Volume 2\" at number 4, and a combined set of both volumes at number 3. Separately both volumes had been on the chart for 64 weeks. In the top seven spots on that chart, six of the entries were recordings of Joplin's work, three of which were Rifkin's.[89] Record stores found themselves for the first time putting ragtime in the classical music section. The album was nominated in 1971 for two Grammy Award categories: Best Album Notes and Best Instrumental Soloist Performance (without orchestra). Rifkin was also under consideration for a third Grammy for a recording not related to Joplin, but at the ceremony on March 14, 1972, Rifkin did not win in any category.[90] He did a tour in 1974, which included appearances on BBC Television and a sell-out concert at London's Royal Festival Hall.[91] In 1979 Alan Rich in the New York Magazine wrote that by giving artists like Rifkin the opportunity to put Joplin's music on disk Nonesuch Records \"...created, almost alone, the Scott Joplin revival.\"[92]\n\nIn January 1971, Harold C. Schonberg, music critic at The New York Times, having just heard the Rifkin album, wrote a featured Sunday edition article entitled \"Scholars, Get Busy on Scott Joplin!\"[93] Schonberg's call to action has been described as the catalyst for classical music scholars, the sort of people Joplin had battled all his life, to conclude that Joplin was a genius.[94] Vera Brodsky Lawrence of the New York Public Library published a two-volume set of Joplin works in June 1971, entitled The Collected Works of Scott Joplin, stimulating a wider interest in the performance of Joplin's music.\n\nIn mid-February 1973 under the direction of Gunther Schuller, The New England Conservatory Ragtime Ensemble recorded an album of Joplin's rags taken from the period collection Standard High-Class Rags called Joplin: The Red Back Book. The album won a Grammy Award as Best Chamber Music Performance in that year, and went on to become Billboard magazine's Top Classical Album of 1974.[95] The group subsequently recorded two more albums for Golden Crest Records: More Scott Joplin Rags in 1974 and The Road From Rags To Jazz in 1975.\n\nIn 1973, film producer George Roy Hill contacted Schuller and Rifkin separately, asking each man to write the score for a film project he was working on: The Sting. Both men turned down the request because of previous commitments. Instead Hill found Marvin Hamlisch available, and brought him into the project as composer.[96] Hamlisch lightly adapted Joplin's music for The Sting, for which he won an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and Adaptation on April 2, 1974.[97] His version of \"The Entertainer\" reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and the American Top 40 music chart on May 18, 1974,[98][99] prompting The New York Times to write, \"The whole nation has begun to take notice.\"[91] Thanks to the film and its score, Joplin's work became appreciated in both the popular and classical music world, becoming (in the words of music magazine Record World), the \"classical phenomenon of the decade.\"[100] Rifkin later said of the film soundtrack that Hamlisch lifted his piano adaptations directly from Rifkin's style and his band adaptations from Schuller's style.[96] Schuller said Hamlisch, \"...got the Oscar for music he didn't write (since it is by Joplin) and arrangements he didn't write, and 'editions' he didn't make. A lot of people were upset by that, but that's show biz!\"[96]\n\nOn October 22, 1971, excerpts from Treemonisha were presented in concert form at Lincoln Center with musical performances by Bolcom, Rifkin and Mary Lou Williams supporting a group of singers.[101] Finally, on January 28, 1972, T.J. Anderson's orchestration of Treemonisha was staged for two consecutive nights, sponsored by the Afro-American Music Workshop of Morehouse College in Atlanta, with singers accompanied by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra[102] under the direction of Robert Shaw, and choreography by Katherine Dunham. Schonberg remarked in February 1972 that the \"Scott Joplin Renaissance\" was in full swing and still growing.[103] In May 1975, Treemonisha was staged in a full opera production by the Houston Grand Opera. The company toured briefly, then settled into an eight-week run in New York on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in October and November. This appearance was directed by Gunther Schuller, and soprano Carmen Balthrop alternated with Kathleen Battle as the title character.[102] An \"original Broadway cast\" recording was produced. Because of the lack of national exposure given to the brief Morehouse College staging of the opera in 1972, many Joplin scholars wrote that the Houston Grand Opera's 1975 show was the first full production.[101]\n\n1974 saw the Royal Ballet, under director Kenneth MacMillan, create Elite Syncopations a ballet based on tunes by Joplin and other composers of the era.[104] That year also brought the premiere by the Los Angeles Ballet of Red Back Book, choreographed by John Clifford to Joplin rags from the collection of the same name, including both solo piano performances and arrangements for full orchestra.\n\nIn 2016, Scott Joplin appeared as a character in the second season of the Comedy Central show Another Period, portrayed by Cedric the Entertainer.\n\nOther awards and recognition[edit]\n\n  \u2022 1970: Joplin was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame by the National Academy of Popular Music.[105]\n  \u2022 1976: Joplin was awarded a special Pulitzer Prize, \"...bestowed posthumously in this Bicentennial Year, for his contributions to American music.\"[106]\n  \u2022 1977: Motown Productions produced Scott Joplin, a biographical film starring Billy Dee Williams as Joplin, released by Universal Pictures.[107]\n  \u2022 1983: the United States Postal Service issued a stamp of the composer as part of its Black Heritage commemorative series.[108]\n  \u2022 1989: Joplin received a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.[109]\n  \u2022 2002: a collection of Joplin's own performances recorded on piano rolls in the 1900s (decade) was included by the National Recording Preservation Board in the Library of Congress National Recording Registry.[110] The board annually selects songs that are \"...culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 121\n  2. Jump up ^ Joplin, Scott (1899). Maple Leaf Rag (2nd edition) (sheet music cover). John Stark. p.\u00a01.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c Edwards 2008.\n  4. Jump up ^ Berlin, Edward A. \"Scott Joplin: Brief Biographical Sketch\". Berlin. Retrieved April 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Berlin, Edward A. \"Scott Joplin: Brief Biographical Sketch\". Retrieved May 3, 2009.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Jasen, David A. (2007). Ragtime: An Encyclopedia, Discography, and Sheetography. New York: Taylor & Francis. p.\u00a0109. ISBN\u00a0978-0-415-97862-0. Retrieved 2013-02-24.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Jasen & Tichenor (1978) p. 82.\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Scott Joplin\". Texas Music History Online. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved November 22, 2006.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Kirchner (2005) p. 32.\n  10. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 6.\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Curtis (2004) p. 38.\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b Albrecht (1979) pp. 89\u2013105.\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Berlin (1994) pp. 7\u20138.\n  14. Jump up ^ Christensen (1999) p. 442\n  15. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 9\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Kirk (2001) p. 190.\n  17. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 8\u20139\n  18. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 11\u201312.\n  19. Jump up ^ Christensen (1999) p. 442.\n  20. Jump up ^ St. Louis Dispatch, quoted in Scott & Rutkoff (2001) p. 36\n  21. Jump up ^ Jasen (1981) p. 319\u2013320.\n  22. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 131\u2013132.\n  23. Jump up ^ Edwards 2010.\n  24. Jump up ^ RedHotJazz.\n  25. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 24\u201325.\n  26. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 25\u201327.\n  27. Jump up ^ Blesh (1981) p. xviii.\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Scott & Rutkoff (2001) p. 37\n  29. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 19\n  30. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 31\u201334\n  31. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 27.\n  32. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 47, 52.\n  33. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 56, 58.\n  34. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 62.\n  35. Jump up ^ Blesh (1981)p. xxiii.\n  36. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 56, 58.\n  37. ^ Jump up to: a b Blesh (1981) p. xxiii.\n  38. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 128.\n  39. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ryerson (1973)\n  40. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Jasen & Tichenor (1978) p. 88\n  41. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p.142\n  42. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 149.\n  43. Jump up ^ \"Profile of Scott Joplin\". Classical.net. Retrieved November 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Kirk (2001) p. 191.\n  45. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 226, 230.\n  46. Jump up ^ Vera Brodsky Lawrence, Sleeve notes to 1992 Deutsche Grammophon release of Treemonisha, quoted in Kirk (2001) p. 191.\n  47. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 239.\n  48. Jump up ^ Walsh, Michael (September 19, 1994). \"American Schubert\". Time. Retrieved November 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ Berlin 1998.\n  50. Jump up ^ Scott & Rutkoff (2001) p. 38.\n  51. Jump up ^ John Chancellor (October 3, 1974). \"Vanderbilt Television News Archive summary\". Vanderbilt Television News Archive. Retrieved December 17, 2011.\u00a0\n  52. ^ Jump up to: a b Curtis (2004) p. 37.\n  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Whitcomb (1986) p. 24.\n  54. Jump up ^ Davis (1995)pp. 67\u201368.\n  55. Jump up ^ Williams (1987)\n  56. Jump up ^ Tennison, John. \"History of Boogie Woogie\". Chapter 15. Retrieved October 4, 2009.\u00a0\n  57. ^ Jump up to: a b Kirchner (2005) p. 33.\n  58. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 203.\n  59. Jump up ^ Crawford (2001) p. 545.\n  60. ^ Jump up to: a b Christensen (1999) p. 444.\n  61. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 203\u2013204.\n  62. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 202, 204.\n  63. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 207\u2013208.\n  64. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) p. 202.\n  65. Jump up ^ Kirk (2001) p. 194.\n  66. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 202\u2013203.\n  67. Jump up ^ Barrymore Laurence Scherer (6 December 2011). \"Opera Treemonisha as It Was Intended To Be\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 26 April 2015.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ Nancy R. Ping Robbins, Guy Marco: Scott Joplin: A Guide to Research. Routledge, 2014, p. 299\n  69. Jump up ^ \"Treemonisha Oper mit getanzten Szenen\". Staatsschauspiel Dresden. Retrieved 26 April 2015.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ \"Pianola.co.nz\". Retrieved April 20, 2009.\u00a0\n  71. Jump up ^ Jasen & Tichenor (1978) p. 86.\n  72. ^ Jump up to: a b Berlin (1994) p. 237.\n  73. Jump up ^ \"List of Piano Roll Artists\". Pianola. Retrieved July 31, 2010.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ Berlin (1994) pp. 237, 239.\n  75. Jump up ^ Blesh (1981) p.xxxix.\n  76. Jump up ^ Siepmann (1998) p. 36.\n  77. Jump up ^ Philip (1998) pp. 77\u201378.\n  78. Jump up ^ Howat (1986) p. 160.\n  79. Jump up ^ McElhone (2004) p. 26.\n  80. Jump up ^ Rifkin, Joshua. Scott Joplin Piano Rags, Nonesuch Records (1970) album cover\n  81. Jump up ^ Curtis (2004) p. 1.\n  82. Jump up ^ Levin (2002) p. 197.\n  83. Jump up ^ Timothy Baumann, et al. \"Interpreting Uncomfortable History at the Scott Joplin House State Historic Site in St. Louis, Missouri.\" The public historian 33.2 (2011): 37-66. online\n  84. Jump up ^ Jasen (1981) pp. 319\u2013320.\n  85. Jump up ^ The Complete Piano Works of Scott Joplin, The Greatest of Ragtime Composers, John W. (Knocky) Parker, piano. Audiophile Records (1970) AP 71\u201372\n  86. Jump up ^ Waldo (1976) pp. 179\u2013182.\n  87. Jump up ^ \"Scott Joplin Piano Rags Nonesuch Records CD (with bonus tracks)\". Retrieved March 19, 2009.\u00a0\n  88. Jump up ^ \"Nonesuch Records\". Retrieved March 19, 2009.\u00a0\n  89. Jump up ^ Billboard Magazine 1974a, p.\u00a061..\n  90. Jump up ^ \"Entertainment Awards Database\". LA Times. Retrieved March 17, 2009.\u00a0\n  91. ^ Jump up to: a b Kronenberger, John (August 11, 1974). \"The Ragtime Revival \u2013 A Belated Ode to Composer Scott Joplin\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  92. Jump up ^ Rich 1979, p.\u00a081..\n  93. Jump up ^ Schonberg, Harold C. (January 24, 1971). \"Scholars, Get Busy on Scott Joplin!\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 20, 2009.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ Waldo (1976) p. 184.\n  95. Jump up ^ Billboard Magazine & December 26, 1974, pp.\u00a04,34..\n  96. ^ Jump up to: a b c Waldo (1976) p. 187.\n  97. Jump up ^ \"Entertainment Awards Database\". LA Times. Retrieved March 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  98. Jump up ^ \"Charis Music Group, compilation of cue sheets from the American Top 40 radio Show\" (PDF). Retrieved September 5, 2009.\u00a0\n  99. Jump up ^ Billboard Magazine 1974b, p.\u00a064.\n  100. Jump up ^ Record World Magazine July 1974, quoted in Berlin (1994) p. 251.\n  101. ^ Jump up to: a b Ping-Robbins 1998, p.\u00a0289.\n  102. ^ Jump up to: a b Peterson, Bernard L. (1993). A century of musicals in black and white. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p.\u00a0357. ISBN\u00a00-313-26657-3. Retrieved March 20, 2009.\u00a0\n  103. Jump up ^ Schonberg, Harold C. (February 13, 1972). \"The Scott Joplin Renaissance Grows\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 20, 2009.\u00a0\n  104. Jump up ^ \"Birmingham Royal Ballet\". Retrieved September 6, 2009.\u00a0\n  105. Jump up ^ \"Songwriters Hall of Fame\". Retrieved March 17, 2009.\u00a0\n  106. Jump up ^ \"Special Awards and Citations\". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved March 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ IMDB.com.\n  108. Jump up ^ ESPER.\n  109. Jump up ^ St. Louis Walk of Fame. \"St. Louis Walk of Fame Inductees\". stlouiswalkoffame.org. Retrieved 25 April 2013.\u00a0\n  110. Jump up ^ \"2002 National Recording Registry from the National Recording Preservation Board of the Library of Congress\". Library of Congress. Retrieved September 6, 2009.\u00a0\n\nReferences[edit]\n\nBibliography[edit]\n\nBooks[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Blesh, Rudi (1981). \"Scott Joplin: Black-American Classicist\". In Lawrence, Vera Brodsky. Scott Joplin Complete Piano Works. New York Public Library. ISBN\u00a00-87104-272-X.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Berlin, Edward A. (1994). King of Ragtime: Scott Joplin and His Era. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-510108-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Crawford, Richard (2001). America's Musical Life: A History. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN\u00a00-393-04810-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Curtis, Susan (1999). Christensen, Lawrence O, ed. Dictionary of Missouri Biography. Univ. of Missouri Press. ISBN\u00a00-8262-1222-0. Retrieved October 2, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Curtis, Susan (2004). Dancing to a Black Man's Tune: A Life of Scott Joplin. Univ. of Missouri Press. ISBN\u00a00-8262-1547-5.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Davis, Francis (1995). The History of the Blues:The Roots, the Music, the People. Hyperion. ISBN\u00a00-306-81296-7.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Gioia, Ted (1997). The History of Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-509081-0.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Haskins, James (1978). Scott Joplin. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. ISBN\u00a00-385-11155-X.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Howat, Roy (1986). Debussy in Proportion: A Musical Analysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-31145-4. Retrieved April 17, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Jasen, David A.; Trebor Jay Tichenor (1978). Rags and Ragtime: A Musical History. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. p.\u00a088. ISBN\u00a00-486-25922-6.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Jasen, David A. (1981). \"Discography of 78 rpm Records of Joplin Works\". In Lawrence, Vera Brodsky. Scott Joplin Complete Piano Works. New York Public Library. ISBN\u00a00-87104-272-X.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Kirk, Elise Kuhl (2001). American Opera. Univ. of Illinois Press. ISBN\u00a00-252-02623-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Lawrence, Vera Brodsky, ed. (1971). Scott Joplin Complete Piano Works. New York Public Library. ISBN\u00a00-87104-242-8.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Levin, Floyd (2002). Classic Jazz: A Personal View of the Music and the Musicians. Univ. of California Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-520-23463-5.\u00a0\n  \u2022 MaGee, Jeffrey (1998). \"Ragtime and Early Jazz\". In David Nicholls (ed.). The Cambridge History of American Music. New York: The Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-45429-8.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)\n  \u2022 McElhone, Kevin (2004). Mechanical Music (2 ed.). Osprey Publishing. ISBN\u00a00-7478-0578-4. Retrieved April 16, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Morath, Max (2005). Kirchner, Bill, ed. The Oxford Companion to Jazz. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-518359-2.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Palmer, Tony (1976). All You Need Is Love \/The Story Of Popular Music. Book Club Associates. ISBN\u00a0978-0-670-11448-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Philip, Robert (1998). Rowland, David, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Piano. Cambridge Companions to Music (Illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a00-521-47986-X. Retrieved April 17, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Scott, William B.; Rutkoff, Peter M (2001). New York Modern: The Arts and the City. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. ISBN\u00a00-8018-6793-2.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Ping-Robbins, Nancy R. (1998). Scott Joplin: a guide to research. p.\u00a0289. ISBN\u00a00-8240-8399-7. Retrieved March 20, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Siepmann, Jeremy (1998). The Piano: The Complete Illustrated Guide to the World's Most Popular Musical Instrument. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN\u00a00-7935-9976-8.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Ryerson, Bill; Joplin, Scott (1973). Best of Scott Joplin: a Collection of Original Ragtime Piano Compositions. C. Hansen Music and Books. ISBN\u00a00-8494-0581-5.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Waldo, Terry (1976). This Is Ragtime. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc. ISBN\u00a00-8015-7618-0.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Waterman, Guy (1985a). \"Ragtime\". In J.E. Hasse (ed.). Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music. New York: Shirmer Books. ISBN\u00a00-02-871650-7.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)\n  \u2022 Waterman, Guy (1985b). \"Joplin's Late Rags: An Analysis\". In J.E. Hasse (ed.). Ragtime: Its History, Composers, and Music. New York: Shirmer Books. ISBN\u00a00-02-871650-7.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)\n  \u2022 Whitomb, Ian (1986). After the Ball. Hal Leonard Corp. ISBN\u00a00-87910-063-X.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Williams, Martin (1959). The Art of Jazz: Ragtime to Bebop. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a00-306-80134-5.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Williams, Martin, ed. (1987). The Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN\u00a00-393-99342-6.\u00a0\n\nWeb-pages[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Berlin, Edward A. (2012). \"Scott Joplin: Brief Biographical Sketch\". Edward A. Berlin. Retrieved April 3, 2012.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Berlin, Edward A. (1998). \"A Biography of Scott Joplin\". The Scott Joplin International Ragtime Foundation. Retrieved November 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Edwards, \"Perfessor\" Bill (2008). \"Rags & Pieces by Scott Joplin, 1895\u20131905\". Retrieved November 14, 2009.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Edwards, \"Perfessor\" Bill (2010). \"\"Perfessor\" Bill's guide to notable Ragtime Era Composers\". Retrieved July 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 ESPER. \"Black Heritage Stamp issues\". Ebony Society of Philatelic Reflections, Inc. Retrieved August 17, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 IMDB.com. \"Listing for Scott Joplin (TV 1977)\". IMDB.com, Inc. Retrieved August 16, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 RedHotJazz. \"Wilbur Sweatman and His Band\". Retrieved July 25, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 St. Louis Walk of Fame. \"Inductees to the St. Louis Walk of Fame\". St. Louis Walk of Fame. Retrieved August 17, 2011.\u00a0\n\nJournals[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Albrecht, Theodore (1979). Julius Weiss: Scott Joplin's First Piano Teacher. 19. Case Western Univ. College Music Symposium. pp.\u00a089\u2013105.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Billboard Magazine (1974a). \"Best Selling Classical LPs\". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. (September 28, 1974): 61. Retrieved July 29, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Billboard Magazine (1974b). \"Hot 100\". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. (May 18, 1974): 64. Retrieved August 5, 2011.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Rich, Alan (1979). \"Music\". New York Magazine. New York Media LLC (December 24, 1979): 81. Retrieved August 5, 2011.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nFind more aboutScott Joplinat Wikipedia's sister projects\n  \u2022 Media from Commons\n  \u2022 Quotations from Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Texts from Wikisource\n  \u2022 Texas State Historical Association\u00a0\u2013 Biography of Scott Joplin\n  \u2022 The Scott Joplin International Ragtime Foundation\n  \u2022 Joplin at St. Louis Walk of Fame\n  \u2022 \"Perfessor\" Bill Edwards plays Joplin, with anecdotes and research.\n  \u2022 Maple Leaf Rag A site dedicated to 100 years of the Maple Leaf Rag.\n  \u2022 The Scott Joplin House\u00a0\u2013 St. Louis, Missouri\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin at Find a Grave\n  \u2022 Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin at Library of Congress Authorities, with 276 catalog records\n\nRecordings and sheet music[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Free recordings of Joplin's music in Mp3 format by various pianists at PianoSociety.com\n  \u2022 www.kreusch-sheet-music.net\u00a0\u2013 Free scores by Joplin\n  \u2022 Sheet Music and Covers (includes cover art, comprehensive sheet music selection, and biography)\n  \u2022 Free scores by Scott Joplin at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)\n  \u2022 Kunst der Fuge: Scott Joplin\u00a0\u2013 MIDI files (live and piano-rolls recordings)\n  \u2022 John Roache's site has MIDI performances of ragtime music by Joplin and others\n  \u2022 The Mutopia Project has compositions by Scott Joplin\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPulitzer Prize Special Citations and Awards (Arts)\n  \u2022 Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II for Oklahoma! (1944)\n  \u2022 Roger Sessions (1974)\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin (1976)\n  \u2022 Milton Babbitt (1982)\n  \u2022 William Schuman (1985)\n  \u2022 George Gershwin (1998)\n  \u2022 Duke Ellington (1999)\n  \u2022 Thelonious Monk (2006)\n  \u2022 John Coltrane (2007)\n  \u2022 Bob Dylan (2008)\n  \u2022 Hank Williams (2010)\n  \u2022 Complete list\n  \u2022 (Journalism)\n  \u2022 (Letters)\n  \u2022 (Arts)\n  \u2022 (Service)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nScott Joplin\n  \u2022 Compositions\nPiano rags\n  \u2022 \"Original Rags\" (1899)\n  \u2022 \"Maple Leaf Rag\" (1899)\n  \u2022 \"The Easy Winners\" (1901)\n  \u2022 \"Elite Syncopations\" (1902)\n  \u2022 \"The Entertainer\" (1902)\n  \u2022 \"The Ragtime Dance\" (1902\/1906)\n  \u2022 \"Weeping Willow\" (1903)\n  \u2022 \"Searchlight Rag\" (1907)\n  \u2022 \"Wall Street Rag\" (1909)\n  \u2022 \"Silver Swan Rag\" (1914\/1971)\n  \u2022 \"Magnetic Rag\" (1914)\nOperas and other music\n  \u2022 A Guest of Honor (1903)\n  \u2022 Bethena (1905)\n  \u2022 Treemonisha (1911)\nCollaborations\n  \u2022 \"Swipesy Cakewalk\" (1900)\n  \u2022 \"Sunflower Slow Drag\" (1901)\n  \u2022 \"Heliotrope Bouquet\" (1907)\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 The Sting (1973)\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin: Piano Rags (1970)\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin (1977)\n  \u2022 P vip.svgBiography portal\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 56796614\n  \u2022 LCCN: n50039880\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0001 0904 5211\n  \u2022 GND: 119174030\n  \u2022 SUDOC: 060341742\n  \u2022 BNF: cb13895753j (data)\n  \u2022 MusicBrainz: aec8a328-d2e8-4780-b2ea-318c7f8d6f75\n  \u2022 NDL: 00756299\n  \u2022 ICCU: IT\\ICCU\\CFIV\\040245\n  \u2022 BNE: XX1114220\n  \u2022 IATH: w6mc959q\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Scott_Joplin&oldid=804713980\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Scott Joplin\n  \u2022 1860s births\n  \u2022 1868 births\n  \u2022 1917 deaths\n  \u2022 19th-century American pianists\n  \u2022 19th-century classical composers\n  \u2022 19th-century classical pianists\n  \u2022 20th-century American pianists\n  \u2022 20th-century classical composers\n  \u2022 20th-century classical pianists\n  \u2022 African-American classical composers\n  \u2022 African-American classical musicians\n  \u2022 African-American classical pianists\n  \u2022 African-American opera composers\n  \u2022 American classical composers\n  \u2022 American classical musicians\n  \u2022 American male classical composers\n  \u2022 American music educators\n  \u2022 American Romantic composers\n  \u2022 Composers for piano\n  \u2022 Deaths from syphilis\n  \u2022 Male opera composers\n  \u2022 Musicians from Missouri\n  \u2022 Musicians from St. Louis\n  \u2022 Musicians from Texas\n  \u2022 People from Sedalia, Missouri\n  \u2022 People from Texarkana, Texas\n  \u2022 Pulitzer Prize winners\n  \u2022 Ragtime composers\n  \u2022 Ragtime pianists\n  \u2022 Songwriters Hall of Fame inductees\n  \u2022 Texas classical music\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from October 2012\n  \u2022 Use American English from April 2017\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Interlanguage link template link number\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list\n  \u2022 Find a Grave template with ID same as Wikidata\n  \u2022 Composers with IMSLP links\n  \u2022 Articles with International Music Score Library Project links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with SBN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n  \u2022 Wikisource\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 Papiamentu\n  \u2022 Piemont\u00e8is\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u015al\u016fnski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 10 October 2017, at 17:58.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"8601831956859178509","title":"The Perfect Mate","text":"This is a good article. Follow the link for more information.\n\nThe Perfect Mate\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"The Perfect Mate\"\nStar Trek: The Next Generation episode\nST-TNG The Perfect Mate.jpg\nThe make up designed for Famke Janssen as Kamala (pictured left) was later used on Terry Farrell in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\nEpisode no. Season\u00a05\nEpisode 21\nDirected by Cliff Bole\nStory by Ren\u00e9 Echevarria\nGary Percante\nTeleplay by Gary Percante\nMichael Piller\nFeatured music Jay Chattaway\nProduction code 221\nOriginal air date April\u00a027,\u00a01992\u00a0(1992-04-27)\nGuest appearance(s)\n  \u2022 Famke Janssen \u2013 Kamala\n  \u2022 Tim O'Connor \u2013 Briam\n  \u2022 Max Grod\u00e9nchik \u2013 Par Lenor\n  \u2022 Mickey Cottrell \u2013 Alrik\n  \u2022 Michael Snyder \u2013 Qol\n  \u2022 David Paul Needles \u2013 Miner #1\n  \u2022 Roger Rignack \u2013 Miner #2\n  \u2022 Charles Gunning \u2013 Miner #3\n  \u2022 April Grace \u2013 Transporter Officer\n  \u2022 Majel Barrett \u2013 Computer Voice[1]\nEpisode chronology\n\u2190\u00a0Previous\n\"Cost of Living\"\nNext\u00a0\u2192\n\"Imaginary Friend\"\nList of Star Trek: The Next Generation episodes\n\n\"The Perfect Mate\" is the 21st episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, the 121st overall. The episode was credited to Gary Percante and Michael Piller from a story by Percante and Ren\u00e9 Echevarria. Percante was a pseudonym of Rueben Leder, which was used by the writer in protest against re-writes. Four endings were written, with two filmed. \"The Perfect Mate\" was directed by Cliff Bole.\n\nSet in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise. In this episode, Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) develops feelings for Kamala (Famke Janssen), a woman destined from childhood for an arranged marriage which hopefully might end a war between two planets. Picard steps in to help in the peace ceremony and later gives Kamala away at her wedding.\n\nThe episode was the second acting job for former model Janssen, and she would subsequently turn down the offer to join the main cast in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Her makeup seen in \"The Perfect Mate\" would end up being used on Jadzia Dax in that series. Also appearing was Max Grod\u00e9nchik, who would go on to play Rom in Deep Space Nine. \"The Perfect Mate\" received Nielsen ratings of 10.8 percent, and received a mixed reception from reviewers, with criticism directed at the presentation of Kamala and the Ferengi, while Janssen was subsequently praised.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Production\n    \u2022 2.1 Writing\n    \u2022 2.2 Casting\n  \u2022 3 Themes\n  \u2022 4 Reception\n  \u2022 5 Home media release\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 Notes\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nKriosian ambassador Briam (Tim O'Connor) comes on board the Enterprise with some cargo, ready for a peace ceremony with the Valtian. As the ship heads to the rendezvous, they save two Ferengi from a failing ship. Despite security being assigned, the Ferengi enter the cargo bay and deactivate the stasis field on Briam's cargo, revealing a young Kriosian woman named Kamala (Famke Janssen). With the Ferengi secured, it is revealed that she is an empathic metamorph who can sense what males around her desire and react appropriately. She was being brought as an arranged marriage to the Valtian representative. Kamala is generating pheromones that can affect males around her, which was why she was kept in stasis until the ceremony.\n\nBriam tells Kamala to stay in her quarters, but Captain Picard allows her to travel throughout the ship, with the unaffected Lt. Commander Data (Brent Spiner) as her escort. This results in a fight nearly breaking out in Ten Forward, when Kamala begins to interact with several miners. The Ferengi seek to bribe Briam to turn Kamala over to them, but he rejects their offer. As he leaves, they attack him, causing him to fall, hit his head, and lose consciousness. The Enterprise turns the Ferengi over to the nearest starbase to stand trial, but Briam is unable to participate in the ceremony. Kamala helps Picard to take on Briam's role, and the two become close. He seeks to resist her abilities and tells her to be herself, and she explains that the woman he wants her to be is who she actually is.\n\nThey meet with the Valtian ambassador, Chancellor Alrik (Mickey Cottrell), who is uninterested in the marriage and wants to pursue trade agreements. With the arrangements made, Picard visits Kamala to say goodbye; she tells him that she has permanently bonded with him instead of Alrik. Kamala explains that he has changed her for the better, and will continue in her duty for her people to marry Alrik. At the wedding ceremony, Picard escorts Kamala down the aisle and watches as she marries another. After the newlyweds have returned to the planet, Picard says goodbye to Briam in the transporter room. When asked how he resisted Kamala, the expression on Picard's face reveals how much of a struggle it has been and how much he feels he has lost.\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nWriting[edit]\n\nThe story for \"The Perfect Mate\" was created by Ren\u00e9 Echevarria and Rueben Leder and then written as a teleplay by Leder and executive producer Michael Piller.[1] A great deal of edits were made to the script by a number of staff members, and Piller felt that it was a difficult one due to the subject matter. As Piller explained to Echevarria in a memo, he felt that Kamala had to be a well-rounded character which would be loved by the viewer in order for the episode to work.[2]\n\nFellow executive producer Rick Berman recalled heated discussions over the content of the script,[2] and following re-writes to the draft, Leder elected to be credited only under the pseudonym Gary Percante. This was the only time during Piller's tenure as executive producer that a writer chose to be credited under a pseudonym. Piller subsequently praised the episode, saying \"We have Beverly argue the point that Kamala's mission amounts to prostitution, and we have Picard taking the other tack; that whether or not we approve, we can't change or interfere with the way these people are. And if you accept [Gene] Roddenberry's vision, which we are built on, you have to respect that.\"[3]\n\nTwo of the scenes seen in \"The Perfect Mate\" built upon references in earlier episodes. The morning meeting over tea between Picard and Crusher seen here was previously mentioned in \"Qpid\", while in \"Family\" there was the mention of Picard taking piano lessons as a child. In \"The Perfect Mate\", he relates that these were only briefly taken because his mother wanted him to.[3] Four endings were written for the episode, with two filmed. Piller preferred a \"trick ending\" in which Picard daydreamed of objecting to the wedding, but ultimately with Kamala rejecting both him and Alrik having been enlightened by Picard's influence.[2]\n\nCasting[edit]\n\nA headshot of a Caucasian woman with brown hair.\nFamke Janssen had worked as a model before appearing in \"The Perfect Mate\".\n\nPrior to working on The Next Generation, Famke Janssen had worked as a model in Europe for seven years.[4] Her first acting role was on the television series Fathers and Sons, with Star Trek representing her second acting performance.[5] Two days after auditioning for the role of Kamala, she was on set filming the episode.[4] She later described how this did not give a great deal of time to prepare for the role, and that new script pages would be delivered on a daily basis through the seven day shoot which she found difficult due to her lack of fluency in English at the time.[4][5] However, she said the cast were friendly and described them as a \"family\". Regarding the make-up, she said that on the first day they created a stencil through which they applied the spots on the following six days. Janssen said that Kamala was \"very intelligent and educated\".[4] Berman described Janssen as \"about as beautiful as any woman any of us have ever seen and she gave a delightful performance\".[2]\n\nFollowing her appearance in the episode, Janssen was offered a five-year contract to appear in the main cast as Jadzia Dax on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine but turned it down as she did not want to be tied to a long term series contract,[4] and felt it would have made her lazy as an actor. The makeup worn by Janssen was used on the actress cast in that part, Terry Farrell, although without stencilling.[6] This was as a result of Berman's rejection of the original Trill makeup from \"The Host\", with Kamala's makeup suggested as a replacement.[7] At the time of an interview with Starlog magazine in 1993, Janssen said that she would be happy to return to The Next Generation to portray Kamala once again.[4] She did not return to the series, but went on to appear as Jean Grey alongside Stewart in the 2000 film X-Men and subsequent films in the series.[8] She found working with Stewart easy when they were reunited, because of their previous work on \"The Perfect Mate\".[5]\n\n\"The Perfect Mate\" was one of several episodes of The Next Generation where Max Grod\u00e9nchik portrayed a Ferengi. He would subsequently audition for the role of Quark on Deep Space Nine, but this went to Armin Shimerman. Grod\u00e9nchik then portrayed \"Ferengi Pit Boss\" in the pilot of Deep Space Nine, \"Emissary\", who was subsequently written to become the brother of Quark, Rom.[9] Michael Snyder went on to appear as another Ferengi in The Next Generation episode \"Rascals\".[10]\n\nThemes[edit]\n\nRobin Roberts discussed \"The Perfect Mate\" in his 1999 book Sexual Generations. He explained that the premise of a perfect mate had been seen elsewhere in science fiction, such as in The Stepford Wives, and said that he found it disturbing when works of the genre depicted this as a role model for women.[11] He called \"The Perfect Mate\" the exemplification of the \"depiction of woman as a passive reflection of a male partner\".[12] He compared the Federation non-interference in a people who treat women as gifts to the involvement of the United States in the Gulf War in defence of Kuwait, a country which limits rights for women.[13]\n\nIn Chris Gregory's 2000 book Star Trek: Parallel Narratives, he compared \"The Perfect Mate\" to the Star Trek: The Original Series episode \"Elaan of Troyius\" to the ancient Greek poem the Iliad. He said that the influence of Picard caused Kamala to abandon any potential sense of happiness and replace it with an increased sense of self-awareness and remove the ability for her to legitimately love Arik.[14]\n\nReception[edit]\n\n\"The Perfect Mate\" aired during the week commencing May 10, 1992, in broadcast syndication. According to Nielsen Media Research, it received ratings of 10.8 percent. This means that it was watched by 10.8 percent of all households watching television during its timeslot. This was the lowest first run episode of the season.[15] It was the lowest rating since \"In Theory\", broadcast during the fourth season,[16] and no episode broadcast afterwards during the course of the season received ratings equal or lower.[17]\n\nStarlog magazine reported in 1993 that the reception from female fans of Star Trek was mostly negative due to the manner in which Kamala was presented,[4] while some reviewers offered a similar opinion. Michelle Erica Green, in her review for TrekNation in 2013, praised the chemistry between Stewart and Janssen but called it \"a terrible episode, an enormous setback in terms of how Next Gen presents women in the 24th century, and the fact that I appreciate several of the performances doesn't mean I don't wish it had never been produced.\" She questioned that if Kamala's gender was switched about whether the arguments presented in the episode would have remained, and felt it was a missed opportunity to tackle social issues.[18] Keith DeCandido hated the episode in his review for Tor.com in 2012, giving it a score of 2 out of 10, and said that when he first watched it, the episode had left him \"seething\". He explained that he would \"expect a storyline rooted in tiresomely traditional gender roles from a show airing in the late 1960s. Not so much the early 1990s.\" He said that Janssen was \"flat\", and did not have any chemistry with Stewart. DeCandido also criticized the Ferengi \"at their absolute worst\" and the absence of Deanna Troi from the episode.[19]\n\nHowever, other reviewers received the episode more positively. Zack Handlen gave the episode a rating of a \"B+\" in his 2011 review for The A.V. Club. He called the Ferengi \"as awful as ever\", but otherwise praised the episode. He said that Janssen was one of the reasons why it worked, with the evolution of Kamala through \"The Perfect Mate\" showing \"a sense of someone coming into their own as a sexually aware, potentially powerful individual.\" Handlen compared the situation to the \"Elaan of Troyius\", and found the imprinting of Kamala on Picard an unexpected twist.[20] It was ranked in 47th place out of the top 100 of the entire franchise in Charlie Jane Anders' list for io9,[21] In the Toronto Sun's list of the 50 top moments of the franchise, Janssen's appearance as Kamala was placed 13th.[22]\n\nHome media release[edit]\n\n\"The Perfect Mate\" was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on October 7, 1997.[23] The episode was later released in the United States on November 5, 2002, as part of the season five DVD box set.[24] The first Blu Ray release was in the United States on November 19, 2013,[25] followed by the United Kingdom on November 18.[26]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 \"Precious Cargo\" (Star Trek: Enterprise) The first meeting between Kriosians and humans\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Nemecek 2003, p.\u00a0199.\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Gross & Altman 1993, p.\u00a0245.\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Nemecek 2003, p.\u00a0200.\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Bloch-Hansen, Peter (December 1993). \"Perfect Mating\". Starlog (197): 58\u201362 \u2013 via Archive.org.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Famke Janssen Talks TNG & Her New Film, Jack of the Red Hearts\". StarTrek.com. February 24, 2016. Archived from the original on September 13, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Erdmann & Block 2000, p.\u00a0245.\n  7. Jump up ^ Westmore 2000, p.\u00a0133.\n  8. Jump up ^ McDonnell, David (July 27, 2013). \"Starlogging With David McDonnell: Lunch With The Perfect Mate\". StarTrek.com. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Reeves-Stevens & Reeves-Stevens 1994, p.\u00a09.\n  10. Jump up ^ Nemecek 2003, p.\u00a0224.\n  11. Jump up ^ Roberts 1999, p.\u00a066.\n  12. Jump up ^ Roberts 1999, p.\u00a073.\n  13. Jump up ^ Roberts 1999, pp.\u00a074\u201375.\n  14. Jump up ^ Gregory 2000, p.\u00a0186.\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Star Trek: The Next Generation Nielsen Ratings \u2013 Seasons 5\u20136\". TrekNation. Archived from the original on October 5, 2000. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Star Trek: The Next Generation Nielsen Ratings \u2013 Seasons 3\u20134\". TrekNation. Archived from the original on October 5, 2000. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Star Trek: The Next Generation Nielsen Ratings \u2013 Season 7\". TrekNation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2001. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Green, Michelle Erica (November 6, 2009). \"Retro Review: The Perfect Mate\". TrekNation. Archived from the original on November 12, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ DeCandido, Keith (August 17, 2012). \"Star Trek: The Next Generation Rewatch: \"The Perfect Mate\"\". Tor.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Handlen, Zack (April 28, 2011). \"Star Trek: The Next Generation: \"The Perfect Mate\"\/\"Imaginary Friend\"\". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on February 28, 2015. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Anders, Charlie Jane (October 2, 2014). \"The Top 100 Star Trek Episodes Of All Time!\". io9. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2015.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Slotek, Jim (June 3, 2016). \"Star Trek's 50th: 50 great moments for Trekkies to celebrate\". Toronto Sun. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Star Trek \u2013 The Next Generation, Episode 121: The Perfect Mate (VHS)\". Tower Video. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Ordway, Holly E. (November 5, 2002). \"Star Trek the Next Generation \u2013 Season 5\". DVD Talk. Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Miller III, Randy (November 19, 2013). \"Star Trek: The Next Generation \u2013 Season Five (Blu-ray)\". DVD Talk. Archived from the original on August 15, 2014. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Simpson, Michael (November 11, 2013). \"Star Trek: The Next Generation Season 5 Blu-Ray Review\". Sci-Fi Now. Archived from the original on March 13, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2016.\u00a0\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Erdmann, Terry J.; Block, Paula M. (2000). Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Companion. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN\u00a0978-0-671-50106-8.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Gregory, Chris (2000). Star Trek: Parallel Narratives. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-333-74488-8.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Gross, Edward; Altman, Mark A. (1993). Captain's Logs: The Complete Trek Voyages. London: Boxtree. ISBN\u00a0978-1-85283-899-7.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Nemecek, Larry (2003). Star Trek: The Next Generation Companion (3rd ed.). New York: Pocket Books. ISBN\u00a00-7434-5798-6.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Reeves-Stevens, Judith; Reeves-Stevens, Garfield (1994). The Making of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN\u00a0978-0-671-87430-8.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Roberts, Robin (1999). Sexual Generations: \"Star Trek: The Next Generation\" and Gender. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-252-06810-2.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Westmore, Michael (2000). Star Trek: Aliens & Artifacts. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN\u00a0978-0-671-04299-8.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: The Perfect Mate\n  \u2022 The Perfect Mate on IMDb\n  \u2022 The Perfect Mate at StarTrek.com\n  \u2022 The Perfect Mate at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nStar Trek: The Next Generation episodes\nSeasons\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\nSeason 5\n  \u2022 \"Redemption II\"\n  \u2022 \"Darmok\"\n  \u2022 \"Ensign Ro\"\n  \u2022 \"Silicon Avatar\"\n  \u2022 \"Disaster\"\n  \u2022 \"The Game\"\n  \u2022 \"Unification, Part I\"\n  \u2022 \"Unification, Part II\"\n  \u2022 \"A Matter of Time\"\n  \u2022 \"New Ground\"\n  \u2022 \"Hero Worship\"\n  \u2022 \"Violations\"\n  \u2022 \"The Masterpiece Society\"\n  \u2022 \"Conundrum\"\n  \u2022 \"Power Play\"\n  \u2022 \"Ethics\"\n  \u2022 \"The Outcast\"\n  \u2022 \"Cause and Effect\"\n  \u2022 \"The First Duty\"\n  \u2022 \"Cost of Living\"\n  \u2022 \"The Perfect Mate\"\n  \u2022 \"Imaginary Friend\"\n  \u2022 \"I, Borg\"\n  \u2022 \"The Next Phase\"\n  \u2022 \"The Inner Light\"\n  \u2022 \"Time's Arrow, Part I\"\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Perfect_Mate&oldid=810440948\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Star Trek: The Next Generation (season 5) episodes\n  \u2022 1992 American television episodes\n  \u2022 Holography in fiction\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Good articles\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from October 2012\n  \u2022 Pages using deprecated image syntax\n  \u2022 Pages using infobox television episode with incorrectly formatted episode list\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 15 November 2017, at 07:26.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2607405923832186248","title":"List of Full House and Fuller House characters","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nList of Full House and Fuller House characters\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)\nThis article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article may be written from a fan's point of view, rather than a neutral point of view. Please clean it up to conform to a higher standard of quality, and to make it neutral in tone. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n(Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMain cast in season seven\n\nThis is a list of the characters from the American television sitcom Full House and its sequel series Fuller House. The former ran for eight seasons on ABC from September 22, 1987 to May 23, 1995. Fuller House followed 21 years later, airing on Netflix beginning February 26, 2016. The first nine episodes of the third season were released on September 22, 2017, and the back nine was released on December 22, 2017.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Main characters\n    \u2022 1.1 Jesse Katsopolis\n    \u2022 1.2 Danny Tanner\n    \u2022 1.3 Joey Gladstone\n    \u2022 1.4 D.J. Tanner\n    \u2022 1.5 Stephanie Tanner\n    \u2022 1.6 Michelle Tanner\n    \u2022 1.7 Rebecca Donaldson Katsopolis\n    \u2022 1.8 Kimmy Gibbler\n    \u2022 1.9 Steve Hale\n    \u2022 1.10 Nicky and Alex Katsopolis\n    \u2022 1.11 Jackson Fuller\n    \u2022 1.12 Max Fuller\n    \u2022 1.13 Ramona Gibbler\n    \u2022 1.14 Tommy Fuller\n    \u2022 1.15 Fernando Hernandez-Guerrero-Fernandez-Guerrero\n    \u2022 1.16 Matt Harmon\n    \u2022 1.17 Lola Wong\n    \u2022 1.18 Jimmy Gibbler\n  \u2022 2 Recurring characters\n  \u2022 3 Other characters\n  \u2022 4 Guest stars\n  \u2022 5 References\n\nMain characters\n\nCharacter Actor Full House seasons Fuller House seasons\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3\nJesse Katsopolis[note 1] John Stamos Main Recurring\nDanny Tanner Bob Saget Main Guest Recurring\nJoey Gladstone Dave Coulier Main Recurring\nD.J. Tanner Candace Cameron Bure Main\nStephanie Tanner Jodie Sweetin Main\nMichelle Tanner Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen Recurring Main\nRebecca Donaldson Katsopolis Lori Loughlin Recurring Main Recurring\nKimmy Gibbler Andrea Barber Recurring Main\nSteve Hale Scott Weinger Guest Main Guest Recurring Main1 2\nNicky and Alex Katsopolis Blake and Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit[note 2] Recurring Main Guest\nJackson Fuller Michael Campion Main\nMax Fuller Elias Harger Main\nRamona Gibbler Soni Nicole Bringas Main\nTommy Fuller Dashiell & Fox Messitt Main\nFernando Hernandez-Guerrero-Fernandez-Guerrero Juan Pablo Di Pace Recurring Main\nMatt Harmon John Brotherton Recurring Main1\nLola Wong Ashley Liao Recurring Main1 Guest\nJimmy Gibbler Adam Hagenbuch Recurring Main1\nNote\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Jesse Cochran\" during season one\n  2. Jump up ^ Daniel and Kevin Renteria (as babies)\n\n^Note 1\u00a0: Scott Weinger, John Brotherton, Ashley Liao and Adam Hagenbuch are credited after the opening credits and only for the episodes in which they appear.\n\n^Note 2\u00a0: Scott Weinger is credited as a Special Guest Star in the sixth episode of season two but as starring in all of his other appearances.\n\nJesse Katsopolis\n\nJesse Katsopolis (portrayed by John Stamos; the character's last name in season one was Cochran, but was changed reportedly due to John Stamos wanting his character to better reflect his Greek heritage) is Danny's brother-in-law, Pam's younger brother, husband of Rebecca Donaldson and father of twin sons Nicky and Alex. Born Hermes Katsopolis (as revealed in the season five episode \"The Legend of Ranger Joe\"), he was named after his great-grandfather, who in turn is named after the Greek god of swiftness. However, he did not like his birth name, as other kids teased him for it; so when he was in kindergarten, he begged his parents to have his name changed to Jesse, thinking that one had to have a \"cool name\" to be in the in-crowd. As an adult, he was more confident with his true name, telling the girls about the Greek god of speed, and how his great-grandfather saved a village from a volcano, but still goes by Jesse.\n\nIn contrast with Danny, Jesse is portrayed as being irresponsible most of the time, but occasionally serves as a responsible adult when a responsible adult is needed (such as when he discovers Stephanie's classmate is a child abuse victim in the season 6 episode \"Silence is Not Golden\"). Jesse is revealed as a high school dropout in season six's \"Educating Jesse\", though in an earlier plot (in season four's \"One Last Kiss\") about a high school reunion, he mentions not wearing his cap to his graduation because he did not want to mess up his hair.\n\nJesse's obsession with his hair becomes a major trait of his throughout the series, as well as his obsession with Elvis Presley. His obsession with the former is fully established in the season two premiere \"Cutting it Close\", which focuses on Jesse's tough time coping when Stephanie accidentally cuts off a hunk of his mullet, which leads to him getting into a motorcycle accident that lands him in a full arm cast; later episodes reveal that he has a special comb called Mr. Goodpart (which gets damaged in a melee to purchase a Mighty Mutant Super Kids Super Fortress for Michelle in season eight's \"I've Got a Secret\") and that he gives pep talks to his hair (as revealed in season seven's \"Wrong-Way Tanner\").\n\nJesse first moves into the house with virtually no experience in taking care of young children or babies, but starts to learn the ropes along the way. He becomes closer to all of his nieces over the course of the series, especially Michelle, whom he affectionately nicknames \"munchkin\" and \"shorty\", among others. In the first season, Jesse works for his father Nick's exterminating business before leaving to pursue work in advertising, frequently working with Joey. He later works with Joey as co-hosts of an afternoon drive time show on local radio station KFLH called The Rush Hour Renegades. Further along in the series, in season seven's \"Smash Club: The Next Generation\", Jesse becomes the new owner of The Smash Club. Although he was shown to be a sports fan as well as a good athlete in the earlier seasons, it is revealed in later seasons that Jesse hated all sports (especially basketball, as revealed in \"Air Jesse\" from season eight) and was not very athletic. Jesse's main passion is music, and struggles to \"hit it big\" with his band, Jesse and the Rippers (in the earlier part of the series). However, his increasing responsibilities to his family, radio job, and as owner of a club, lead his band members to kick him out of the band (in the season eight premiere \"Comet's Excellent Adventure\"); in \"Making Out is Hard to Do\", he briefly decides to quit being a musician until he has a nightmare in which he appears on Downbeat (a Behind the Music-style show-within-a-dream-sequence) has him dream that his family hates him, Rebecca has divorced him (and moved on with Joey) and Jesse himself was a mechanic, as well as overweight and balding (because of a scalp infection), with Kimmy Gibbler (dressed in the attire of the Married... with Children character Peggy Bundy) as a wife. Two episodes later in \"To Joey, With Love,\" he subsequently starts a new band called Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets.\n\nIn Fuller House Jesse, Becky, and Danny all move to Los Angeles. Jesse becomes the music composer for General Hospital while Becky and Danny start a new nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. In the season two finale, Jesse and Becky adopt a baby girl whom they name Pamela after his sister. Somewhere along the line Jesse became a stay at home dad. When Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA, they try to get their old jobs back but the station only wanted her back to co-host an all women's talk show. Jesse, Becky and Pamela are all moving back to San Francisco, and he also bought back the Smash Club (which is now a laundromat) along with Joey.\n\nDanny Tanner\n\nDaniel Ernest \"Danny\" Tanner (portrayed by Bob Saget, John Posey in the unaired pilot) is left with three young daughters to raise after his wife, Pam, dies in a car accident caused by a drunk driver. At the beginning of the series, he works as a sportscaster for Channel 8 News. In the season two episode \"Tanner vs. Gibbler\", he is chosen by his station's general manager Mr. Strowbridge to be the co-host for the station's new morning talk show, Wake Up, San Francisco, alongside Rebecca Donaldson. In season one's \"The Big Three-O,\" Danny's beloved car, \"Bullet,\" is severely damaged after another driver rear-ends the vehicle, leading it roll out of park and become submerged in the San Francisco Bay as Jesse and Joey shop for new seat covers for the car to surprise Danny with as a present for his 30th birthday; Jesse and Joey end up bidding for a new car that is identical in appearance, unknowingly competing with Danny, who purchases the car (and later named it \"Walter\") after he calls the car dealership that Jesse and Joey are and places a bid over the phone.\n\nDanny goes on his first date since his wife's death in the season one episode \"Sea Cruise,\" as part of a fishing trip that was intended to only include himself, Jesse and Joey; he is seen going out on dates on select occasions throughout the series. While Rebecca goes on maternity leave in season five just before giving birth to his nephews Nicky and Alex, Danny ends up falling in love with her co-host replacement, Vicky Larson. The two of them begin dating in season five's \"Easy Rider,\" becoming Danny's most serious relationship since he became a widower, and the two later become engaged in the season six finale \"The House Meets the Mouse\". However, their relationship turned into a long-distance situation as Vicky was assigned various reporting jobs away from San Francisco. In season seven's \"The Perfect Couple,\" Vicky ended up getting her dream job of anchoring the network news in New York City, but a long-distance relationship did not work for either of them, so Danny decides to break up with her; this leads him to a mass feng shui habit in the following episode, \"Is It True About Stephanie?,\" to which his family acknowledges was his way of trying to cope with his breakup. Danny eventually meets fellow single parent Claire Mahan in season eight episode \"Making Out Is Hard to Do,\" and go on a date in the episode \"Claire and Present Danger.\"\n\nAlthough he is not established with this trait early on (season one's \"The Return of Grandma\" depicts him as begrudgingly trying to clean the messy house with Jesse and Joey after their mothers threaten to move in if they cannot keep the place clean), much of the humor surrounding Danny's character comes from his obsession with cleaning and cleanliness. Danny can often be found cleaning for cleaning's sake, sometimes even cleaning his cleaning products (in a version of the original season three opening titles, seen during episodes in which Lori Loughlin does not appear as Rebecca Donaldson, Danny is even shown to be cleaning his floor vacuum with a handheld vacuum). He says the family motto is \"clean is good, dirt is bad\". Danny views spring cleaning as his equivalent to Christmas and home movies as his New Year's Eve (as revealed in the season two episode \"Goodbye, Mr. Bear\"). His quirkiness and generally \"unhip dad\" personality are also targets for humor. He is a skilled pool, dart player and guitarist (as respectively revealed in season four's, \"Girls Just Wanna Have Fun,\" and season eight's, \"To Joey, with Love\").\n\nLike most other characters, he generally cannot stand Kimmy Gibbler, considering her as \u201can annoying, obnoxious nuisance\u201d;[1] at times, urging D.J. to make new friends whenever Kimmy does something that irritates him. Danny also has one brother and one sister, and his parents are divorced. Unlike his brother-in-law Jesse (who is more into rock-and-roll), Danny has a taste for 1970s Disco music; one of his favorite songs is \"Play That Funky Music\" by Wild Cherry.\n\nIn the first episode of Fuller House, Danny and Becky relocate to Los Angeles for their new talk show, Wake Up USA, and it is revealed that Danny got remarried to a woman named Teri. During the second season Danny goes through a little bit of a mid-life crisis since he just turned 60. In season three Danny reveals that him and Teri got divorced. Danny and Becky asked for raises on their show but since they asked for too much they are fired and replaced by Mario Lopez. After feeling sorry for themselves they go back to Wake Up San Francisco to ask for their old jobs back but the station only wants Becky back. To cheer him up, the girls somehow tracked down Vicky and surprised him with her. He invites her to the 30th \"Dadiversary\" party the girls threw for him, Jesse and Joey. Since Becky, Jesse and Joey are all moving back to San Francisco, Danny announces he's moving back too, and back into the house.\n\nJoey Gladstone\n\nJoseph Alvin \"Joey\" Gladstone (portrayed by Dave Coulier) is the childhood best friend of Danny Tanner, and adulthood best friend of Jesse Katsopolis. Joey moved in with Danny shortly after the death of Danny's wife, Pam, to help raise D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. Joey works as a stand-up comedian, whose act usually includes vocal imitations of cartoon characters such as Popeye, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Pep\u00e9 Le Pew and others. Joey initially slept in the alcove of Danny's living room. However, after complaining of not being able to find privacy, Danny reconstructs his basement garage into a bedroom for him in the season one episode \"Joey's Place\" (prior to the reveal, Joey contemplates moving out after the family's behavior makes him believe that Jesse and Danny can handle taking care of the girls and that he is not needed). Joey nearly quits comedy in the season one episode \"But Seriously, Folks,\" after Phyllis Diller (who was there as an audience member) hogs his slot at a comedy club, deciding to change his name to Joe and become a serious businessman. He reverses his decision after D.J. decides to quit practicing the guitar, realizing that he is not setting a good example. Although there was some tension between Joey and Jesse when they first move in with the Tanners, they quickly become good friends to the point where Jesse asks Joey to be his best man at his wedding. Even so, Joey's perceived immaturity does irritate Jesse at times. Joey usually handles the day-to-day raising of the kids by doing chores like making meals, driving the kids to school appointments, and after school activities, taking care of Michelle as a baby, and helping the kids with their homework. Joey also buys D.J. her first car for her 16th birthday in the season six episode \"Grand Gift Auto,\" which ends up getting repossessed after the police discover that the car had been stolen; Joey nearly moves out again after the family's attempts to try illustrate that Joey is not capable of committing a crime make him believe that the rest of the family thinks of him as a big joke. It is in this episode that Joey reveals that he had wished to have siblings as he grew up as an only child (even imaging that he was part of The Brady Bunch), and that being part of the Tanner family gave him the extended family he always wanted. In season four's \"Viva Las Joey,\" Joey is reunited with his estranged father (at the arrangement of Stephanie and D.J.), a former serviceman in the Armed Forces, with whom Joey did not get along with growing up due to his strict parenting style and his disapproval of Joey's dream of being a comedian; his father realizes that Joey made the right career decision when he sees his son's routine when Joey is invited as an opening act for Wayne Newton in Las Vegas.\n\nJoey has held various jobs in addition to his work as a stand-up comic. For a while during seasons two and three, Joey and Jesse run an advertising business, J&J Creative Services, in which they partnered to compose jingles for television and radio commercials. In season four's \"Joey Goes Hollywood,\" Joey wins a role he secretly auditions for in a sitcom co-starring Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello called Surf's Up. Joey's most successful job was portraying \"Ranger Joe,\" on an afternoon children's variety television show. He was given the job to replace retiring original host \"Ranger Roy\" in season five's \"The Legend of Ranger Joe,\" only to be fired after triggering Roy's acute physical paranoia when hugging him as a thank you; after Danny informs Joey of this while telling him of his firing, Joey ends up saving Roy from a \"hug-o-gram\" that he had sent to gratitude for the job; he then gets rehired after Roy becomes impressed with Joey's hosting skills when he takes over for Roy on his last show. Ranger Joe's sidekick is his wise-cracking woodchuck marionette puppet \"Mr. Woodchuck\" (first seen in \"The Legend of Ranger Joe\" and last seen in \"Michelle Rides Again\"). Joey quits his job in season six's \"Radio Days,\" after he becomes disgruntled with his boss Mr. Strowbridge's wife as his co-host. Jesse and Joey subsequently become co-hosts of a successful afternoon show on radio station KFLH called, Rush Hour Renegades. Besides his impressions, much of Joey's humor comes from his depiction as a man child, particularly the fact that he still watches cartoons as an adult and has an extensive knowledge of animation.\n\nJoey has moved to Las Vegas in Fuller House, and is now married with four kids. His wife Ginger is a magician, and their kids, Phyllis, Lewis, Joan, and Jerry are very loud and obnoxious kids. Joey and his kids are moving back to San Francisco since his wife will be working as a magician on a cruise ship for six months. He also bought back the Smash Club with Jesse.\n\nD.J. Tanner\n\nDonna Jo Margaret \"D.J.\" Tanner (portrayed by Candace Cameron Bure) is Danny and Pam's oldest child. Over the course of the show's run, D.J. attends Frasier Street Elementary, Van Atta Junior High and Bayview High School. In the pilot episode \"Our Very First Show,\" she ends up having to share her bedroom with Stephanie in order to allow Jesse to move into Stephanie's old bedroom; due to problems with privacy regarding Stephanie, in the season five episode \"Take My Sister, Please,\" she sells Danny on an idea to switch rooms with Michelle, who in turn would move in with Stephanie (only after convincing Michelle to move in with Stephanie, after she rejects the offer to move in with her older sister).\n\nD.J. is typically the daughter who acts the most practical, often giving advice to her younger sisters, Michelle and Stephanie. Although she sometimes bickers with them, she cares for them deeply. As D.J. entered into middle school, she started to deal with more serious issues like puberty and dating. She has her first serious relationship with Steve Hale (who was first introduced in the season five episode \"Sisters in Crime\"), who later becomes a real fixture in her life (and a regular character beginning in season six) when their characters return from a summer abroad in Spain. Their relationship lasts until they break up in the season seven episode \"Love on the Rocks,\" when they realize that the passion in their relationship is gone, but they agree to remain friends. D.J. has on-and-off relationships (during the show's final season) with guitarist Viper (a member of Jesse's new band Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets) and rich kid Nelson, but both relationships do not last (the two end up vying for D.J.'s affections in the season eight episode \"D.J.'s Choice,\" only for D.J. to reject them both after their fighting gets to be too much for her to bear). In the series finale \"Michelle Rides Again,\" Steve shows up at the Tanner house to take D.J. to her senior prom and they share a kiss. Her best friend throughout the show was next-door neighbor Kimmy Gibbler, who was the complete opposite of D.J. in every way. In season eight, D.J. gets accepted to University of California, Berkeley and it is implied she will go to college there after graduating high school (after she was rejected from her first choice, Stanford University).\n\nIn Fuller House, D.J. is a recent widow and mother of three kids; Jackson, Max and Tommy, and moves in with Stephanie and Kimmy. D.J. has since become a veterinarian. When her boss retires he has his son, Matt Harmon and D.J. take over the pet clinic. Matt and Steve fight for D.J.'s affection but they both end up dating other people when she's not ready to commit someone new yet. Realizing they have feelings for each other, Matt breaks up with his girlfriend, and starts dating D.J. On the way to Steve's wedding in Japan, D.J. who's preparing to fall asleep, and wearing a sleeping mask reveals to Kimmy that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she's losing her soulmate. Unbeknownst to her Steve was the one who heard her confession not Kimmy. Steve tells Kimmy what she said, and he was going to confront D.J. but he saw Matt proposing to her. The next day before the wedding starts Kimmy tells D.J. that Steve was the one who heard what she said on the plane. At the alter Steve calls off the wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement to Matt. Back home the two wait a month before they will start dating again. After her their third first date, Steve tells her that the Lakers want him to be the team's foot doctor. He chooses to stay with her but D.J. called the team and said that he will take the job. [2]\n\nStephanie Tanner\n\nStephanie Judith Tanner (portrayed by Jodie Sweetin) is the witty, sarcastic middle child of Danny and Pam, the younger sister of D.J., and the older sister of Michelle. Her mother died when she was five years old. Her catchphrases during the early seasons of the series include \"how rude!,\" \"well, pin a rose on your nose!\" and \"hot dog\". She eventually evolved into something of a tomboy in seasons four and five. Stephanie has a habit of spying on D.J.'s life by reading her diary and eavesdropping on her telephone calls (having been caught in the act several times), and is generally the most athletic and nosiest of the Tanner girls. Her best friends in school are Gia Mahan and Mickey, whom she meets in season seven (the former is the only one who appears through to season eight). Of the three sisters, Stephanie has dealt with the toughest issues, such as peer pressure into smoking (in season seven's \"Fast Friends\"), \"make-out\" parties (in season eight's \"Making Out is Hard to Do\"), joyriding (in season eight's \"Stephanie's Wild Ride\"), and uncovering a classmate's child abuse (in season six's \"Silence is Not Golden\"), as well as the death of her mother when she was only five. In her early years, she is very sentimental about Mr. Bear, a stuffed animal that her mother gave to her after Michelle was born (this was the focal point of the season two episode \"Goodbye Mr. Bear\"). She and Jesse are the most abrasive when it comes to how they feel about Kimmy Gibbler.\n\nIn Fuller House, Stephanie volunteers to give up her life in London to move back into her childhood home to help take care of her sister's three kids. Kimmy volunteers to move in as well much to Stephanie's dismay but she soon puts her abrasive feelings aside, and becomes friends with her. Stephanie confesses to D.J. that she can't have kids but wants to. Stephanie starts a relationship with Kimmy's younger brother Jimmy. Becky schedules Stephanie for a pelvic exam and turns out she has three vivable eggs and can have a baby via surrogacy. Since she hasn't been dating Jimmy for that long she doesn't want to put pressure on him for being the father, and throwing him into a life long commitment so soon in their relationship. He wants to be the father. They are able to make embryos and Kimmy volunteers to be the surrogate mother. Kimmy is able to get pregnant with the embryos.\n\nMichelle Tanner\n\nMain article: Michelle Tanner\n\nMichelle Elizabeth Tanner (played by twins Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen), is Danny and Pam's youngest daughter. Danny is more overprotective of Michelle than the other girls. Michelle was just a baby when Pam died, so she hardly remembers her mom. Jesse and Joey's misadventures in taking care of her when she was a baby provided a great deal of humor. Once Michelle started to grow up, she became the focus of more of the show's storylines. Her best friends, Teddy and Denise, appear frequently in later seasons. She also has other friends, such as Derek Boyd, Lisa Leeper, and bossy Aaron Bailey, who Michelle has an uneasy friendship with. Her favorite toys (in earlier seasons) are Barney, a plush bear who hangs on the wall above her bed, and her stuffed pig. It is apparent that Jesse is somewhat closer to her than her sisters, and he gives her nicknames such as \"munchkin\", \"shorty\" and \"rugrat\". She is known for her many recurring catchphrases such as \"you got it, dude!\", \"you're in big trouble, mister!\", \"oh, puh-lease!\", \"aw, nuts!\", \"duh!\", and \"no way, Jos\u00e9!\"\n\nMichelle does not appear in Fuller House but it is mentioned that she is now living in New York, and owns a fashion company.\n\nRebecca Donaldson Katsopolis\n\nRebecca Donaldson Katsopolis (portrayed by Lori Loughlin), is the sarcastic, practical, but very loving and well-educated woman who becomes the love interest and later wife of Jesse Katsopolis. Becky was born in Valentine, Nebraska and decided to pursue journalism as a career while she was in high school. Becky moves to San Francisco to become the co-host of Wake Up, San Francisco, being paired with Danny as her co-host; the two become close friends, although she often quips about Danny's quirks and tendency to ramble in his conversations. She was reluctant to admit her feelings for Jesse at first, but she eventually falls in love with him. The two almost elope in Lake Tahoe in the season two finale \"Luck Be a Lady\", but backed out when Becky realized that she and Jesse were not really ready to get married. They eventually get married (in the second part of the season four episode \"The Wedding\") on Valentine's Day.\n\nAfter Jesse has a bittersweet farewell to the rest of the family when he decides to move into Rebecca's apartment in the season four episode \"Fuller House\", Rebecca agrees to move in with the Tanners and Joey when she discovers how much Jesse misses them, living together in the attic (which Jesse and Joey have converted into an apartment). Becky helps to transform Jesse, although she still teases him about his obsession with his hair and love of Elvis. She also serves as a mother figure to the girls at times; most prominently giving advice to D.J. as she becomes a teenager. Becky gives birth to twin boys Nicholas and Alexander on Michelle's fifth birthday in part two of the season five episode \"Happy Birthday, Babies\". She and Jesse name Alexander after a teacher who inspired her to become a journalist and Nicholas after Jesse's father. Becky is offered a producer role on Wake Up, San Francisco in the season eight episode \"The Producer\", which results in Danny briefly quitting the show due to him being passed over for such a promotion.\n\nIn Fuller House, she, Jesse, and Danny all move to Los Angeles to start their new jobs. She and Danny now host a nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. Becky gets baby fever when around D.J.'s youngest son, Tommy. She and Jesse end up adopting a baby girl whom they name Pamela. Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA when they asked for too much money. They ask for their old jobs back at Wake Up San Francisco but the station only wants her back. They want her to host an all women's talk show called The Gab. She, Jesse and Pamela are moving back to San Francisco.\n\nKimmy Gibbler\n\nKimberly Louise \"Kimmy\" Gibbler (portrayed by Andrea Barber, recurring since season one and upgraded to a series regular in season five) is D.J.'s best friend and the Tanners' annoying but well-meaning next-door neighbor. Kimmy and D.J. have been best friends since the Gibblers moved next door to the Tanners, despite their differing personalities; the two have temporarily ended their friendship multiple times during the show's run due to disputes over various situations, but always end up reconciling and forgiving each other. Most of the Tanner family cannot stand her (Danny, Stephanie and Jesse are especially annoyed by her, with Stephanie often making jabs at her lack of intelligence and other unusual quirks and Danny urging D.J. to make new friends and often asking Kimmy to leave the house). She is often known to be a poor student in school, and had copied D.J.'s homework during most of the early seasons. Kimmy is the subject of a recurring gag in the series, regarding her terrible foot odor, which becomes noticeable to other people mainly once she removes her shoes; Kimmy also becomes aware of this in a scene in the season seven episode \"The Apartment\", in which she accidentally grabs one of her shoes while searching for her phone when Danny calls her to find out the whereabouts of D.J. (who had fallen asleep on her boyfriend Steve's couch while watching a movie in his apartment). She is also known to be addicted to shopping.\n\nIn the episode \"Another Opening, Another No Show\", Jesse and Kimmy get locked in a closet on the night of the grand re-opening of The Smash Club, after the door handle breaks off in Jesse's hand; while there, Kimmy finally tells Jesse how much it hurts when he and the other Tanners (except for D.J.) pick on her. He finally tries to stop picking on her and tells the Tanners to try to go easy on her. However, their behavior towards her remains the same in later episodes, although she never seems to mind it anymore.\n\nKimmy's only serious relationship is with Duane (who is introduced in season eight episode \"Taking the Plunge\"), a very air-headed boy who was only known to say \"whatever\". Ironically, he was shown to have a fondness for Shakespearean works as he passionately quoted a line from Shakespeare's 18th sonnet. In \"Taking the Plunge,\" Kimmy decides to run off to Reno and elope with Duane after she was rejected by the colleges that she had applied to, and is afraid that D.J. will go off to school and forget her. When D.J., Jesse, and Danny arrive at the chapel to stop her from getting married too young, D.J. tells her that she will always be her best friend no matter what. In the two-part series finale \"Michelle Rides Again,\" she tries to find D.J. a blind date for prom, and ends up surprising her with her ex-boyfriend Steve instead.\n\nSometime after high school Kimmy got married to a race car driver named Fernando, and has a daughter named Ramona. In the sequel series she and Ramona move into the Tanner family home after D.J's husband passed away. She moved in to help her along with Stephanie. Kimmy has become a party planner. Kimmy volunteers to be Stephanie and Jimmy's surrogate mother,\n\nSteve Hale\n\nSteven \"Steve\" Hale (originally introduced as Steve Peters; portrayed by Scott Weinger) is D.J.'s first steady boyfriend. He is introduced in the season five episode \"Sisters in Crime\" as D.J.'s date to a movie that she ends up taking Michelle and Stephanie to, and returns to the series as a regular character in the sixth-season premiere \"Come Fly With Me\" (which establishes the character as played by Weinger in his original appearance the season prior). Steve is two years older than D.J. and is a star member of the high school wrestling team. He is known for having a healthy appetite, and often eats at the Tanners' when he visits.\n\nIn \"A Very Tanner Christmas,\" Steve receives an acceptance letter to a party school in Florida that he had applied to (this causes the two to briefly break up due to D.J.'s concern that she would miss him), but decides to go to a local community college in order to improve his grades and continue his relationship with D.J. In the season six episode \"Prom Night,\" both he and D.J. attend Steve's prom where he is elected prom king (although his ex-girlfriend\u2014whose affections he later rejects\u2014is named prom queen). Steve and D.J. break up in the season seven episode \"Love on the Rocks,\" after they realize that their relationship was not as passionate as it used to be, but they decide to remain friends. When D.J. needs a date for her senior prom, Kimmy surprises her and gets Steve to be her date.\n\nAfter college Steve becomes a podiatrist. In Fuller House Steve is a divorcee and his ex took half what he's worth. With him and D.J. both now single he tries to start a relationship with her again. He ends up later getting engaged to woman named C.J. who is just like D.J. On the way to Japan, thinking that Kimmy is sitting next to her, D.J. confesses that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she is losing her soulmate. Steve was the one who actually heard it. At the alter he realizes he still loves D.J. and can't marry C.J. so he calls the wedding off. D.J who still has feelings for Steve break up with Matt. A month after the almost wedding they start dating again. There is bad news for the reunited couple when the Lakers want him to be their foot doctor. He declines to stay with D.J. but she calls the team to say he will take the job. Steve tells her they will back together in six months.\n\nNicky and Alex Katsopolis\n\nNicholas \"Nicky\" and Alexander \"Alex\" Katsopolis, (played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria as babies during season 5; Blake and Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit as toddlers for seasons 6\u20138) are the twin sons of Jesse and Becky Katsopolis. The two were born in the season five episode \"Happy Birthday, Babies,\" on the date of Michelle's fifth birthday. Becky named Alex after a high school teacher who inspired her to venture into a career in journalism, while Jesse chose to name Nicky after his father, for giving him great hair. They have strawberry-blond hair and are fun-loving toddlers, with minor distinctions between them. Nicky is more quiet and sweet, while Alex is more outspoken and mischievous. They often repeat each other's words.\n\nIn Fuller House, the twins follow their parents to Los Angeles, and decide to run a fish taco food truck.\n\nJackson Fuller\n\nJackson Fuller (portrayed by Michael Campion) is D.J.'s oldest son. When Kimmy and her daughter, Ramona moves in Jackson has to give up his room and move in with his brother Max. Jackson and Ramona don't get along at first but become like brother and sister. Jackson has shown to be a good older brother to Max and Tommy. Jackson likes to do stunts, and joins the football team to impress Ramona's friend, Lola. He likes to call himself \"J. Money\" and \"Action Jackson\". He breifly dates Lola but she breaks up with him for being too clingy. While attending summer school he becomes friends with Gia's daughter Rocki, much to D.J's dislike.\n\nMax Fuller\n\nMax Fuller (portrayed by Elias Harger) is D.J.'s well dressed and intelligent middle child. He likes science, and is shown to be a clean freak like his grandfather. Max has rivalries with Kimmy's fianc\u00e9 Fernando and classmate Taylor. Max's girlfriend is Rose, the daughter of Steve's fianc\u00e9e C.J.\n\nRamona Gibbler\n\nRamona Gibbler (portrayed by Soni Nicole Bringas) is the daughter of Kimmy Gibbler and her ex husband\/fianc\u00e9, Fernando. She is not thrilled when she has to move into the Tanner family home and change schools. Ramona quickly befriends one of the popular girls in school, Lola Wong, and briefly dates Jackson's friend, Bobby Popko. She is an aspiring dancer.\n\nTommy Fuller\n\nTommy Fuller, Jr. (portrayed by twins, Dashiell and Fox Messitt) is D.J.'s youngest son. Like his aunt Michelle he also loses a parent as a baby.\n\nFernando Hernandez-Guerrero-Fernandez-Guerrero\n\nFernando Hernandez-Guerrero-Fernandez-Guerrero (portrayed by Juan Pablo Di Pace), is Kimmy Gibbler's race car driving ex-husband\/fianc\u00e9. At the start of Fuller House, him and Kimmy are separated due to his unfaithfulness to her. Fernando begins to miss her and tries to win her back. It works but he ends up finally signing their divorce papers. Though he only does this to repropose which she accepts. Fernando retires from his racing career, and moves in. Ten months after moving in, he buys Kimmy's childhood home and moves in with her brother.\n\nMatt Harmon\n\nMatt Harmon (portrayed by John Brotherton) is D.J.'s partner at the Harmon\/Fuller Pet Care. He originally intended to fill in for his dad while he was away on a trip to India but decides to stay in San Francisco. When his dad retires he has Matt and D.J. take over the business. Matt and Steve fight for D.J.'s affection. She and him eventually begin dating. While in Japan for Steve and C.J's wedding, Matt proposed to D.J. and she says yes. The next day at the wedding Steve calls off his wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement. A heartbroken Matt walks off. He goes on a eight day vacation and when he comes back to work he tells D.J. he doesn't know how he able to work with her if they\u2019re not together anymore. He takes some time off to think, and when he returns he tells her that he will be opening up a new pet clinic two blocks down.\n\nLola Wong\n\nLola Wong (portrayed by Ashley Liao) is Ramona's best friend and Jackson's ex girlfriend. Lola's father gets a job in Fresno and she moves.\n\nJimmy Gibbler\n\nJimmy Gibbler (portrayed by Adam Hagenbuch) is Kimmy's younger brother. One day he walks into the family's backyard and hears Stephanie singing. The two end up kissing, and are interrupted by Kimmy who informs Stephanie that he is her brother. Jimmy and Stephanie begin dating. When Stephanie gets the news that she can have a baby via surrogacy, she thinks it's too soon in their relationship to ask him to be the father. After finding that out from Kimmy, he tells her that he wants to be her baby's father. Kimmy volunteers to be his and Stephanie's surrogate.\n\nRecurring characters\n\n  \u2022 Vicky Larson (played by Gail Edwards) is Danny's girlfriend during seasons five and six and was briefly his fianc\u00e9e from the season six episode \"The House Meets the Mouse\" until halfway through season seven. Vicky is very focused on her career, which proves to be the undoing in her long-distance relationship with Danny. They meet in season five's \"Nicky and\/or Alexander,\" when Vicky fills in for Becky (who is on maternity leave) on Wake Up, San Francisco, and start dating two episodes later in \"Easy Rider\". Later in season five's \"Play It Again, Jesse,\" Danny insists that she take a news anchor job in Chicago that she was offered once Becky returns, and that starts a long-distance relationship (that goes from early season six to mid-season seven). Danny eventually proposes to her when she comes along on the family's vacation to Walt Disney World in \"The House Meets the Mouse\". However, Vicky later gets her dream job\u2014anchoring the network news in New York City\u2014in the season seven episode \"The Perfect Couple\" (the character's final appearance); as a result, she cannot come to live with Danny and his family in San Francisco, nor is Danny able to uproot his family in California. Therefore, to the dismay of themselves and Danny's family, they have a mutual breakup. Vicky often gives advice, such as helping D.J. with her relationship with Steve, and helping Danny to deal with it and serves as a motherly figure to D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. Vicky makes a brief appearance in the season 3 finale of Fuller House. D.J. and Stephanie apparently tracked her down to cheer up Danny. He invites her to the 30th \"Dadiversary\" party the girls threw for Danny, Joey and Jesse.\n  \u2022 Nick Katsopolis (played by John Aprea) is Jesse and Pam's father and maternal grandfather to D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. He is an avid fan of Elvis Presley, just like Jesse. Also, like his son, he is very much interested in his hair and women (as he states in the season two episode \"Our Very First Christmas Show\", \"there are two things Katsopolis men are known for: kissing and great hair\"). Nick is the owner of an insect extermination business. He met his wife, Irene, the day that Elvis was drafted into the United States Army. Nick was a firm but caring parent. In the episode, \"D.J.'s Day Off\" it is mentioned that he would punish Jesse severely. This combination is also seen in the episode \"It Is Not My Job\", when Jesse quits the extermination business Nick responds with: \"If you're out of the business, you're out of the family.\" Later on, he explains this by saying that he did not build up the business to sell it to a stranger. His love for his family is also shown by the fact that Irene bringing in Michelle curbed his anger. When Michelle was getting ready to do a television commercial for marshmallows in the season two episode \"El Problema Grande de D.J.\", he remarked that Michelle looked like a little blonde version of the redhead he likes on Gilligan's Island, which was revealed to be Tina Louise by Irene. In honor of inheriting Nick's hair, Jesse names one of his twin sons after him. Nicky and Alex never interact with their grandparents on-screen like the girls have, as Nick and Irene are last seen in season four. Nick re-appears in season three of Fuller House when he comes to take care of Tommy while everyone else goes to Japan for Steve's wedding. Nick mentions to Tommy about going out to find women, so it is assumed that him and Irene are no longer together or she is no longer living.\n  \u2022 Irene Katsopolis (played by Yvonne Wilder, and by Rhoda Gemignani in \"The Return of Grandma\") is Jesse and Pam's mother, the wife of Nick Katsopolis, and maternal grandmother to D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. She often talked about diapering Jesse's \"tushy\", and touched his and other people's \"tushies,\" which made Jesse mad; at other times, she would talk about when Jesse was a kid. She often mentioned how she is older than Nick, and her passion for younger men (which makes Nick feel inferior at times).\n  \u2022 Claire Tanner (portrayed by Alice Hirson, and Doris Roberts) is Danny's mother. She helped Danny raise the girls in the first few months after the death of Danny's wife, Pam, prior to Jesse and Joey moving into the house. She appeared in only three episodes: \"Our Very First Show\" and \"The Return of Grandma\" (as portrayed by Hirson), and in \"Granny Tanny\" (as portrayed by Roberts).\n  \u2022 Teddy (played by Tahj Mowry) is Michelle\u2019s best friend. He first appeared in the season five premiere \"Double Trouble,\" when Michelle meets him on their first day of kindergarten following the advice that Joey told Michelle that the best way to make new friends was by being funny, and does a Bullwinkle impression. He accompanies her when she needs a \"date\" to sneak out and join Danny on a date with Vicky in the season five episode \"Bachelor of the Month\". He is also the one whose house Michelle runs away to in \"The Devil Made Me Do It\" later that season (Tahj Mowry's real-life sisters Tia and Tamera Mowry appear in that episode in a dual role as Teddy's older sister). He moves to Amarillo, Texas in the season six episode \"The Long Goodbye\"; Teddy returns in the season seven episode \"Be Your Own Best Friend\", when his father's job moves him back to San Francisco. He and Michelle even consider trying to be boyfriend and girlfriend in third grade in the season eight episode \"Dateless in San Francisco\", but find that it is no fun for children their age.\n  \u2022 Denise Frazer (played by Jurnee Smollett) is Michelle's best female friend, introduced in the season six episode \"The Long Goodbye\". She replaces Teddy as Michelle's best friend after Teddy moves to Texas. Denise, like Teddy before her, often gets Michelle into trouble. In the season seven episode \"Be Your Own Best Friend,\" Teddy moves back to San Francisco, leaving Michelle to choose between him and Denise for whom to serve as her best friend. Danny makes her understand that it is possible to have more than one best friend. Michelle ultimately forms a trio of friends with Teddy and Denise at the end of that episode. In the season seven episode \"Too Little Richard Too Late,\" it is revealed that Denise's uncle is Little Richard (who guest starred in the episode). Denise does not appear after that episode, having been written out without explanation due to Smollett's role in the short-lived ABC sitcom On Our Own (which aired during the 1994-95 season, concurring with the run of Full House's eighth and final season).\n  \u2022 Aaron Bailey (played by Miko Hughes) is Michelle's recurring and longest running classmate. Introduced in the season three episode \"Bye, Bye Birdie\", he is the typical class bully, who tends to be annoying and rude at times. He pinches Michelle in the season four episode \"A Pinch for a Pinch,\" which results in Jesse telling Michelle to fight back by pinching him in retaliation. When the teacher punishes them, Jesse takes Michelle home, pulling her out of preschool. While that behavior does not continue, his obnoxious ways continue throughout the series. In other episodes, he treats Jesse as either an equal or underlying rival. In addition, he also creates trouble for D.J. and Kimmy when they have boys over while Kimmy is babysitting in season four's \"Girls Just Wanna Have Fun\". Danny even remarks (in season seven) that they are watching Aaron for several days \"until his regular babysitter stops twitching\". He is sometimes seen being nice to Michelle.\n  \u2022 Gia Mahan (played by Marla Sokoloff) is Stephanie's archenemy (beginning with her first appearance in the season seven episode \"Fast Friends\"), who later becomes her best friend (starting with the conclusion of \"Is It True About Stephanie?\" from that same season, but more prominently during season eight). She leads Stephanie into dangerous or not-so-smart situations. Stephanie gets involved in a few wild, irresponsible things because of Gia, such as going to a make-out party planned by her in the season eight episode \"Making Out is Hard to Do\", and (almost) smoking in \"Fast Friends\". Conversely, Stephanie was also a positive influence on Gia. During an unknown time when her parents had been through a divorce, Gia is shown as a cigarette-smoking, rebellious teen with horrible grades. She is two years older than Stephanie, as she was held back in school. Viewers learn (as of \"Making Out is Hard to Do\") that because of Stephanie, Gia has stopped smoking, became more respectful, improved her grades, and lost her inclination to play pranks on other people. Gia becomes the target of put downs at the hands of Michelle in much the same way as Kimmy is targeted by Stephanie. Over time, Michelle becomes quite creative with her insults. Gia reappears in season 2 of Fuller House when Kimmy gets the idea of getting their band \"Girl Talk\" back together. Things don't go well when Gia and D.J. have a hard time getting along. In season 3, it was revealed that Gia has a daughter named Roxanne \u201cRocki\u201d (portrayed by Landry Bender) who is in summer school with Jackson.\n  \u2022 Derek S. Boyd (played by Blake McIver Ewing) is one of Michelle's friends (appearing in eight episodes total throughout seasons six through eight). Michelle first meets Derek in the episode \"The Play's the Thing,\" when he lands the role of Yankee Doodle in their school play, America the Beautiful. Though Michelle is initially jealous of Derek for winning the part over her (due in no small part to the fact that both of her sisters played Yankee Doodle in the same play), she helps him recover from a case of stage-fright, and they eventually become friends. Derek is very educated and well-spoken for a boy of his age, though also a bit on the wimpy side. He also shows signs of being a bit obsessive-compulsive. As shown in several episodes (including in his first appearance), he is also shown to be a very talented singer. In the scene in which he is first introduced, Derek says he blends in with his surroundings.\n  \u2022 Lisa Leeper (played by Kathryn Zaremba) is one of Michelle's friends (featured in six episodes during the eighth season, beginning with \"I've Got a Secret\"); in the episode We Got the Beat,\" Lisa is shown to be an extremely good singer when she sings a duet of \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\" with Derek.\n  \u2022 Nelson Burkhardt (played by Jason Marsden; Hal Sparks in Fuller House) is a love interest for D.J. that is introduced in the season eight premiere \"Comet's Excellent Adventure\". Nelson is a teenager who comes from a very wealthy family, and dates D.J. on-and-off for some time (ironically, it is in his first appearance that D.J. breaks up with him; he ends up going on a date with Kimmy three episodes later in \"I've Got a Secret\"). Not much is revealed about Nelson's background or family, aside from the fact that he is very rich, and often throws and attends big parties on yachts. Though in \"Taking the Plunge,\" he mentions that his cousin, Regina \u2013 with whom he sets Joey up on a date \u2013 is visiting the United States from England. Toward the latter stages of his \"relationship\" with D.J., in \"D.J.'s Choice,\" he gets into a \"tug-of-war\" with Viper to be D.J.'s boyfriend, to which she declines both boys. Nelson shows up to his and D.J.'s 20th High School Reunion in season 2 of Fuller House.\n  \u2022 C.J. Harbenberger (played by Virginia Williams) is Steve's fianc\u00e9e and mother to Max's friend, Rose. C.J. is strikingly similarly to D.J.\n  \u2022 Bobby Popko (played by Isaak Presley) is Jackson's best friend and Ramona's ex boyfriend.\n  \u2022 Taylor (played by Lucas Jaye) is Max's friend who challenges him.\n  \u2022 Rose Harbenberger (played by Mckenna Grace) is C.J.'s daughter, and Max's love interest.\n  \u2022 Rocki (played by Landry Bender) is Gia's daughter who attends summer school with Jackson and is Jackson\u2019s new love interest.\n\nOther characters\n\n  \u2022 Stavros (played by John Stamos in a dual role) is Jesse's swarthy, greasy, woman-crazed Greek look-alike cousin (with minor cosmetic differences in appearance from Jesse, namely Stavros having a mustache, a gap in his teeth, a slightly larger nose than his cousin and a mole on his cheek). Appearing only in the season seven episode \"Kissing Cousins,\" he hits on Becky\u2014despite the fact that she is Jesse's wife\u2014several times during the episode. He is shown to be a con artist; he cheats Joey out of his watch and money during a card game, and tells a fake story about a mudslide that devastated his village in order to pilfer the \"donations\" and leave, to which the family catches on. Jesse expresses his disappointment with the dastardly deeds that Stavros \u2014 who ends up being arrested \u2014 commits.\n  \u2022 Wendy Tanner (played by Darlene Vogel) is Danny's sister, who is an avid animal enthusiast, and works at a zoo. She owns a chimpanzee named Ginger, and is known to have had somewhat of a rivalry with Joey in their childhood, but when she comes back to San Francisco in the season five episode \"Too Much Monkey Business,\" she and Joey have a brief relationship after they both revealed themselves to have had \"secret crushes\" on each other. It is also revealed that she collects exotic souvenirs from around the world. She and Joey date briefly (but she is not seen or mentioned after the episode).\n  \u2022 Iorgos \"Papouli\" Katsopolis (played by Jack Kruschen) is Jesse's Greek grandfather, introduced in the season four episode \"Greek Week\". Papouli is the central to the storyline of the season seven episode \"The Last Dance,\" when he visits San Francisco to see the family and starts to forge a very close relationship with his great-granddaughter Michelle. Later in the episode, Papouli dies of natural causes (as Danny specifically mentions that his heart gave out and he died in his sleep while staying at the house). When Michelle hears about the tragedy after her Honeybee meeting, she becomes very despondent and decides not to go to school, acknowledging that Papouli promised to appear as part of her school assignment and teach her class a Greek dance. Michelle attempts not to show any emotion in front of Jesse, who himself has a hard time coping with Papouli's death. However, when she tells him the truth, Jesse tells Michelle that it is okay to cry in mourning of Papouli, as the two start sobbing and hugging each other. Jesse appears at Michelle's school and accompanies her in performing the dance that Papouli taught her earlier in the episode when she is unable to remember the rest of the dance.\n  \u2022 Mindy Gladstone (played by Beverly Sanders) is Joey's mother. She appears only in the season one episode \"The Return of Grandma,\" although Joey talks about her often during the series, such as when Joey lands a gig opening for Wayne Newton in Las Vegas in the season four episode \"Viva Las Joey\". When Joey was asked by Jesse why he could not invite his mother to come see the show, he claims she is working as Goofy at Walt Disney World.\n  \u2022 Kathy Santoni (played by Anne Marie McEvoy) is a classmate of D.J.'s. While only appearing in four episodes (beginning with season three's \"Back to School Blues\"), Kathy Santoni is mentioned in several episodes by various characters. In the season seven episode \"The Apartment,\" it is revealed that she got married and pregnant at age 16. Kathy shows up to her 20th high school reunion in Fuller House.\n  \u2022 Walter F. Berman (played by Whitby Hertford) is a school friend of Stephanie Tanner. At first, Stephanie disliked him, and went as far as teasing and imitating his resemblance to a duck (which occurs when his lips are pursed). She\u2014along with the rest of the class\u2014even nicknamed him \"Duckface\". However, after following her Uncle Jesse's advice, she learned to appreciate Walter more, even if he was a nerd. This led to Walter briefly considering Stephanie as his \"secret girlfriend\".\n  \u2022 Harry Takayama (played by Nathan Nishiguchi in Full House; Michael Sun Lee in Fuller House) is the first on-screen friend of Stephanie's (appearing in season two, beginning with the episode \"Middle Age Crazy\"). He usually calls her \"Chief\", and she refers to him as her boyfriend\u2014without understanding that term's full meaning (as Stephanie put it in Harry's first appearance, \"you're a boy, and you're my friend; that makes you my boyfriend\"). Stephanie decides to have a pretend wedding with Harry in \"Middle Age Crazy,\" feeling that she is not receiving attention from the rest of the family. His last appearance is in the season three episode \"Nerd For a Day\". In the episode \"Pal Joey,\" Harry becomes infatuated with D.J. after she teaches him a mathematic problem using oranges. Over the years him and Stephanie stayed in touch, and she jokingly refers to him as her \"husband\". In Fuller House, when a thousand roses showed up to the house, Stephanie wonders if Harry sent them. Turns out he didn't send them and is actually getting married.\n  \u2022 Cindy (played by Debra Sandlund) is a girlfriend of Danny's, appearing in three episodes during season four, beginning with the episode \"Terror in Tanner Town\". It is revealed that she works as a dry cleaner in that episode, and she first met Danny when he comes to the store as a customer. She also has a precocious and troublesome 10-year-old son named Rusty.\n  \u2022 Rusty (portrayed by Jordan Christopher Michael) is the son of Cindy, Danny's girlfriend in season four, first appearing in \"Terror in Tanner Town\". Rusty has a penchant of performing mischievous antics and practical jokes that wreak havoc on the family. During a crazy prank that Rusty started in \"Secret Admirer,\" he misunderstood D.J.'s words and believed that she was romantically interested in him. This caused him to develop a brief crush on her, but quickly got over it when the other members of the family caught on to his prank, in which he sent a letter intended to D.J. (without signing his name on it) that ends up being circulated to the rest of the family as well as Kimmy and Cindy, resulting in everyone mistakenly believing that someone else in the group was interested in them. He was last seen in \"Stephanie Plays the Field,\" training for baseball with Stephanie.\n  \u2022 Ricky (played by R. J. Williams in the season four episodes \"Secret Admirer and \"Happy New Year\") is the neighborhood paperboy whom D.J. had a crush on.\n  \u2022 Brett Davis (played by Sean Fox in season four, introduced in the episode \"Stephanie Plays the Field\") is a classmate and friend of Stephanie's who plays Little League Baseball for the Cubs. He is supposedly Stephanie Tanner's first love.\n  \u2022 Viper (played by David Lipper) is a guitarist in Jesse's band, Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets during season eight. He is introduced in \"To Joey, With Love\", when he auditions for the band in competition with Danny, who is revealed to be as equally excellent at guitar. He begins to date D.J. in the episode \"On the Road Again,\" much to the initial dismay of Danny and Jesse, the latter of whom briefly kicks him out of the band. He is revealed to have insecurities about not going to college in the episode \"Claire and Present Danger\", and ends up twisting everything D.J. says to where she puts him down. He eventually dumps her in \"D.J.'s Choice,\" because he thinks things are moving too fast for him and wants space. He then changes his mind and begs her to take him back. This causes problems as D.J. starts to date her old boyfriend Nelson again. D.J. cannot decide between the two and asks for time to think. Unfortunately, neither one gives her space and begin to fight over her. D.J. then says that if they are going to force her to choose, then she would not choose either one and dumps them both. Viper showed up to D.J.'s 20th high school reunion even though it's not his reunion. He tries to win her back, and again ends up fighting over her with Nelson.\n  \u2022 Caroline (portrayed by (Dorothy Parke) is a friend of Danny's, who was first seen in the season one episode \"Sea Cruise,\" as one of the dates who appear while Danny, Joey, and Jesse go on a fishing trip on a boat. She also appeared in the episode \"The Big Three-O\" six episodes later.\n  \u2022 Adrianna (played by Fabiana Udenio) is Jesse's one-time girlfriend in the season one episode \"Daddy's Home\".\n  \u2022 Corinna Spicer (played by Elizabeth Keifer) is a student in Jesse's \"private music class,\" whom Jesse was interested in, in the season one episode \"Jesse's Girl\". At the end of the episode, she winds up with Joey instead.\n  \u2022 Jill (Darcy DeMoss) is one of Jesse's early girlfriends. She and Jesse date when there is no one else to date, according to her.\n  \u2022 Duane Moffat (played by Scott Menville) is Kimmy Gibbler's boyfriend in season eight (first appearing in the episode \"Taking the Plunge\"), whom she considered marrying in Reno. He is often airheaded like Kimmy is, and is mostly quiet and known for saying \"whatever\" in a surfer-like accent. One thing is known about him is that he loves the works of William Shakespeare. In part one of \"Michelle Rides Again,\" he passionately recites lines from Shakespeare's 18th sonnet. Duane makes an appearance at their 20th high school reunion. Duane has become a motivational speaker.\n  \u2022 Mrs. Carruthers (played by Marcia Wallace) is a neighbor of the Tanners (appearing in seasons seven and eight), who has a massive (but obviously one-sided) crush on Joey, as evidenced by her constant \"chasing\" him down, and his subsequent attempts to \"hide\" from her and reject her advances. She collaborates with Kimmy Gibbler to form a Neighborhood Watch program known as the \"Crime Catchers\" in season seven's \"The Bicycle Thief\". She also is known to \"dominate\" the PTA elections at Michelle's school, Frasier Street Elementary, every year, inspiring Joey to run for PTA president in a fair election in \"Too Little Richard Too Late,\" to which he is ultimately disqualified due to Mrs. Carruthers pointing out that PTA rules require that the president must be a parent of a Frasier Street student. However, Mrs. Carruthers offers Joey the opportunity to be her vice president instead, a position he accepts.\n  \u2022 Pamela \"Pam\" Katsopolis Tanner (portrayed by Christie Houser) is Danny's wife, Jesse's sister, and the mother of D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle, who was an unseen character, except in the form of a home video shot when she and Danny brought Michelle home from the hospital in the season two episode \"Goodbye Mr. Bear\". She was killed by a drunk driver before the start of the first series (according to D.J. in the eighth-season episode \"Under the Influence\"). She has been described as traits her children have: always smiling (Michelle), full of energy (Stephanie), and always did her best at everything (D.J.).\n  \u2022 Teri Tanner (played by Eva LaRue), is Danny's second wife. In the Fuller House season three episode \"Declarations of Independence\", Danny reveals that he and Teri got divorced. He mentions that they barely knew each other when they got married.\n  \u2022 Tommy Fuller Sr. (played by unknown actor), is D.J.'s husband and the father of Jackson, Max, and Tommy Jr., who was also an unseen character, except in the form of a photograph in the boy's room in the season one episode \"Secrets, Lies, and Firetrucks\". He died in the line of duty while being a firefighter before the start of the second series (according to D.J. in the series premiere \"Our Very First Show Again\"). His sons have been described having the same nice smile.\n  \u2022 Dr. Fred Harmon (played by Robin Thomas) is Matt's father, and the owner of Harmon Pet Care. When he retires he has Matt and D.J. take over the business, and moves to India.\n  \u2022 Ginger Gladstone (played by Laura Bell Bundy) is Joey's wife who is a magician.\n  \u2022 Lewis Gladstone (played by Finn Carr) is Joey's oldest son.\n  \u2022 Joan Gladstone (played by Kingston Foster) is Joey's youngest daughter.\n  \u2022 Jerry Gladstone (played by Noah Salsbury Lipson) is Joey's youngest son.\n  \u2022 Phyllis Gladstone (played by Ruby Rose Turner) is Joey's oldest daughter.\n  \u2022 Mankowski (played by Trevor Larcom) is one of Jackson's friends.\n  \u2022 Chad Brad Bradley (played by Tanner Buchanan) is the captain of Bayview's dance team. When Ramona tries out for the school's dance team, she shows him up resulting in him cutting her. He eventually lets her on the team.\n\nGuest stars\n\nSeason one\n  \u2022 Kirk Cameron \u2013 Episode 18: \"Just One of the Guys\", as Steve, Danny's nephew and the girls' cousin. He is the real-life brother of Candace Cameron Bure (Kirk's eventual wife and Candace's sister-in-law Chelsea Noble appears in the following episode \"The Seven-Month Itch\" as Jesse's girlfriend Samantha).\n  \u2022 Phyllis Diller \u2013 Episode 16: \"But Seriously, Folks\". Joey was getting ready to start his set at a comedy club but the host spots Phyllis and invites her onstage resulting in Joey not getting to perform.\n  \u2022 Belita Moreno \u2013 Episode 12: \"Our Very First Promo\" as Ronnie Gardner\nSeason two\n  \u2022 The Beach Boys (as themselves) \u2013 Episode 16: \"Beach Boy Bingo\". They also appear in season three, episode 24: \"Our Very First Telethon\", and season five's \"Captain Video\" (parts 1 and 2) in the \"Forever\" music video. The first time they appeared, they were supposed to be guests on Wake Up, San Francisco, but had to cancel their appearance due to fog preventing their plane from landing. D.J. then wins a telephone contest to get tickets to their concert, but she has trouble deciding whom to take with her. In the end, the whole family ends up going and even joins the band on stage.\n  \u2022 Jonathan Brandis \u2013 Episode 11: \"A Little Romance\" as Michael Monford\nSeason three\n  \u2022 Bobbie Eakes \u2013 Episode 3: \"Breaking Up is Hard to Do (in 22 Minutes)\" as Diane\n  \u2022 Scott Baio \u2013 Episode 9: \"Dr. Dare Rides Again\" as Pete Bianco, an old band mate of Jesse\u2019s.\nSeason four\n  \u2022 Frankie Avalon \u2013 Episode 23: \"Joey Goes Hollywood\". Joey films a TV pilot with Frankie and Annette.\n  \u2022 Annette Funicello \u2013 Episode 23: \"Joey Goes Hollywood\"\n  \u2022 Erika Eleniak \u2013 Episode 9: \"One Last Kiss\" as Carrie Fowler. Jesse's high school girlfriend.\n  \u2022 Wayne Newton \u2013 Episode 7: \"Viva Las Joey\". Joey opened for Newton in Las Vegas.\n  \u2022 Jaleel White \u2013Episode 16: \"Stephanie Gets Framed\". He appears as his character Steve Urkel from Family Matters (which was produced by Full House's production companies Miller-Boyett Productions and Lorimar Television). Urkel happens to be a cousin of D.J.'s friend Julie (played by Tasha Scott, who was also White's love interest in the 1990 TV movie Camp Cucamonga). During his visit, he helped and gave advice to Stephanie Tanner, because she had to get reading glasses. Stephanie is reluctant because of how reading glasses will make her look, but Steve tells her \"the trick is to make them laugh with you before they laugh at you.\"\nSeason five\n  \u2022 David Lascher \u2013 Episode 3: \"Take My Sister, Please\" as Rick\n  \u2022 June Lockhart \u2013 Episodes 1 and 2: \"Double Trouble\" and \"Matchmaker Michelle\" as Ms. Wiltrout, Michelle\u2019s kindergarten teacher.\n  \u2022 Whitman Mayo \u2013 Episode 7: \"The Volunteer\" as Eddie Johnson\n  \u2022 Tommy Page \u2013 Episode 16: \"Crushed\". Danny gets Tommy to sing at Stephanie's tenth birthday party.\nSeason six\n  \u2022 Hillary Shepard \u2013 Episodes 4 and 5: \"Radio Days\" and \"Love and Other Tanners\u201d as Julie\n  \u2022 Mark Linn-Baker \u2013 Episode 7: \"Trouble in Twin Town\" as Dick Donaldson, Becky\u2019s rich and obnoxious cousin, who puts down Jesse for not being rich.\n  \u2022 Danielle Fishel \u2013 Episode 10 and 17: \"I'm Not D.J.\" and \"Silence is Not Golden\" as Jennifer P.\n  \u2022 Jennifer Rhodes \u2013 Episodes 11: \"Designing Mothers\" as Liz Larson, Vicky\u2019s mom.\nSeason seven\n  \u2022 Little Richard \u2013 Episode: \"Too Little Richard Too Late\". It is revealed that he is Denise's uncle. Because he was holding a concert in San Francisco, Michelle asks him to perform a concert to help Joey's campaign for PTA president. He accepts, and performs for Joey's campaign. Richard is quite late to the concert, but makes it up to them. He has a dislike to Jesse after Jesse's comment about him putting a punch bowl on his head at family gatherings.\n  \u2022 Suzanne Somers \u2013 Episode 19: \"Love on the Rocks\"\n  \u2022 Ben Stein \u2013 Episode: \"Another Opening, Another No Show\" as Elliott Warner\n  \u2022 Vanna White \u2013 Episode 15: \"The Test\"\nSeason eight\n  \u2022 Andrea Abbate as Gia's mother Claire Mahan and Danny's new girlfriend\n  \u2022 Kareem Abdul-Jabbar \u2013 Episode 16: \"Air Jesse\"\n  \u2022 Mickey Rooney - Episode 11: \"Arrest Ye Merry Gentlemen\" as Mr. Dreghorn\n  \u2022 Frankie Valli \u2013 Episode 12: \"D.J.'s Choice\"\n  \u2022 Barry Williams \u2013 Episode: \"Making Out is Hard to Do\", as himself replacing Jesse as lead singer of The Rippers\nFuller House\n  \u2022 Maksim Chmerkovskiy \u2013 Episode 1.3: \"Funner House\"\n  \u2022 Valentin Chmerkovskiy \u2013 Episode 1.3: \"Funner House\"\n  \u2022 Hunter Pence \u2013 Episode 1.10: \"A Giant Leap\". Hunter is a right fielder for the San Francisco Giants who briefly dates Stephanie but when it is revealed that she is the \"mystery blond\" who is causing his worsening batting streak, Stephanie breaks up because she can't take the pressure of dating a famous athlete. She dumps him in front of the entire stadium after singing \"Take Me Out to the Ballgame\". He hits a homer after the breakup.\n  \u2022 Alan Thicke \u2013 Episode 2.2: \"Mom Interference\" as Mike. He is the grandfather of Matt's girlfriend Crystal.\n  \u2022 Bruno Tonioli \u2013 Episode 2.5: \"Doggy Daddy\" as Guiseppe Pignoli, Ramona's famous Italian dance coach.\n  \u2022 New Kids on the Block \u2013 Episode 2.10: \"New Kids in the House\". When Stephanie discovers the New Kids on the Block tickets Kimmy got for D.J.'s Birthday are counterfeit, they make it up by bringing the band by the house.\n  \u2022 Lonzo Ball \u2013 Episode 3.18: \"Here Comes the Sun\" as himself. Lonzo comes to town to try to convince Steve to be the Lakers\u2019 foot doctor.\n\nReferences\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Adam I. Lapidus (writer) John Tracy (director) (December 6, 1994). \"Under the Influence\". Full House. Season 8. Episode 10. American Broadcasting Company.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.ibtimes.com\/fuller-house-cast-member-candace-cameron-bure-discusses-playing-mom-spinoff-teases-2055222\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFull House\n  \u2022 Characters\n    \u2022 Michelle Tanner\n  \u2022 Episodes\n    \u2022 season 1\n    \u2022 2\n    \u2022 3\n    \u2022 4\n    \u2022 5\n    \u2022 6\n    \u2022 7\n    \u2022 8\n  \u2022 Fuller House\n    \u2022 episodes\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_Full_House_and_Fuller_House_characters&oldid=836674248\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1980s-related lists\n  \u2022 1990s-related lists\n  \u2022 2010s-related lists\n  \u2022 Fictional characters from San Francisco\n  \u2022 Full House\n  \u2022 Lists of American sitcom television characters\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism\n  \u2022 Articles that may contain original research from February 2009\n  \u2022 All articles that may contain original research\n  \u2022 Articles with a promotional tone from March 2014\n  \u2022 All articles with a promotional tone\n  \u2022 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from March 2014\n  \u2022 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from May 2014\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing style editing from September 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing style editing\n  \u2022 Articles with multiple maintenance issues\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 16 April 2018, at 05:19.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5948633839566601713","title":"Gulf of Mexico","text":"Gulf of Mexico\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nGulf of Mexico\nFixed gulf map.png\nBathymetry of the Gulf of Mexico\nLocation American Mediterranean Sea\nCoordinates 25\u00b0N 90\u00b0W\ufeff \/ \ufeff25\u00b0N 90\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 25; -90\ufeff (Gulf of Mexico)Coordinates: 25\u00b0N 90\u00b0W\ufeff \/ \ufeff25\u00b0N 90\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 25; -90\ufeff (Gulf of Mexico)\nRiver sources Rio Grande, Mississippi River\nOcean\/sea sources Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea\nBasin\u00a0countries United States\nMexico\nCuba\nMax. width 1,500\u00a0km (932.06\u00a0mi)\nSurface area 1,550,000\u00a0km2 (600,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi)\nSettlements Houston, New Orleans, Tampa, Havana, Campeche, Mobile, Gulfport, Tampico, Key West\nGalveston harbor by Verner Moore White\nShip and oil rigs in the Gulf\n\nThe Gulf of Mexico (Spanish: Golfo de M\u00e9xico) is an ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean,[1] largely surrounded by the North American continent.[2] It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U.S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, which are often referred to as the \"Third Coast\" in comparison with the U.S. Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the \"south coast\", in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the \"north coast.\" One of the gulf's seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin.\n\nThe Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics.[3] The Gulf's basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles (1,500\u00a0km; 930\u00a0mi) wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean (with which it forms the American Mediterranean Sea) via the Yucat\u00e1n Channel between Mexico and Cuba. With the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2 (615,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi). Almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters (550 quadrillion Imperial gallons, 660 quadrillion US gallons, 2.5 million km3 or 600,000 cu mi).[4]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Extent\n  \u2022 2 Geology\n  \u2022 3 History\n    \u2022 3.1 European exploration\n  \u2022 4 Shipwrecks\n  \u2022 5 Geography\n    \u2022 5.1 2006 earthquake\n    \u2022 5.2 Maritime boundary delimitation agreements\n  \u2022 6 Biota\n  \u2022 7 Pollution\n    \u2022 7.1 Ixtoc I explosion and oil spill\n    \u2022 7.2 Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill\n    \u2022 7.3 Minor oil spills\n      \u2022 7.3.1 Brutus oil spill\n  \u2022 8 See also\n  \u2022 9 References\n  \u2022 10 External links\n\nExtent[edit]\n\nThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as follows:[5]\n\nA line leaving Cape Catoche Light (21\u00b037\u2032N 87\u00b004\u2032W\ufeff \/ \ufeff21.617\u00b0N 87.067\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 21.617; -87.067) with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83\u00b0W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24\u00b035'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82\u00b035'W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at eastern end of Florida Bay, all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf.\n\nGeology[edit]\n\nSediment in the Gulf of Mexico\n\nThe consensus among geologists[3][6][7] who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the Late Triassic, the area now occupied by the Gulf of Mexico consisted of dry land, which included continental crust that now underlies Yucat\u00e1n, within the middle of the large supercontinent of Pangea. This land lay south of a continuous mountain range that extended from north-central Mexico, through the Marathon Uplift in West Texas and the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma, and to Alabama where it linked directly to the Appalachian Mountains. It was created by the collision of continental plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range was breached in Late Cretaceous times by the formation of the Mississippi Embayment.[8][9]\n\nGeologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea.[10] The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time, continental crust was stretched and thinned. This thinning created a broad zone of thick transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting, and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness, 35 kilometers, of normal continental crust. It was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the subsiding basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a restricted basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased.[6][7][11][12]\n\nDuring the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the basin occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence was the result of a combination of crustal stretching, cooling, and loading. Initially, the combination of crustal stretching and cooling caused about 5\u20137\u00a0km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. Because subsidence occurred faster than sediment could fill it, the Gulf of Mexico expanded and deepened.[6][12][13]\n\nLater, loading of the crust within the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers of sediments during the rest of the Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its current position about 10\u201320\u00a0km below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, thick clastic wedges built out the continental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the Gulf of Mexico.[6][12][13]\n\nTo the east, the stable Florida platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucat\u00e1n platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has characterized the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the Early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico.[14]\n\nIn 2002 geologist Michael Stanton published a speculative essay suggesting an impact origin for the Gulf of Mexico at the close of the Permian, which could have caused the Permian\u2013Triassic extinction event.[15] However, Gulf Coast geologists do not regard this hypothesis as having any credibility. Instead they overwhelmingly accept plate tectonics, not an asteroid impact, as having created the Gulf of Mexico as illustrated by papers authored by Kevin Mickus and others.[3][7][12][16] This hypothesis is not to be confused with the Chicxulub Crater, a large impact crater on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula.\n\nToday, the Gulf of Mexico has the following 7 main areas:[14]\n\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico basin, which contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone.\n  \u2022 Northeast Gulf of Mexico, which extends from a point east of the Mississippi River Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of Apalachee Bay.\n  \u2022 South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope, which extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas.\n  \u2022 Campeche Bank, which extends from the Yucat\u00e1n Straits in the east to the Tabasco\u2013Campeche Basin in the west and includes Arrecife Alacran.\n  \u2022 Bay of Campeche, which is an isthmian embayment extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the offshore regions just east of the port of Veracruz.\n  \u2022 Western Gulf of Mexico, which is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north.\n  \u2022 Northwest Gulf of Mexico, which extends from Alabama to the Rio Grande.\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nEuropean exploration[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nFishing boats in Biloxi\nGraph showing the overall water temperature of the Gulf between Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Although Katrina cooled waters in its path by up to 4 \u00b0C, they had rebounded by the time of Rita's appearance.\n\nAlthough Christopher Columbus was credited with the discovery of the Americas by Europeans, the ships in his four voyages never reached the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, Columbus sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola. The first European exploration of the Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. He followed the coastal land mass of Central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous world map, depicting Cuba as an island, was produced.\n\nIn 1506, Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his effort. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Vel\u00e1zquez de Cu\u00e9llar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518 Vel\u00e1zquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization.\n\nIn 1517, Francisco Hern\u00e1ndez de C\u00f3rdoba discovered the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings and a complex social organization which they recognized as being comparable to those of the Old World; they also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command of Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s, which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico. Hern\u00e1ndez did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Diego Vel\u00e1zquez had given precedence to Grijalva as the captain of the next expedition to Yucat\u00e1n.\n\nIn 1523, \u00c1ngel de Villafa\u00f1e sailed toward Mexico City, but was shipwrecked en route along the coast of Padre Island, Texas, in 1554. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and immediately sent Villafa\u00f1e marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafa\u00f1e traveled to P\u00e1nuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which had already been visited from that community. He arrived in time to greet Garc\u00eda de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team labored until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, in combination with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, gave rise to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and more quickly rescue castaways. As a result, the expedition of Trist\u00e1n de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559.\n\nOn December 11, 1526, Charles V granted P\u00e1nfilo de Narv\u00e1ez a license to claim what is now the Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narv\u00e1ez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along the coast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for two days looking for a great harbor the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known of it.\n\nIn 1697, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville sailed for France and was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana which the English coveted. Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on October 24, 1698. On January 25, 1699, Iberville reached Santa Rosa Island in front of Pensacola founded by the Spanish; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island, later renamed Dauphin Island. He cast anchor between Cat Island and Ship Island; and on February 13, 1699, he went to the mainland, Biloxi, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville.[17] On May 1, 1699, he completed a fort on the north-east side of the Bay of Biloxi, a little to the rear of what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi. This fort was known as Fort Maurepas or Old Biloxi. A few days later, on May 4, Pierre Le Moyne sailed for France leaving his teenage brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, as second in command to the French commandant.\n\nShipwrecks[edit]\n\nThe Mardi Gras shipwreck around the early-19th century about 35 miles off the coast of Louisiana in 4,000 feet (1220 meters) of water. She is believed to have been a privateer or trader. The shipwreck, whose real identity remains a mystery, lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In May 2007, an expedition, led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with the Minerals Management Service (now BOEM), was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation ever attempted at that time to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for eventual public display in the Louisiana State Museum. As part of the project educational outreach Nautilus Productions in partnership with BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network[18] and Veolia Environmental produced a one-hour HD documentary[19] about the project, short videos for public viewing and provided video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was an integral part of this outreach and used extensively in the Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck documentary.[20]\n\nOn July 30, 1942 the Robert E. Lee, captained by William C. Heath, was torpedoed by the German submarine\u00a0U-166. She was sailing southeast of the entrance to the Mississippi River when the explosion destroyed the #3 hold, vented through the B and C decks and damaged the engines, the radio compartment and the steering gear. After the attack she was under escort by the USS PC-566, captained by LCDR Herbert G. Claudius, en route to New Orleans. The USS PC-566 began dropping depth charges on a sonar contact, sinking the U-166. The badly damaged Robert E. Lee first listed to port then to starboard and finally sank within about 15 minutes of the attack. One officer, nine crewmen and 15 passengers were lost. Ironically the passengers aboard the Robert E. Lee were primarily survivors of previous torpedo attacks by German U-boats.[21] The wreck's precise location was discovered during the C & C Marine survey that located the U-166.\n\nThe German submarine U-166 was a Type IXC U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. The submarine was laid down on December 6, 1940 at the Seebeckwerft (part of Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau AG, Deschimag) at Weserm\u00fcnde (modern Bremerhaven) as yard number 705, launched on November 1, 1941 and commissioned on March 23, 1942 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Hans-G\u00fcnther Kuhlmann. After training with the 4th U-boat Flotilla, U-166 was transferred to the 10th U-boat Flotilla for front-line service on June 1, 1942. The U-boat sailed on only two war patrols and sank four ships totalling 7,593\u00a0gross register tons\u00a0(GRT).[22] She was sunk on July 30, 1942 in Gulf of Mexico.[23]\n\nIn 2001 the wreck of U-166 was located in 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of water, less than two miles from where it had attacked the Robert E. Lee. An archaeological survey of the seafloor prior to construction of a natural gas pipeline led to the discoveries by C & C Marine archaeologists Robert A. Church and Daniel J. Warren. The sonar contacts consisted of two large sections lying approximately 500 feet apart at either end of a debris field that indicated the presence of a U-boat.[24]\n\nGeography[edit]\n\nGulf beach near Sabine Pass\nThe Mississippi River Watershed is the largest drainage basin of the Gulf of Mexico Watershed.[25]\nMap of northern part of Gulf of Mexico\nThe shaded relief map of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean area.[26][27]\n\nThe Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the Gulf coastline spans 1,680 miles (2,700\u00a0km), receiving water from 33 major rivers that drain 31 states.[28] The Gulf's southwestern and southern shores lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucat\u00e1n, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. The Mexican portion of the Gulf coastline spans 1,743 miles (2,805\u00a0km). On its southeast quadrant the Gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves of Yucat\u00e1n and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid.[29] River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone.\n\nThe Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf, as a continuation of the Caribbean Current-Yucat\u00e1n Current-Loop Current system. Other circulation features include the anticyclonic gyres which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westward where they eventually dissipate, and a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche. The Bay of Campeche in Mexico constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the Mississippi River and Rio Grande in the northern gulf, and the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach.\n\nThe Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin. The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, most notably at the Florida and Yucat\u00e1n Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism.\n\nThe gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive human death and other destruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water from the depths and making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow in its wake (warm water being one of the preconditions necessary for their formation). However, the Gulf is shallower; when a hurricane passes over the water temperature may drop but it soon rebounds and becomes capable of supporting another tropical storm.[30]\n\nThe Gulf is considered aseismic; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter magnitude scale). Earthquakes may be caused by interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust.[31]\n\n2006 earthquake[edit]\n\nMain article: 2006 Gulf of Mexico earthquake\n\nOn September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred about 250 miles (400\u00a0km) west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida, around 10:56 AM EDT. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida in the Southeastern United States. There were no reports of damage or injuries.[32][33] Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida.[34] The earthquake was described by the USGS as an intraplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region.[34] According to the September 11, 2006 issue of The Tampa Tribune, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy, 20 miles (32\u00a0km) northwest of Tallahassee\n\nMaritime boundary delimitation agreements[edit]\n\nCuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone of Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 26, 1976.\n\nCuba and United States of America: Maritime boundary agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, of December 16, 1977.\n\nMexico and United States of America: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 23, 1970; Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 4, 1978, and Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the United Mexican States on the delimitation of the continental shelf in the Western Gulf of Mexico beyond 200 nautical miles (370\u00a0km), of June 9, 2000.\n\nOn December 13, 2007, Mexico submitted information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) regarding the extension of Mexico's continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.[35] Mexico sought an extension of its continental shelf in the Western Polygon based on international law, UNCLOS, and bilateral treaties with the United States, in accordance with Mexico's domestic legislation. On March 13, 2009, the CLCS accepted Mexico's arguments for extending its continental shelf up to 350 NM into the Western Polygon. Since this would extend Mexico's continental shelf well into territory claimed by the United States, however, Mexico and the U.S. would need to enter a bilateral agreement based on international law that delimits their respective claims.\n\n[show]\nPlaces adjacent to Gulf of Mexico\n\u00a0Texas \u00a0United States\n\u00a0Louisiana \u2022 \u00a0Mississippi \u2022 \u00a0Alabama\n\u00a0Florida\n\u00a0Mexico\n\u00a0Tamaulipas\nAtlantic Ocean\n\u00a0 Gulf of Mexico \u00a0\n\u00a0Veracruz \u00a0Mexico\n\u00a0Tabasco \u2022 \u00a0Campeche \u2022 \u00a0Yucat\u00e1n \u2022 \u00a0Quintana Roo\n\u00a0Cuba\nCaribbean\n\nBiota[edit]\n\nVarious biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and nonchemosynthetic communities such as bacteria and other micro \u2013 benthos, meiofauna, macrofauna, and megafauna (larger organisms such as crabs, sea pens, crinoids, and demersal fish and cetaceans including endangered ones) are living in the Gulf of Mexico.[36] Recently, resident Bryde's whales within the gulf were classified as an endemic, unique subspecies and making them as one of the most endangered whales in the world.[37] The Gulf of Mexico yields more finfish, shrimp, and shellfish annually than the south and mid-Atlantic, Chesapeake, and New England areas combined.[4]\n\nThe Smithsonian Institution Gulf of Mexico holdings are expected to provide an important baseline of understanding for future scientific studies on the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.[38] In Congressional testimony, Dr. Jonathan Coddington, Associate Director of Research and Collections at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, provides a detailed overview of the Gulf collections and their sources which Museum staff have made available on an online map. The samples were collected for years by the former Minerals Management Service (renamed the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement) to help predict the potential impacts of future oil\/gas explorations. Since 1979, the specimens have been deposited in the national collections of the National Museum of Natural History.[39]\n\nPollution[edit]\n\nDead zone in the Gulf of Mexico\n\nThe major environmental threats to the Gulf are agricultural runoff and oil drilling.\n\nThere are frequent \"red tide\" algae blooms[40] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast, from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida.\n\nThe Gulf contains a hypoxic dead zone that runs east-west along the Texas-Louisiana coastline. In July 2008, researchers reported that between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size and now stretches from near Galveston, Texas, to near Venice, Louisiana. It is now about 8,000 square miles (21,000\u00a0km2), nearly the record.[41] Poor agricultural practices in the northern portion of the Gulf of Mexico have led to a tremendous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in neighboring marine ecosystems, which has resulted in algae blooms and a lack of available oxygen. Occurrences of masculinization and estrogen suppression were observed as a result. An October 2007 study of the Atlantic croaker found a disproportioned sex ratio of 61% males to 39% females in hypoxic Gulf sites. This was compared with a 52% to 48% male-female ratio found in reference sites, showing an impairment of reproductive output for fish populations inhabiting hypoxic coastal zones.[42]\n\nThere are 27,000 abandoned oil and gas wells beneath the Gulf. These have generally not been checked for potential environmental problems.[43]\n\nIxtoc I explosion and oil spill[edit]\n\nMain articles: Ixtoc I and Ixtoc I oil spill\n\nIn June 1979, the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout leading to a catastrophic explosion, which resulted in a massive oil spill that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This was ranked as the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.\n\nDeepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill[edit]\n\nMain articles: Deepwater Horizon explosion and Deepwater Horizon oil spill\n\nOn April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about 40 miles (64\u00a0km) off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion; it sank a day-and-a-half later.[44] It was in the process of being sealed with cement for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems.[43] Although initial reports indicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24, it was claimed by BP that approximately 1,000 barrels (160\u00a0m3) of oil per day were issuing from the wellhead, about 1-mile (1.6\u00a0km) below the surface on the ocean floor.[45] On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately 5,000 barrels (790\u00a0m3) per day, five times the original estimate, were pouring into the Gulf from the wellhead.[46] The resulting oil slick quickly expanded to cover hundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing a serious threat to marine life and adjacent coastal wetlands, and to the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen.[47] Coast Guard Rear Adm. Sally Brice O'Hare stated that the U.S. government will be \"employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns\" to combat the oil spill. By May 1, 2010, the oil spill cleanup efforts were underway, but hampered by rough seas and the \"tea like\" consistency of the oil. Cleanup operations were resumed after conditions became favorable. On May 27, 2010, The USGS had revised the estimate of the leak from 5,000 barrels per day (790\u00a0m3\/d) to 12,000\u201319,000 barrels per day (3,000\u00a0m3\/d)[48] an increase from earlier estimates. On July 15, 2010, BP announced that the leak stopped for the first time in 88 days.\n\nIn July 2015 BP reached an $18.7bn settlement with the US government, the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, as well as 400 local authorities. To date BP's cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic damages and penalties has reached $54bn.[49]\n\nMinor oil spills[edit]\n\nAccording to the National Response Center, the oil industry has thousands of minor accidents in the Gulf of Mexico every year.[50]\n\nBrutus oil spill[edit]\n\nOn May 12, 2016, a release of oil from subsea infrastructure on Shell's Brutus oil rig released 2,100 barrels of oil. This leak created a visible 2 mile by 13 mile oil slick in the sea about 97 miles south of Port Fourchon, Louisiana, according to the U.S. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.[50]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\nCantarell Field\n  \u2022 Brine pool\n  \u2022 Charlotte Harbor Estuary, Florida\n  \u2022 Gulf Coast\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico Foundation\n  \u2022 Hypoxia\n  \u2022 Jack 2 (a test well in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico)\n  \u2022 Orca Basin\n  \u2022 Outer Continental Shelf\n  \u2022 Territorial evolution of the Caribbean\n\nUS Gulf of Mexico Protraction areas\n\n  \u2022 Atwater Valley\n  \u2022 East Cameron\n  \u2022 Eugene Island\n  \u2022 Garden Banks\n  \u2022 Green Canyon\n  \u2022 Keathley Canyon\n  \u2022 Mississippi Canyon\n  \u2022 Sigsbee Escarpment\n  \u2022 South Marsh Island\n  \u2022 Walker Ridge\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.deepseawaters.com\/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Gulf of Mexico\". Geographic Names Information System. January 1, 2000. Retrieved July 8, 2010.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c Huerta, A.D., and D.L. Harry (2012) Wilson cycles, tectonic inheritance, and rifting of the North American Gulf of Mexico continental margin. Geosphere. 8(1):GES00725.1, first published on March 6, 2012, doi:10.1130\/GES00725.1\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b \"General Facts about the Gulf of Mexico\". epa.gov. Retrieved December 27, 2006.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition\" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved February 7, 2010.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Salvador, A. (1991) Origin and development of the Gulf of Mexico basin, in A. Salvador, ed., p. 389-444, The Gulf of Mexico Basin: The Geology of North America, v. J., Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Stern, R.J., and W.R. Dickinson (2010) The Gulf of Mexico is a Jurassic backarc basin. Geosphere. 6(6):739\u2013754.\n  8. Jump up ^ Van Arsdale, R. B. (2009) Adventures Through Deep Time: The Central Mississippi River Valley and Its Earthquakes. Special Paper no. 455, Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. 107 pp.\n  9. Jump up ^ Cox, R. T., and R. B. Van Arsdale (2002) The Mississippi Embayment, North America: a first order continental structure generated by the Cretaceous superplume mantle event. Journal of Geodynamics. 34:163\u2013176.\n  10. Jump up ^ Zell,P., Stinnesbeck, W., Beckmann,S., (2016). \"Late Jurassic aptychi from the La Caja Formation of northeastern Mexico\" (PDF). Bolet\u00edn de la Sociedad Geol\u00f3gica Mexicana. 68: 515\u2013536.\u00a0CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)\n  11. Jump up ^ Buffler, R. T., 1991, Early Evolution of the Gulf of Mexico Basin, in D. Goldthwaite, ed., pp. 1\u201315, Introduction to Central Gulf Coast Geology, New Orleans Geological Society, New Orleans, Louisiana.\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Galloway, W. E., 2008, Depositional evolution of the Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin. in K.J. Hsu, ed., pp. 505\u2013549, The Sedimentary Basins of the United States and Canada, Sedimentary Basins of the World. v. 5, Elsevier, The Netherlands.\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Sawyer, D. S., R. T. Buffler, and R. H. Pilger, Jr., 1991, The crust under the Gulf of Mexico basin, in A. Salvador, ed., pp. 53\u201372, The Gulf of Mexico Basin: The Geology of North America, v. J., Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b gulfbase.org\n  15. Jump up ^ Stanton, M. S., 2002, Is the Gulf's Origin Heaven Sent? AAPG Explorer (Dec. 2002) American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa Oklahoma.\n  16. Jump up ^ Mickus, K., R. J. Stern2, G. R. Keller, and E. Y. Anthony (2009) Potential field evidence for a volcanic rifted margin along the Texas Gulf Coast. Journal of Geology. v. 37, p. 387-390.\n  17. Jump up ^ Kevin Knight (2009). \"Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville\". newadvent.org. Retrieved May 8, 2009.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"FPAN Home\". Florida Public Archaeology.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck\". Nautilus Productions.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck Documentary\". MUA.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Helgason, Gu\u00f0mundur. \"Robert E. Lee\". German U-boats of World War II \u2013 uboat.net. Retrieved August 1, 2015.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Helgason, Gu\u00f0mundur. \"U-166\". German U-boats of World War II \u2013 uboat.net. Retrieved July 31, 2015.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \"Historic Shipwrecks in the Gulf of Mexico\". gomr.mms.gov. Archived from the original on October 17, 2008. Retrieved February 22, 2010.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Daniel J. Warren, Robert A. Church. \"The Discovery of U \u2013 166\u00a0: Rewriting History with New Technology\" (PDF). Offshore Technology Conference. Retrieved July 31, 2015.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Gulf of Mexico Watershed\". EPA.gov. Retrieved December 6, 2010.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289\/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015]\n  27. Jump up ^ Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289\/V5C8276M [access date: March 18, 2015].\n  28. Jump up ^ \"National Water Program Guidance: FY 2005\". epa.gov. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Retrieved January 21, 2007.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ \"Gulf of Mexico\". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved June 26, 2010.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ \"Warm Waters Provide Fuel for Potential Storms\". NASA Earth Observatory. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006. Retrieved May 5, 2006.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ \"Earthquakes in the Gulf of Mexico\". Retrieved December 27, 2006.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ \"Central Florida Feels Quake\". Archived from the original on August 28, 2007. Retrieved December 27, 2006.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Observer News\n  34. ^ Jump up to: a b United States Geological Survey, September 11, 2006 Archived October 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"Mexico's Attempt to Extend its Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles Serves as a Model for the International Community, Mexican Law Review, Volume V, Number 2, Jan.\u2013 June 2013\" (PDF).\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region (November 2006). \"Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2007\u20132012. Western Planning Area Sales 204, 207, 210, 215, and 218. Central Planning Area Sales 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, and 222. Draft Environmental Impact Statement. Volume I: Chapters 1\u20138 and Appendices\". U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans. page 3-27\u20133-34 PDF Archived March 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine..\n  37. Jump up ^ Rosel E. P.. Corkeron P.. Engleby L.. Epperson D.. Mullin D. K.. Soldevilla S. M.. Taylor L. B.. 2016. STATUS REVIEW OF BRYDE\u2019S WHALES (BALAENOPTERA EDENI) IN THE GULF OF MEXICO UNDER THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-692\n  38. Jump up ^ Zongker, Brett (July 21, 2010). \"Smithsonian Holdings to Aid Researchers in the Gulf\". Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 24, 2010. Retrieved July 29, 2010.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Coddington, Jonathan (June 15, 2010). \"Testimony to the Subcommittee on Insular Affairs, Oceans and Wildlife; Committee on Natural Resources; U.S. House of Representatives\" (PDF). [Smithsonian Ocean Portal]. Retrieved July 29, 2010.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ \"The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides\". Retrieved December 27, 2006.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Joel Achenbach, \"A 'Dead Zone' in The Gulf of Mexico: Scientists Say Area That Cannot Support Some Marine Life Is Near Record Size\", Washington Post, July 31, 2008\n  42. Jump up ^ Thomas, Peter; Md Saydur Rahman (2012). \"Extensive Reproductive Disruption, Ovarian Masculinization and Aromatase Suppression in Atlantic Croaker in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone\". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1726): 28\u201338. doi:10.1098\/rspb.2011.0529.\u00a0\n  43. ^ Jump up to: a b Donn, Jeff (July 7, 2010). \"Gulf home to 27,000 abandoned wells\". Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. pp.\u00a01A.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Burning oil rig sinks, setting stage for spill; 11 still missing\", by Kevin McGill and Holbrook Mohr (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 23, 2010\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Well from sunken rig leaking oil\", by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 25, 2010\n  46. Jump up ^ Robertson, Campbell; Kaufman, Leslie (April 28, 2010). \"Size of Spill in Gulf of Mexico Is Larger Than Thought\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Race to plug leaking oil well off La. spurs new tactics\", by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 27, 2010\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Gulf Oil Spill Worst in U.S. History; Drilling Postponed\", by Marianne Lavelle, National Geographic, May 27, 2010\n  49. Jump up ^ Ed Crooks, Christopher Adams,. \"BP: Into uncharted waters\". ft.com. Retrieved August 10, 2015.\u00a0\n  50. ^ Jump up to: a b Chow, Lorraine. \"Shell Oil Spill Dumps Nearly 90,000 Gallons of Crude Into Gulf\". EcoWatch. Retrieved June 6, 2016.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Gulf of Mexico.\n  \u2022 Resource Database for Gulf of Mexico Research\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science\n  \u2022 Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck\n  \u2022 Wikisource-logo.svg\u00a0\"Mexico, Gulf of\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.\u00a0\n  \u2022 \u00a0\"Mexico, Gulf of\". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Bathymetry of the Northern Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean East of Florida United States Geological Survey\n  \u2022 The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe written by Thomas Kitchin, 1778, in which Kitchin discusses, in chapter 1, why the Gulf should have been called the \"West Indian Sea.\"\n  \u2022 BP Oil Spill, NPR\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nEarth's oceans and seas\nArctic Ocean\n  \u2022 Amundsen Gulf\n  \u2022 Barents Sea\n  \u2022 Beaufort Sea\n  \u2022 Chukchi Sea\n  \u2022 East Siberian Sea\n  \u2022 Greenland Sea\n  \u2022 Gulf of Boothia\n  \u2022 Kara Sea\n  \u2022 Laptev Sea\n  \u2022 Lincoln Sea\n  \u2022 Prince Gustav Adolf Sea\n  \u2022 Pechora Sea\n  \u2022 Queen Victoria Sea\n  \u2022 Wandel Sea\n  \u2022 White Sea\nAtlantic Ocean\n  \u2022 Adriatic Sea\n  \u2022 Aegean Sea\n  \u2022 Alboran Sea\n  \u2022 Archipelago Sea\n  \u2022 Argentine Sea\n  \u2022 Baffin Bay\n  \u2022 Balearic Sea\n  \u2022 Baltic Sea\n  \u2022 Bay of Biscay\n  \u2022 Bay of Bothnia\n  \u2022 Bay of Campeche\n  \u2022 Bay of Fundy\n  \u2022 Black Sea\n  \u2022 Bothnian Sea\n  \u2022 Caribbean Sea\n  \u2022 Celtic Sea\n  \u2022 English Channel\n  \u2022 Foxe Basin\n  \u2022 Greenland Sea\n  \u2022 Gulf of Bothnia\n  \u2022 Gulf of Finland\n  \u2022 Gulf of Lion\n  \u2022 Gulf of Guinea\n  \u2022 Gulf of Maine\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico\n  \u2022 Gulf of Saint Lawrence\n  \u2022 Gulf of Sidra\n  \u2022 Gulf of Venezuela\n  \u2022 Hudson Bay\n  \u2022 Ionian Sea\n  \u2022 Irish Sea\n  \u2022 Irminger Sea\n  \u2022 James Bay\n  \u2022 Labrador Sea\n  \u2022 Levantine Sea\n  \u2022 Libyan Sea\n  \u2022 Ligurian Sea\n  \u2022 Marmara Sea\n  \u2022 Mediterranean Sea\n  \u2022 Myrtoan Sea\n  \u2022 North Sea\n  \u2022 Norwegian Sea\n  \u2022 Sargasso Sea\n  \u2022 Sea of \u00c5land\n  \u2022 Sea of Azov\n  \u2022 Sea of Crete\n  \u2022 Sea of the Hebrides\n  \u2022 Thracian Sea\n  \u2022 Tyrrhenian Sea\n  \u2022 Wadden Sea\nIndian Ocean\n  \u2022 Andaman Sea\n  \u2022 Arabian Sea\n  \u2022 Bali Sea\n  \u2022 Bay of Bengal\n  \u2022 Flores Sea\n  \u2022 Great Australian Bight\n  \u2022 Gulf of Aden\n  \u2022 Gulf of Aqaba\n  \u2022 Gulf of Khambhat\n  \u2022 Gulf of Kutch\n  \u2022 Gulf of Oman\n  \u2022 Gulf of Suez\n  \u2022 Java Sea\n  \u2022 Laccadive Sea\n  \u2022 Mozambique Channel\n  \u2022 Persian Gulf\n  \u2022 Red Sea\n  \u2022 Timor Sea\nPacific Ocean\n  \u2022 Arafura Sea\n  \u2022 Banda Sea\n  \u2022 Bering Sea\n  \u2022 Bismarck Sea\n  \u2022 Bohai Sea\n  \u2022 Bohol Sea\n  \u2022 Camotes Sea\n  \u2022 Celebes Sea\n  \u2022 Ceram Sea\n  \u2022 Chilean Sea\n  \u2022 Coral Sea\n  \u2022 East China Sea\n  \u2022 Gulf of Alaska\n  \u2022 Gulf of Anadyr\n  \u2022 Gulf of California\n  \u2022 Gulf of Carpentaria\n  \u2022 Gulf of Fonseca\n  \u2022 Gulf of Panama\n  \u2022 Gulf of Thailand\n  \u2022 Gulf of Tonkin\n  \u2022 Halmahera Sea\n  \u2022 Koro Sea\n  \u2022 Mar de Grau\n  \u2022 Molucca Sea\n  \u2022 Moro Gulf\n  \u2022 Philippine Sea\n  \u2022 Salish Sea\n  \u2022 Savu Sea\n  \u2022 Sea of Japan\n  \u2022 Sea of Okhotsk\n  \u2022 Seto Inland Sea\n  \u2022 Shantar Sea\n  \u2022 Sibuyan Sea\n  \u2022 Solomon Sea\n  \u2022 South China Sea\n  \u2022 Sulu Sea\n  \u2022 Tasman Sea\n  \u2022 Visayan Sea\n  \u2022 Yellow Sea\nSouthern Ocean\n  \u2022 Amundsen Sea\n  \u2022 Bellingshausen Sea\n  \u2022 Cooperation Sea\n  \u2022 Cosmonauts Sea\n  \u2022 Davis Sea\n  \u2022 D'Urville Sea\n  \u2022 King Haakon VII Sea\n  \u2022 Lazarev Sea\n  \u2022 Mawson Sea\n  \u2022 Riiser-Larsen Sea\n  \u2022 Ross Sea\n  \u2022 Scotia Sea\n  \u2022 Somov Sea\n  \u2022 Weddell Sea\nEndorheic basins\n  \u2022 Aral Sea\n  \u2022 Caspian Sea\n  \u2022 Dead Sea\n  \u2022 Sea of Galilee\n  \u2022 Salton Sea\n  \u2022 \u00a0Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 \u00a0Category Category\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPetroleum industry\n  \u2022 Petroleum\n  \u2022 Primary energy\nBenchmarks\n  \u2022 Argus Sour\n  \u2022 Bonny Light\n  \u2022 Brent\n  \u2022 Dubai\n  \u2022 Indian Basket\n  \u2022 Indonesian\n  \u2022 Isthmus-34 Light\n  \u2022 Japan Cocktail\n  \u2022 OPEC Reference Basket\n  \u2022 Tapis\n  \u2022 Urals\n  \u2022 West Texas Intermediate\n  \u2022 Western Canadian Select\nData\nNatural gas\n  \u2022 Consumption\n  \u2022 Production\n  \u2022 Reserves\n  \u2022 Imports\n  \u2022 Exports\n  \u2022 Price\nPetroleum\n  \u2022 Consumption\n  \u2022 Production\n  \u2022 Reserves\n  \u2022 Imports\n  \u2022 Exports\n  \u2022 Price\u00a0(of gasoline and diesel)\nExploration\n  \u2022 Core sampling\n  \u2022 Geophysics\n  \u2022 Integrated asset modelling\n  \u2022 Petroleum engineering\n    \u2022 Reservoir simulation\n    \u2022 Seismic to simulation\n  \u2022 Petroleum geology\n  \u2022 Petrophysics\n  \u2022 Reflection seismology\u00a0(Seismic inversion)\n  \u2022 Seismic source\nDrilling\n  \u2022 Blowout\n  \u2022 Completion\u00a0(Squeeze job)\n  \u2022 Differential sticking\n  \u2022 Directional drilling\u00a0(Geosteering)\n  \u2022 Drilling engineering\n  \u2022 Drilling fluid\u00a0(invasion)\n  \u2022 Drill stem test\n  \u2022 Lost circulation\n  \u2022 Measurement\n  \u2022 Tracers\n  \u2022 Underbalanced drilling\n  \u2022 Well logging\nProduction\n  \u2022 Petroleum fiscal regime\n    \u2022 Concessions\n    \u2022 Production sharing agreements\n  \u2022 Artificial lift\n    \u2022 Pumpjack\n    \u2022 Submersible pump (ESP)\n    \u2022 Gas lift\n  \u2022 Downstream\n  \u2022 Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)\n    \u2022 Steam injection\n    \u2022 Gas reinjection\n  \u2022 Midstream\n  \u2022 Petroleum product\n  \u2022 Pipeline transport\n  \u2022 Refining\n  \u2022 Upstream\n  \u2022 Water injection\n  \u2022 Well intervention\n  \u2022 XT\nHistory\n  \u2022 1967 Oil Embargo\n  \u2022 1973 oil crisis\n  \u2022 1979 energy crisis\n  \u2022 1980s oil glut\n  \u2022 1990 oil price shock\n  \u2022 2000s energy crisis\n  \u2022 2010s oil glut\n  \u2022 Founders\n  \u2022 History of the petroleum industry\n  \u2022 Nationalization\n  \u2022 OPEC\n  \u2022 GECF\n  \u2022 Seven Sisters\n  \u2022 Standard Oil\n  \u2022 Oil market timelines\nProvinces\nand fields\n  \u2022 List of natural gas fields\n  \u2022 List of oil fields\n  \u2022 East Midlands Oil Province\n  \u2022 East Texas\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico\n  \u2022 Niger Delta\n  \u2022 North Sea\n  \u2022 Permian Basin\n  \u2022 Persian Gulf\n  \u2022 Prudhoe Bay Oil Field\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Venezuela\n  \u2022 Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin\nOther topics\n  \u2022 Acronyms\n  \u2022 Oil shale gas\n  \u2022 Peak oil\n    \u2022 mitigation\n    \u2022 timing\n  \u2022 People\n  \u2022 Petrocurrency\n  \u2022 Petrodollar recycling\n  \u2022 Shale gas\n  \u2022 Swing producer\n  \u2022 Unconventional oil\n    \u2022 heavy crude\n    \u2022 oil sands\n    \u2022 oil shale\n[show]\nCompanies and organisations\nMajor petroleum\ncompanies\nSupermajors\n  \u2022 BP\n  \u2022 Chevron\n  \u2022 Eni\n  \u2022 ExxonMobil\n  \u2022 Royal Dutch Shell\n  \u2022 Total\nNational oil\ncompanies\n  \u2022 ADNOC (UAE)\n  \u2022 CNOOC (China)\n  \u2022 CNPC (China)\n  \u2022 Ecopetrol (Colombia)\n  \u2022 Gazprom (Russia)\n  \u2022 Iraq National Oil Company\n  \u2022 Indian Oil Corporation\n  \u2022 KazMunayGas (Kazakhstan)\n  \u2022 Kuwait Petroleum Corporation\n  \u2022 Lotos (Poland)\n  \u2022 Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation\n  \u2022 NIOC (Iran)\n  \u2022 NISOC (Iran)\n  \u2022 OGDCL (Pakistan)\n  \u2022 ONGC (India)\n  \u2022 PDVSA (Venezuela)\n  \u2022 PKN Orlen (Poland)\n  \u2022 Pemex (Mexico)\n  \u2022 Pertamina (Indonesia)\n  \u2022 PetroBangla (Bangladesh)\n  \u2022 Petrobras (Brazil)\n  \u2022 PetroChina\n  \u2022 Petronas (Malaysia)\n  \u2022 Petrovietnam\n  \u2022 PTT (Thailand)\n  \u2022 Qatar Petroleum\n  \u2022 Rosneft (Russia)\n  \u2022 Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia)\n  \u2022 Sinopec (China)\n  \u2022 SOCAR (Azerbaijan)\n  \u2022 Sonangol (Angola)\n  \u2022 Sonatrach (Algeria)\n  \u2022 Statoil (Norway)\n  \u2022 TPAO (Turkey)\n  \u2022 YPF (Argentina)\nEnergy trading\n  \u2022 Glencore\n  \u2022 Gunvor\n  \u2022 Mercuria\n  \u2022 Naftiran Intertrade\n  \u2022 Trafigura\n  \u2022 Vitol\nOther\n  \u2022 Anadarko\n  \u2022 Apache\n  \u2022 BG Group\n  \u2022 Cenovus Energy\n  \u2022 Compa\u00f1\u00eda Espa\u00f1ola de Petr\u00f3leos\n  \u2022 ConocoPhillips\n  \u2022 Devon\n  \u2022 Galp Energia\n  \u2022 Hess\n  \u2022 Husky Energy\n  \u2022 Imperial Oil\n  \u2022 Lukoil\n  \u2022 Marathon Oil\n  \u2022 Nippon Oil\n  \u2022 Occidental\n  \u2022 OMV\n  \u2022 Port Harcourt Refining Company\n  \u2022 Reliance Industries\n  \u2022 Repsol\n  \u2022 Suncor Energy\n  \u2022 Surgutneftegas\n  \u2022 TNK-BP\n  \u2022 Tullow Oil\n  \u2022 T\u00fcpra\u015f\nMajor services\ncompanies\n  \u2022 Amec Foster Wheeler\n  \u2022 Baker Hughes\n  \u2022 Cameron\n  \u2022 CGG\n  \u2022 CH2M Hill\n  \u2022 Chicago Bridge & Iron Company\n  \u2022 China Oilfield Services\n  \u2022 Enbridge\n  \u2022 Ensco\n  \u2022 GE Oil & Gas\n  \u2022 Halliburton\n  \u2022 Nabors Industries\n  \u2022 Naftiran Intertrade\n  \u2022 National Oilwell Varco\n  \u2022 Petrofac\n  \u2022 Saipem\n  \u2022 Schlumberger\n  \u2022 Snam\n  \u2022 Subsea 7\n  \u2022 TransCanada\n  \u2022 Transocean\n  \u2022 Weatherford\n  \u2022 Wood Group\nOther\n  \u2022 International Association of Oil & Gas Producers\n  \u2022 International Energy Agency\n  \u2022 International Petroleum Exchange\n  \u2022 OPEC\n  \u2022 Society of Petroleum Engineers\n  \u2022 World Petroleum Council\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Commons page\u00a0Commons\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 VIAF: 236793919\n  \u2022 GND: 4039059-7\n  \u2022 SELIBR: 154017\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Gulf_of_Mexico&oldid=800799058\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Gulf of Mexico\n  \u2022 Gulfs of the Atlantic Ocean\n  \u2022 Gulfs of the United States\n  \u2022 Mexico\u2013United States border\n  \u2022 Bodies of water of Alabama\n  \u2022 Bodies of water of Florida\n  \u2022 Bodies of water of Louisiana\n  \u2022 Bodies of water of Mississippi\n  \u2022 Bodies of water of Texas\n  \u2022 Gulfs of Mexico\n  \u2022 Landforms of Tamaulipas\n  \u2022 Landforms of Veracruz\n  \u2022 Landforms of Tabasco\n  \u2022 Landforms of Campeche\n  \u2022 Landforms of Yucat\u00e1n\n  \u2022 Landforms of Quintana Roo\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from July 2017\n  \u2022 Coordinates on Wikidata\n  \u2022 Articles containing Spanish-language text\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from June 2010\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikinews\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u12a0\u121b\u122d\u129b\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Boarisch\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430\n  \u2022 Cebuano\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 F\u00f8royskt\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 G\u00e0idhlig\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hornjoserbsce\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Ido\n  \u2022 Ilokano\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Interlingua\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Kiswahili\n  \u2022 Kurd\u00ee\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Limburgs\n  \u2022 La .lojban.\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8\n  \u2022 \u0645\u0627\u0632\u0650\u0631\u0648\u0646\u06cc\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b\n  \u2022 N\u0101huatl\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d\n  \u2022 Nordfriisk\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Occitan\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\n  \u2022 \u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Sicilianu\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 Sloven\u0161\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 Taqbaylit\n  \u2022 \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430\/tatar\u00e7a\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 V\u00e8neto\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 Winaray\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 15 September 2017, at 18:57.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-612099621585600127","title":"Judge Mathis","text":"Judge Mathis\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article is about the television series. For the eponymous arbiter of this court show, see Greg Mathis.\nJudge Mathis\nMathislogo.jpg\nGenre Court show\nPresented by Greg Mathis\nMusic by\n\nBrian Wayy\n\nRoy Shakked\nCountry of origin United States\nOriginal language(s) English\nNo. of seasons 19\nNo. of episodes 2,000\nProduction\nLocation(s) NBC Tower\nChicago, Illinois\nCamera setup Multiple\nRunning time 42 minutes\nProduction company(s)\n  \u2022 Telepictures Productions\n  \u2022 Black Pearl Entertainment (1999-2002) (seasons 1-3)\nDistributor Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution\nRelease\nOriginal network Syndication\nPicture format 480i 4:3 (SDTV)\n(1999-2012)\n480i 16:9 (SDTV)\n(2012-)\nOriginal release September 13, 1999\u00a0(1999-09-13)\u00a0\u2013 present\nExternal links\nWebsite\nProduction website\n\nJudge Mathis is a syndicated arbitration-based reality court show presided over by the retired Judge of Michigan's 36th District Court, Greg Mathis.[1] The syndicated series features Mathis adjudicating small claims disputes.\n\nThe series was originally produced by Black Pearl Entertainment. It's now produced by Telepictures Productions and Syndicated Productions, while distributed by Warner Bros. Television.[2] It is taped at the NBC Tower in Chicago, but includes cases and litigants from other U.S. jurisdictions.\n\nGreg Mathis's \"inspirational and positive messages to young people\" won the court show a PRISM Commendation in May 2002. The court show also won an NAACP Image Award in 2004 and a Daytime Emmy Award in 2018.[1]\n\nEach Judge Mathis episode runs for one hour and typically consists of 4 cases.[1] The show is broadcast weekdays nationwide in the United States. It is also broadcast in Canada through Omni Television.[3][4] The show has aired since 1999 and has aired over 2000 episodes.\n\nIn the 2014-15 television season, Judge Mathis began its 16th season, making Mathis the longest serving African American court show arbitrator, after Judge Joe Brown whose program lasted 15 seasons.\n\nJudge Mathis is the fourth longest running courtroom series behind Divorce Court, The People's Court, and Judge Judy. It began its 19th season on Monday, September 4, 2017.[5]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Show format\n  \u2022 2 Incorporation of life story into court show\n  \u2022 3 Judge Gregory Mathis's adjudicating approach\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nShow format[edit]\n\nThe cases on Judge Mathis are classified as tort law, civil disputes with a maximum $5,000 claim, a typical amount for small claims court. The producers of the show select the cases. To acquire cases, the show solicits real-life litigants with pending disputes or individuals with potential disputes. If litigants agree to be on the show, they are paid a talent fee ranging from $150 to $300, and they receive travel accommodations. Mathis does have prior knowledge of the cases. In all cases, litigants give their prospective case managers all evidence in advance. Any real legal case pending must be dismissed by both parties. Typically, Mathis's producers only seek cases that they deem \"juicy\" enough for TV. Occasionally, Mathis leaves the courtroom to deliberate and then returns with his verdict.[6] Upon final judgment, he may briefly explain the legal principle guiding his verdict, especially if his ruling is based on a particular state's law. Reportedly, Mathis' rulings conform to the laws of the state where the case was originally filed.[7]\n\nIncorporation of life story into court show[edit]\n\nAs a child and a teenager, Mathis was frequently in legal trouble. He was a member of a street gang in Detroit, and he was arrested and sentenced to jail for illegally carrying a firearm when he was 17 years old.[8]\n\nMathis has frequently used his courtroom series to highlight his troubled-youth-turned-success-story as a way of motivating and inspiring his audience (especially youth audience) that there's no adversity that they can't pick themselves up from. It is from his background where Mathis derives much of his courtroom formula. For example, his show's opening theme was formerly a brief documentary of his powerful life story. As another example, he takes a liking to litigants who've seen the error of their ways and have made efforts to improve and better their lives.[9]\n\nJudge Gregory Mathis's adjudicating approach[edit]\n\nMain article: Greg Mathis\n\nMathis typically begins proceedings by having litigants expound on their side of the dispute, so as to gain insight into the matter. Cases on Judge Mathis tend to go deeper and to more revealing places than those of most other court shows. He also calls attention to peculiarities or juicy details exposed throughout the course of the proceedings as a means of making the cases more interesting to viewers. Furthermore, Mathis doesn't hesitate to tackle any social issues that emerge during the proceedings, tying his social justice perspectives to the cases.[9]\n\nWhile hearing the testimonies, Mathis takes on a relaxed, attentive, understanding and open-minded nature. Rarely missing an opportunity to jest or poke fun, Mathis is given to fun, humor, good-natured ridicule and gibes, often rousing his audience to uproarious amusement. He sometimes cuts the tension\u2013even tension he himself has fostered\u2013with wisecracks or taunting remarks. Mathis has bantered directly at audience members on occasion, also resulting in audience amusement.[10] He uses a rather high-pitched voice as part of stultifying litigants and suggesting that they've not recognized the obvious.[9][11]\n\nCombined with his teasing and comedic tendencies on the bench,[10] Mathis is known for his street smart, urban expressions and stern side as well. In moments in which Mathis has found a litigant guilty of a particularly reprehensible act, he takes on a very resentful nature along with lecturing and shaming behaviors. Sometimes in these moments, Mathis makes a point of solemnizing his courtroom due to prior laughs and lightheartedness, letting litigants and everyone on hand know that things are no longer a laughing matter and that he's to be taken seriously.\n\nThe final portion of most of the cases generally see Mathis displaying a harshly corrective side, providing an explanation behind the direction of his verdict in the form of a sharp tirade, unbroken in delivery so as not to allow anyone a word in edgewise before his gavel pound and exit.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Judge Mathis Bio\". Judgemathistv.warnerbros.com. September 11, 2006. Archived from the original on February 27, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Judge Mathis website. Online at: \"About the Show\" Archived 2007-05-05 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed May 8, 2007\n  3. Jump up ^ Judge Mathis website. Online at: \"When its on\". Accessed March 5, 2011\n  4. Jump up ^ Omni Television. Ontario \"Judge Mathis\" Accessed May 8, 2007\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Judge Mathis 1999 TV SHOW\". TV Guide. Retrieved August 30, 2015.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ The A to Z of African-American Television - Kathleen Fearn-Banks - Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved September 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Judge Mathis interview. Online at: \"Interview with the Judge Mathis\" Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed March 5, 2011\n  8. Jump up ^ http:\/\/radaronline.com\/exclusives\/2014\/07\/greg-mathis-judge-mathis-gang-gun-arrest-detroit\/\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Encyclopedia of Television Law Shows: Factual and Fictional Series about ... - Hal Erickson - Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved September 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Roger M. Grace (October 2, 2003). \"Seven Courtroom Shows Appear on TV's Fall Docket\". Metnews.com. Retrieved September 9, 2013.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ [1][dead link]\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Judge Mathis Episode Guide\n  \u2022 Judge Mathis on IMDb\n  \u2022 Ask Judge Mathis - Judge Mathis' official website\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Judge_Mathis&oldid=846594605\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1990s American television series\n  \u2022 2000s American television series\n  \u2022 2010s American television series\n  \u2022 1999 American television series debuts\n  \u2022 First-run syndicated television programs in the United States\n  \u2022 Television series by Warner Bros. Television\n  \u2022 Court shows\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from September 2013\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 18:51\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2600970979397677948","title":"The Elf on the Shelf","text":"The Elf on the Shelf\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThe Elf on the Shelf: A Christmas Tradition\nThe Elf on the Shelf (book).jpg\nAuthor Carol Aebersold\nChanda Bell\nIllustrator Co\u00eb Steinwart\nLanguage English\nGenre Picture book\nPublisher CCA and B Publishing\nPublication date\n2005\nPublished\u00a0in English\n2005\nISBN 978-0-9769907-9-6\n\nThe Elf on the Shelf: A Christmas Tradition is a 2005 children's picture book, written by Carol Aebersold and her daughter Chanda Bell, and illustrated by Co\u00eb Steinwart. The book tells a Christmas-themed story, written in rhyme, that explains how Santa Claus knows who is naughty and who is nice. It describes elves visiting children between Thanksgiving and Christmas Eve, after which they return to the North Pole until the next holiday season. The Elf on the Shelf comes in a keepsake box that features a hardbound picture book and a small soft toy in the form of a pixie scout elf.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 Mensch on a Bench\n  \u2022 3 Criticism\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nThis story describes how Santa's \"scout elves\" hide in people's homes to watch over events. Once everyone goes to bed, the scout elf flies back to the North Pole to report to Santa the activities, good and bad, that have taken place throughout the day. Before the family wakes up each morning, the scout elf flies back from the North Pole and hides. By hiding in a new spot each morning around the house, the scout elf plays an ongoing game of hide and seek with the family.\n\nThe Elf on the Shelf explains that scout elves get their magic by being named and being loved by a child. In the back of each book, families have an opportunity to write their elf's name and the date that they adopted it. Once the elf is named, the scout elf receives its special Christmas magic, which allows it to fly to and from the North Pole.\n\nThe book tells how the magic might disappear if the scout elf is touched, so the rule for The Elf on the Shelf states, \"There's only one rule that you have to follow, so I will come back and be here tomorrow: Please do not touch me. My magic might go, and Santa won't hear all I've seen or I know.\" Although families are told not to touch their scout elf, they can speak to it and tell it all their Christmas wishes so that it can report back to Santa accurately.\n\nThe story ends on Christmas Day with the elf leaving to stay with Santa for the rest of the year until the following Christmas season.\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe Elf on the Shelf was written in 2004 by Carol Aebersold and daughter Chanda Bell over a cup of tea. Bell suggested they write a book about an old tradition of an elf sent from Santa who came to watch over them at Christmas time. Aebersold's other daughter, Christa Pitts, was recruited by the family to share her expertise in sales and marketing. Together, the trio devoted the next three years promoting their self-published book and attending book signings and trade shows.\n\nThe Elf on the Shelf won the Best Toy Award by Learning Express, won Book of the Year Award from Creative Child Awards and National Best Books Award sponsored by USA Book News in 2008. In 2012, The Elf on the Shelf made its first appearance in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade alongside fellow parade newcomers Hello Kitty and Papa Smurf. In 2013, The Elf on the Shelf hit the #1 spot on the USA Today Bestsellers List.[1]\n\nOn 26 November 2011, the book aired on CBS as a 30-minute animated TV show, An Elf's Story: The Elf on the Shelf, directed by Chad Eikhoff.[2][3] The Washington Post criticized the quality of the animation and dismissed it as \"just a half-hour advertisement for a book and a toy\", which it felt would not join \"the canon of prime-time animated Christmas specials that actually move the spirit\".[3] Common Sense Media disagreed, calling the special \"a great addition to families' holiday TV traditions\";[4] however, they also warn parents about the consumer-driven nature of the story, and make note of its lack of educational value.\n\nIn October 2013, The Elf on the Shelf: A Birthday Tradition was released. Written and illustrated by the same team that created the first book, it offers instructions for inviting a scout elf to visit for a child's birthday party and describes how the elf decorates a chair for the child.[citation needed] In April 2014, two supplemental birthday products were released: The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Countdown Game and The Elf on the Shelf Birthday Chair Decoration Kit.[citation needed]\n\nThe Elf on the Shelf was parodied as \"The Gnome in the Home\" in \"The Nightmare After Krustmas,\" a 2016 episode of The Simpsons.\n\nMensch on a Bench[edit]\n\nA Jewish counterpart to Elf On The Shelf was created: \"Mensch on a Bench,\" a stuffed toy that looks a bit like a rabbi or a Hasidic Jew.[5][6][7] Jewish father Neal Hoffman, a former Hasbro Toys toy marketing executive, raised more than $20,000, using the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to fund creation of the toy in the Spring of 2011.[6][8][9][10] \"Mensch\", in Yiddish, means a person of integrity or honor.[5][11][12]\n\nCody Decker, the starting left fielder for Team Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic, brought the team's mascot, a five-foot version of \"Mensch on a Bench,\" with him to Asia from the United States for the World Baseball Classic.[5][13][14] Decker said he \"tried getting him a first-class ticket. But that didn\u2019t fly, so he was put in a duffel bag and checked.\"[15] The mascot proved to be a big hit.[5][13] He has his own locker, sits on Team Israel's bench in the dugout during every game, and sat alongside Decker at a press conference in South Korea.[11][15][16] Decker said:\n\n\"He\u2019s a mascot, he\u2019s a friend, he\u2019s a teammate, he\u2019s a borderline deity to our team.... He brings a lot to the table.... Every team needs their Jobu. He was ours. He had his own locker, and we even gave him offerings: Manischewitz, gelt, and gefilte fish... He is everywhere and nowhere all at once. His actual location is irrelevant because he exists in higher metaphysical planes. But he\u2019s always near.\"[11]\n\nTeam Israel Manager Jerry Weinstein said: \"He\u2019s on the team. Everybody brings something to the team, and certainly The Mensch is a unifying factor for the ball club.\"[5] Pitcher Gabe Cramer said: \"The Mensch on a Bench is ... a symbol we can rally around as a team. We are proud to be Jewish, but we know how to make and take a joke, something Jews have a long history of doing. The Mensch is a great way to have fun in the dugout while reminding us of why we\u2019re here and who we\u2019re representing.\"[17]\n\nCriticism[edit]\n\nThe Elf has received some criticism from cultural reviewers. The Atlantic columnist Kate Tuttle calls it \"a marketing juggernaut dressed up as a tradition\" whose purpose is \"to spy on kids\" and that one shouldn't \"bully your child into thinking that good behavior equals gifts.\"[18] Washington Post reviewer Hank Stuever characterized the concept as \"just another nannycam in a nanny state obsessed with penal codes\".[3] Writing for Psychology Today, Dr. David Kyle Johnston calls it a \"dangerous parental crutch\", with much the same reasoning as what he terms the \"Santa lie\".[19] Professor Laura Pinto suggests that it conditions kids to accept the surveillance state and that it communicates to children that \"it's okay for other people to spy on you, and you're not entitled to privacy.\"[20] She argues that \"if you grow up thinking it's cool for the elves to watch me and report back to Santa, well, then it's cool for the NSA to watch me and report back to the government ... The rule of play is that kids get to interact with a doll or video game or what have you, but not so with the Elf on the Shelf: The rule is that you don't touch the elf. Think about the message that sends.\"[21][22]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ [1] Archived April 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.\n  2. Jump up ^ \"An Elf's Story\". The Elf on the Shelf. Retrieved 2013-12-04.\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hank Stuever (November 24, 2011). \"CBS's 'Elf on the Shelf': Unwarranted Christmas surveillance techniques\". Washington Post. Retrieved August 25, 2013.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"The Elf on the Shelf: An Elf's Story\". commonsensemedia.org.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Israel's Mensch on the Bench mascot at World Baseball Classic,\" Newsday.\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Meet Mensch On A Bench, Jewish Counterpart To Eldhdhshf On The Shelf\u00a0: NPR\n  7. Jump up ^ The Mensch On The Bench | New York Post\n  8. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.dailymail.co.uk\/femail\/article-2867382\/The-Elf-Shelf-competition-Introducing-Mensch-Bench-Hanukkahs-hilarious-answer-popular-Christmas-character.html\n  9. Jump up ^ The Mensch on a Bench claims space on elf toy's holiday turf - NY Daily News\n  10. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/sap\/2014\/12\/11\/the-mensch-on-a-bench-from-basement-to-big-box-and-now-shark-tank\/#2d31052210da\n  11. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Israel's World Baseball Classic mascot: Mensch on a Bench,\" Yahoo.\n  12. Jump up ^ \"With Mensch on Bench, Israel ready for Classic,\" mlb.com.\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Dutch Players Take Leave From Spring Training For World Baseball Classic,\" NPR.\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Mensch on a Bench, mascot of Israel baseball team, a hoot ahead of WBC,\", The Times of Israel.\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The best thing about Team Israel\u2019s World Baseball Classic run is their delightful mascot,\" USA Today.\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Israel\u2019s suddenly the undefeated darling of the baseball world,\" The New York Post.\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Team Israel scores another surprise baseball win \u2014 with a Marin pitcher,\" J.\n  18. Jump up ^ You're a Creepy One, Elf on the Shelf in The Atlantic, December 6, 2012.\n  19. Jump up ^ David Kyle Johnston, Let's Bench the Elf on the Shelf. Psychology Today, December 19, 2012.\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Who's the Boss?\". Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Retrieved 2017-12-01.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Craig Johnson, Does the Elf contribute to the surveillance state?. HLNtv.com, December 1, 2014.[dead link]\n  22. Jump up ^ Kyle Olsen, Prof: \u2018Elf on the Shelf' conditions kids to accept surveillance state. Education Action Group Foundation, Inc., December 15, 2014.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to The Elf on the Shelf.\n  \u2022 Official website\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Elf_on_the_Shelf&oldid=822403574\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Elves in popular culture\n  \u2022 American children's books\n  \u2022 2005 children's books\n  \u2022 Christmas children's books\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from December 2017\n  \u2022 Pages to import images to Wikidata\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2014\n  \u2022 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Simple English\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 26 January 2018, at 04:49.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-6659040569520577399","title":"How to Win Friends and Influence People","text":"How to Win Friends and Influence People\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nFor the Terrorvision album, see How to Make Friends and Influence People.\nHow to Win Friends and Influence People\nHow-to-win-friends-and-influence-people.jpg\nFirst edition, 11th printing (February 1937)\nAuthor Dale Carnegie\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nSubject Self-help\nGenre Non-fiction\nPublisher Simon and Schuster (1936)\nPublication date\nOctober 1936\nMedia\u00a0type Print (hardcover \/ paperback)\nPages 291 pp\nISBN 1-4391-6734-6\nOCLC 40137494\n\nHow to Win Friends and Influence People is a self-help book written by Dale Carnegie, published in 1936. Over 30 million copies have been sold world-wide, making it one of the best-selling books of all time. In 2011, it was number 19 on Time Magazine's list of the 100 most influential books.[1]\n\nIn 1934, Leon Shimkin of the publishing firm Simon & Schuster took one of Carnegie's 14-week courses; afterward, Shimkin persuaded Carnegie to let a stenographer take notes from the course to be revised for publication. The original book contained colorful anecdotes and insightful wisdom, and gave instruction in handling people, \"winning\" friends, bringing people to your way of thinking, being a great leader, and successfully navigating home life. Carnegie combined age-old truisms with the emerging field of psychology to present a handbook in human relations which was interesting and accessible. Emphasizing using others' egotistical tendencies to one's advantage, Carnegie maintained that success could be found by charm, appreciation, and personality. The book sold exceptionally well from the start, going through 17 editions in its first year alone.\n\nIn 1981, a revised edition containing updated language and anecdotes was released.[2] The revised edition reduced the number of sections from six to four, eliminating sections on effective business letters and improving marital satisfaction.\n\nIn 2011, a third edition was released, How to Win Friends and Influence People in the Digital Age. Written by Dale Carnegie & Associates, it applies Carnegie's prescription for relationship and business success to the digital age.[1]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Major sections and points\n    \u2022 1.1 Twelve Things This Book Will Do For You\n    \u2022 1.2 Fundamental Techniques in Handling People\n    \u2022 1.3 Six Ways to Make People Like You\n    \u2022 1.4 Twelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking\n    \u2022 1.5 Be a Leader: How to Change People Without Giving Offense or Arousing Resentment\n    \u2022 1.6 Letters That Produced Miraculous Results\n    \u2022 1.7 Seven Rules For Making Your Home Life Happier\n  \u2022 2 Origins\n  \u2022 3 Reception\n  \u2022 4 In popular culture\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nMajor sections and points[edit]\n\nTwelve Things This Book Will Do For You[edit]\n\nThis section was included in the original 1936 edition as a single page list, which preceded the main content of the book, showing a prospective reader what to expect from it. The 1981 edition omits points 6 to 8, and 11.\n  1. Get you out of a mental rut, give you new thoughts, new visions, new ambitions.\n  2. Enable you to make friends quickly and easily.\n  3. Increase your popularity.\n  4. Help you to win people to your way of thinking.\n  5. Increase your influence, your prestige, your ability to get things done.\n  6. Enable you to win new clients, new customers.\n  7. Increase your earning power.\n  8. Make you a better salesman, a better executive.\n  9. Help you to handle complaints, avoid arguments, keep your human contacts smooth and pleasant.\n  10. Make you a better speaker, a more entertaining conversationalist.\n  11. Make the principles of psychology easy for you to apply in your daily contacts.\n  12. Help you to arouse enthusiasm among your associates.\n\nThe book has six major sections. The core principles of each section are explained and quoted from below.[3]\n\nFundamental Techniques in Handling People[edit]\n\n  1. Don't criticize, condemn, or complain. Human nature does not like to admit fault. When people are criticized or humiliated, they rarely respond well and will often become defensive and resent their critic. To handle people well, we must never criticize, condemn or complain because it will never result in the behavior we desire.\n  2. Give honest and sincere appreciation. Appreciation is one of the most powerful tools in the world. People will rarely work at their maximum potential under criticism, but honest appreciation brings out their best. Appreciation, though, is not simple flattery, it must be sincere, meaningful and with love.\n  3. Arouse in the other person an eager want. To get what we want from another person, we must forget our own perspective and begin to see things from the point of view of others. When we can combine our desires with their wants, they become eager to work with us and we can mutually achieve our objectives.\n\nSix Ways to Make People Like You[edit]\n\n  1. Become genuinely interested in other people. \"You can make more friends in two months by being interested in them, than in two years by making them interested in you.\"[4] The only way to make quality, lasting friendships is to learn to be genuinely interested in them and their interests.\n  2. Smile. Happiness does not depend on outside circumstances, but rather on inward attitudes. Smiles are free to give and have an amazing ability to make others feel wonderful. Smile in everything that you do.\n  3. Remember that a person's name is, to that person, the sweetest and most important sound in any language. \"The average person is more interested in their own name than in all the other names in the world put together.\"[5] People love their names so much that they will often donate large amounts of money just to have a building named after themselves. We can make people feel extremely valued and important by remembering their name.\n  4. Be a good listener. Encourage others to talk about themselves. The easiest way to become a good conversationalist is to become a good listener. To be a good listener, we must actually care about what people have to say. Many times people don't want an entertaining conversation partner; they just want someone who will listen to them.\n  5. Talk in terms of the other person's interest. The royal road to a person's heart is to talk about the things he or she treasures most. If we talk to people about what they are interested in, they will feel valued and value us in return.\n  6. Make the other person feel important \u2013 and do it sincerely. The golden rule is to treat other people how we would like to be treated. We love to feel important and so does everyone else. People will talk to us for hours if we allow them to talk about themselves. If we can make people feel important in a sincere and appreciative way, then we will win all the friends we could ever dream of.\n\nTwelve Ways to Win People to Your Way of Thinking[edit]\n\n  1. The only way to get the best of an argument is to avoid it. Whenever we argue with someone, no matter if we win or lose the argument, we still lose. The other person will either feel humiliated or strengthened and will only seek to bolster their own position. We must try to avoid arguments whenever we can.\n  2. Show respect for the other person's opinions. Never say \"You're wrong.\" We must never tell people flat out that they are wrong. It will only serve to offend them and insult their pride. No one likes to be humiliated, we must not be so blunt.\n  3. If you're wrong, admit it quickly and emphatically. Whenever we are wrong we should admit it immediately. When we fight we never get enough, but by yielding we often get more than we expected. When we admit that we are wrong people trust us and begin to sympathize with our way of thinking.\n  4. Begin in a friendly way. \"A drop of honey can catch more flies than a gallon of gall.\"[6] If we begin our interactions with others in a friendly way, people will be more receptive. Even if we are greatly upset, we must be friendly to influence people to our way of thinking.\n  5. Start with questions to which the other person will answer yes. Do not begin by emphasizing the aspects in which we and the other person differ. Begin by emphasizing and continue emphasizing the things on which we agree. People must be started in the affirmative direction and they will often follow readily. Never tell someone they are wrong, but rather lead them where we would like them to go with questions that they will answer \"yes\" to.\n  6. Let the other person do a great deal of the talking. People do not like listening to us boast, they enjoy doing the talking themselves. Let them rationalize and talk about the idea, because it will taste much sweeter to them in their own mouth.\n  7. Let the other person feel the idea is his or hers. People inherently like ideas they come to on their own better than those that are handed to them on a platter. Ideas can best be carried out by allowing others to think they arrived at it themselves.\n  8. Try honestly to see things from the other person's point of view. Other people may often be wrong, but we cannot condemn them. We must seek to understand them. Success in dealing with people requires a sympathetic grasp of the other person's viewpoint.\n  9. Be sympathetic with the other person's ideas and desires. People are hungering for sympathy. They want us to recognize all that they desire and feel. If we can sympathize with others, they will appreciate our side as well and will often come around to our way of thinking.\n  10. Appeal to the nobler motives. Everyone likes to be glorious in their own eyes. People believe that they do things for noble and morally upright reasons. If we can appeal to others' noble motives we can successfully convince them to follow our ideas.\n  11. Dramatize your ideas. In this fast paced world, simply stating a truth isn't enough. The truth must be made vivid, interesting, and dramatic. Television has been doing it for years. Sometimes ideas are not enough and we must dramatize them.\n  12. Throw down a challenge. The thing that most motivates people is the game. Everyone desires to excel and prove their worth. If we want someone to do something, we must give them a challenge and they will often rise to meet it.\n\nBe a Leader: How to Change People Without Giving Offense or Arousing Resentment[edit]\n\n  1. Begin with praise and honest appreciation. People will do things begrudgingly for criticism and an iron-fisted leader, but they will work wonders when they are praised and appreciated.\n  2. Call attention to people's mistakes indirectly. No one likes to make mistakes, especially in front of others. Scolding and blaming only serves to humiliate. If we subtly and indirectly show people mistakes, they will appreciate us and be more likely to improve.\n  3. Talk about your own mistakes before criticizing the other person. When something goes wrong, taking responsibility can help win others to your side. People do not like to shoulder all the blame and taking credit for mistakes helps to remove the sting from our critiques of others.\n  4. Ask questions instead of giving direct orders. No one likes to take orders. If we offer suggestions, rather than orders, it will boost others confidence and allow them to learn quickly from their mistakes.\n  5. Let the other person save face. Nothing diminishes the dignity of a man quite like an insult to his pride. If we don't condemn our employees in front of others and allow them to save face, they will be motivated to do better in the future and confident that they can.\n  6. Praise every improvement. People love to receive praise and admiration. If we truly want someone to improve at something, we must praise their every advance. \"Abilities wither under criticism, they blossom under encouragement.\"[7]\n  7. Give the other person a fine reputation to live up to. If we give people a great reputation to live up to, they will desire to embody the characteristics with which we have described them. People will work with vigor and confidence if they believe they can be better.\n  8. Use encouragement. Make the fault seem easy to correct. If a desired outcome seems like a momentous task, people will give up and lose heart. But if a fault seems easy to correct, they will readily jump at the opportunity to improve. If we frame objectives as small and easy improvements, we will see dramatic increases in desire and success in our employees.\n  9. Make the other person happy about doing what you suggest. People will most often respond well when they desire to do the behavior put forth. If we want to influence people and become effective leaders, we must learn to frame our desires in terms of others' desires.\n\nLetters That Produced Miraculous Results[edit]\n\nThis section was included in the original 1936 edition but omitted from the revised 1981 edition.\nIn this chapter, the shortest in the book, Carnegie analyzes two letters and describes how to appeal to someone with the term \"do me a favor\" as opposed to directly asking for something which does not offer the same feeling of importance to the recipient of the request.\n\nSeven Rules For Making Your Home Life Happier[edit]\n\nThis section was included in the original 1936 edition but omitted from the revised 1981 edition.\n  1. Don't nag.\n  2. Don't try to make your partner over.\n  3. Don't criticize.\n  4. Give honest appreciation.\n  5. Pay little attentions.\n  6. Be courteous.\n  7. Read a good book on the sexual side of marriage.\n\nOrigins[edit]\n\nBefore How to Win Friends and Influence People was released, the genre of self-help books had an ample heritage. Authors such as Napoleon Hill, Orison Swett Marden, and Samuel Smiles had enormous success with their self-help books in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dale Carnegie began his career not as a writer, but as a teacher of public speaking. He started out teaching night classes at a YMCA in New York and his classes became wildly popular and highly attended. The success of the classes in New York prompted YMCAs in Philadelphia and Baltimore to begin hosting the course as well.[8] After even greater success, Carnegie decided to begin teaching the courses on his own at hotels in London, Paris, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Because he could not find any satisfactory handbook already in publication, Carnegie originally began writing small booklets to go along with his courses.[9] After one of his 14-week courses, he was approached by publisher Leon Shimkin of the publishing house Simon & Schuster.[10] Shimkin urged Carnegie to write a book, but he was not initially persuaded. Shimken then hired a stenographer to type up what he heard in one of Carnegie's long lectures and presented the transcript to Carnegie.[11] Dale Carnegie liked the transcript so much he decided to edit and revise it into a final form.[12] He wanted it to be extremely practical and interesting to read. To market the book, Shimkin decided to send 500 copies of the book to former graduates of the Dale Carnegie Course, with a note that pointed out the utility of the book for refreshing students with the advice they had learned.[13] The 500 mailed copies brought orders for over 5,000 more copies of the book and Simon & Schuster had to increase the original print order of 1,200 quickly.[14] Shimkin also ran a full page ad in the New York Times complete with quotes by Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller on the importance of human relations.[15] Originally published in November 1936, the book reached the New York Times best-seller list by the end of the year, and did not fall off for the next two years.[13] Simon & Schuster continued to advertise the book relying heavily on testimonials as well as the testable approach the book offered.[15] Carnegie had created a new kind of book, one that was not read with passive interest, but rather a manual of active participation.\n\nReception[edit]\n\nHow to Win Friends and Influence People became one of the most successful books in American history. It went through 17 print editions in its first year of publishing and sold 250,000 copies in the first three months. The book has sold over 30 million copies worldwide since and annually sells in excess of 100,000 copies. A recent Library of Congress survey ranked Carnegie's volume as the seventh most influential book in American history. [16]\n\nThe book met widespread popularity, but also stark criticism in many cases. Despite many of the negative comments from his critics, Carnegie's book established a new genre. Carnegie described his book as an \"action-book\" but the category he created has since become known as the self-help genre. Almost every self-help book since has borrowed some type of style or form from Carnegie's \"path-breaking best seller.\"[17]\n\nAlthough How to Win Friends and Influence People ascended quickly on best-seller lists, the New York Times did not review it until February 1937. They offered a balanced critique arguing that Carnegie indeed offered insightful advice in dealing with people, but that his wisdom was extremely simple and should not overrule the foundation of actual knowledge.[18]\n\nThe satirical writer Sinclair Lewis waited a year to offer his scathing critique. He described Carnegie's method as teaching people to \"smile and bob and pretend to be interested in other people's hobbies precisely so that you may screw things out of them.\"[19][20] However, despite the criticism, sales continued to soar and the book was talked about and reviewed as it rapidly became mainstream.\n\nScholarly critique however, was little and oscillated over time. Due to the book's lay appeal, it was not significantly discussed in academic journals. In the early stages of the book's life, the few scholarly reviews that were written explained the contents of the book and attempted to describe what made the book popular.[21] As time passed however, scholarly reviews became more critical, chiding Carnegie for being insincere and manipulative.[22]\n\nDespite the lack of attention in academic circles, How to Win Friends and Influence People was written for a popular audience and Carnegie successfully captured the attention of his target. The book experienced mass consumption and appeared in many popular periodicals, including garnering 10 pages in the January 1937 edition of Reader's Digest.[23]\n\nThe book continued to remain at the top of best-seller lists and was even noted in the New York Times to have been extremely successful in Nazi Germany, much to the writer's bewilderment. He wrote that Carnegie would rate \"butter higher than guns as a means of winning friends\" something \"diametrically opposite to the official German view.\"[24]\n\nHow to Win Friends and Influence People continues to have success even into the 21st century. The book ranks as the 11th highest selling non-fiction book on Amazon of all time and shows no signs of slowing down.[25]\n\nIn popular culture[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Warren Buffett took the Dale Carnegie course \"How to Win Friends and Influence People\" when he was 20 years old, and to this day has the diploma in his office.[26]\n  \u2022 Charles Manson used what he learned from the book in prison to manipulate women into killing on his behalf.[27]\n  \u2022 The title of Lenny Bruce's autobiography, How to Talk Dirty and Influence People is a parody of the title of this book.\n  \u2022 English rock band Terrorvision titled their second album How to Make Friends and Influence People in reference to the book.\n  \u2022 In August 2015, the book was featured on Showtime's Masters of Sex, with portions recited in a voiceover as a main character studies the text.\n  \u2022 The title of Toby Young's memoir How to Lose Friends & Alienate People is a parody of the title of this book. The memoir was also adapted into a 2008 film of the same name starring Simon Pegg.\n  \u2022 An episode from season 7 of Cheers is called \"How to Win Friends and Electrocute People\" as a play on the title of the book.\n  \u2022 Season 7 episode 9 of Supernatural is titled \"How to Win Friends and Influence Monsters\", in reference to the title of the book.\n  \u2022 Season 2 episode 3 of Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is titled \"Making Friends and Influencing People\", in reference to this book. It aired October 7th, 2014.\n  \u2022 The book is referenced in the 2016 film Imperium, in which an undercover FBI agent uses principles from the book to infiltrate an extremist group.\n  \u2022 In the November 2, 2017 episode of Young Sheldon, \"Rockets, Communists, and the Dewey Decimal System\", Sheldon reads the book and attempts to apply its advice.\n  \u2022 The book is said to have greatly influenced the life of television and film actress Donna Reed. It was given to her by her high school chemistry teacher Edward Tompkins to read as a sophomore at Denison (Iowa) High School in 1936. Upon reading it she won the lead in the school play, was voted Campus Queen and was in the top 10 of the 1938 graduating class.[28]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"How to Win Friends and Influence People in the Digital Age\". Dalecarnegie.com. 2011. Retrieved March 28, 2016.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Walters, Ray (September 5, 1982). \"Paperback Talk\". New York Times. Retrieved April 7, 2008.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Each section is a paraphrase of the main ideas written and developed by Dale Carnegie. Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (Gallery: New York, 1998).\n  4. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (Gallery: New York, 1998) 52.\n  5. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie. How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Gallery, 1998) 73.\n  6. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie. How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Gallery, 1998) 143.\n  7. Jump up ^ Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People New York: Gallery, 1998. 220.\n  8. Jump up ^ Lowell Thomas, Shortcut to Distinction Introduction to How to Win Friends and Influence People. (New York: Gallery, 1998) 103.\n  9. Jump up ^ Steven Watts, Self-Help Messiah (New York: Other, 2013)\n  10. Jump up ^ Korda, Michael (1999). Another Life: A Memoir of Other People. Random House. p.\u00a0149. ISBN\u00a09780679456599. It was not for nothing that Shimkin had been the discoverer of Dale Carnegie, whose lectures he had attended with results that changed both Carnigie's life and his own: How to Win Friends and Influence People became the biggest best-seller in S&S's history.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Silverman, Al (2008). The Time of Their Lives: The Golden Age of Great American Book Publishers, Their Editors, and Authors. Truman Talley. pp.\u00a0252\u2013254. ISBN\u00a0978-0312-35003-1.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 137\u2013141\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 141.\n  14. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie (New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 142.\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Display ad 42 \u2013 no title. (1936, Dec 07). New York Times (1923\u2013Current File) Retrieved from http:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/101624338\n  16. Jump up ^ Steven Watts, Self-Help Messiah (New York: Other, 2013) 2\u20134\n  17. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie(New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 147.\n  18. Jump up ^ \"Miscellaneous Brief Reviews.\" 1937. New York Times (1923\u2013Current File), Feb 14, 104. http:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/101971502\n  19. Jump up ^ Sinclair Lewis, quoted in Tom Sant, The Giants of Sales. (New York: AMACOM, 2006) 96.\n  20. Jump up ^ Giles, Kemp. Dale Carnegie(New York: St. Martin's, 1989) 152.\n  21. Jump up ^ Symons, A. E. 1937. The Australian Quarterly, 9 (3). Australian Institute of Policy and Science: 115\u201316. doi:10.2307\/20629470\n  22. Jump up ^ Parker, Gail Thain. 1977. \"How to Win Friends and Influence People: Dale Carnegie and the Problem of Sincerity\". American Quarterly 29 (5). Johns Hopkins University Press: 506\u201318. doi:10.2307\/2712571\n  23. Jump up ^ Display ad 49 \u2013 no title. (1937, Jan 25). New York Times (1923\u2013Current File) Retrieved from http:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/102017737\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Books and Authors.\" 1940. New York Times (1923\u2013Current File), Dec 29, 1. http:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/105230738\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Amazon.com: Top 20 Lists in Books: Books\".\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Lasson, Sally Ann (February 16, 2009). \"Warren Buffet: The secret of the billionaire's success\". The Independent. Retrieved April 8, 2013.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Brady, Diane (July 22, 2013). \"Charles Manson's turning point: Dale Carnegie classes\". Business Week. Retrieved October 23, 2013.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"75-year history of Broadway Elementary building celebrated\". Denison Bulletin-Review. March 20, 2012. Retrieved April 9, 2017.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 How to Win Friends and Influence People: Google Books\n  \u2022 Dale Carnegie: Secrets of Success (PDF)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=How_to_Win_Friends_and_Influence_People&oldid=821766594\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1936 books\n  \u2022 Self-help books\n  \u2022 Books about friendship\n  \u2022 Books by Dale Carnegie\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from June 2011\n  \u2022 Pages to import images to Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 O\u02bbzbekcha\/\u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 22 January 2018, at 14:25.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4153946601893895421","title":"Natural-born-citizen clause","text":"Natural-born-citizen clause\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article is part of a series on the\nConstitution of the\nUnited States of America\nGreater coat of arms of the United States.svg\nPreamble and Articles\nof the Constitution\n  \u2022 Preamble\n  \u2022 I\n  \u2022 II\n  \u2022 III\n  \u2022 IV\n  \u2022 V\n  \u2022 VI\n  \u2022 VII\nAmendments to the Constitution\n  \u2022 Bill of Rights\n  \u2022 I\n  \u2022 II\n  \u2022 III\n  \u2022 IV\n  \u2022 V\n  \u2022 VI\n  \u2022 VII\n  \u2022 VIII\n  \u2022 IX\n  \u2022 X\n\n  \u2022 XI\n  \u2022 XII\n  \u2022 XIII\n  \u2022 XIV\n  \u2022 XV\n  \u2022 XVI\n  \u2022 XVII\n  \u2022 XVIII\n  \u2022 XIX\n  \u2022 XX\n  \u2022 XXI\n  \u2022 XXII\n  \u2022 XXIII\n  \u2022 XXIV\n  \u2022 XXV\n  \u2022 XXVI\n  \u2022 XXVII\nUnratified Amendments\n  \u2022 Congressional Apportionment\n  \u2022 Titles of Nobility\n  \u2022 Corwin\n  \u2022 Child Labor\n  \u2022 Equal Rights\n  \u2022 D.C. Voting Rights\nHistory\n  \u2022 Drafting and ratification timeline\n  \u2022 Convention\n  \u2022 Signing\n  \u2022 Federalism\n  \u2022 Republicanism\nFull text of the Constitution and Amendments\n  \u2022 Preamble and Articles I\u2013VII\n  \u2022 Amendments I\u2013X\n  \u2022 Amendments XI\u2013XXVII\n  \u2022 Unratified Amendments\n  \u2022 Flag of the United States.svg United States portal\n  \u2022 U.S. Government portal\n  \u2022 Law portal\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nStatus as a natural-born citizen of the United States is one of the eligibility requirements established in the United States Constitution for holding the office of President or Vice President. This requirement was intended to protect the nation from foreign influence.[1]\n\nThe U.S. Constitution uses but does not define the phrase \"natural born Citizen\", and various opinions have been offered over time regarding its precise meaning. The consensus of early 21st-century constitutional scholars, together with relevant case law, is that natural-born citizens include, subject to exceptions, those born in the United States. Many scholars have also concluded that those who meet the legal requirements for U.S. citizenship \"at the moment of birth\", regardless of place of birth, are also natural-born citizens.[2][3] Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or was born in the United States; of these there have been seven that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil.[4][5]\n\nThe natural-born-citizen clause has been mentioned in passing in several decisions of the United States Supreme Court, and by some lower courts that have addressed eligibility challenges, but the Supreme Court has never directly addressed the question of a specific presidential or vice-presidential candidate's eligibility as a natural-born citizen. Many eligibility lawsuits from the 2008, 2012, and 2016 election cycles were dismissed in lower courts due to the challengers' difficulty in showing that they had standing to raise legal objections. Additionally, some experts have suggested that the precise meaning of the natural-born-citizen clause may never be decided by the courts because, in the end, presidential eligibility may be determined to be a non-justiciable political question that can be decided only by Congress rather than by the judicial branch of government.[6][7]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Constitutional provisions\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 Antecedents in Britain\n    \u2022 2.2 Between 1776 and 1789\n    \u2022 2.3 Constitutional Convention\n    \u2022 2.4 Constitutionality of the natural-born-citizen clause\n    \u2022 2.5 Proposed constitutional amendments\n  \u2022 3 Rationale\n  \u2022 4 Interpretations of the clause\n    \u2022 4.1 Naturalization Acts of 1790 and 1795\n    \u2022 4.2 Government officials' interpretations\n      \u2022 4.2.1 1800s\n      \u2022 4.2.2 1900s\n    \u2022 4.3 Interpretations by the courts\n      \u2022 4.3.1 1800s\n      \u2022 4.3.2 1900s\n      \u2022 4.3.3 2000s\n    \u2022 4.4 Academic interpretations\n      \u2022 4.4.1 1800s\n      \u2022 4.4.2 1900s\n      \u2022 4.4.3 2000s\n        \u2022 4.4.3.1 Foreign soil & territories\n        \u2022 4.4.3.2 American soil\n  \u2022 5 Eligibility challenges\n    \u2022 5.1 1800s\n      \u2022 5.1.1 Chester A. Arthur\n      \u2022 5.1.2 Christopher Sch\u00fcrmann\n    \u2022 5.2 1900s\n      \u2022 5.2.1 Charles Evans Hughes\n      \u2022 5.2.2 Barry Goldwater\n      \u2022 5.2.3 George Romney\n      \u2022 5.2.4 Lowell Weicker\n    \u2022 5.3 2000s\n      \u2022 5.3.1 John McCain\n      \u2022 5.3.2 Barack Obama\n      \u2022 5.3.3 Ted Cruz\n      \u2022 5.3.4 Marco Rubio and Bobby Jindal\n    \u2022 5.4 Potential presidential candidates who are not eligible\n      \u2022 5.4.1 Arnold Schwarzenegger\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 Notes\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nConstitutional provisions[edit]\n\nPart of the constitutional provision as it appeared in 1787\n\nSection 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States, under clause 5 (emphasis added):\n\nNo Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.[9]\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states, \"No person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.\" The Fourteenth Amendment does not use the phrase natural-born citizen. It does provide, \"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.\"\n\nUnder Article One, representatives and senators are required to be U.S. citizens, but there is no requirement that they be natural born.[10][11]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nAntecedents in Britain[edit]\n\nThe use of the term \"natural born\" was not without precedent. An early recorded mention was in Calvin's Case (1608), in terms of birth within the jurisdiction of the sovereignty of the King.[12] Statutes in Britain prior to American independence used the phrase \"natural born subject\". For example, clause III of the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 provided:[13][14][15]\n\nThat the Children of all natural born Subjects born out of the Ligeance of Her Majesty Her Heires and Successors shall be deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Subjects of this Kingdom to all Intents Constructions and Purposes whatsoever\n\nThe Act was repealed (except for the quoted clause III regarding foreign-born children)[16] by the Tories in 1711 by the statute 10 Anne c. 5.[16][17]\n\nSubsequently, the British Nationality Act 1730 provided:\n\nfor the explaining the said recited Clause in the said Act . . . [t]hat all Children born out of the Ligeance of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, or which shall hereafter be born out of such Ligeance, whose Fathers were or shall be natural-born Subjects of the Crown of England, or of Great Britain, at the Time of the Birth of such Children respectively ... are hereby declared to be natural-born Subjects of the Crown of Great Britain, to all Intents, Constructions and Purposes whatsoever.[18]\n\nAnother use is in the Plantation Act 1740:[19]\n\n[A]ll persons born out of the legience of His Majesty, His Heirs, or Successors, who have ... or shall inhabit or reside for ... seven years or more in any of His Majesty\u2019s colonies in America ... shall be deemed, adjudged, and taken to be His Majesty\u2019s natural-born subjects of this Kingdom.\n\nJurist William Blackstone wrote in 1765 that \"Natural-born subjects are such as are born within the dominions of the crown of England\".[15][20] Blackstone added that offspring who are not inhabitants may also be natural born subjects:[20][21]\n\nBut by several more modern statutes ... all children, born out of the king's ligeance, whose fathers were natural-born subjects, are now natural-born subjects themselves, to all intents and purposes, without any exception; unless their said fathers were attainted, or banished beyond sea, for high treason; or were then in the service of a prince at enmity with Great Britain.\n\nIn 1775, however, Blackstone reversed his opinion and explained that the children \"are now deemed to be natural-born subjects\" rather than \"are now natural-born subjects.\"[22] Similarly, Francis Plowden (barrister) initially explained that an early English statute made foreign-born children of English parents \"in fact and law . . . true native subjects\" and that the eighteenth century British statutes made persons natural born subjects by statute law just as others were natural born subjects by the common law.[23] However, after further consideration he also reversed his opinion and concluded in 1785 that the statutes did not make the children natural born subjects\u2014rather, there remained a \"relict of alienage in them.\"[24] Prior to Blackstone, Edward Coke offered a narrower opinion in Calvin's Case.[25] According to Coke: \"[I]f any of the King's ambassadors in foreign nations, have children there of their wives, being English women, by the common laws of England they are natural-born subjects, and yet they are born out-of the King's dominions.\"[26]\n\nThe term \"natural born\" has often been used synonymously with \"native born\".[27] The English lexicographer Samuel Johnson wrote in 1756 that the word \"natural\" means \"native,\" and that the word \"native\" may mean either an \"inhabitant\" or an \"offspring\".[28]\n\nBetween 1776 and 1789[edit]\n\nFrom the Declaration of Independence (1776) to the ratification of the Constitution (1789), the thirteen states were independent of Britain, and during much of this time the Articles of Confederation tied together the country. The phrase \"natural born citizen\" was sometimes used during this period. An example occurred in 1784 when the Maryland General Assembly conferred citizenship on the (French-born) Marquis de Lafayette:[29][30][31]\n\nBe it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland\u2014that the Marquis de laFayette and his Heirs male forever shall be and they and each of them are hereby deemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Citizens of this State and shall henceforth be entitled to all the Immunities, Rights and Privileges of natural born Citizens thereof \u2026\n\nConstitutional Convention[edit]\n\nThe Constitution does not explain the meaning of \"natural born\".[32] On June 18, 1787, Alexander Hamilton submitted to the Convention a sketch of a plan of government.[33] The sketch provided for an executive \"Governour\" but had no eligibility requirements.[34] At the close of the Convention, Hamilton conveyed a paper to James Madison he said delineated the Constitution that he wished had been proposed by the Convention; he had stated its principles during the deliberations. Max Farrand wrote that it \"was not submitted to the Convention and has no further value than attaches to the personal opinions of Hamilton.\"[35] Article IX, section 1 of Hamilton's draft constitution provided: \"No person shall be eligible to the office of President of the United States unless he be now a Citizen of one of the States, or hereafter be born a Citizen of the United States.\"[36]\n\nOn July 25, 1787, John Jay wrote to George Washington, presiding officer of the Convention:\n\nPermit me to hint, whether it would not be wise and seasonable to provide a strong check to the admission of Foreigners into the administration of our national Government, and to declare expressly that the Command in chief of the American army shall not be given to, nor devolve on, any but a natural born Citizen.[38]\n\nWhile the Committee of Detail originally proposed that the President must be merely a citizen, as well as a resident for 21 years, the Committee of Eleven changed \"citizen\" to \"natural born citizen\", and the residency requirement to 14 years, without recorded explanation after receiving Jay's letter. The Convention accepted the change without further recorded debate.[39]\n\nConstitutionality of the natural-born-citizen clause[edit]\n\nIn 2012, Abdul Karim Hassan filed several unsuccessful lawsuits that claimed the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment had superseded the natural-born-citizen clause; he had argued natural-born citizenship was a form of discrimination based on national origin.[40]\n\nProposed constitutional amendments[edit]\n\nMore than two dozen proposed constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress to relax the restriction.[41] Two of the more well known were introduced by Representative Jonathan Bingham in 1974, with the intent to allow German-born Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (otherwise fourth in the line of succession) to become eligible,[42] and the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment by Senator Orrin Hatch in 2003, intending to allow eligibility for Austrian-born Arnold Schwarzenegger.[41] The Bingham amendment would have also made clear the eligibility of those born abroad to U.S. parents,[42] while the Hatch one would have allowed those who have been naturalized citizens for twenty years to be eligible.[41]\n\nRationale[edit]\n\nSt. George Tucker, an early federal judge, wrote in his 1803 edition of William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, perhaps the leading authority for the delegates to the Constitutional Convention for the terms used in the Constitution, that the natural born citizen clause is \"a happy means of security against foreign influence\" and that \"[t]he admission of foreigners into our councils, consequently, cannot be too much guarded against.\"[1] In a footnote, Tucker wrote that naturalized citizens have the same rights as the natural-born except \"they are forever incapable of being chosen to the office of president of the United States.\"[43]\n\nIn a speech before the Senate, delegate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney gave the rationale, \"to insure experience and attachment to the country.\"[44]\n\nProfessor Akhil Amar of Yale Law School claimed that there had been a perception on the part of those drafting the constitution that a member of the European aristocracy could immigrate and buy his way into power.[45]\n\nInterpretations of the clause[edit]\n\nNaturalization Acts of 1790 and 1795[edit]\n\nBecause of the large number of Framers who went on to serve in Congress, laws passed by the early sessions of Congress have often been looked to as evidence of the Framers' intent. The Naturalization Act of 1790 stated that \"the children of citizens of the United States, that may be born beyond sea, or out of the limits of the United States, shall be considered as natural born citizens: Provided, That the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons whose fathers have never been resident in the United States.\"[46] This act was repealed by the Naturalization Act of 1795, which removed the characterization of such children as \"natural born\", stating that \"the children of citizens of the United States, born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, shall be considered as citizens of the United States\" while retaining the same residency restrictions as the 1790 act.[46]\n\nGovernment officials' interpretations[edit]\n\n1800s[edit]\n\nJohn Bingham, an American lawyer and politician, held to the belief that natural born should be interpreted as born in the United States. In 1862, in the House of Representatives he stated:\n\nThe Constitution leaves no room for doubt upon this subject. The words \"natural born citizen of the United States\" appear in it, and the other provision appears in it that, \"Congress shall have power to pass a uniform system of naturalization.\" To naturalize a person is to admit him to citizenship. Who are natural born citizens but those born within the Republic? Those born within the Republic, whether black or white, are citizens by birth\u2014natural born citizens.[47]\n\nHe reiterated his statement in 1866:\n\nEvery human being born within the jurisdiction of the United States of parents not owing allegiance to any foreign sovereignty is, in the language of your Constitution itself, a natural-born citizen; but, sir, I may be allowed to say further that I deny that the Congress of the United States ever had the power, or color of power to say that any man born within the jurisdiction of the United States, not owing a foreign allegiance, is not and shall not be a citizen of the United States. Citizenship is his birthright and neither the Congress nor the States can justly or lawfully take it from him.[48]\n\nEdward Bates also held to the belief that \"natural born\" should be interpreted as \"born in the United States\". He also indicated that those born in the United States to alien parents, even if they reside elsewhere, are still considered natural born. In 1862, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase sent a query to Attorney General Edward Bates asking whether or not \"colored men\" can be citizens of the United States. The question arose because the Coast Guard had detained a schooner commanded by a free \"colored man\" who claimed he was a citizen of the United States. If he were a U.S. citizen the boat could be released, but otherwise\u2014the Civil War then being fought\u2014it would be confiscated. No information about the man's birth or parentage was provided. Bates responded on November 29, 1862, with a 27-page opinion \u2014 considered of such importance that the government published it not only in the official volumes of Attorney-General opinions but also as a separate booklet[49] \u2014 concluding,\n\nI conclude that the free man of color, mentioned in your letter, if born in the United States, is a citizen of the United States. [italics in original]\n\nIn the course of that opinion, Bates commented at some length on the nature of citizenship, and wrote,\n\n... our constitution, in speaking of natural born citizens, uses no affirmative language to make them such, but only recognizes and reaffirms the universal principle, common to all nations, and as old as political society, that the people born in a country do constitute the nation, and, as individuals, are natural members of the body politic. [italics in original]\n\nIn another opinion, dated September 1, 1862,[50] Bates dealt with a question from the Secretary of State, of whether a person born in the U.S. to two non-citizens, who is taken with them back to their country, could, years later, re-enter the United States as of right, as a U.S. citizen. Bates wrote:\n\nI am quite clear in the opinion that children born in the United States of alien parents, who have never been naturalized, are native-born citizens of the United States, and, of course, do not require the formality of naturalization to entitle them to the rights and privileges of such citizenship. I might sustain this opinion by a reference to the well-settled principle of the common law of England on this subject; to the writings of many of the earlier and later commentators on our Constitution and laws; ... and lastly to the dicta and decisions of many of our national and state tribunals. But all this has been well done by Assistant Vice Chancellor Sandford, in the case of Lynch vs. Clarke, and I forbear. I refer to his opinion for a full and clear statement of the principle, and of the reasons and authorities for its support.\n\nUnlike Edward Bates, U.S. Secretary of State William Learned Marcy was equivocal about whether those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens. In 1854 Marcy wrote John Y. Mason, the U.S. Minister to France:[51]\n\nIn reply to the inquiry ... whether \"the children of foreign parents born in the United States, but brought to the country of which the father is a subject, and continuing to reside within the jurisdiction of their father's country, are entitled to protection as citizens of the United States\", I have to observe that it is presumed that, according to the common law, any person born in the United States, unless he be born in one of the foreign legations therein, may be considered a citizen thereof until he formally renounces his citizenship. There is not, however any United States statute containing a provision upon this subject, nor, so far as I am aware, has there been any judicial decision in regard to it.\n\nU.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont, however, shared Edward Bates' opinion that those born in the country of alien parents and who reside elsewhere are still considered citizens, and he added that they should be entitled to be president of the United States, if elected. In 1875 Pierrepont was presented with a query from the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish. A young man, named Arthur Steinkauler,[52] had been born in Missouri in 1855, a year after his father was naturalized a U.S. citizen. When he was four years old, his father returned to Germany with him and both had stayed there ever since. The father had relinquished his American citizenship and the young man was now 20 years old and about to be drafted into the Imperial German army. The question was asked \"What was this young man's situation as a native-born American citizen?\" After studying the relevant legal authorities, Pierrepont wrote:[53]\n\nUnder the treaty [of 1868 with Germany], and in harmony with American doctrine, it is clear that Steinkauler the father abandoned his naturalization in America and became a German subject (his son being yet a minor), and that by virtue of German laws the son acquired German nationality. It is equally clear that the son, by birth, has American nationality, and hence he has two nationalities, one natural, the other acquired ... Young Steinkauler is a native-born American citizen. There is no law of the United States under which his father or any other person can deprive him of his birthright. He can return to America at the age of 21, and in due time, if the people elect, he can become President of the United States. ... I am of opinion that when he reaches the age of 21 years he can then elect whether he will return and take the nationality of his birth, with its duties and privileges, or retain the nationality acquired by the act of his father.\n\n1900s[edit]\n\nFrederick van Dyne, the Assistant Solicitor of the U.S. Department of State (1900\u20131907) indicated that children of citizens born outside the United States are also considered citizens. In 1904, he published a textbook, Citizenship of the United States, in which he wrote:[54]\n\nThere is no uniform rule of international law covering the subject of citizenship. Every nation determines for itself who shall, and who shall not, be its citizens. ... By the law of the United States, citizenship depends, generally, on the place of birth; nevertheless the children of citizens, born out of the jurisdiction of the United States, are also citizens. ... The Constitution of the United States, while it recognized citizenship of the United States in prescribing the qualifications of the President, Senators, and Representatives, contained no definition of citizenship until the adoption of the 14th Amendment, in 1868; nor did Congress attempt to define it until the passage of the civil rights act, in 1866. ... Prior to this time the subject of citizenship by birth was generally held to be regulated by the common law, by which all persons born within the limits and allegiance of the United States were deemed natural-born citizens. It appears to have been assumed by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Murray v. The Charming Betsy (1804) 2 Cranch (6 U.S.) 64, 119, 2 L.Ed. 208, 226, that all persons born in the United States were citizens thereof. ... In M'Creery v. Somerville (1824) 9 Wheat. (22 U.S.) 354, 6 L.Ed. 109, which concerned the title to land in the state of Maryland, it was assumed that children born in that state to an alien were native-born citizens of the United States. ... The Federal courts have almost uniformly held that birth in the United States, of itself, confers citizenship.\n\nInterpretations by the courts[edit]\n\n1800s[edit]\n\nAlthough eligibility for the Presidency was not an issue in any 19th-century litigation, there have been a few cases that shed light on the definitions of natural born and native born citizen. The leading case, Lynch v. Clarke[55] of 1844, indicated that citizens born \"within the dominions and allegiance of the United States\" are citizens regardless of parental citizenship. This case dealt with a New York law (similar to laws of other states at that time) that only a U.S. citizen could inherit real estate. The plaintiff, Julia Lynch, had been born in New York while her parents, both British, were briefly visiting the U.S., and shortly thereafter all three left for Britain and never returned to the U.S. The New York Chancery Court determined that, under common law and prevailing statutes, she was a U.S. citizen by birth and nothing had deprived her of that citizenship, notwithstanding that both her parents were not U.S. citizens or that British law might also claim her through her parents' nationality. In the course of the decision, the court cited the Constitutional provision and said:\n\nSuppose a person should be elected president who was native born, but of alien parents; could there be any reasonable doubt that he was eligible under the Constitution? I think not. The position would be decisive in his favor, that by the rule of the common law, in force when the Constitution was adopted, he is a citizen.[56]\n\nAnd further:\n\nUpon principle, therefore, I can entertain no doubt, but that by the law of the United States, every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, is a natural born citizen. It is surprising that there has been no judicial decision upon this question.[57]\n\nThe decision in Lynch was cited as persuasive or authoritative precedent in numerous subsequent cases, and reinforced the interpretation that \"natural born citizen\" meant born \"within the dominions and allegiance of the United States\" regardless of parental citizenship. For example, in an 1884 case, In re Look Tin Singg,[58] the federal court held, that despite laws preventing naturalization of Chinese visitors, Chinese persons born in the United States were citizens by birth, and remained such despite any long stay in China. Citing Lynch, Justice Stephen J. Field wrote:\n\nAfter an exhaustive examination of the law, the Vice-Chancellor said that he entertained no doubt that every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the United States, whatever the situation of his parents, was a natural-born citizen, and added that this was the general understanding of the legal profession, and the universal impression of the public mind.[59]\n\nThe Lynch case was also cited as a leading precedent in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898),[60] which similarly held a child born in the United States of two Chinese parents became \"at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States\".[61]\n\n1900s[edit]\n\nConsistent with the earlier decisions, in 1939, the U.S. Supreme Court stated in its decision in Perkins v. Elg that a person born in America and raised in another country was a natural born citizen, and specifically stated that they could \"become President of the United States\".[62] The case was regarding a young woman, born in New York a year after her father became a naturalized U.S. citizen. However, when she was about four her parents returned to Sweden taking her with them, and they stayed in Sweden. At age 20, she contacted the American embassy in Sweden and, shortly after her 21st birthday, returned to the United States on a U.S. passport and was admitted as a U.S. citizen. Years later, while she was still in America, her father in Sweden relinquished his American citizenship, and, because of that, the Department of Labor (then the location of the Immigration & Naturalization Service) declared her a non-citizen and tried to deport her. The young woman filed suit for a declaratory judgment that she was an American citizen by birth. She won at the trial level, and at the circuit court\u2014where she was repeatedly described as \"a natural born citizen\" [63] \u2014 and finally in the U.S. Supreme Court, where the court decision quoted at length from the U.S. Attorney General's opinion in Steinkauler's Case (mentioned above) including the comment that a person born in America and raised in another country could yet \"become President of the United States\".[62]\n\nSome federal cases argued for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment, according to which U.S. citizens were necessarily either born or naturalized in the United States, and any citizen who was not born in the United States must have been naturalized by operation of law, even if such naturalization was \"automatic\" at birth. In this view, such a person should not be considered a natural born citizen, but rather a \"naturalized\" citizen who is not eligible for the Presidency.[64]\n\nIn 1951, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit noted in Zimmer v. Acheson that \"[t]here are only two classes of citizens of the United States, native-born citizens and naturalized citizens\", quoting a dictum by Justice Gray from United States v. Wong Kim Ark and Elk v. Wilkins.[7] The court ruled that Zimmer, who was born abroad in 1905 to a U.S. citizen father and a noncitizen mother, was himself a citizen under the nationality law in force at the time of his birth, but \"his status as a citizen was that of a naturalized citizen and not a native-born citizen\".[65] In the 1956 case of Wong Kam Wo v. Dulles, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit quoted Zimmer v. Acheson and United States v. Wong Kim Ark in support of a ruling that the statute that was in effect prior to 1940 granting citizenship to foreign-born children of U.S. citizens was a naturalization law rather than a provision for nationality at birth. In 1940, however, the federal law was amended to explicitly define \"naturalization\" as conferring nationality after birth.\n\nIn 1961, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Montana v. Kennedy that an individual who was born in 1906 in Italy to a U.S. citizen mother and a noncitizen father was not a U.S. citizen by birth under the nationality laws in force at the time of his birth. It observed that automatic citizenship was granted to children of U.S. citizen fathers and noncitizen mothers by an 1855 act of Congress, but the reverse situation was only addressed, non-retroactively, in 1934.[66] In 1971, the Court encountered a similar situation in Rogers v. Bellei, where the individual in question was born after 1934 and so was granted automatic U.S. citizenship, though subject to residence requirements and was subject to expatriation. The Court \"appeared to assume or imply that such persons became citizens at birth by way of naturalization\".[64]\n\nMore recent cases, particularly Nguyen v. INS and Robinson v. Bowen, relaxed this view, suggesting that the Fourteenth Amendment merely establishes a \"floor\" for birthright citizenship, and this category may be expanded by Congress.[64]\n\n2000s[edit]\n\nIn 2009 in Ankeny v. Governor,[67] the Indiana Court of Appeals reaffirmed that persons born within the borders of the United States are \"natural born Citizens\", regardless of the citizenship of their parents. The court referred to the case of Wong Kim Ark, and provides a compilation of the arguments pertaining to this topic.\n\nA clarification to this interpretation was made in 2010, where a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held that natural born citizens can lose their citizenship if their territory of birth later ceases to be U.S. territory. The case involved a Philippine-born litigant who could not claim U.S. citizenship on the basis of his parents, who lived all their lives in the Philippines, because they were born while the Philippines was U.S. territory prior to being given its independence. The Courts for the Second, Third, and Ninth Circuits have also held that birth in the Philippines at a time when the country was a territory of the United States does not constitute birth \"in the United States\" under the Citizenship Clause, and thus did not give rise to United States citizenship.[68]\n\nIn a 2012 New York case, Strunk v. N.Y. State Board of Elections,[4] the pro se plaintiff challenged Barack Obama's presence on the presidential ballot, based on his own interpretation that \"natural born citizen\" required the president \"to have been born on United States soil and have two United States born parents\" (emphasis added). To this the Court responded, \"Article II, section 1, clause 5 does not state this. No legal authority has ever stated that the Natural Born Citizen clause means what plaintiff Strunk claims it says. ... Moreover, President Obama is the sixth U.S. President to have had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil\". The opinion then listed Andrew Jackson, James Buchanan, Chester A. Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert Hoover.[4]\n\nAcademic interpretations[edit]\n\n1800s[edit]\n\nWilliam Rawle, formerly the U.S. Attorney for Pennsylvania (1791\u20131799) defined natural born citizen as every person born within the United States, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. In an 1825 treatise, A View of the Constitution of the United States of America, he wrote:\n\nThe citizens of each state constituted the citizens of the United States when the Constitution was adopted. ... [He] who was subsequently born the citizen of a State, became at the moment of his birth a citizen of the United States. Therefore every person born within the United States, its territories or districts, whether the parents are citizens or aliens, is a natural born citizen in the sense of the Constitution, and entitled to all the rights and privileges appertaining to that capacity. ... Under our Constitution the question is settled by its express language, and when we are informed ... no person is eligible to the office of President unless he is a natural born citizen, the principle that the place of birth creates the relative quality is established as to us.[69]\n\nJames F. Wilson agreed with Rawle's opinion, but added the exclusion of visiting foreign diplomats. During an 1866 House debate, he quoted Rawle's opinion, and also referred to the \"general law relating to subjects and citizens recognized by all nations\", saying:\n\n... and that must lead us to the conclusion that every person born in the United States is a natural-born citizen of such States, except it may be that children born on our soil to temporary sojourners or representatives of foreign Governments, are native-born citizens of the United States.[70]\n\nSupreme Court Justice Peter Vivian Daniel disagreed with this position and considered natural born citizen as every person born of citizen parents within the United States. In 1857, in a concurring opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford,[71] he quoted an English-language translation of Emerich de Vattel's 1758 treatise The Law of Nations (Le Droit des gens), stating that \"The natives, or natural-born citizens, are those born in the country of parents who are citizens\".[72]\n\nThis was quoted again in 1898 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller in his dissenting opinion in United States v. Wong Kim Ark.[73] However, two paragraphs later, Justice Vattel disagrees and states, \"\u00a7 214. ... there are states, as, for instance, England, where the single circumstance of being born in the country naturalizes the children of a foreigner.\"\n\nJoseph Story, an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, believed that the term native citizen is synonymous with natural born citizen, though he does not define either term. In his 1840 guidebook to the Constitution, A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States, about the natural-born-citizen clause he wrote \"It is not too much to say that no one, but a native citizen, ought ordinarily to be [e]ntrusted with an office so vital to the safety and liberties of the people.\"[74] This same wording also appeared in his 1834 work The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools.[75]\n\n1900s[edit]\n\nAlexander Porter Morse, the lawyer who represented Louisiana in Plessy v. Ferguson,[76] considered this connection between native born and natural born to signify that only a child of citizens should be allowed to run for President. In the Albany Law Journal, he wrote:\n\nIf it was intended that anybody who was a citizen by birth should be eligible, it would only have been necessary to say, \"no person, except a native-born citizen\"; but the framers thought it wise, in view of the probable influx of European immigration, to provide that the president should at least be the child of citizens owing allegiance to the United States at the time of his birth. It may be observed in passing that the current phrase \"native-born citizen\" is well understood; but it is pleonasm and should be discarded; and the correct designation, \"native citizen\" should be substituted in all constitutional and statutory enactments, in judicial decisions and in legal discussions where accuracy and precise language are essential to intelligent discussion.[77]\n\n2000s[edit]\n\nBlack's Law Dictionary (9th Edition) defines \"Natural Born Citizen\" as \"A person born within the jurisdiction of a national government\".\n\nForeign soil & territories[edit]\n\nIn 2000, the Congressional Research Service (CRS), in one of its reports, wrote that most constitutional scholars interpret the natural born citizen clause to include citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens. This same CRS report also asserts that citizens born in the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, are legally defined as \"natural born\" citizens and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President.[78]\n\nThis opinion was reaffirmed in a 2009 CRS report, which stated:\n\nConsidering the history of the constitutional qualifications provision, the common use and meaning of the phrase \"natural-born subject\" in England and in the Colonies in the 1700s, the clause's apparent intent, the subsequent action of the first Congress in enacting the Naturalization Act of 1790 (expressly defining the term \"natural born citizen\" to include a person born abroad to parents who are United States citizens), as well as subsequent Supreme Court dicta, it appears that the most logical inferences would indicate that the phrase \"natural born Citizen\" would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship \"at birth\" or \"by birth\".[79]\n\nThe interpretation of natural born being the equivalent of a citizen at birth was repeated in a 2011 CRS report and a 2016 CRS report. The 2011 report stated:\n\nThe weight of legal and historical authority indicates that the term \"natural born\" citizen would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship \"by birth\" or \"at birth,\" either by being born \"in\" the United States and under its jurisdiction, even those born to alien parents; by being born abroad to U.S. citizen-parents; or by being born in other situations meeting legal requirements for U.S. citizenship \"at birth\". Such term, however, would not include a person who was not a U.S. citizen by birth or at birth, and who was thus born an \"alien\" required to go through the legal process of \"naturalization\" to become a U.S. citizen.[3]\n\nThe 2016 report similarly stated:\n\nAlthough the eligibility of U.S. born citizens has been settled law for more than a century, there have been legitimate legal issues raised concerning those born outside of the country to U.S. citizens. From historical material and case law, it appears that the common understanding of the term \"natural born\" in England and in the American colonies in the 1700s included both the strict common law meaning as born in the territory (jus soli), as well as the statutory laws adopted in England since at least 1350, which included children born abroad to British fathers (jus sanguinis, the law of descent). Legal scholars in the field of citizenship have asserted that this common understanding and legal meaning in England and in the American colonies was incorporated into the usage and intent of the term in the U.S. Constitution to include those who are citizens at birth.[64]\n\nGabriel J. Chin, Professor of Law at UC Davis School of Law, held the opinion that the term \"natural born\" is ambiguous and citizenship-granting authority has changed over the years. He notes that persons born outside the United States to U.S.-citizen parents have not always been born citizens.[80][81] For example, foreign-born children of persons who became citizens between April 14, 1802 and 1854 were aliens. He also believed that children born in the Panama Canal Zone to at least one U.S. then-citizen before August 4, 1937, when Congress granted citizenship to all such persons, were born without American citizenship.\n\n  1. Congress possesses the authority either\n    \u2022 to grant not only citizenship (as is undisputed) but the more specific status of a \"natural born\" citizen, with an affirmative answer raising the question of whether it can also act to remove that status (and thereby disqualify individuals from the Presidency through action short of stripping them of their citizenship),\n      or\n    \u2022 to issue \"declarations\" regarding the meaning of preexisting law (in this case, U.S. citizenship law between the aforementioned dates) and having binding authority, a claim likely to violate separation of powers given the Constitution's provisions in Article III that \"[t]he judicial Power of the United States[] shall be vested in one supreme Court[] and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish\" (Section 1) and that \"[t]he judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority\" (Section 2)\n    and\n  2. the statute (currently codified at 8 U.S.C. \u00a7 1403(a)) \u2013 which states only that \"any person [fitting the above description] is declared to be a citizen of the United States\" and neither\n    \u2022 expressly claims that its declaration (whether a grant or an interpretation) has retroactive rather than merely prospective effect (contrast the locution \"to have been a citizen of the United States [from birth]\")\n      nor\n    \u2022 in any way mentions \"natural born\" status (instead conferring or recognizing the preexistence only of \"citizen[ship]\" generally) \u2013\n      in fact grants or recognizes citizenship from birth, let alone status as a natural born citizen (to whatever extent the requirements of that status exceed those for citizenship from birth).\n\nIn 2009, G. Edward \"Ted\" White, Professor of Law at the University of Virginia, stated the term refers to anyone born on U.S. soil or anyone born on foreign soil to American citizen parents.[82]\n\nUnlike Chin and White, Mary McManamon, Professor of Law at Widener University School of Law, has argued in the Catholic University Law Review that, aside from children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, a natural born citizen must be born in the United States. She claims that common law provides an exception for the children of U.S. ambassadors born abroad and the children of American soldiers while engaged in hostilities. Thus, with these two limited exceptions, she equates \"natural born\" with \"native born\".[83][84]\n\nProfessor Einer Elhauge of Harvard Law School agrees with Professor McManamon that \"natural born\" means \"native born\" and therefore the wording of the Constitution \"does not permit his (Ted Cruz's) candidacy.\"[85] Professor Robert Clinton at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University is also of the opinion that \"natural born citizen\" means \"born in the United States.\"[86] University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner also concludes that \"natural born citizen\" means a \"person born in the (United States)\".[87] Former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, Sol Wachtler, concludes the same.[88] Their conclusion is consistent with the position that the eighteenth century legal usage of the term \"shall be considered as natural born\" in the Naturalization Act of 1790 merely naturalized persons or granted them limited rights of the natural born.[89]\n\nAmerican soil[edit]\n\nThere is consensus among academics that those born on American soil, except children born to foreign ambassadors or to hostile soldiers on U.S. territory, both of whom owe allegiance to a different sovereign, are natural born citizens, or jus soli, regardless of parental citizenship status.\n\nIn a 2008 article published by the Michigan Law Review, Lawrence Solum, Professor of Law at the University of Illinois, stated that \"there is general agreement on the core of [the] meaning [of the Presidential Eligibility Clause]. Anyone born on American soil whose parents are citizens of the United States is a 'natural born citizen'\".[90] In April 2010, Solum republished the same article as an online draft, in which he clarified his original statement so that it would not be misunderstood as excluding the children of one citizen parent. In a footnote he explained, \"based on my reading of the historical sources, there is no credible case that a person born on American soil with one American parent was clearly not a 'natural born citizen'.\" He further extended natural born citizenship to all cases of jus soli as the \"conventional view\".[91] Although Solum stated elsewhere that the two-citizen-parents arguments were not \"crazy\", he believes \"the much stronger argument suggests that if you were born on American soil that you would be considered a natural born citizen.\"[92]\n\nRonald Rotunda, Professor of Law at Chapman University, has remarked \"There's [sic] some people who say that both parents need to be citizens. That's never been the law.\"[93]\n\nPolly Price, Professor of Law at Emory University, has commented \"It's a little confusing, but most scholars think it's a pretty unusual position for anyone to think the natural born citizen clause would exclude someone born in the U.S.\"[92]\n\nChin concurred with that assessment, stating, \"there is agreement that 'natural born citizens' include those made citizens by birth under the 14th Amendment.\"[94]\n\nSimilarly, Eugene Volokh, Professor of Law at UCLA, found \"quite persuasive\" the reasoning employed by the Indiana Court of Appeals, which had concluded \"that persons born within the borders of the United States are 'natural born Citizens' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents\".[95][96]\n\nDaniel Tokaji, Professor of Law at Ohio State University, agrees the citizenship status of a U.S.-born candidate's parents is irrelevant.[97]\n\nEligibility challenges[edit]\n\nSeveral courts have ruled that private citizens do not have standing to challenge the eligibility of candidates to appear on a presidential election ballot.[98] Alternatively, there is a statutory method by which the eligibility of the president-elect of the United States to take office may be challenged in Congress.[99] Some legal scholars assert that, even if eligibility challenges are nonjusticiable in federal courts, and are not undertaken in Congress, there are other avenues for adjudication, such as an action in state court in regard to ballot access.[6][7]\n\nEvery president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of the former group, all except one had two parents with citizenship in what would become the U.S. (Andrew Jackson). Of those in the latter group, every president except two (Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama) had two U.S.-citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his U.S.-citizen parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover and Donald Trump).[4][5]\n\nSome presidential candidates were not born in a U.S. state or lacked two U.S.-citizen parents.[100] In addition, one U.S. vice president (Al Gore) was born in Washington, D.C., and another (Charles Curtis) was born in the Kansas Territory. This does not necessarily mean that these officeholders or candidates were ineligible, only that there was some controversy about their eligibility, which may have been resolved in favor of eligibility.[101]\n\n1800s[edit]\n\nChester A. Arthur[edit]\n\nChester A. Arthur, who was sworn in as president when James A. Garfield died after being shot, was rumored to have been born in Canada.[102]\n\nChester A. Arthur was born in Vermont on October 5, 1829 to a Vermont-born mother and a father from Ireland (who later became a U.S. citizen, 14 years after Chester A. Arthur was born). His mother, Malvina Stone Arthur, was a native of Berkshire, Vermont, who moved with her family to Quebec, where she met and married the future president's father, William Arthur, on April 12, 1821. After the family had settled in Fairfield, Vermont, somewhere between 1822 and 1824, William Arthur traveled with his eldest daughter to East Stanbridge, Canada, in October 1830 and commuted to Fairfield on Sundays to preach. \"It appears that he traveled regularly between the two villages, both of which were close to the Canada\u2013US border, for about eighteen months, holding two jobs\",[103] which may well explain the confusion about Chester A. Arthur's place of birth, as perhaps did the fact that he was born in Franklin County, and thus within a day's walk of the Vermont\u2013Quebec border.[104] Moreover, Chester A. Arthur himself added a bit of confusion into the record by sometimes reporting his birth year as 1830.[105]\n\nNo evidence of his having been born in Canada was ever demonstrated by his Democratic opponents, although Arthur Hinman, an attorney who had investigated Chester A. Arthur's family history, raised the allegation as an objection during his vice-presidential campaign and, after the end of his presidency, published a book on the subject.[106]\n\nChristopher Sch\u00fcrmann[edit]\n\nChristopher Sch\u00fcrmann (born in New York City) entered the Labor primaries during the 1896 presidential election. His eligibility was questioned in a New York Tribune article, because he was born to parents of German nationality. It was stated that \"various Attorney-Generals [sic] of the United States have expressed the opinion that a child born in this country of alien parents, who have not been naturalized, is, by the fact of birth, a native-born citizen entitled to all rights and privileges as such.\" But due to a lack of any statute on the subject, Sch\u00fcrmann's eligibility was \"at best an open question, and one which should have made [his] nomination under any circumstances an impossibility\", because questions concerning his eligibility could have been raised after the election.[107]\n\n1900s[edit]\n\nCharles Evans Hughes[edit]\n\nThe eligibility of Charles Evans Hughes was questioned in an article written by Breckinridge Long, one of Woodrow Wilson's campaign workers, and published on December 7, 1916 in the Chicago Legal News \u2014 a full month after the U.S. presidential election of 1916, in which Hughes was narrowly defeated by Woodrow Wilson. Long claimed that Hughes was ineligible because his father was not yet naturalized at the time of his birth and was still a British citizen (in fact, both his parents were British citizens and never became U.S. citizens). Observing that Hughes, although born in the United States, was also (according to British law) a British subject and therefore \"enjoy[ed] a dual nationality and owe[d] a double allegiance\", Long argued that a native born citizen was not natural born without a unity of U.S. citizenship and allegiance and stated: \"Now if, by any possible construction, a person at the instant of birth, and for any period of time thereafter, owes, or may owe, allegiance to any sovereign but the United States, he is not a 'natural-born' citizen of the United States.\" [108]\n\nBarry Goldwater[edit]\n\nBarry Goldwater was born in Phoenix, in what was then the incorporated Arizona Territory of the United States. During his presidential campaign in 1964, there was a minor controversy over Goldwater's having been born in Arizona three years before it became a state.[102]\n\nGeorge Romney[edit]\n\nGeorge W. Romney, who ran for the Republican party presidential nomination in 1968, was born in Mexico to U.S. parents.[109][110] Romney's grandfather, a member of the LDS Church, had emigrated to Mexico in 1886 with his three wives and their children, after the U.S. federal government outlawed polygamy. However Romney's parents (monogamous under new church doctrine) retained their U.S. citizenship and returned to the United States with him and his siblings in 1912.[111] Romney's eligibility for President became moot when Richard Nixon was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate.\n\nLowell Weicker[edit]\n\nLowell P. Weicker entered the race for the Republican party nomination of 1980 but dropped out before voting in the primaries began; he was also suggested as a possible vice-presidential nominee in 1976, to replace retiring Vice President Nelson Rockefeller under the Republican ticket of incumbent President Gerald Ford. However Senator Bob Dole from Kansas was later chosen as the nominee. He was born in Paris, France, to parents who were U.S. citizens. His father was an executive for E. R. Squibb & Sons and his mother was born in India, the daughter of a British general.[110][112]\n\n2000s[edit]\n\nJohn McCain[edit]\n\nJohn McCain was born in 1936 at Coco Solo, Naval Air Station[119] in the Panama Canal Zone. McCain's eligibility was not challenged during his 2000 campaign, but it was challenged during his 2008 campaign.\n\nMcCain never released his birth certificate to the press or independent fact-checking organizations, but in 2008 one was shown to Washington Post reporter Michael Dobbs, who wrote, \"[A] senior official of the McCain campaign showed me a copy of [McCain's] birth certificate issued by the 'family hospital' in the Coco Solo submarine base.\"[115] A lawsuit filed by Fred Hollander in 2008 alleged McCain was actually born in a civilian hospital in Col\u00f3n, Panama.[120][121] Dobbs wrote that in his autobiography, Faith of My Fathers, McCain wrote that he was born \"in the Canal Zone\" at the U.S. Naval Air Station in Coco Solo, which was under the command of his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. \"The senator's father, John S. McCain Jr., was an executive officer on a submarine, also based in Coco Solo. His mother, Roberta McCain, has said that she has vivid memories of lying in bed listening to raucous celebrations of her son's birth from the nearby officers' club. The birth was announced days later in the English-language Panamanian American newspaper.\"[126]\n\nThe former unincorporated territory of the Panama Canal Zone and its related military facilities were not regarded as United States territory at the time,[127] but 8 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01403, which became law in 1937, retroactively conferred citizenship on individuals born within the Canal Zone on or after February 26, 1904, and on individuals born in the Republic of Panama on or after that date who had at least one U.S. citizen parent employed by the U.S. government or the Panama Railway Company; 8 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01403 was cited in Judge William Alsup's 2008 ruling, described below. A March 2008 paper by former Solicitor General Ted Olson and Harvard Law Professor Laurence H. Tribe opined that McCain was eligible for the Presidency.[128] In April 2008, the U.S. Senate approved a non-binding resolution recognizing McCain's status as a natural-born citizen.[129] In September 2008, U.S. District Judge William Alsup stated obiter in his ruling that it is \"highly probable\" that McCain is a natural-born citizen from birth by virtue of 8 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01401, although he acknowledged the alternative possibility that McCain became a natural-born citizen retroactively, by way of 8 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01403.[130]\n\nThese views have been criticized by Chin, who argues that McCain was at birth a citizen of Panama and was only retroactively declared a born citizen under 8 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01403, because at the time of his birth and with regard to the Canal Zone the Supreme Court's Insular Cases overruled the Naturalization Act of 1795, which would otherwise have declared McCain a U.S. citizen immediately at birth.[131] The U.S. State Department's Foreign Affairs Manual states that children born in the Panama Canal Zone at certain times became U.S. nationals without citizenship.[132] In Rogers v. Bellei, the Supreme Court ruled that children \"born abroad of American parents\" are not citizens within the citizenship clause of the 14th Amendment but did not elaborate on their natural-born status.[133][134] Similarly, legal scholar Lawrence Solum concluded in an article on the natural born citizen clause that the question of McCain's eligibility could not be answered with certainty, and that it would depend on the particular approach of \"constitutional construction\".[135] The urban legend fact checking website Snopes.com considers McCain's eligibility \"undetermined\".[136]\n\nArguments over McCain's eligibility became moot after he lost the United States presidential election in 2008.\n\nBarack Obama[edit]\n\nMain article: Barack Obama presidential eligibility litigation\n\nBarack Obama was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii (which had become a U.S. state in 1959). His mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was a British subject[137][138][139] from British Kenya.\n\nBefore and after the 2008 presidential election, arguments were made that Obama was not a natural-born citizen. On June 12, 2008, the Obama presidential campaign launched a website to counter what it described as a smear campaign by his opponents, including conspiracy theories challenging his eligibility.[140] The most prominent issue raised against Obama was the claim made in several lawsuits that he was not actually born in Hawaii. The Supreme Court declined without comment to hear two lawsuits in which the plaintiffs argued it was irrelevant whether Obama was born in Hawaii.[141] Most of the cases were dismissed because of the plaintiff's lack of standing; however, several courts have given guidance on the question.\n\nIn Ankeny v. Governor, a three-member Indiana Court of Appeals stated,\n\nBased upon the language of Article II, Section 1, Clause 4 and the guidance provided by Wong Kim Ark, we conclude that persons born within the borders of the United States are 'natural born Citizens' for Article II, Section 1 purposes, regardless of the citizenship of their parents.[142]\n\nAdministrative Law Judge Michael Malihi in Georgia decided a group of eligibility challenge cases by saying, \"The Indiana Court rejected the argument that Mr. Obama was ineligible, stating that the children born within the United States are natural born citizens, regardless of the citizenship of their parents. ... This Court finds the decision and analysis of Ankeny persuasive.\" [143] Federal District Judge John A. Gibney, Jr. wrote in his decision in the case of Tisdale v. Obama:\n\nThe eligibility requirements to be President of the United States are such that the individual must be a \"natural born citizen\" of the United States ... It is well settled that those born in the United States are considered natural born citizens. See, e.g. United States v. Ark [sic] ...[144]\n\nOn October 31, 2008, Hawaii Health Director Chiyome Fukino issued a statement saying,\n\nI ... have personally seen and verified that the Hawai'i State Department of Health has Sen. Obama's original birth certificate on record in accordance with state policies and procedures.[98][145]\n\nOn July 27, 2009, Fukino issued an additional statement:\n\nI ... have seen the original vital records maintained on file by the Hawaii State Department of Health verifying Barack Hussein Obama was born in Hawaii and is a natural-born American citizen.[146]\n\nAttempts to prevent Obama from participating in the 2012 Democratic primary election in several states failed.[147][148][149][150]\n\nTed Cruz[edit]\n\nTed Cruz announced on March 22, 2015, that he was running for the Republican Party's nomination for president in the 2016 election.[151] Cruz was born in Calgary, Canada.[152] Cruz's mother was a U.S. citizen and his father was born in Cuba, but his father eventually became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2005.[153] This gave Cruz dual Canadian-American citizenship, as he was granted U.S. citizenship at the time of his birth by the virtue of his mother's citizenship, and Canada grants birthright citizenship to every person born in Canada. Cruz applied to formally renounce his Canadian citizenship and ceased being a citizen of Canada on May 14, 2014.[154][155][156]\n\nFormer Solicitor General Paul Clement,[157][158] former Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal,[157][158] University of California, Irvine School of Law Dean Erwin Chemerinsky,[159] Professor Chin (see above),[153] Temple University Law School Professor Peter Spiro,[160] Professor Akhil Amar,[161] Georgetown University Law Center Professor Randy Barnett,[162] Yale Law School Professor Jack Balkin,[162] and University of San Diego Professor Michael Ramsey[162] believe Cruz meets the constitutional requirements to be eligible for the presidency. Similarly, Bryan Garner, the editor of Black's Law Dictionary, believes the U.S. Supreme Court would find Cruz to be eligible,[163] and Case Western Reserve University School of Law professor Jonathan H. Adler agrees that no court will rule against Cruz's eligibility.[164]\n\nLaurence Tribe of Harvard, however, described Cruz's eligibility as \"murky and unsettled\".[165] Harvard Law Professor Cass Sunstein believes that Cruz is eligible, but agrees with Ramsey that Cruz's eligibility is not \"an easy question\". Sunstein believes concerns over standing and the political-question doctrine make it unlikely that courts would rule against Cruz.[166]\n\nMary McManamon (see above) writing in the Catholic University Law Review[83] believes that Cruz is not eligible because he was not born in the United States.[167] Professor Einer Elhauge of Harvard,[168] Professor Robert Clinton of Arizona State University,[169] University of Chicago Professor Eric Posner,[170] former Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals Sol Wachtler,[88] and Professor Victor Williams of Catholic University of America's law school[171] agree that Cruz is not eligible. Alan Grayson, a Democratic Member of Congress from Florida, does not believe Cruz is a natural-born citizen, and stated he would have filed a lawsuit if Cruz had become the Republican nominee.[172] Orly Taitz, Larry Klayman, and Mario Apuzzo, who each filed multiple lawsuits challenging Obama's eligibility, have also asserted that Cruz is not eligible.[173][174]\n\nCruz's eligibility was questioned by some of his primary opponents, including Donald Trump,[175] Mike Huckabee, Rick Santorum, Carly Fiorina, and Rand Paul.[176] Marco Rubio, however, believes Cruz is eligible.[177]\n\nTwo November 2015 ballot challenges in New Hampshire alleging that Cruz was not a natural-born citizen were unsuccessful.[178][179] In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont,[180] and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida.[181][182] In January 2016, similar lawsuits were unsuccessfully filed in Texas[183][184][185] and Utah,[186][187] and two similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Illinois.[188][189][190][191][192] In February, two similar unsuccessful lawsuits were filed in Pennsylvania[193][194][195][196][197] and one was filed in Arkansas;[198][199] a similar lawsuit was filed in Alabama;[200] similar unsuccessful ballot challenges were filed in Indiana;[201][202] and similar ballot challenges and an unsuccessful similar lawsuit were also filed in New York.[203][204][205][206] In March, a similar lawsuit was filed in New York.[206] In April, a similar ballot challenge was unsuccessfully filed in New Jersey.[171][207]\n\nNo lawsuit or challenge has been successful, and in February 2016, the Illinois Board of Elections ruled in Cruz's favor, stating, \"The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth.\"[208]\n\nThe question of Cruz's eligibility became moot when he suspended his campaign on May 3, 2016.[209]\n\nMarco Rubio and Bobby Jindal[edit]\n\nMarco Rubio and Bobby Jindal both announced in 2015 that they were running for the Republican Party's nomination for president in the 2016 election.[210][211] Taitz and Apuzzo each have claimed neither Rubio nor Jindal is eligible because both were born (albeit in the United States) to parents who were not U.S. citizens at the time of their respective births.[92][173]\n\nThe question of Jindal's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in November 2015.[212] Nonetheless, a lawsuit filed in December 2015 in Vermont[180] and a ballot challenge filed in February 2016 in New York[204] challenged Jindal's eligibility.\n\nA November 2015 ballot challenge in New Hampshire alleging that Rubio was not a natural-born citizen was unsuccessful.[179] In December, a similar lawsuit was filed in Vermont,[180] and an unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Florida.[181][182] In January 2016, a similar unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Illinois.[188][190] In February, a similar unsuccessful lawsuit was filed in Arkansas;[198][199] a similar ballot challenge was filed in New York;[204] and an unsuccessful ballot challenge was filed in Indiana.[201][202]\n\nThe question of Rubio's eligibility became moot when he suspended his presidential campaign in March 2016.[213]\n\nPotential presidential candidates who are not eligible[edit]\n\nArnold Schwarzenegger[edit]\n\nArnold Schwarzenegger was reported as considering challenging the prevailing interpretation of the clause. In 2003, Senator Orrin Hatch unsuccessfully put forth the Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment, intending to allow eligibility for Arnold Schwarzenegger.[41] In October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger\u2014who is originally from Austria and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1983, also retaining Austrian citizenship\u2014was exploring a future run for the American presidency. He reportedly lobbied legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Cornell University law professor Michael C. Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, \"The law is very clear, but it\u2019s not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process\".[214] Schwarzenegger subsequently denied that he was running.[215]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Government of the United States portal\n  \u2022 Law portal\n  \u2022 Jus sanguinis\n  \u2022 United States nationality law\n  \u2022 United States presidential eligibility legislation\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Tucker, St. George (1803). \"St. George Tucker, Blackstone's Commentaries 1:App. 316\u2013s25, 328\u201329\". Retrieved April 10, 2016.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Williams, Pete (January 19, 2016). \"'Natural Born' Issue for Ted Cruz Is Not Settled and Not Going Away\". NBC News. The emerging consensus of the legal experts, however, is that being 'natural born' means becoming a citizen at the moment of birth, as opposed to achieving it later through the process of naturalization....\u00a0\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Maskell, Jack (November 14, 2011). \"Qualifications for President and the 'Natural Born' Citizenship Eligibility Requirement\" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p.\u00a02. Retrieved February 25, 2012. In addition to historical and textual analysis, numerous holdings and references in federal (and state) cases for more than a century have clearly indicated that those born in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction (i.e., not born to foreign diplomats or occupying military forces), even to alien parents, are citizens 'at birth' or 'by birth,' and are 'natural born,' as opposed to 'naturalized,' U.S. citizens. There is no provision in the Constitution and no controlling American case law to support a contention that the citizenship of one's parents governs the eligibility of a native born U.S. citizen to be President.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Strunk v New York State Bd. of Elections\u00a0:: 2012\u00a0:: New York Other Courts Decisions\u00a0:: New York Case Law\u00a0:: New York Law\u00a0:: U.S. Law\u00a0:: Justia\". Law.justia.com. Retrieved January 16, 2016.\u00a0\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Pilon, Mary (June 24, 2016). \"Donald Trump's Immigrant Mother\". The New Yorker.\u00a0\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Tokaji, Daniel (2008). \"The Justiciability of Eligibility: May Courts Decide Who Can Be President?\". Michigan Law Review, First Impressions. 107: 31.\u00a0\n  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Gordon, Charles (1968). \"Who can be President of the United States: The Unresolved Enigma\". Maryland Law Review. Baltimore Maryland: Maryland Law Review, Inc. University of Maryland School of Law. 28 (1): 1\u201332. Retrieved October 8, 2012.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Bradley, Curtis A.; Siegel, Neil (April 2015). \"CONSTRUCTED CONSTRAINT AND THE CONSTITUTIONAL TEXT\". Duke Law Journal. 64 (7): 1243 (footnote 130).\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ A Duke Law Journal article has noted, \"Because of the placement of the commas, this clause, if read literally, suggests that only individuals alive at the time the Constitution was adopted are eligible to be president. For purposive and consequentialist reasons, however, the clause never has been read that way.\"[8]\n  10. Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 2, Clause 2: Qualifications of Members\n  11. Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 3, Clause 3: Qualifications of Senators\n  12. Jump up ^ Coke, Edward (March 26, 2018). \"The reports of Sir Edward Coke, knt. [1572-1617].In thirteen parts. A new ed., with additional notes and references, and with abstracts of the principal points\u00a0:\". London\u00a0:.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Great Britain, Statutes of the Realm, Vol. 9, p. 63 (London, Dawsons of Pall Mall 1822, reprinted 1962).\n  14. Jump up ^ Piggott, Francis. Nationality and Naturalization, pp. 48-50 (W. Clowes and Sons, 1907).\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b McManamon, Mary. \"The Natural Born Citizen Clause as Originally Understood\", Catholic University Law Review, v. 64, no. 2 (2015).\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Vol. 1, p. 363 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press 1765)\n  17. Jump up ^ Biglieri, Ezio; Prati, G. (2014). Enclyclopedia of Public International Law. Elsevier. p.\u00a054. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4832-9477-3.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"British Nationality Act, 1730\". United Settlement. Retrieved 3 March 2016.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ Cohen, Elizabeth. \"Citizenship and the Law of Time in the United States\", Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy, Vol. 8, p. 67 n. 59 (2013).\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Blackstone, William. Commentaries on the Laws of England, Vol. 1, p. 354 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press 1765).\n  21. Jump up ^ Dann, Carrie. \"Yes, Ted Cruz Was Born in Canada. So What?\", NBC News (March 26, 2015).\n  22. Jump up ^ Blackstone, William. \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\", Vol. 1, p. 373 (Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 7th ed. 1775).\n  23. Jump up ^ Plowden, Francis. \"An Investigation of the Native Rights of British Subjects\", pp. 74, 161-62 (London, Baldwin, Whieldon & Debrett 1784).\n  24. Jump up ^ Plowden, Francis. \"A Supplement to the Investigation of the Native Rights of British Subjects\", p. 134 (London, Baldwin, Whieldon & Debrett 1785).\n  25. Jump up ^ 7 Coke Report 1a, 77 ER 377 (1608), Opinion of Edward Coke.\n  26. Jump up ^ Edwards, F. B. \"Natural-Born British Subjects at Common Law\", Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, Vol. 14, p. 318 (1914).\n  27. Jump up ^ Maskell, Jack. \"Qualifications for President and the 'Natural Born' Citizenship Eligibility Requirement\", CRS Report for Congress, pp. 31-32 (2011).\n  28. Jump up ^ Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary Of The English Language: In Which The Words are Deduced from Their Originals, And Illustrated in Their Different Significations By Examples from the Best Writers, To Which Are Prefixed, A History of the Language, And An English Grammar\u00a0: In Two Volumes, Volume 2, pp. 180\u2013181 (Knapton, 1756).\n  29. Jump up ^ Speare, Morris. \"Lafayette, Citizen of America\", New York Times (September 7, 1919).\n  30. Jump up ^ Riley, Elihu. \"The Ancient City\": A History of Annapolis, in Maryland, 1649-1887, p. 198 (Record Printing Office 1887).\n  31. Jump up ^ Lee, Thomas. \"Is Ted Cruz a 'natural born Citizen'? Not if you're a constitutional originalist\", Los Angeles Times (January 10, 2016).\n  32. Jump up ^ Han, William. \"Beyond Presidential Eligibility: The Natural Born Citizen Clause as a Source of Birthright Citizenship\", Drake Law Review, Vol. 58, No. 2, 2010, p. 462.\n  33. Jump up ^ Pryor, Jill A. \"The Natural-Born Citizen Clause and Presidential Eligibility: An Approach for Resolving Two Hundred Years of Uncertainty\". 97 Yale Law Journal 881, 889 (1988)http:\/\/yalelawjournal.org\/images\/pdfs\/pryor_note.pdf;\n  34. Jump up ^ \"Avalon Project - Madison Debates - June 18\". avalon.law.yale.edu.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ 3 M. Farrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 619.\n  36. Jump up ^ 3 Farrand, at 629.\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Columbia Digital Library Collections\". wwwapp.cc.columbia.edu.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Heard, Alexander; Nelson, Michael (1987). Presidential Selection, Duke University Press. p. 123. Retrieved April 24, 2011. (the word born is underlined in the quoted letter[37])\n  39. Jump up ^ Han, William. \"Beyond Presidential Eligibility: The Natural Born Citizen Clause as a Source of Birthright Citizenship\", Drake Law Review, Vol. 58, No. 2, 2010, pp. 462\u2013463.\n  40. Jump up ^ Palazzolo, Joe (September 4, 2012). \"The Other Democratic Candidate\". The Wall Street Journal.\u00a0\n  41. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kasindorf, Martin (December 2, 2004). \"Should the Constitution be amended for Arnold?\". USA Today.\u00a0\n  42. ^ Jump up to: a b \"President Kissinger?\". Time. March 4, 1974.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Blackstone, Commentaries, Vol.II, Ch. 10, 1803.[page\u00a0needed]\n  44. Jump up ^ Farrand, Max. \"Charles Pinckney in the United States Senate\". The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, Vol 3. Retrieved October 8, 2012.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ Amar, Akhil (March\u2013April 2004). \"NATURAL BORN KILLJOY Why the Constitution won't let immigrants run for president, and why that should change\". Legal Affairs. Retrieved July 16, 2012.\u00a0\n  46. ^ Jump up to: a b \"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875\". rs6.loc.gov.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ Congressional Globe 37.2 (1862), p. 1639.\n  48. Jump up ^ Congressional Globe 39.1 (1866) p. 1291. Stated again during a House debate in 1872; cf. Congressional Globe 42.2 (1872), p. 2791.\n  49. Jump up ^ 10 Opinions of the U.S. Atty.Gen. [pages] 382\u2013413, and separately as Opinion of Attorney General Bates on Citizenship (1863, Washington, DC, Govt. Printing Office) 27 pages.\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Citizenship of children born in the United States of alien parents\", 10 Op. US Atty-Gen. 328.\n  51. Jump up ^ Letter from Marcy to Mason, June 6, 1854, quoted from the manuscript, reprinted (with the emphasis shown) in John Bassett Moore, A Digest of International Law [of the United States], vol. 3, sec. 373, pp. 276\u2013277 (US House of Representatives, 56th Congress, 2d Session, Document no. 551; Washington, DC, Govt. Printing Office, 1906).\n  52. Jump up ^ His first name is not given in the Opinion itself but is found in the correspondence seeking the opinion, in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (US House of Representatives, 44th Congress, 1st Session, December 6, 1875) Exec. Doct. 1, part 1, page 563.\n  53. Jump up ^ Steinkauler's Case, 15 Opinions of the US Attorneys-General 15 at 17\u201318 (June 26, 1875).\n  54. Jump up ^ van Dyne, Frederick, Citizenship of the United States (1904, Rochester, NY, Lawyers Co-operative Publ'g Co.) pp. 3\u201312. With regard to the last sentence in the quotation, van Dyne discusses some peripheral court decisions, none dealing with conventional U.S. citizenship, but with the nationality of the child of a foreigner and a member of an independent American Indian tribe whose members were not ordinarily regarded as U.S. citizens.\n  55. Jump up ^ NY Chanc.Ct., November 5, 1844; 1 Sandf.Ch. 583, 3 NY Leg.Obs. 236, 7 NY Ch. Ann. 443, 1844 WL 4804, 1844 N.Y.Misc. LEXIS 1. [1]\n  56. Jump up ^ Sandf. at 656, Leg.Obs. at 246\u2013247\n  57. Jump up ^ Sandf. at 663, Leg.Obs. at 250\n  58. Jump up ^ \"The Federal reporter\u00a0: with key-number annotations ... Permanent ed. .. v.21.\" HathiTrust.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ Fed at 909, Sawyer at 359\u2013360\n  60. Jump up ^ U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) 169 U.S. 649, 42 L.Ed. 890, 18 S.Ct. 456. [2]\n  61. Jump up ^ Similarly, in a 1999 Circuit Court decision, the U.S.-born children of two non-citizen parents were spoken of as \"natural born citizens\". Mustata v. US Dept. of Justice (6th Cir. 1999) 179 F.3d 1017 at 1019. [3]\n  62. ^ Jump up to: a b Perkins v. Elg (1939) 307 U.S. 325 at 329, 83 L.Ed. 1320 at 1324, 59 S.Ct. 884 at 888. [4]\n  63. Jump up ^ \"Perkins v. Elg (D.C. Cir. 1938) 69 U.S.App.D.C. 175, 99 F.2d 408\".\u00a0\n  64. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Maskell, Jack (January 11, 2016). \"Qualifications for President and the \"Natural Born\" Citizenship Eligibility Requirement\". Congressional Research Service.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"Zimmer v Acheson, 191 F.2d 209 (10th Cir. 1951)\".\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Montana v. Kennedy, 366 U.S. 308 (1961)\".\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana (2009), Appeals Court Decision, 11120903\n  68. Jump up ^ Nolos v. Holder (5th Cir. 2010) 611 F.3d 279, 62 ALR-Fed.2d 777, [5]; also Sean Morrison, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: American Samoa and the Last U.S. Nationals, 41 Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 71 (fall 2013) [6].\n  69. Jump up ^ Rawle, William (1825). A View of the Constitution of the United States of America. Philadelphia, Carey & Lea. pp.\u00a080\u201381. ISBN\u00a0978-1144771858.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ James F. Wilson in: Congressional Globe, House of Representatives, 39th Congress, 1st Session, Washington 1866, p. 1117.\n  71. Jump up ^ Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393, 476 (1857).\n  72. Jump up ^ Book 1, \u00a7 212\n  73. Jump up ^ United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 708 (1898).\n  74. Jump up ^ Joseph Story (1840). A familiar exposition of the Constitution of the United States: containing a brief commentary on every clause, explaining the true nature, reasons, and objects thereof: designed for the use of school libraries and general readers: with an appendix, containing important public documents, illustrative of the Constitution. Marsh, Capen, Lyon and Webb. pp.\u00a0167 \u00a7269\u2013271.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ Joseph Story (1834). The constitutional class book: being a brief exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Designed for the use of the higher classes in common schools. Hilliard, Gray & Company. pp.\u00a0115 \u00a7190.\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).\n  77. Jump up ^ A.P. Morse, \"Natural-Born Citizen of the United States: Eligibility for the Office of President\", Albany Law Journal, vol. 66 (1904\u20131905)\n  78. Jump up ^ \"Presidential Elections in the United States: A Primer\" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. April 17, 2000. Retrieved January 8, 2010.\u00a0\n  79. Jump up ^ \"41131059 MoC Memo What to Tell Your Constituents in Answer to Obama Eligibility - United States Nationality Law - United States Constitution\". Scribd.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (July 11, 2008). \"A Citizen, but 'Natural Born'?\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel J. (2008), \"Why Senator John McCain Cannot Be President: Eleven Months and a Hundred Yards Short of Citizenship\", 107 Mich. L. Rev. First Impressions 1\n  82. Jump up ^ White, G. Edward (August 20, 2009). \"Re-examining the Constitution's Presidential Eligibility Clause\". University of Virginia School of Law. Retrieved February 27, 2012.\u00a0\n  83. ^ Jump up to: a b McManamon, Mary (2015), \"The Natural Born Citizens Clause as Originally Understood\", 64 Catholic University Law Review 317\n  84. Jump up ^ McManamon, Mary Brigid (January 12, 2016). \"Law professor: Ted Cruz is not eligible to be president\". Washington Post. Retrieved January 15, 2016.\u00a0\n  85. Jump up ^ Elhauge, Einer (January 20, 2016). \"Opinion: Cruz not really 'natural born citizen'\". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved January 21, 2016.\u00a0\n  86. Jump up ^ Clinton, Robert (January 27, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not A 'Natural Born' Citizen\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved January 28, 2016.\u00a0\n  87. Jump up ^ Posner, Eric (February 8, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not Eligible to Be President\". Slate.\u00a0\n  88. ^ Jump up to: a b Wachtler, Sol (February 13, 2016). \"Constitutional history shows Cruz ineligible for White House\". Newsday.\u00a0\n  89. Jump up ^ Vlahoplus, John (April 5, 2017). On the Meaning of \"Considered as Natural Born\". Wake Forest L. Rev. Online.\u00a0\n  90. Jump up ^ Solum, Lawrence B. (2008), \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\" Archived February 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., 107 Mich. L. Rev. First Impressions 22\n  91. Jump up ^ Lawrence B. Solum, \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\", revised draft version, April 18, 2010 (SSRN), p. 1, n. 3. However, other passages of his revised draft still imply U.S. citizenship of both parents; cf. i.a. pp. 3, 9, 11.\n  92. ^ Jump up to: a b c Leary, Alex (October 20, 2011). \"Birthers say Marco Rubio is not eligible to be president\". Tampa Bay Times.\u00a0\n  93. Jump up ^ Kornhaber, Spencer (September 22, 2010). \"Chapman Constitutional Scholar Rebuffs Orly Taitz's Overtures\". OC Weekly.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel (April 20, 2011). \"Who's really eligible to be president?\". CNN.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ Volokh, Eugene (November 18, 2009). \"Indiana Court of Appeals Rejects Claim That 'Because His Father Was a Citizen of the United Kingdom, President Obama Is Not a Natural Born Citizen and Therefore Constitutionally Ineligible to Assume the Office of the President'\". The Volokh Conspiracy. Retrieved May 3, 2011.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana, 916 NE 2d 678 (Ind. Ct. of Appeals November 12, 2009).\n  97. Jump up ^ Rathgeber, Bob (September 20, 2010). \"Exclusive: Now, 'birthers' have eye on Marco Rubio\". News-Press.\u00a0\n  98. ^ Jump up to: a b E.g. see Robinson v. Bowen, 567 F. Supp. 2d 1144 (N.D. Cal. 2008); Hollander v. McCain, 2008WL2853250 (D.N.H. 2008); Berg v. Obama, 08-04083 (E.D. Pa. 2008).\n  99. Jump up ^ See 3 U.S.C. ch. 1.\n  100. ^ Jump up to: a b Carl Hulse (February 28, 2008). \"McCain's Canal Zone Birth Prompts Queries About Whether That Rules Him Out\". The New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2012.\u00a0\n  101. Jump up ^ Spiro, Peter. \"McCain's Citizenship and Constitutional Method\", Michigan Law Review, Volume 107, p. 208 (2008).\n  102. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Who Can Be President?\", Voice of America News (July 29, 2008). Archived February 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.\n  103. Jump up ^ Reeves, Thomas C. \"The Mystery of Chester Alan Arthur's Birthplace\", Vermont History 38, Montpelier: Vermont Historical Society, p.\u00a0295\n  104. Jump up ^ DeGregorio, William A. The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents, Random House: 1993, pp.\u00a0307\u201308, ISBN\u00a00-517-08244-6\n  105. Jump up ^ Thomas C. Reeves, Gentleman Boss. The Life and Times of Chester Alan Arthur (Newtown 1991), p. 5.\n  106. Jump up ^ Hinman, Arthur P. (1884). How a British Subject became President of the United States.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ \"Is Mr. Sch\u00fcrmann eligible?\", New York Tribune, October 2, 1896, in: Anonymous (ed.), The Presidential Campaign of 1896. A Scrap-Book Chronicle, New York 1925: Funk & Wagnalls, p. 130 sq. (Note: The year of publication is given as 1888, though the election was eight years later. However, the author's introduction is dated 1925.)\n  108. Jump up ^ Breckinridge Long (1916), \"Is Mr. Charles Evans Hughes a 'Natural Born Citizen' within the Meaning of the Constitution?\", Chicago Legal News vol. 49, pp.\u00a0146\u2013148 (December 7, 1916). It does not appear that this issue was raised before the election day, which may indicate that the majority of voters or of legal authorities felt it was not an impediment to Hughes's eligibility.\n  109. Jump up ^ Lipsky, Seth (2009). The Citizen's Constitution: An Annotated Guide. (Basic Books). p. 126.\n  110. ^ Jump up to: a b Heard, Alexander and Nelson, Michael (1987). Presidential Selection. (Duke University Press) p. 127.\n  111. Jump up ^ Ken Rudin (July 9, 1998). \"Citizen McCain's Panama Problem?\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  112. Jump up ^ Powell, Stewart (August 14, 1976). \"Weicker May Not Be Eligible to Serve in High Position\", Nashua Telegraph. United Press International.\n  113. Jump up ^ S.Res.511: A resolution recognizing that John Sidney McCain, III, is a natural-born citizen., U.S. Senate, April 30, 2008, OpenCongress. Retrieved April 13, 2011\n  114. Jump up ^ \"John McCain Biography\", Biography.com. Retrieved April 13, 2011\n  115. ^ Jump up to: a b Dobbs, Michael (May 20, 2008). \"John McCain's Birthplace\". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 13, 2011.\u00a0\n  116. Jump up ^ Parish, Matt (2010), \"How Old Is John McCain?\", Politics Daily, AOL. Retrieved April 13, 2011\n  117. Jump up ^ \"Profile: John McCain\". Online NewsHour. PBS. July 1, 2008. Retrieved April 13, 2011.\u00a0\n  118. Jump up ^ Fagan, Kevin (September 21, 2008). \"McCain: A profile in courage and adaptation\". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 13, 2011.\u00a0\n  119. Jump up ^ [100][113][114][115][116][117][118]\n  120. Jump up ^ Hollander v. McCain et al, Justia Dockets & Filings\n  121. Jump up ^ Dr. Conspiracy (April 24, 2010), \"John McCain's fake birth certificate\", Obama Conspiracy Theories. Retrieved April 13, 2011\n  122. Jump up ^ Dobbs, Michael (May 2, 2008), \"McCain's Birth Abroad Stirs Legal Debate\u00a0: His Eligibility for Presidency Is Questioned\", The Washington Post\n  123. Jump up ^ Article II of Convention Between the United States and the Republic of Panama states: \"...the cities of Panama and Colon and the harbors adjacent to said cities, which are included within the boundaries of the zone above described, shall not be included within this grant\".\n  124. Jump up ^ A book written by the U.S. Navy includes the same reference: Bakenhus, Reuben Edwin; Knapp, Harry Shepard; Johnson, Emory Richard (1915). The Panama Canal: Comprising Its History and Construction, and Its Relation to the Navy, International Law and Commerce. J. Wiley & sons, Incorporated. p.\u00a0192.\u00a0\n  125. Jump up ^ This map clearly shows Colon is not part of the Canal Zone. Colon Hospital can be seen on the map at the North end of the island. (Source: http:\/\/www.serve.com\/~CZBrats\/)\n  126. Jump up ^ [122][123][124][125]\n  127. Jump up ^ \"Foreign Affairs Manual 7 FAM 1110 Acquisition of U.S. Citizenship by Birth in the United States\". United States Department of State. Retrieved December 13, 2015.\u00a0 7 FAM 1113(c)(1): \"Despite widespread popular belief, U.S. military installations abroad and U.S. diplomatic facilities are not part of the United States within the meaning of the 14th Amendment. A child born on the premises of such a facility is not subject to U.S. jurisdiction and does not acquire U.S. citizenship by reason of birth.\"\n  128. Jump up ^ \"Lawyers Conclude McCain Is \"Natural Born\", CBS News, Associated Press, March 28, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2008.\n  129. Jump up ^ S.Res.511: A resolution recognizing that John Sidney McCain, III, is a natural-born citizen; sponsors: Sen. Claire McCaskill, Sen. Barack Obama et al.; page S2951 notes Chairman Patrick Leahy as agreeing to Secretary Michael Chertoff's \"assumption and understanding\" that a citizen is a natural-born citizen, if he or she was \"born of American parents\".\n  130. Jump up ^ Cf. William Alsup, Robinson v. Bowen: Order denying preliminary injunction and dismissing action, September 16, 2008, p. 2; Alsup ruled that McCain was either a natural-born citizen by birth under 8 U.S.C. \u00a71401c or retroactively under 8 U.S.C. \u00a71403(a). (See also: \"Judge says McCain is a 'natural-born citizen'\". Associated Press. September 18, 2008. Retrieved November 16, 2008.\u00a0, and \"Constitutional Topic: Citizenship\". U.S. Constitution Online. Retrieved November 25, 2008\u00a0.)\n  131. Jump up ^ Chin, Gabriel J. (2008), \"Why Senator John McCain Cannot Be President: Eleven Months and a Hundred Yards Short of Citizenship\", Michigan Law Review First Impressions, Vol. 107, No. 1, (Arizona Legal Studies Discussion Paper No. 08-14)\n  132. Jump up ^ \"Foreign Affairs Manual 7 FAM 1120 Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions\". United States Department of State. Retrieved December 13, 2015.\u00a0\n  133. Jump up ^ SCOTUS 401 U.S. 815, 828 (1971)\n  134. Jump up ^ \"Constitutional Topic: Citizenship\". U.S. Constitution Online. Retrieved June 7, 2009\u00a0\n  135. Jump up ^ Lawrence B. Solum, \"Originalism and the natural born citizen clause\", Michigan Law Review: First Impressions 107, September 2008 Archived February 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., p. 30.\n  136. Jump up ^ \"Is John McCain a natural-born citizen?\" Snopes.com, July 23, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2011.\n  137. Jump up ^ \"Obama's Kenyan Citizenship?\". FactCheck.org. September 3, 2009. Retrieved September 14, 2013.\u00a0\n  138. Jump up ^ \"British nationality by virtue of citizenship\". British Nationality Act 1948. Her Majesty's Government. Retrieved September 14, 2013.\u00a0\n  139. Jump up ^ \"UK and Colonies\". Home Office.\u00a0\n  140. Jump up ^ \"The Truth About Barack's Birth Certificate (archived web cache)\". Fight the Smears (Obama for America). Archived from the original on March 9, 2011.\u00a0 (Retrieved March 9, 2011), quoting in excerpts from: \"Does Barack Obama have Kenyan citizenship?\". FactCheck.org (Annenberg Foundation). August 29, 2008. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008.\u00a0; see also: \"Obama hits back at Internet slanders\". Agence France-Presse. June 12, 2008.\u00a0; in a written oath to the State of Arizona, Obama further stated that he is a natural-born citizen (cf. Candidate Nomination Paper, State of Arizona, November 30, 2007).\n  141. Jump up ^ Leo C. Donofrio v. Nina Mitchell Wells (SCOTUS 08A407) and Cort Wrotnowski v. Susan Bysiewicz (SCOTUS 08A469)\n  142. Jump up ^ Ankeny v. Governor of the State of Indiana (Ind.App., 12 NOV 2009), Appeals Court Decision, 11120903\n  143. Jump up ^ Farrar v. Obama (Office of State Administrative Hearings State of Georgia 2012). Text\n  144. Jump up ^ Tisdale v. Obama (United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia 2012). Text\n  145. Jump up ^ Statement by Dr. Chiyome Fukino, Department of Health, October 31, 2008\n  146. Jump up ^ \"Hawaii reasserts Obama 'natural-born' citizen\", MSNBC, July 28, 2009\n  147. Jump up ^ Hanna, Maddie (November 18, 2011). \"'Birther' bid to derail Obama blocked\". Concord Monitor. Archived from the original on March 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  148. Jump up ^ Velasco, Eric (January 9, 2012). \"Suit to keep President Barack Obama off Alabama primary ballots dismissed by Jefferson County judge\". Alabama: al.com.\u00a0\n  149. Jump up ^ Allen v. Obama (Arizona Superior Court, Pima County February 24, 2012). Text\n  150. Jump up ^ Secretary of State Kemp Issues Final Decision on Challenge to President Barack Obama's Eligibility and Qualifications, (February 7, 2012), Press Office of the Georgia Secretary of State.\n  151. Jump up ^ Martin, Jonathan; Haberman, Maggie (March 22, 2015). \"Ted Cruz Hopes Early Campaign Entry Will Focus Voters' Attention\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 23, 2015.\u00a0\n  152. Jump up ^ \"Cruz, Rafael Edward (Ted), (1970 \u2013 )\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.\n  153. ^ Jump up to: a b Chin, Gabriel (August 13, 2013). \"Opinion: Ted Cruz can be president, probably\". CNN.\n  154. Jump up ^ Gillman, Todd (December 28, 2013). \"Ted Cruz says he's hired lawyers to renounce Canadian citizenship\". Dallas Morning News. Retrieved December 30, 2013.\u00a0\n  155. Jump up ^ Gillman, Todd (June 10, 2014). \"No, Canada: Sen. Ted Cruz has formally shed his dual citizenship\". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved June 10, 2014.\u00a0\n  156. Jump up ^ Blake, Aaron (August 19, 2013). \"Cruz Will Renounce Canadian Citizenship\". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 20, 2013.\u00a0\n  157. ^ Jump up to: a b Barnes, Robert (March 12, 2015). \"Legal experts: Cruz's Canadian birth won't keep him out of the Oval Office\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  158. ^ Jump up to: a b Neal Katyal; Paul Clement (March 11, 2015). \"On the Meaning of 'Natural Born Citizen'\". Harvard Law Review.\u00a0\n  159. Jump up ^ Chemerinsky, Erwin (January 13, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is eligible to be president\". Orange County Register.\u00a0\n  160. Jump up ^ Spiro, Peter (March 22, 2015). \"Is Ted Cruz a 'Natural Born Citizen'?\". Opinio Juris.\u00a0,\n  161. Jump up ^ Amar, Akhil (January 13, 2016). \"Why Ted Cruz is eligible to be president\". CNN.\u00a0\n  162. ^ Jump up to: a b c Barnett, Randy (February 6, 2016). \"Tribe v. Balkin on whether Ted Cruz is a \"natural born citizen\"\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  163. Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan (January 14, 2016). \"Memorandum: Is Ted Cruz Eligible for the Presidency?\". The Atlantic.\u00a0\n  164. Jump up ^ Adler, Jonathan (January 7, 2016). \"Yes, Ted Cruz is a 'natural born citizen'\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  165. Jump up ^ Jacobs, Ben (January 10, 2016). \"Harvard scholar: Ted Cruz's citizenship, eligibility for president 'unsettled'\". The Guardian.\u00a0\n  166. Jump up ^ Sunstein, Cass (January 12, 2016). \"Is Cruz 'Natural Born'? Well ... Maybe\". Bloomberg View.\u00a0\n  167. Jump up ^ McManamon, Mary Brigid (January 12, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is not eligible to be president\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  168. Jump up ^ Elhauge, Einer (January 20, 2016). \"Ted Cruz is not eligible to run for president: A Harvard law professor close-reads the Constitution\". Salon.\u00a0\n  169. Jump up ^ Clinton, Robert (January 27, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Isn't a 'Natural Born' Citizen: According to the Constitution, because Sen. Ted Cruz was not born in the United States, he is not eligible to run for president\". U.S. News & World Report.\u00a0\n  170. Jump up ^ Posner, Eric (February 8, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is Not Eligible to Be President\". Slate.\u00a0\n  171. ^ Jump up to: a b Adler, Jonathan (April 9, 2016). \"Law professor runs for president in order to challenge Ted Cruz's eligibility\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n  172. Jump up ^ \"Grayson: I'll File A Lawsuit Against Ted Cruz If He's The Nominee\". FOX News. November 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  173. ^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, Steven (March 24, 2015). \"Ted Cruz Inherits 'Birthers' With Presidential Bid\". U.S. News & World Report.\u00a0\n  174. Jump up ^ Koplowitz, Howard (March 26, 2015). \"Birther 2.0: Can Ted Cruz Run For President? 'He's Even Worse Than Obama,' Citizenship Skeptic Says\". International Business Times.\u00a0\n  175. Jump up ^ \"Trump, Cruz clash over eligibility, 'New York values' at GOP debate\". Fox News. January 15, 2016.\u00a0\n  176. Jump up ^ Weigel, David (January 13, 2016). \"Huckabee joins the Republicans with questions about Cruz's eligibility\". ABC News.\u00a0\n  177. Jump up ^ Brody, Ben (January 12, 2016). \"Few Colleagues Defend Cruz as White House Eligibility Is Questioned\". Bloomberg News.\u00a0\n  178. Jump up ^ Mielke, Brad (November 13, 2015). \"Some Voters Trying to Kick Ted Cruz and Bernie Sanders Off NH Ballot\". ABC News.\u00a0\n  179. ^ Jump up to: a b Tuohy, Dan (November 24, 2015). \"BLC upholds Sanders, Trump on primary ballots\". Union Leader.\u00a0\n  180. ^ Jump up to: a b c Blaisdell, Eric (January 1, 2016). \"Vermonter tries to keep names off presidential ballot\". Rutland Herald. Archived from the original on February 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  181. ^ Jump up to: a b Leary, Alex (January 14, 2016). \"Marco Rubio seeks to dismiss court challenge to his eligibility to be president\". Tampa Bay Times. Archived from the original on February 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  182. ^ Jump up to: a b Sherman, Amy (March 4, 2016). \"Broward judge tosses case seeking to remove Marco Rubio and Ted Cruz from Florida ballot\". Miami Herald.\u00a0\n  183. Jump up ^ Calkins, Laurel Brubaker (January 14, 2016). \"Cruz's 'Natural-Born Citizen' Status Tested in Birther Suit\". Bloomberg News.\u00a0\n  184. Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (February 23, 2016). \"Cruz asks judge to dismiss Texas lawsuit on presidential eligibility\". The Dallas Morning News.\u00a0\n  185. Jump up ^ Banks, Gabrielle (April 13, 2016). \"Judge tosses birther lawsuit against Ted Cruz\". Houston Chronicle.\u00a0\n  186. Jump up ^ Ben Winslow and Max Roth (January 26, 2016). \"Utah man suing Ted Cruz claiming he's not a natural-born citizen\". KSTU.\u00a0\n  187. Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (March 21, 2016). \"Utah judge dismisses 5th challenge this month to Cruz's presidential eligibility\". The Dallas Morning News.\u00a0\n  188. ^ Jump up to: a b Kopan, Tal (January 15, 2016). \"Ted Cruz not the only one with a birther challenge\". CNN.\u00a0\n  189. Jump up ^ Gregory, John (January 8, 2016). \"Cruz's Birthplace Challenged in Illinois\". WBGZ.\u00a0\n  190. ^ Jump up to: a b Farias, Cristian (February 2, 2016). \"Ted Cruz Is A 'Natural Born Citizen,' Board Of Election Finds\". CNN.\u00a0\n  191. Jump up ^ Schleifer, Theodore (February 18, 2016). \"Case against Ted Cruz's eligibility to be heard in Illinois on Friday\". CNN.\u00a0\n  192. Jump up ^ Ortiz, Fiona (March 1, 2016). \"Illinois judge dismisses Cruz eligibility complaint\". Reuters.\u00a0\n  193. Jump up ^ Delano, Jon (February 24, 2016). \"Pa. Attorney Challenging Ted Cruz's Right To Run In State's Republican Primary\". KDKA-TV.\u00a0\n  194. Jump up ^ Associated Press (February 25, 2016). \"Kasich, Cruz ballot paperwork challenged in Pennsylvania\". WPXI.\u00a0\n  195. Jump up ^ Associated Press (March 11, 2016). \"Cruz's citizenship case may go to Pennsylvania Supreme Court\". WHTM-TV.\u00a0\n  196. Jump up ^ Passarella, Gina (March 21, 2016). \"Appeal of Cruz's Ballot Eligibility Fast-Tracked\". The Legal Intelligencer.\u00a0\n  197. Jump up ^ Koh, Elizabeth (March 31, 2016). \"Pennsylvania Supreme Court affirms Cruz's eligibility to be president\". The Dallas Morning News.\u00a0\n  198. ^ Jump up to: a b Lanning, Curt (February 8, 2016). \"Lawsuit: Remove Cruz and Rubio from Ark. Ballot\". KARK-TV.\u00a0\n  199. ^ Jump up to: a b Manley, Marci (February 29, 2016). \"Judge Dismisses Suit Requesting Cruz, Rubio Be Deemed Ineligible for Presidential Election\". KARK-TV.\u00a0\n  200. Jump up ^ Koplowitz, Howard (February 5, 2016). \"Alabama residents' lawsuit claims Ted Cruz ineligible to run for president\". The Birmingham News.\u00a0\n  201. ^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Tony (February 16, 2016). \"Cruz, Rubio presidential candidacies face citizenship challenges in Indiana\". The Indianapolis Star.\u00a0\n  202. ^ Jump up to: a b Associated Press (February 19, 2016). \"Cruz, Rubio remain eligible for Indiana presidential ballots\". Indianapolis Business Journal.\u00a0\n  203. Jump up ^ Ross, Barbara (February 18, 2016). \"New Yorkers seek court order to keep Ted Cruz off the ballot in state Republican presidential primaries because he was born in Canada\". Daily News (New York).\u00a0\n  204. ^ Jump up to: a b c Seiler, Casey (February 18, 2016). \"State BOE receives flurry of 'natural-born' objections to Rubio, Cruz\". Times Union.\u00a0\n  205. Jump up ^ Seiler, Casey (March 7, 2016). \"Challenge to Cruz's 'natural born' status dismissed due to blown deadlines\". Times Union.\u00a0\n  206. ^ Jump up to: a b Pinciaro, Joseph (March 15, 2016). \"Ted Cruz ballot eligibility challenged in federal court by Calverton man\". Suffolk Times.\u00a0\n  207. Jump up ^ Terkel, Amanda (April 13, 2016). \"New Jersey Judge Rejects Birther Lawsuit Against Ted Cruz\". Huffington Post.\u00a0\n  208. Jump up ^ Merda, Chad (February 3, 2016). \"Illinois election board: Ted Cruz is a natural-born citizen\". Chicago Sun-Times. Chicago, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 4, 2016. Retrieved February 4, 2016. The candidate is a natural born citizen by virtue of being born in Canada to his mother who was a U.S. citizen at the time of his birth,\" the board said. It pointed out that Cruz \"did not have to take any steps to go through a naturalization process at some point after birth\" and therefore \"further discussion on this issue is unnecessary.\u00a0\n  209. Jump up ^ Katie Glueck and Shane Goldmacher (May 3, 2016). \"Ted Cruz drops out of presidential race\". Politico.\u00a0\n  210. Jump up ^ Ashley Parker and Alan Rappeport (April 13, 2015). \"Marco Rubio Announces 2016 Presidential Bid\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  211. Jump up ^ Fernandez, Manny (January 24, 2015). \"Bobby Jindal Announces Run for President\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  212. Jump up ^ Tom LoBianco and Jeff Zeleny (November 17, 2015). \"Bobby Jindal announces he is ending presidential campaign\". CNN.\u00a0\n  213. Jump up ^ Peters, Jeremy (March 15, 2016). \"Marco Rubio Suspends His Presidential Campaign\". New York Times.\u00a0\n  214. Jump up ^ Smith, Emily (October 18, 2013). \"Arnold lobbies for White House run\". New York Post. Retrieved October 19, 2013.\u00a0\n  215. Jump up ^ Blake, Aaron (October 18, 2013). \"Schwarzenegger denies he's aiming for president\". Washington Post.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 John Yinger, Essay on the Presidential Eligibility clause and on the origins and interpretation of natural born citizen.\n  \u2022 Jill A. Pryor, \"The Natural Born Citizen Clause and the Presidential Eligibility Clause; Resolving Two Hundred Years of Uncertainty\", Yale Law Journal, Vol. 97, 1988, pp.\u00a0881\u2013899.\n  \u2022 Sarah P. Herlihy, \"Amending the Natural Born Citizen Requirement: Globalization as the Impetus and the Obstacle\", Chicago-Kent Law Review, Vol. 81, 2006, pp.\u00a0275\u2013300.\n  \u2022 Lawrence Friedman, \"An Idea Whose Time has Come - The Curious History, Uncertain Effect, and Need for Amendment of the 'Natural Born Citizen' Requirement for the Presidency\", St. Louis Univ. Law Journal, Vol. 52, 2007, pp.\u00a0137\u2013150.\n  \u2022 U.S. Constitution Online, Constitutional Topic: Citizenship.\n  \u2022 Presidential Eligibility Constitution Society[dead link]\n[hide]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUnited States Constitution\nArticles\n  \u2022 Preamble\n  \u2022 I\n  \u2022 II\n  \u2022 III\n  \u2022 IV\n  \u2022 V\n  \u2022 VI\n  \u2022 VII\nAmendments\nRatified\nBill of Rights\n  \u2022 1\n  \u2022 2\n  \u2022 3\n  \u2022 4\n  \u2022 5\n  \u2022 6\n  \u2022 7\n  \u2022 8\n  \u2022 9\n  \u2022 10\nOthers\n  \u2022 11\n  \u2022 12\n  \u2022 13\n  \u2022 14\n  \u2022 15\n  \u2022 16\n  \u2022 17\n  \u2022 18\n  \u2022 19\n  \u2022 20\n  \u2022 21\n  \u2022 22\n  \u2022 23\n  \u2022 24\n  \u2022 25\n  \u2022 26\n  \u2022 27\nPending\n  \u2022 Congressional Apportionment\n  \u2022 Titles of Nobility\n  \u2022 Corwin Amendment\n  \u2022 Child Labor\nRepealed\n  \u2022 Eighteenth Amendment\nUnsuccessful\n  \u2022 Equal Rights\n  \u2022 District of Columbia Voting Rights\n  \u2022 List of Amendments\n  \u2022 Bill of Rights (Amendments 1\u201310)\n  \u2022 Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13\u201315)\n  \u2022 Amendment proposals in Congress\n  \u2022 Convention to propose amendments\n  \u2022 State ratifying conventions\nFormation\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Articles of Confederation\n  \u2022 Mount Vernon Conference\n  \u2022 Annapolis Convention\n  \u2022 Philadelphia Convention\n    \u2022 Virginia Plan\n    \u2022 New Jersey Plan\n    \u2022 Connecticut Compromise\n    \u2022 Three-Fifths Compromise\n    \u2022 Committee of Detail\n    \u2022 Signing\n    \u2022 Independence Hall\n    \u2022 Syng inkstand\n  \u2022 The Federalist Papers\n  \u2022 Anti-Federalist Papers\n  \u2022 Massachusetts Compromise\n  \u2022 Virginia Ratifying Convention\n  \u2022 Hillsborough Convention\n  \u2022 Rhode Island ratification\n  \u2022 Drafting and ratification timeline\nClauses\n  \u2022 Appointments\n  \u2022 Appropriations\n  \u2022 Assistance of Counsel\n  \u2022 Bills of credit\n  \u2022 Case or Controversy\n  \u2022 Citizenship\n  \u2022 Commerce\n  \u2022 Compact\n  \u2022 Compulsory Process\n  \u2022 Confrontation\n  \u2022 Congressional enforcement\n  \u2022 Contract\n  \u2022 Copyright and Patent\n  \u2022 Double Jeopardy\n  \u2022 Due Process\n  \u2022 Equal Protection\n  \u2022 Establishment\n  \u2022 Exceptions\n  \u2022 Excessive Bail\n  \u2022 Ex post facto\n  \u2022 Extradition\n  \u2022 Free Exercise\n  \u2022 Free Speech\n  \u2022 Fugitive Slave\n  \u2022 Full Faith and Credit\n  \u2022 General Welfare\n  \u2022 Guarantee\n  \u2022 Impeachment\n  \u2022 Import-Export\n  \u2022 Ineligibility\n  \u2022 Militia\n  \u2022 Natural-born citizen\n  \u2022 Necessary and Proper\n  \u2022 New States\n  \u2022 No Religious Test\n  \u2022 Oath or Affirmation\n  \u2022 Origination\n  \u2022 Petition\n  \u2022 Postal\n  \u2022 Presentment\n  \u2022 Privileges and Immunities\n  \u2022 Privileges or Immunities\n  \u2022 Recess appointment\n  \u2022 Recommendation\n  \u2022 Self-Incrimination\n  \u2022 Speech or Debate\n  \u2022 Speedy Trial\n  \u2022 State of the Union\n  \u2022 Supremacy\n  \u2022 Suspension\n  \u2022 Take Care\n  \u2022 Takings\n  \u2022 Taxing and Spending\n  \u2022 Territorial\n  \u2022 Title of Nobility\n  \u2022 Treaty\n  \u2022 Trial by Jury\n  \u2022 Vesting\n  \u2022 Vicinage\n  \u2022 War Powers\n  \u2022 List of clauses\nInterpretation\n  \u2022 Concurrent powers\n  \u2022 Constitutional law\n  \u2022 Criminal procedure\n  \u2022 Criminal sentencing\n  \u2022 Dormant Commerce Clause\n  \u2022 Enumerated powers\n  \u2022 Equal footing\n  \u2022 Executive privilege\n  \u2022 Incorporation of the Bill of Rights\n  \u2022 Judicial review\n  \u2022 Nondelegation doctrine\n  \u2022 Preemption\n  \u2022 Saxbe fix\n  \u2022 Separation of church and state\n  \u2022 Separation of powers\n  \u2022 Taxation power\n  \u2022 Unitary executive theory\nDisplay\nand legacy\n  \u2022 National Archives\n    \u2022 Charters of Freedom Rotunda\n  \u2022 Independence Mall\n  \u2022 Constitution Day\n  \u2022 Constitution Gardens\n  \u2022 National Constitution Center\n  \u2022 Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting)\n  \u2022 A More Perfect Union (film)\n  \u2022 Worldwide influence\nUS Government Portal \u2022 Law Portal \u2022 Wikipedia book\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Natural-born-citizen_clause&oldid=834314896\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Clauses of the United States Constitution\n  \u2022 United States nationality law\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2015\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Articles with inconsistent citation formats\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from January 2016\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from April 2018\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Svenska\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 5 April 2018, at 01:39.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1705554395866814327","title":"Samuel Prescott","text":"Samuel Prescott\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nFor other people named Samuel Prescott, see Samuel Prescott (disambiguation).\nSamuel Prescott\nBorn August 19, 1751\nConcord, Massachusetts, British America\nDied between November 23, 1776 and December 26, 1777\nHalifax, Nova Scotia, Canada\nOccupation Surgeon, Express courier\n\nSamuel Prescott (August 19, 1751 \u2013 c. 1777) was a Massachusetts Patriot during the American Revolutionary War. He is best remembered for his role in Paul Revere's \"midnight ride\" to warn the townspeople of Concord of the impending British army move to capture guns and gunpowder kept there at the beginning of the American Revolution. He was the only participant in the ride to reach Concord.[1]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 The Ride\n  \u2022 3 Prescott's life following \"The Ride\"\n  \u2022 4 Legacy\n  \u2022 5 See also\n  \u2022 6 Notes\n  \u2022 7 Sources\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nSamuel Prescott's uncle Jonathan Prescott\n\nDr. Samuel Prescott was born August 19, 1751. He lived in colonial Concord, Massachusetts, among his large extended family. (His uncle was Jonathan Prescott.) Much of this history was probably passed on to the family by his grand uncle Samuel Prescott, who knew many of the early Prescotts, and was even old enough to remember the first ancestor of the Concord branch of the family, John Prescott,[2] founder of Lancaster, Massachusetts.[3] Indeed, the Prescotts and their extended family played an important and often heroic role in colonial history. These include settling Concord, fighting in colonial wars, and negotiating for the ransom of Mary Rowlandson.[4]\n\nPrescott followed in the footsteps of his older brother Benjamin and apprenticed under his father, Abel Prescott, for about seven years. He appears to have kept an extremely low profile during pre-revolutionary times as well as afterward, as best can be attained. He did open a practice in Concord, just before or after which time he began to court Lydia Mulliken, daughter of a well-respected Lexington clockmaker who had died in 1767.[5]\n\nDuring the latter part of his apprenticeship or shortly after he began his medical practice, he became an active member in the patriot movement. There is strong circumstantial evidence that he was an express courier for the Sons of Liberty and the Committees of Correspondence, and that he was an important liaison between the Concord Defense Committee and John Hancock and other leaders of the patriots.[6]\n\nThe Ride[edit]\n\nOn the evening of April 18, 1775, Paul Revere and William Dawes were dispatched by Joseph Warren to warn the countryside that the British were coming. Prescott was in Lexington at the time to visit with his fianc\u00e9e, Lydia Mulliken.[7] He was also there to report on Concord's readiness, its status in hiding supplies and munitions from the British, and its success in moving cannon to Groton lest it fall into British hands.[8] The British wanted the military stores at Concord and had hoped to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock in the process.[citation needed]\n\nWhen Prescott left Lexington, it was about 1 a.m. the next morning, April 19. On his way back to Concord he met Paul Revere and William Dawes, who had just left Lexington shortly before him and were also on their way to Concord\u2014to warn the town that the Redcoats were on the march.[9]\n\nWhen the three continued on to Hartwell's tavern in the lower bounds of Lincoln, they were cut off by four British horseman who were part of a larger scouting party sent out the preceding evening. Revere was captured but both Prescott and Dawes succeeded in making a run for it. Prescott did so with a show of artful horsemanship and knowledge of the forest. Finally losing his pursuers, he circled about and headed quickly to Concord, carrying Revere's warning to his townsmen.[citation needed]\n\nDawes also escaped from his pursuers, but it was after a close chase, a frantic ruse on his part, and a bit of luck. Once he was safe, he considered circling around the patrol and racing on to Concord much as Prescott had, but he heard the Concord town house bell and knew Prescott had made it there, and so he continued on his special mission, for he was only assigned to accompany Revere to Concord.[10] Prescott, meanwhile, continued west to warn Acton, Massachusetts while his brother Abel Prescott, Jr. rode south to warn Sudbury and Framingham. By this time, countless riders were also dispatched from other towns to spread the warning\u2014while bells and cannon were rung or fired to punctuate the danger at hand.[citation needed]\n\nBecause of the \"midnight\" rides of Revere, Dawes, Prescott, and many other expresses (couriers), minutemen and militia everywhere were on the ready, many marching to Concord to effectively engage the British Army at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Prescott was there to witness the Battle of Concord, then tried to beat the British back to Lexington to see Lydia Mulliken and her family and to help with the wounded.[11] He remained at Lexington as a volunteer surgeon for about two weeks, then seems to have disappeared into the war.[citation needed]\n\nA National Park Service map showing the route of the initial Patriot messengers including Prescott (purple trail)\n\nPrescott's life following \"The Ride\"[edit]\n\nThere is evidence that Prescott went on to serve as a surgeon in the Continental Army, a tradition that he joined the crew of a New England privateer, and a report that he was in prison in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he may have died between November 23, 1776 and December 26 (1777?).[12] There is also circumstantial evidence that he served in some medical support capacity out of Fort Ticonderoga during the invasion attempts against Canada and until about the time of Benedict Arnold's failed attempts against Sir Guy Carleton on Lake Champlain.[13]\n\nLegacy[edit]\n\nPrescott's ride is re-enacted every Patriots' Day eve (observed) in the Town of Acton. The re-enactment begins in East Acton, continues through Acton Center, and ends at Liberty Tree Farm, where once was the home of a minuteman named Simon Hunt. The distance is approximately five miles (8\u00a0km).\n\nThere are also re-enactments on Patriots' Day (usually the third Monday of April) of the rides of William Dawes and Paul Revere, to commemorate the famous \"midnight\" ride that began in the evening hours of April 18 and continued on April 19.\n\nPrescott's ride is re-enacted every year at midnight April 18\u201319 at Concord's First Parish Church. The re-enactment is preceded by a Patriots' Ball. The Minute Men march with fife and drum leading the attendees from the armory to the church. The Captain of the Concord Minute Men reads a message handed him by \"Prescott\" on horseback.\n\nA memorial plaque to Prescott is at his former home in Concord, Massachusetts.[14]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Liberty's Kids\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Selesky, H. E., & Boatner, M. M. (2006). Encyclopedia of the American Revolution\u00a0: Library of military history (2nd ed.). Detroit: Charles Scribner's, p. 625.\n  2. Jump up ^ Caes, 49\u201350\n  3. Jump up ^ Marvin, 38\u201347\n  4. Jump up ^ Caes, 34, wherein regarding Rowlandson the reference is to John Hoar, father of the second wife of Capt. Jonathan Prescott (d. 1721). Captain Jonathan was Samuel Prescott's great grandfather.\n  5. Jump up ^ \"The Tale of Two Families Joined by Love, Shattered by War\". Concord Magazine. D. Michael Ryan. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.\n  6. Jump up ^ Caes, 206\n  7. Jump up ^ Prescott, 66\n  8. Jump up ^ Wheildon, 7\n  9. Jump up ^ Dawes, 89, but this is taken, as cited in his book, from Revere's deposition for Reverend Jerry Belknap, founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Revere actually produced three versions of the deposition, two in 1775 and one in 1798, but they are not contradictory though they are of varying lengths.\n  10. Jump up ^ Dawes, 119\n  11. Jump up ^ Caes, 248\u2013253\n  12. Jump up ^ There is only hearsay of the privateering, and Caes provides other alternatives, beginning with the Battles of Breed's and Bunker Hills at which he lists a number of Samuel's relatives (some through marriage) who fought there.\n  13. Jump up ^ Speculations of which appear in Legend\n  14. Jump up ^ Samuel Prescott at Find a Grave\n\nSources[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Caes, Charles J. (2009). Legend of the Third Horseman: Life and Times of Dr. Samuel Prescott, the Man Who Finished the Midnight Ride of Paul Revere. Bloomington, IND: Xlibris.[self-published source]\n  \u2022 The Man Who Finished The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere and William Dawes\n  \u2022 Dawes, C. Burr (1975). William Dawes: First Rider for Revolution. Newark, Ohio: History Gardens Press.\n  \u2022 Prescott, William MD. (1872). The Prescott Memorial or Genealogical Memoir of the Prescott Families In America. Ashville, N.C.: Ward Press (1983).\n  \u2022 Wheildon, William C. (1885). New Chapter in the History of the Concord Fight: Groton Minute-Men at the North Bridge, April 18\u201319, 1775. Boston: Lee & Shepard.\n  \u2022 Marvin, Abijah P. (1879). History of the Town of Lancaster, Massachusetts: from first settlement to the present time 1643\u20131879. The Town of Lancaster, Massachusetts.\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 LCCN: n2011079210\n  \u2022 SNAC: w6904g72\n  \u2022 VIAF: 202983259\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Samuel_Prescott&oldid=852325889\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1751 births\n  \u2022 1777 deaths\n  \u2022 American Revolutionary War deaths\n  \u2022 American surgeons\n  \u2022 People from Concord, Massachusetts\n  \u2022 People of Massachusetts in the American Revolution\n  \u2022 Physicians in the American Revolution\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Find a Grave template with ID not in Wikidata\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2011\n  \u2022 All articles with self-published sources\n  \u2022 Articles with self-published sources from December 2017\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Italiano\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 July 2018, at 05:08\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"7067054803150157489","title":"Alone (TV series)","text":"Alone (TV series)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nAlone\nAlone show logo.jpg\nGenre Reality\nSurvival\nCountry of origin United States\nOriginal language(s) English\nNo. of seasons 5\nNo. of episodes 55 (list of episodes)\nProduction\nExecutive producer(s) Russ McCarroll\nZachary Behr\nGretchen Palek\nNathaniel Lukas\nShawn Witt\nZachary Green\nRyan Pender\nDavid George\nBrent Montgomery\nRunning time 60 minutes\nProduction company(s) Leftfield Pictures\nDistributor History Channel\nRelease\nOriginal network History\nOriginal release June 18, 2015\u00a0(2015-06-18)\u00a0\u2013 present\n\nAlone is an American reality television series on the History channel. The first, second and fourth seasons were filmed on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the third near Nahuel Huapi National Park in Patagonia, Argentina. It follows the self-documented daily struggles of 10 individuals (7 paired teams in season 4) as they survive in the wilderness for as long as possible using a limited amount of survival equipment. With the exception of medical check-ins, the participants are isolated from each other and all other humans. They may \"tap out\" at any time, or be removed due to failing a medical check-in. The contestant (or team in Season 4) who remains the longest wins a grand prize of $500,000.\n\nThe series premiered on June 18, 2015. On August 19, before the finale of season 1, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season, which would begin production in the fall of 2015 on Vancouver Island, Canada.[1] Season 2 premiered on April 21, 2016. Season 3 was filmed in the second quarter of 2016 in Patagonia, Argentina and premiered on December 8.[2] One day before the season 3 premiere, History announced that casting had begun for season 4.\n\nIn January 2017, a Danish version of the series premiered with the name Alone in the Wilderness (Danish: Alene i vildmarken) on DR3. It featured ten contestants and was filmed in northern Norway. Participants chose 12 items from a list of 18.[3]\n\nIn the fall of 2017, a Norwegian version aired with 10 contestants spread around a lake with fish. It was near the tree line, so the few, small, mostly birch trees left few land resources. The last contestant tapped out after a little more than a month.\n\nThe fifth season premiered on June 7, 2018.[4]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Format and rules\n    \u2022 1.1 General rules - all seasons\n    \u2022 1.2 Season 4\n    \u2022 1.3 Season 5\n  \u2022 2 Reception\n  \u2022 3 Episodes\n  \u2022 4 Series overview\n    \u2022 4.1 Season 1\n      \u2022 4.1.1 Location\n      \u2022 4.1.2 Contestants\n    \u2022 4.2 Season 2\n      \u2022 4.2.1 Location\n      \u2022 4.2.2 Contestants\n    \u2022 4.3 Season 3\n      \u2022 4.3.1 Location\n      \u2022 4.3.2 Contestants\n    \u2022 4.4 Season 4\n      \u2022 4.4.1 Location\n      \u2022 4.4.2 Contestants\n    \u2022 4.5 Season 5\n      \u2022 4.5.1 Location\n      \u2022 4.5.2 Contestants\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nFormat and rules[edit]\n\nGeneral rules - all seasons[edit]\n\nContestants are dropped off in remote areas of Northern Vancouver Island (seasons 1-2,4), Patagonia (season 3) and Northern Mongolia (season 5), far enough apart to ensure that they will not come in contact with one another.[5] The process begins in mid to late autumn; this adds time pressure to the survival experience as the approaching winter causes temperatures to drop and food to become scarce. Although terrains may differ in each contestant's location, the drop-off zones are assessed in advance to ensure a similar distribution of local resources is available to each contestant.\n\nContestants each select 10 items of survival gear from a pre-approved list of 40, and are issued a kit of standard equipment, clothing and first aid\/emergency supplies.[6] They are also given a set of cameras to document their daily experiences and emotions. Attempting to live in the wild for as long as possible, the contestants must find food, build shelters, and endure extreme isolation and psychological distress.\n\nContestants who wish to withdraw from the competition for any reason (referred to as \"tapping out\") may signal a rescue crew using a provided satellite telephone. In addition, medical professionals conduct periodic health checks on the contestants and may, at their discretion, disqualify and evacuate anyone they feel is unable to continue participating safely. The last remaining contestant wins a $500,000 cash prize.[5] Contestants are warned that the show might last for up to a year.[7]\n\nSeason 4[edit]\n\nSeason 4 was also filmed in Northern Vancouver Island but included a team dynamic. Fourteen contestants, consisting of seven family-member pairs, were individually dropped off in remote areas of Northern Vancouver Island. The two members of each team chose 10 items of survival gear to be equally divided between them. The team chose one member to be taken to a campsite; the other began approximately 10\u00a0mi (16.09\u00a0km) away and was required to hike to the site, using only a compass and bearing to find the way. Either member may tap out at any time, but doing so removed both of them from the competition; in addition, if either member of a team was medically evacuated, both were disqualified. The last remaining team won the $500,000 prize.\n\nSeason 5[edit]\n\nSeason 5 contestants were selected from non-winning contestants from Seasons 1 through 4. The rules were otherwise similar to Seasons 1 through 3.\n\nReception[edit]\n\nThe series received positive reviews in its first season and outstanding reviews for its third season, and earned a respectable 2.5 million total viewers, placing it in the top three new nonfictional cable series of 2015.[8][irrelevant citation]\n\nEpisodes[edit]\n\nSee also: List of Alone episodes\nSeasonEpisodesOriginally aired\nFirst airedLast aired\n111June\u00a018,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-06-18)August\u00a027,\u00a02015\u00a0(2015-08-27)\n213April\u00a021,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-04-21)July\u00a014,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-07-14)\n310December\u00a08,\u00a02016\u00a0(2016-12-08)February\u00a09,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-02-09)\n411June\u00a015,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-06-15)August\u00a017,\u00a02017\u00a0(2017-08-17)\n510June\u00a014,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-06-14)August\u00a016,\u00a02018\u00a0(2018-08-16)\n\nSeries overview[edit]\n\nSeason 1[edit]\n\nThe first season premiered on June 18, 2015. It was won by Alan Kay, who lost over 60 pounds during the course of the season. His staple foods were limpets and seaweed. He also consumed mussels, crab, fish and slugs.[9] Lucas Miller enjoyed his time on the show and was selected based on his work as a wilderness therapist. His most difficult experience with the show was making honest confessions to the camera.[10] Sam Larson described his time on the show as \"playing in the woods\". He set a goal for himself to last 50 days. After he reached his goal, a large storm hit the island, which Larson described as being larger than any he had seen and prompting his decision to leave the island. Larson said that the loneliness and solitude took the most time to adjust to, and that his preparation for the show mostly consisted of mental preparation.[11]\n\nLocation[edit]\n\nQuatsino is located in British Columbia\nQuatsino\nQuatsino\nLocation of Quatsino in British Columbia\n\nThe season was shot in Quatsino Territory, located near Port Hardy, British Columbia.\n\nQuatsino is a small hamlet of 91 people located on Quatsino Sound in Northern Vancouver Island, Canada, only accessible by boat or float plane. Its nearest neighbour is Coal Harbour, to the east, about 20 minutes away by boat, and Port Alice, to the south, about 40 minutes away by boat. The largest town in the region, Port Hardy, is located about an hour northeast by boat and vehicle.\n\nContestants[edit]\n\nName Age Gender Hometown Country Status Ref.\nAlan Kay 40 Male Blairsville, Georgia United States Winner - 56 days [12]\nSam Larson 22 Male Lincoln, Nebraska United States 55 days [13]\nMitch Mitchell 34 Male Bellingham, Massachusetts United States 43 days [14]\nLucas Miller 32 Male Quasqueton, Iowa United States 39 days\nDustin Feher 37 Male Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States 8 days\nBrant McGee 44 Male Albemarle, North Carolina United States 6 days [15]\nWayne Russell 46 Male Saint John, New Brunswick Canada 4 days [16]\nJoe Robinet 31 Male Windsor, Ontario Canada 4 days [16]\nChris Weatherman 41 Male Umatilla, Florida United States 2 days [17]\nJosh Chavez 31 Male Jackson, Ohio United States 1 day [18]\n\nSeason 2[edit]\n\nSeason 2 began on April 21, 2016.[5] The season had 13 one-hour episodes.[19]\n\nLocation[edit]\n\nQuatsino is located in British Columbia\nQuatsino\nQuatsino\nLocation of Quatsino in British Columbia\n\nThe second season was also set on Vancouver Island, in Quatsino Territory, located near Port Hardy, British Columbia.\n\nContestants[edit]\n\nName Age Gender Hometown Country Status Ref.\nDavid McIntyre 50 Male Kentwood, Michigan United States Winner - 66 days [20]\nLarry Roberts 44 Male Rush City, Minnesota United States 64 days [20]\nJose Martinez Amoedo 45 Male Santa Pola, Valencia Spain 59 days [20]\nNicole Apelian 45 Female Portland, Oregon United States 57 days [20]\nJustin Vititoe 35 Male Augusta, Georgia United States 35 days [20]\nRandy Champagne 28 Male Flagstaff, Arizona & Boulder, Utah United States 21 days [20]\nMike Lowe 55 Male Lewis, Colorado United States 21 days [20]\nTracy Wilson 44 Female Aiken, South Carolina United States 8 days [20]\nMary Kate Green 36 Female Homer, Alaska United States 7 days\n(medically evacuated)\n[20]\nDesmond White 37 Male Coolidge, Arizona United States ~5 hours [20]\n\nSeason 3[edit]\n\nThe third season premiered on December 8, 2016.[21] The winner, Zachary Fowler, had lost 70 lbs (a third of his starting body weight) before the end of his stay. The person who stayed the second-longest, Carleigh Fairchild, was pulled out because, at 101 lbs, she had lost nearly 30% of her starting body weight and had a BMI of 16.8. Participants were automatically \"pulled\" at a BMI of 17 or less. The fourth longest stayer, Dave Nessia, was pulled out when, due to inadequate caloric intake, his systolic pressure barely exceeded his diastolic pressure (80\/60 mmHg), putting him in danger of death due to inadequate perfusion of the internal organs.\n\nLocation[edit]\n\nAlone (TV series) is located in Argentina\nAlone (TV series)\nLocation of Lakes Soberania, Montes and Escondido in Patagonia, Argentina[22]\n\nThe third season was set in Patagonia, Argentina, in South America. The contestants were spread across multiple lakes in the foothills of the Andes mountain range. Unlike in seasons 1 and 2, which were located on the Pacific Ocean, season 3's food resources were mostly limited to brook and rainbow trout, forage, small birds, and the possibility of wild boar. Contestants also were at a disadvantage because they had no access to the flotsam and jetsam that washes up on the Pacific Coast. They also had no salt source.\n\nThe weather in Patagonia is comparable to that of Vancouver Island, with rainfall averaging 78 inches a year. However, unlike Vancouver Island, snowfall is extremely common in the winter.\n\nPredators in Patagonia include wild boar and puma.\n\nContestants[edit]\n\nName Age Gender Hometown Country Status Ref.\nZachary Fowler 36 Male Appleton, Maine United States Winner - 87 days [23]\nCarleigh Fairchild 28 Female Edna Bay, Alaska United States 86 days (medically evacuated) [23]\nMegan Hanacek 41 Female Port McNeill, British Columbia Canada 78 days [23]\nDave Nessia 49 Male Salt Lake City, Utah United States 73 days (medically evacuated) [23]\nCallie North 27 Female Lopez Island, Washington United States 72 days [23]\nGreg Ovens 53 Male Canal Flats, British Columbia Canada 51 days [23]\nDan Wowak 34 Male Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania United States 51 days [23]\nBritt Ahart 40 Male Mantua, Ohio United States 35 days [23]\nZachary Gault 22 Male Caledon, Ontario Canada 8 days (medically evacuated) [23]\nJim Shields 37 Male Langhorne, Pennsylvania United States 3 days [23]\n\nSeason 4[edit]\n\nOfficially titled \"Alone: Lost & Found\", the fourth season premiered on June 8, 2017.[24]\n\nLocation[edit]\n\nQuatsino is located in British Columbia\nQuatsino\nQuatsino\nLocation of Quatsino in British Columbia\n\nThe fourth season was again set on Vancouver Island, in Quatsino Territory, located near Port Hardy, British Columbia.\n\nContestants[edit]\n\nTeam Name Age Gender Hometown Country Status Ref.\nBaird (brothers) Jim Baird* 35 Male Toronto, Ontario Canada Linked up - day 10\nWinners - 75 days\n[25]\nTed Baird 32 Male Toronto, Ontario Canada\nBrockdorff (father\/son) Pete Brockdorff\u2020 61 Male Poolesville, Maryland United States Linked up - day 9\nTap out - 74 days (medically evacuated)\n[25]\nSam Brockdorff* 26 Male Poolesville, Maryland United States\nWhipple (husband\/wife) Brooke Whipple\u2020 45 Female Fox, Alaska United States Linked up - day 9\nTap out - 49 days\n[25]\nDave Whipple* 40 Male Fox, Alaska United States\nWilkes (brothers) Chris Wilkes\u2020 44 Male Hattiesburg, Mississippi United States Linked up - day 8\nTap out - 14 days\n[25]\nBrody Wilkes* 33 Male Kentwood, Louisiana United States\nBosdell (brothers) Shannon Bosdell\u2020 44 Male Wrangell, Alaska United States 5 days (medically evacuated) [25]\nJesse Bosdell* 31 Male Skowhegan, Maine United States\nRibar (father\/son) Alex Ribar* 48 Male Montville, Maine United States 2 days [25]\nLogan Ribar\u2020 19 Male Liberty, Maine United States\nRichardson (brothers) Brad Richardson* 23 Male Fox Lake, Illinois United States 1 day (medically evacuated) [25]\nJosh Richardson\u2020 19 Male Fox Lake, Illinois United States\n\n* hiking team member (other team member sets up camp)\n\n\u2020 team member who tapped out\n\nSeason 5[edit]\n\nOfficially titled \"Alone: Redemption\", Season 5 premiered on June 14, 2018. The 10 contestants are non-winners selected from the previous 4 seasons of Alone.\n\nLocation[edit]\n\nAlone (TV series) is located in Mongolia\nAlone (TV series)\nLocation of Khonin Nuga valley in Selenge Province, Mongolia\nLocation of Mongolia (green)\n\nThe fifth season was set in Northern Mongolia in Asia. The series was filmed in Khonin Nuga near the city of Z\u00fc\u00fcnkharaa, Selenge aimag.[26] \"Khonin Nuga\" is a valley located close to the Khentii Mountains of Northern Mongolia, one of the country's unique and still largely untouched places.[27]\n\nContestants[edit]\n\nName Age Gender Hometown Country Original Season Status Ref.\nSam Larson 24 Male Lincoln, Nebraska United States 1 Winner - 60 days [28]\nBritt Ahart 41 Male Mantua, Ohio United States 3 56 days [28]\nLarry Roberts 46 Male Rush City, Minnesota United States 2 41 days [28]\nDave Nessia 50 Male Salt Lake City, Utah United States 3 36 days [28]\nRandy Champagne 31 Male Boulder, Utah United States 2 35 days [28]\nBrooke Whipple 45 Female Fox, Alaska United States 4 28 days [28]\nJesse Bosdell 32 Male Skowhegan, Maine United States 4 24 days (medically evacuated) [28]\nNicole Apelian 47 Female Raymond, Washington United States 2 9 days (medically evacuated) [28]\nBrad Richardson 24 Male Fox Lake, Illinois United States 4 7 days [28]\nCarleigh Fairchild 30 Female Anchorage, Alaska United States 3 5 days (medically evacuated) [28]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Patrick Hipes. \"History's 'Alone' Survivalist Series Renewed For Season 2\". Deadline. Retrieved 16 April 2016.\n  2. Jump up ^ https:\/\/premieredate.tv\/tv-series\/2434-when-will-alone-season-2-premiere-release-date.html\n  3. Jump up ^ Dr.dk \"Dr3 er alene i vildmarken.\" Retrieved 8 January 2017\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Shows A-Z - alone on history\". The Futon Critic. Retrieved May 19, 2018.\n  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Alone Full Episodes, Video & More | HISTORY\". history.com. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  6. Jump up ^ https:\/\/morethanjustsurviving.com\/alone-season-1-survival-gear\/\n  7. Jump up ^ \"History Channel Looks for \"Alone\" Contestants Season 2 - LiveOutdoors\". LiveOutdoors. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  8. Jump up ^ Lisa de Moraes. \"History Leaves 10 Survivalists 'Alone' For Summer\". Deadline. Retrieved 16 April 2016.\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Meet the Man Who Lost 60 Lbs. in the Wild, Eating 'Slugs Sporadically'\". PEOPLE.com. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Maui resident Lucas Miller talks about his experience on The History Channel's reality show 'Alone'\". MauiTime. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  11. Jump up ^ photo, Abby Korinek | Courtesy. \"Lincoln survivalist talks about experience on History Channel's 'Alone'\". Daily Nebraskan. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  12. Jump up ^ Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE Winner Alan Kay Speaks One-on-One with TVRuckus!\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Who Won History Channel's 'Alone' Survival Competition? (Spoiler) - DaysTune\". DaysTune. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  14. Jump up ^ Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE on History: Alan & Sam Remain on Day 43, Mitch & Lucas Tap Out\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  15. Jump up ^ Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE Recap: Brant McGee Heads Back to Albemarle, NC After Only Six Days\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE Cast Dwindling Fast as 'Hey, Bear!' Does Not Work for Wayne Russell\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  17. Jump up ^ Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE Recap: Spirits Falling Fast Among Eight Who Remain on Vancouver Island\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  18. Jump up ^ Mechele R. Dillard. \"ALONE Recap: Josh Chavez First to Tap-Out, Nine 'Survivalists' Remain on Vancouver Island\". TVRuckus. Retrieved April 16, 2016.\n  19. Jump up ^ \"History Channel's Alone Season 2 Begins April\". Yibada. 2016-03-27. Retrieved 2016-04-19.\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"Alone - Bios\". Retrieved December 16, 2016.\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Alone Listings\". The Futon Critic. December 9, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2016.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Alone Season 3 by Jim Thode\". PBase. 12 Dec 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2017.\n  23. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"Alone Cast\". Retrieved December 16, 2016.\n  24. Jump up ^ \"Alone Listings\". The Futon Critic. Retrieved June 8, 2017.\n  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g \"Alone Cast\". Retrieved June 10, 2017.\n  26. Jump up ^ \"New season of 'Alone' TV series set in Mongolia\". Retrieved 26 May 2018.\n  27. Jump up ^ \"Student Internship Report\".\n  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j \"Alone Cast\". Retrieved May 25, 2018.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Official website\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory original programming\nCurrent\n  \u2022 Alone\n  \u2022 American Pickers\n  \u2022 American Restoration\n  \u2022 Ancient Aliens\n  \u2022 Counting Cars\n  \u2022 The Curse of Oak Island\n  \u2022 Forged in Fire\n  \u2022 Hunting Hitler\n  \u2022 Ice Road Truckers\n  \u2022 In Search of...\n  \u2022 Knife or Death\n  \u2022 Knightfall\n  \u2022 Mountain Men\n  \u2022 Ozzy & Jack's World Detour\n  \u2022 Pawn Stars\n  \u2022 Swamp People\n  \u2022 Truck Night in America\n  \u2022 Vikings\nFormer\n  \u2022 20th Century with Mike Wallace\n  \u2022 Appalachian Outlaws\n  \u2022 Alaska Off-Road Warriors\n  \u2022 America Unearthed\n  \u2022 American Eats\n  \u2022 Ancient Discoveries\n  \u2022 Ancients Behaving Badly\n  \u2022 Around the World in 80 Ways\n  \u2022 Ax Men\n  \u2022 Barbarians\n  \u2022 Battle 360\u00b0\n  \u2022 Battlefield Detectives\n  \u2022 Battles BC\n  \u2022 Big Easy Motors\n  \u2022 Big Rig Bounty Hunters\n  \u2022 Big Shrimpin'\n  \u2022 Billion Dollar Wreck\n  \u2022 Boneyard\n  \u2022 Brad Meltzer's Decoded\n  \u2022 Breaking Vegas\n  \u2022 Cajun Pawn Stars\n  \u2022 Cities of the Underworld\n  \u2022 Civil War Combat\n  \u2022 Clash of the Gods\n  \u2022 The Conquerors\n  \u2022 Conquest\n  \u2022 The Crusades: Crescent and the Cross\n  \u2022 Decisive Battles\n  \u2022 Declassified\n  \u2022 Decoding the Past\n  \u2022 Deep Sea Detectives\n  \u2022 Digging for the Truth\n  \u2022 Dogfights\n  \u2022 Down East Dickering\n  \u2022 Engineering an Empire\n  \u2022 Evolve\n  \u2022 Expedition Africa\n  \u2022 Extreme Trains\n  \u2022 Food Tech\n  \u2022 Full Metal Jousting\n  \u2022 Gangland\n  \u2022 Gangland Undercover\n  \u2022 Great Minds with Dan Harmon\n  \u2022 Greatest Tank Battles\n  \u2022 God, Guns & Automobiles\n  \u2022 Great Lake Warriors\n  \u2022 Hairy Bikers\n  \u2022 Haunted History\n  \u2022 The History of Sex\n  \u2022 History's Business\n  \u2022 History's Lost & Found\n  \u2022 History's Mysteries\n  \u2022 How the Earth Was Made\n  \u2022 How the States Got Their Shapes\n  \u2022 Human Weapon\n  \u2022 Ice Pilots NWT\n  \u2022 Join or Die with Craig Ferguson\n  \u2022 Jurassic Fight Club\n  \u2022 Last Stand of the 300\n  \u2022 The Legend of Shelby the Swamp Man\n  \u2022 Life After People\n  \u2022 The Lost Evidence\n  \u2022 Lost in Transmission\n  \u2022 Lost Worlds\n  \u2022 MadHouse\n  \u2022 Mail Call\n  \u2022 Man, Moment, Machine\n  \u2022 Mega Disasters\n  \u2022 Mega Movers\n  \u2022 Military Blunders\n  \u2022 Modern Marvels\n  \u2022 MonsterQuest\n  \u2022 Monumental Challenge\n  \u2022 The Most\n  \u2022 Mounted in Alaska\n  \u2022 MysteryQuest\n  \u2022 Nostradamus Effect\n  \u2022 Only in America with Larry the Cable Guy\n  \u2022 Patton 360\u00b0\n  \u2022 Pawnography\n  \u2022 Prehistoric Megastorms\n  \u2022 The Presidents\n  \u2022 Reel to Real\n  \u2022 Rome: Rise and Fall of an Empire\n  \u2022 Save Our History\n  \u2022 Shark Wranglers\n  \u2022 Shootout\n  \u2022 Shockwave\n  \u2022 Six\n  \u2022 Sliced\n  \u2022 The States\n  \u2022 Stan Lee's Superhumans\n  \u2022 Surviving History\n  \u2022 Tactical to Practical\n  \u2022 Tales of the Gun\n  \u2022 That's Impossible\n  \u2022 Top Gear\n  \u2022 Top Guns\n  \u2022 Top Shot\n  \u2022 Tougher In Alaska\n  \u2022 UFO Files\n  \u2022 UFO Hunters\n  \u2022 United Stats of America\n  \u2022 The Universe\n  \u2022 Warriors\n  \u2022 Weird U.S.\n  \u2022 Wild West Tech\n  \u2022 The XY Factor\nUpcoming\n  \u2022 Project Blue Book\n  \u2022 The Commanders\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Alone_(TV_series)&oldid=864636444\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 History (U.S. TV channel) original programs\n  \u2022 Survival skills media\n  \u2022 2015 American television series debuts\n  \u2022 English-language television programs\n  \u2022 2010s American television series\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles containing Danish-language text\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from July 2016\n  \u2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Italiano\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 18 October 2018, at 14:15\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"1062952313870798731","title":"Asset","text":"Asset\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article is about the finance definition. For other uses, see Asset (disambiguation).\nPart of a series on\nAccounting\nEarly 19th-century German ledger\n  \u2022 Historical cost\n  \u2022 Constant purchasing power\n  \u2022 Management\n  \u2022 Tax\nMajor types[show]\n  \u2022 Audit\n  \u2022 Budget\n  \u2022 Cost\n  \u2022 Forensic\n  \u2022 Financial\n  \u2022 Fund\n  \u2022 Governmental\n  \u2022 Management\n  \u2022 Social\n  \u2022 Tax\nKey concepts[show]\n  \u2022 Accounting period\n  \u2022 Accrual\n  \u2022 Constant purchasing power\n  \u2022 Economic entity\n  \u2022 Fair value\n  \u2022 Going concern\n  \u2022 Historical cost\n  \u2022 Matching principle\n  \u2022 Materiality\n  \u2022 Revenue recognition\n  \u2022 Unit of account\nSelected accounts[show]\n  \u2022 Assets\n  \u2022 Cash\n  \u2022 Cost of goods sold\n  \u2022 Depreciation\u00a0\/ Amortization\n  \u2022 Equity\n  \u2022 Expenses\n  \u2022 Goodwill\n  \u2022 Liabilities\n  \u2022 Profit\n  \u2022 Revenue\nAccounting standards[show]\n  \u2022 Generally-accepted principles\n  \u2022 Generally-accepted auditing standards\n  \u2022 Convergence\n  \u2022 International Financial Reporting Standards\n  \u2022 International Standards on Auditing\n  \u2022 Management Accounting Principles\nFinancial statements[show]\n  \u2022 Annual report\n  \u2022 Balance sheet\n  \u2022 Cash-flow\n  \u2022 Equity\n  \u2022 Income\n  \u2022 Management discussion\n  \u2022 Notes to the financial statements\nBookkeeping[show]\n  \u2022 Bank reconciliation\n  \u2022 Debits and credits\n  \u2022 Double-entry system\n  \u2022 FIFO and LIFO\n  \u2022 Journal\n  \u2022 Ledger\u00a0\/ General ledger\n  \u2022 T accounts\n  \u2022 Trial balance\nAuditing[show]\n  \u2022 Financial\n  \u2022 Internal\n  \u2022 Firms\n  \u2022 Report\nPeople and organizations[show]\n  \u2022 Accountants\n  \u2022 Accounting organizations\n  \u2022 Luca Pacioli\nDevelopment[show]\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Research\n  \u2022 Positive accounting\n  \u2022 Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\nPortal Business portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nIn financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value and that is held by a company to produce positive economic value is an asset. Simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash (although cash itself is also considered an asset).[1]\n\nThe balance sheet of a firm records the monetary[2] value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business.[1] One can classify assets into two major asset classes: tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets.[3] Current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment.[4]\n\nIntangible assets are nonphysical resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs,[4] and financial assets, including such items as accounts receivable, bonds and stocks.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Formal definition\n  \u2022 2 Characteristics\n    \u2022 2.1 Accounting\n    \u2022 2.2 Current assets\n    \u2022 2.3 Long-term investments\n    \u2022 2.4 Fixed assets\n    \u2022 2.5 Intangible assets\n    \u2022 2.6 Tangible assets\n    \u2022 2.7 Comparison: current assets, liquid assets and absolute liquid assets\n  \u2022 3 See also\n  \u2022 4 References\n\nFormal definition[edit]\n\nAn asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity[5] (Framework Par 49a).\n\nCharacteristics[edit]\n\nOne of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board.[6] The following is a quotation from the IFRS Framework: \"An asset is a resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.\"[7]\n\nThis means that:\n\n  \u2022 The probable present benefit involve a capacity, singly or in combination with other assets, in the case of profit oriented enterprises, to contribute directly or indirectly to future net cash flows, and, in the case of nonprofit organizations, to provide services;\n  \u2022 The entity can control access to the benefit;\n  \u2022 The transaction or event giving rise to the entity's right to, or control of, the benefit has already occurred.\n\nEmployees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Framework's definition of an asset. Resources that are expected to yield benefits only for a short time can also be considered not to be assets, for example in the USA the 12 month rule excludes items with a useful life of less than a year.\n\nSimilarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held.\n\nThere is a growing analytical interest in assets and asset forms in other social sciences too, especially in terms of how a variety of things (e.g. personality, personal data, ecosystems, etc.) can be turned into an asset.[8]\n\nAccounting[edit]\n\nIn the financial accounting sense of the term, it is not necessary to be able to legally enforce the asset's benefit for qualifying a resource as being an asset, provided the entity can control its use by other means.\n\nThe accounting equation is the mathematical structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owner's equity:\n\nAssets = Liabilities + Capital (which for a corporation equals owner's equity)\nLiabilities = Assets \u2212 Capital\nEquity = Assets \u2212 Liabilities\n\nAssets are listed on the balance sheet. On a company's balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which vary from country to country.[9] Assets can be divided into e.g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory.\n\nAssets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools. These monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc., of both physical and non-physical assets.\n\nCurrent assets[edit]\n\nMain article: Current asset\n\nCurrent assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle (whichever is longer), without disturbing the normal operations of a business. These assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets:\n\n  1. Cash and cash equivalents \u2013 it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, and negotiable instruments (e.g., money orders, cheque, bank drafts).\n  2. Short-term investments \u2013 include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences (trading securities).\n  3. Receivables \u2013 usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts.\n  4. Inventory \u2013 trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the balance sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value, whichever is lower. This is known as the \"lower of cost or market\" rule.\n  5. Prepaid expenses \u2013 these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed (common examples are insurance or office supplies). See also adjusting entries.\n\nMarketable securities: Securities that can be converted into cash quickly at a reasonable price.\n\nThe phrase net current assets (also called working capital) is often used and refers to the total of current assets less the total of current liabilities.\n\nLong-term investments[edit]\n\nOften referred to simply as \"investments\". Long-term investments are to be held for many years and are not intended to be disposed of in the near future. This group usually consists of three types of investments:\n\n  1. Investments in securities such as bonds, common stock, or long-term notes.\n  2. Investments in fixed assets not used in operations (e.g., land held for sale).\n  3. Investments in special funds (e.g. sinking funds or pension funds).\n\nDifferent forms of insurance may also be treated as long term investments.\n\nFixed assets[edit]\n\nMain article: Fixed asset\n\nAlso referred to as PPE (property, plant, and equipment), these are purchased for continued and long-term use in earning profit in a business. This group includes as an asset land, buildings, machinery, furniture, tools, IT equipment, e.g., laptops, and certain wasting resources e.g., timberland and minerals. They are written off against profits over their anticipated life by charging depreciation expenses (with exception of land assets). Accumulated depreciation is shown in the face of the balance sheet or in the notes. An asset is an important factor in a balance sheet.\n\nThese are also called capital assets in management accounting.\n\nIntangible assets[edit]\n\nMain article: Intangible asset\n\nIntangible assets lack of physical substance and usually are very hard to evaluate. They include patents, copyrights, franchises, goodwill, trademarks, trade names, etc. These assets are (according to US GAAP) amortized to expense over 5 to 40 years with the exception of goodwill.\n\nWebsites are treated differently in different countries and may fall under either tangible or intangible assets.\n\nTangible assets[edit]\n\nTangible assets are those that have a physical substance, such as currencies, buildings, real estate, vehicles, inventories, equipment, art collections, precious metals, rare-earth metals, Industrial metals, and crops.\n\nDepreciation is applied to tangible assets when those assets have an anticipated lifespan of more than one year. This process of depreciation is used instead of allocating the entire expense to one year.[10]\n\nTangible assets such as art, furniture, stamps, gold, wine, toys and books have become recognized as an asset class in their own right[11] and many high-net-worth individuals will seek to include these tangible assets as part of their overall asset portfolio. This has created a need for tangible asset managers.\n\nComparison: current assets, liquid assets and absolute liquid assets[edit]\n\nCurrent assets Liquid assets Absolute liquid assets\nStocks\nPrepaid expenses\nBills receivable Bills receivable\nCash in hand Cash in hand Cash in hand\nCash at bank Cash at bank Cash at bank\nAccrued incomes Accrued incomes Accrued incomes\nLoans and advances (short term) Loans and advances (short term) Loans and advances (short term)\nTrade investments (short term) Trade investments (short term) Trade investments (short term)\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Trading account assets\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b O'Sullivan, Arthur; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p.\u00a0272. ISBN\u00a00-13-063085-3.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ J. G. Siegel, N. Dauber & J. K. Shim, The Vest Pocket CPA, Wiley, 2005.\n\n    There are different methods of assessing the monetary value of the assets recorded on the Balance Sheet. In some cases, the Historical Cost is used; such that the value of the asset when it was bought in the past is used as the monetary value. In other instances, the present fair market value of the asset is used to determine the value shown on the balance sheet.\n\n  3. Jump up ^ J. Downes, J. E. Goodman, Dictionary of Finance & Investment Terms, Barron's Financial Guides, 2003\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b J. Downes, J. E. Goodman, Dictionary of Finance & Investment Terms, Barron's Financial Guides, 2003; and J. G. Siegel, N. Dauber & J. K. Shim, The Vest Pocket CPA, Wiley, 2005.\n  5. Jump up ^ IFRS for SMEs. London: IASB (International Accounting Standards Board). 2015. p.\u00a014. ISBN\u00a0978-0-409-04813-1.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"IFRS\". Iasb.org. Retrieved 8 October 2017.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"IFRS\" (PDF). Iasb.org. Retrieved 8 October 2017.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Birch, Kean (2016-08-10). \"Rethinking value in the bio-economy: Finance, assetization and the management of value\". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 42 (3): 460\u2013490. doi:10.1177\/0162243916661633.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Intermediate Accounting, Kieso, et. al\n  10. Jump up ^ [citation needed]\n  11. Jump up ^ Downes, John; Goodman, Jordan Elliot. Finance and Investment Handbook, Sixth Edition, Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 2003.\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Asset&oldid=849654950\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Asset\n  \u2022 Accounting terminology\n  \u2022 Finance\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09bc\u09be\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \u5ba2\u5bb6\u8a9e\/Hak-k\u00e2-ng\u00ee\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Basa Jawa\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 \u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Nedersaksies\n  \u2022 \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Shqip\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Basa Sunda\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0422\u043e\u04b7\u0438\u043a\u04e3\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 10 July 2018, at 13:04\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-5111942999112193568","title":"Medical University of Vienna","text":"Medical University of Vienna\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nMedical University of Vienna\nMedizinische Universit\u00e4t Wien\nMeduni-wien.svg\nType Public\nEstablished 12 march 1365, 1 january 2004\nRector Markus M\u00fcller\nAdministrative staff\naround 6,000\nStudents around 8,000\nLocation Vienna, Austria AustriaEuropean Union\nCampus Urban\nNobel Laureates 7 (University of Vienna: 15)\nColors Blue and White \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\nNickname MedUni Wien\nWebsite www.meduniwien.ac.at\nData as of 2016[update]\n\nThe Medical University of Vienna (German: Medizinische Universit\u00e4t Wien) is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It is the direct successor to the faculty of medicine at the University of Vienna, founded in 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria. As one of the oldest medical schools in the world, it is the oldest in the German-speaking countries, and was the second medical faculty in the Holy Roman Empire, after the Charles University of Prague.\n\nThe Medical University of Vienna is the largest medical organisation in Austria, as well as one of the top-level research institutions in Europe and provides Europe's largest hospital, the Vienna General Hospital, with all of its medical staff.[1] It consists of 31 university clinics and clinical institutes, and 12 medical-theoretical departments, which perform around 48,000 operations each year. The Vienna General Hospital has about 100,000 patients treated as inpatients and 605,000 treated as outpatients each year.[2]\n\nThere have been seven Nobel prize laureates affiliated with the medical faculty, and fifteen in total with the University of Vienna. These include Robert B\u00e1r\u00e1ny,[3] Julius Wagner-Jauregg[4] and Karl Landsteiner, the discoverer of the ABO blood type system and the Rhesus factor.[5][6] Sigmund Freud qualified as a doctor at the medical faculty and worked as a doctor and lecturer at the General Hospital,[7] carrying out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy.[8]\n\nIn the 2014\u201315 Times Higher Education Rankings, the Medical University of Vienna is listed among the top 15 medical schools in Europe and 49th in the world. (Clinical, Pre-Clinical and Health).[9]\n\nIn 2016, there were 6,093 applicants for 660 places in medicine proper and 80 in dentistry, which corresponds to an admission rate of about 12.14%.[10] Admission is based upon ranking in an admission test called \"MedAT\", which is carried out every summer in conjunction with the three other public medical schools of Austria: the Medical University of Graz, the Medical University of Innsbruck and the Medical Faculty at the Johannes Kepler University Linz.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n    \u2022 1.1 Founding\n      \u2022 1.1.1 From the middle ages to the Age of Enlightenment\n      \u2022 1.1.2 At the height of the Austro\u2013Hungarian Empire\n      \u2022 1.1.3 During the Second World War\n      \u2022 1.1.4 After the Second World War\n      \u2022 1.1.5 From the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Vienna to the Medical University of Vienna\n  \u2022 2 Faculty and Alumni\n    \u2022 2.1 Faculty\n      \u2022 2.1.1 Nobel Prize recipients\n      \u2022 2.1.2 Notable Faculty\n  \u2022 3 Studies\n  \u2022 4 Museum\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nFounding[edit]\n\nDepartment of studies, Medical University of Vienna.\nView of Vienna, Austria at dusk from the roof of the Vienna General Hospital (AKH Wien).\n\nFrom the middle ages to the Age of Enlightenment[edit]\n\nAs the founding member of the Alma mater Rudolfina (University of Vienna) founded in 1365, the medical faculty was already widely renowned in medieval times as an authority in medicine. Faculty records from as far back as 1399 document its mediation in disputes between barber surgeons, midwives, and local landowners. During the reign of Maria Theresia, Viennese medicine first attained international significance. The Habsburg Monarch summoned the Dutch physician, Gerard van Swieten, to Vienna. He in turn laid the foundation for the Vienna Medical School and paved the way for other leading figures. Anton de Haen, Maximilian Stoll, Lorenz Gasser, Anton von St\u00f6rck, and the discoverer of the percussion technique, Leopold Auenbrugger, all taught and conducted research in the imperial city. Based on longstanding traditions, what now is referred to as \"bedside teaching\" also became the paradigmatic educational method during this period.\n\nWhen the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784, physicians acquired a new facility that gradually developed into the most important research center. During the 19th century, the \"Second Viennese Medical School\" emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Karl Rokitansky, Josef Skoda, Ferdinand von Hebra and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as otolaryngology clinics in the world were founded in Vienna.[11]\n\nThe Pathological\u2013Anatomical Institute in 1898.\n\nAt the height of the Austro\u2013Hungarian Empire[edit]\n\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, Viennese Medicine belonged to the first class internationally. Clemens von Pirquet defined the concepts of \"allergy\" and \"serum sickness,\" Ernst Peter Pick conducted significant experiments on the chemical specificity of immunological reactions, and the Vienna School of Dentistry (founded by Bernhard Gotlieb) reached its zenith in the 1920s. All four Nobel Prizes, which were granted to (former) Viennese physicians during the next decades Robert B\u00e1r\u00e1ny (1914), Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1927), Karl Landsteiner (1930), and Otto Loewi (1936)], were the result of work undertaken at this time. The excellent tradition and research extended well into the First Austrian Republic. Under the auspices of the Medical Association of Vienna, which was founded in Vienna, well-received postgraduate courses for doctors worldwide were organized into the 1930s.\n\nDuring the Second World War[edit]\n\nWith the annexation of Austria by National Socialist Germany on 13 March 1938 the darkest phase in Viennese medicine began. More than half of the University medical instructors, mostly those of Jewish descent, and 65% of Viennese physicians were dismissed. Many renowned researchers, physicians, and students were forced to emigrate or died in concentration camps and under other tragic circumstances.\n\nAfter the Second World War[edit]\n\nIn the aftermath of World War II difficult years lay ahead of the University. The past glory had faded considerably. Moreover, 75% of all university medical instructors had to be dismissed because of their moderate to heavy involvement with the National Socialist regime. They were gradually replaced by a newly trained generation of educators. This double rupture in Viennese Medicine, which occurred in just a few years, caused repercussions that lasted for long after the war.[12]\n\nFrom the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Vienna to the Medical University of Vienna[edit]\n\nThe Medical University of Vienna was the University of Vienna's faculty of medicine during 639 years before becoming a wholly independent university.\n\nAfter the independence of the medical faculty as an independent institution the newly founded pure medical university could reposition itself in international research and regain international recognition.[13] For example, in the fields of bionic reconstruction, some notable results could be achieved. A British soldier who lost his arm during the Afghanistan war received a bionic reconstruction at the department of surgery of the Vienna General Hospital.[14][15] Furthermore, the Vienna General Hospital and Medical University of Vienna are the largest centre for lung transplantation in Europe and the second-largest lung transplantation centre worldwide after the University of Pittsburgh. Up until 2009, over 1,000 lung transplants had been performed and currently about 100 transplantations are carried out per year.[16]\n\nThe Medical University of Vienna is the reference center of Siemens for the seven Tesla magnetic resonance imaging scanner \"MAGNETOM 7T\". Founded in 2003, the High Field MR Centre (HFMR) acts today as a core research facility for the Medical University of Vienna. It combines basic research and development of methods with a strong focus on applications in neuroscience, musculoskeletal research, oncology and metabolism. The declared goal is to validate the potential of ultra-high field (UHF) MRI in clinical applications.[17]\n\nFaculty and Alumni[edit]\n\nThe Medical University of Vienna, through its history as the University of Vienna's Faculty of Medicine, has a long history of teaching and research. Some of the personalities having taught and learned at the institution are included in the following lists.\n\nFaculty[edit]\n\nNobel Prize recipients[edit]\n\nName Year Nobel Prize in Awarded for Field\nRobert Barany.jpg\nR\u00f3bert B\u00e1r\u00e1ny 1914 Physiology or Medicine \"his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus\" Otorhinolaryngology\nJulius Wagner-Jauregg.jpg\nJulius Wagner-Jauregg 1927 Physiology or Medicine \"his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica\" Neurophysiology\nHans Fischer (Nobel).jpg\nHans Fischer 1930 Chemistry \"for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin\" Natural products chemistry, Organic chemistry\nKarl Landsteiner, 1920s..jpg\nKarl Landsteiner 1930 Physiology or Medicine \"his discovery of human blood groups\" Hematology\nOtto Loewi.jpg\nOtto Loewi 1936 Physiology or Medicine \"their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses\"\n\n\u2013 jointly awarded with Sir Henry Hallett Dale\n\nNeurophysiology\nRichard Kuhn ETH-Bib Dia 248-065.jpg\nRichard Kuhn 1938 Chemistry \"his work on carotenoids and vitamins\" Natural products chemistry, Organic chemistry\nMax Perutz.jpg\nMax Perutz 1962 Chemistry \"their studies of the structures of globular proteins\"\n\n\u2013 awarded jointly with John Cowdery Kendrew\n\nBiochemistry, Structural Chemistry\n\nNotable Faculty[edit]\n\nName Lived Fields Known for\nGerard van Swieten Litho.jpg\nGerard van Swieten 1700\u20131772 Medicine being court physician to Empress Maria Theresia\nAnton-de-Haen.jpg\nAnton de Haen 1704\u20131776 Medicine being one of the first physicians to make routine use of the thermometer in medicine, and perceived that temperature was a valuable indication of illness and health\nMaximilian Stoll.jpg\nMaximilian Stoll 1742\u20131787 Medicine\nLeopold-von-auenbrugger.jpg\nLeopold Auenbrugger 1722\u20131809 Medicine invented percussion as a diagnostic technique, because of the strength of this discovery considered one of the founders of modern medicine\nAnton von St\u00f6rck 2.jpg\nAnton von St\u00f6rck 1731\u20131803 Medicine his clinical research of various herbs, and their associated toxicity and medicinal properties. His studies are considered to be the pioneering work of experimental pharmacology and his method can be regarded as forming a blueprint for the clinical trials of modern medicine\nJohann Peter Frank 1745\u20131821 Hygiene, Public health being credited as the first physician to describe clinical differences between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus, also credited as one of the first thinkers of public Hygiene and of a social medical oriented health service\nDr. Lucas Johann Boer, Vignetted Head Wellcome M0008510.jpg\nJohann Lucas Bo\u00ebr 1751\u20131835 Gynaecology, Obstetrics established the field of obstetrics as an independent specialty\nGeorg Joseph Beer.jpg\nGeorg Joseph Beer 1763\u20131821 Ophthalmology introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife)\nRokitansky Carl.jpg\nCarl von Rokitansky 1804\u20131878 physician, pathologist, humanist philosopher and liberal politician Rokitansky's name is associated with the following diseases\/morphologic features of disease:\n  \u2022 Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome\n  \u2022 M\u00fcllerian agenesis (aka \"Mayer-Rokitansky-K\u00fcster-Hauser syndrome\")\n  \u2022 Rokitansky's diverticulum\n  \u2022 Rokitansky's triad (pulmonary stenosis)\n  \u2022 Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses (in the gallbladder)\n  \u2022 Rokitansky-Cushing ulcer\n  \u2022 Rokitansky-Maude Abbott syndrome\n  \u2022 Von Rokitansky's syndrome\n  \u2022 Rokitansky nodule \u2013 teratomas\n  \u2022 Congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries (levo-Transposition of the great arteries)\nTheodor Billroth.jpg\nTheodor Billroth 1829\u20131894 founding father of modern abdominal surgery, amateur musician first esophagectomy (1871), first laryngectomy (1873), and most famously, the first successful gastrectomy (1881) for gastric cancer, first describer of the Billroth II-operation (still in use today)\nSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg\nSigmund Freud 1856\u20131939 neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis creation of the field of psychoanalysis\nOskar Hirsch 1877\u20131965 otolaryngologist pioneered transphenoidal surgery for pituitary gland surgery, together with Harvey Cushing laid the foundation for modern transsphenoidal surgery[18]\nViktor Frankl2.jpg\nViktor Frankl 1905\u20131997 neurologist and psychiatrist, Holocaust survivor founding the field logotherapy, which is a form of existential analysis, the \"Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy\"\n\nStudies[edit]\n\nCurrently, there are five eligible programmes:\n\n  \u2022 Medicine\n  \u2022 Dentistry\n\nMedicine and dentistry both are of a duration of six years and require higher education entrance qualification. In Austria and Switzerland this would correspond to a Matura, in Germany the Abitur or similar qualifications from other EU countries. Language of instruction is German, but usually students are expected to be able to be fluent in English. A diploma thesis is required to graduate and can be written in German or English.\n\nThe courses of study lead to the degree of \"Dr. med. univ.\" for medical doctors and \"Dr. med. dent.\" for dentists, which correspond to MD in the United States or MBBS or MBChB in the United Kingdom. Graduates have the right to move freely within the European Union and to start a specialty training.\n\n  \u2022 Medical informatics\n\nMedical informatics is a master's degree and requires a bachelor's degree (Bologna Process) for application.\n\n  \u2022 Programme of Applied medical science\n  \u2022 PhD\n\nApplied medical science and PhD both are postdoc programmes i.e. require a medical degree or similar. For students of the university, possibility is given to start the PhD-programme during the medical programme.\n\nMuseum[edit]\n\nThe early-classicistic Josephinum was built in 1785 under Joseph II of Austria. It now houses the museum for anatomical wax models and, along with the Florentine Library, is among the largest in Europe.[19]\n\nThe Museum of the Medical University is mainly housed in the \"Josephinum\", designed and built in 1783-1785 to house the medical-surgical academy. The building includes a six-room collection of 1,192 wax anatomical and obstrectical models made in Florence by Clemente Susini under the supervision of Paolo Mascagni between 1784 and 1788.[20]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Largest and longest-standing medical research institution in Austria\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Facts & Figures\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1914 \u2013 Robert B\u00e1r\u00e1ny\". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1927 \u2013 Julius Wagner-Jauregg\". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930 \u2013 Karl Landsteiner\". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Landsteiner K (1900). \"Zur Kenntnis der antifermentativen, lytischen und agglutinierenden Wirkungen des Blutserums und der Lymphe\". Zentralblatt Bakteriologie. 27: 357\u201362.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Noel Sheehy, Alexandra Forsythe (2013). \"Sigmund Freud\". Fifty Key Thinkers in Psychology. Routledge. ISBN\u00a01134704933.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Eric R. Kandel The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present. New York: Random House 2012, pp. 45-46.\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Top 100 universities for Clinical, pre-clinical and health 2014-15\". Times Higher Education. Retrieved 2014-10-01.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Gemeinsame Aufnahmetests zum Medizinstudium in \u00d6sterreich: Insgesamt 12.160 InteressentInnen nahmen teil\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved July 17, 2016.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"History of the Medical University of Vienna\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ \"History of the Medical University of Vienna\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Top 100 universities for Clinical, pre-clinical and health 2013-14\". Times Higher Education. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Soldier Andrew Garthwaite moves bionic arm by thoughts\". BBC. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"MedUni Wien und AKH Wien bauen internationale Top-Position f\u00fcr die Versorgung mit bionischen Hi-Tech-Prothesen aus\" (PDF). Department of surgery, Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"20 Years of Lung Transplantation in Austria\". European Heart and Lung Transplant Federation. Archived from the original on 2014-05-02. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Medical University of Vienna MAGNETOM 7T Siemens International Reference Center\". Siemens Healthcare. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Liu, James K.; Cohen-Gadol, Aaron A.; Laws, Edward R.; Cole, Chad D.; Kan, Peter; Couldwell, William T. (2005-12-01). \"Harvey Cushing and Oskar Hirsch: early forefathers of modern transsphenoidal surgery\". Journal of Neurosurgery. 103 (6): 1096\u20131104. doi:10.3171\/jns.2005.103.6.1096. ISSN\u00a00022-3085. PMID\u00a016381201.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Cultural heritage\". Medical University of Vienna. Retrieved 2014-05-02.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ \"Museum of the Medical University\". WienTourismus. Retrieved 2013-01-10.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Medical University of Vienna\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUniversities and colleges in Austria Austria European Union\nPublic Universities\n  \u2022 Alpen-Adria-Universit\u00e4t Klagenfurt\n  \u2022 Danube University Krems\n  \u2022 Graz University of Technology\n  \u2022 University of Graz\n  \u2022 Johannes Kepler University Linz\n  \u2022 University of Innsbruck\n  \u2022 Montanuniversit\u00e4t Leoben\n  \u2022 University of Salzburg\n  \u2022 University of Vienna\n  \u2022 TU Wien\n  \u2022 University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna\n  \u2022 University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna\n  \u2022 Vienna University of Economics and Business\nPublic art schools\n  \u2022 Academy of Fine Arts Vienna\n  \u2022 Mozarteum University Salzburg\n  \u2022 University of Music and Performing Arts Graz\n  \u2022 University of Art and Design Linz\n  \u2022 University of Applied Arts Vienna\n  \u2022 University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna\nPublic medical schools\n  \u2022 Medical University of Graz\n  \u2022 Medical University of Innsbruck\n  \u2022 Medical University of Vienna\nPrivate Universities\n  \u2022 Anton Bruckner Private University\n  \u2022 Danube Private University\n  \u2022 Catholic Private University Linz\n  \u2022 Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences\u00a0(de)\n  \u2022 MODUL University Vienna\n  \u2022 Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna\n  \u2022 New Design University\n  \u2022 Paracelsus Medical University\n  \u2022 Private University Seeburg Castle\n  \u2022 Sigmund Freud University Vienna\n  \u2022 UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology\n  \u2022 Webster University Vienna\nSee also: List of universities in Austria\n\nCoordinates: 48\u00b013\u203212\u2033N 16\u00b021\u203205\u2033E\ufeff \/ \ufeff48.22000\u00b0N 16.35139\u00b0E\ufeff \/ 48.22000; 16.35139\n\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Medical_University_of_Vienna&oldid=846805554\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Buildings and structures in Alsergrund\n  \u2022 Universities and colleges in Vienna\n  \u2022 Healthcare in Vienna\n  \u2022 Medical schools in Austria\n  \u2022 Educational institutions established in 2004\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Instances of Infobox university using image size\n  \u2022 Interlanguage link template link number\n  \u2022 Coordinates not on Wikidata\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 21 June 2018, at 00:45\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-593951817231489239","title":"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves","text":"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"Prince of Thieves\" redirects here. For other uses, see Prince of Thieves (disambiguation).\nRobin Hood: Prince of Thieves\nA bowman, ready to release a fiery arrow. Below two figures, beside a tree, silhouetted against a lake background.\nTheatrical release poster\nDirected by Kevin Reynolds\nProduced by\n  \u2022 Pen Densham\n  \u2022 Richard Barton Lewis\n  \u2022 John Watson\nScreenplay by\n  \u2022 Pen Densham\n  \u2022 John Watson\nStory by Pen Densham\nStarring\n  \u2022 Kevin Costner\n  \u2022 Morgan Freeman\n  \u2022 Christian Slater\n  \u2022 Alan Rickman\n  \u2022 Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio\nMusic by Michael Kamen\nCinematography Douglas Milsome\nEdited by Peter Boyle\nProduction\ncompany\nMorgan Creek[1]\nDistributed by Warner Bros.\nRelease date\n  \u2022 June\u00a014,\u00a01991\u00a0(1991-06-14) (United States)\nRunning time\n143 minutes[2]\nCountry United States\nLanguage English\nBudget $48 million[3]\nBox office $390.5 million[4]\n\nRobin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a 1991 American romantic action adventure film, based on the English folk tale of Robin Hood which originated in the 15th century. The film was directed by Kevin Reynolds. The film's principal cast includes Kevin Costner as Robin Hood, Morgan Freeman as Azeem, Christian Slater as Will Scarlet, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio as Maid Marian, and Alan Rickman as the Sheriff of Nottingham.\n\nThe film grossed over $390 million worldwide, ranking as the second-highest-grossing film of 1991. For his role as George, Sheriff of Nottingham, Rickman received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The film's theme song, \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\", by Bryan Adams, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Song and won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television.[5]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Plot\n  \u2022 2 Cast\n  \u2022 3 Production\n    \u2022 3.1 Filming\n  \u2022 4 Soundtrack\n  \u2022 5 Release\n    \u2022 5.1 Reception\n    \u2022 5.2 Box office\n  \u2022 6 Adaptations\n  \u2022 7 See also\n  \u2022 8 References\n  \u2022 9 External links\n\nPlot[edit]\n\nRobin of Locksley \u2014 an English nobleman who joined Richard the Lionheart, King of England in the Third Crusade \u2014 is imprisoned in Jerusalem along with his comrade, Peter Dubois. Facing the amputation of Peter's hand by the Ayyubid prison guards, Robin escapes with Peter, saving the life of a Moor named Azeem in the process. Robin, Peter, and Azeem escape through a sewer and into an alley, but Peter is shot and mortally wounded by an archer. Before making his last stand against the approaching guards, Peter has Robin swear to protect his sister, Marian. Robin returns to England with Azeem, who has vowed to accompany him until Azeem's life-debt to Robin is repaid.\n\nIn England, with King Richard away in France, the cruel Sheriff of Nottingham rules over the land, aided by his cousin Guy of Gisbourne, the witch Mortianna, and the corrupt Bishop of Hereford. At Locksley Castle, Robin's father, who is loyal to King Richard, is killed by the Sheriff's men after refusing to join them.\n\nRobin returns to England to find his father dead, his home in ruins, and the Sheriff and his men oppressing the people. After telling Marian of Peter's demise, and while fleeing the Sheriff's forces afterwards, Robin and Azeem encounter a band of outlaws hiding in Sherwood Forest, led by Little John. Among the band is Will Scarlet, who holds a belligerent grudge against Robin. Robin assumes command of the group, training them to defend themselves and fight against Nottingham. They rob soldiers and convoys that pass through the forest, then distribute the stolen wealth among the poor. One of their early targets is Friar Tuck, who subsequently joins these Merry Men. Marian begins to sympathize with the band and renders Robin any aid she can muster. Robin's successes infuriate the Sheriff, who increases the mistreatment of the people, resulting in greater local support for Robin Hood.\n\nThe Sheriff kills Gisbourne for his failure to prevent the looting of several convoys, and hires Celtic warriors from Scotland to assist his forces in assaulting the hideout. The Sheriff manages to locate the outlaws' hideout and launches an attack, destroying the refuge and capturing most of the outlaws. With the Bishop's help, the Sherrif has Marian confined when she tries to summon help from France. To consolidate his claim to the throne, the Sheriff proposes to Marian (who is Richard's cousin), claiming that if she accepts, he will spare the lives of the captured outlaws. Nevertheless, several of the rebels are due to be executed by hanging as part of the wedding celebration. Among the captured is Will Scarlet, who makes a deal with the Sheriff to find and kill Robin in exchange for his freedom.\n\nWill meets up with Robin and a handful of his aides who survived the Celt's assault. Will informs Robin of the Sheriff's plans to marry Marian and execute Robin's men. Will continues to display anger against Robin, which motivates Robin to question why Will hates him so much. Will then reveals himself to be Robin's younger illegitimate half-brother; Will's mother was a peasant woman with whom Robin's father took comfort after Robin's mother died. Robin's anger toward his father caused him to separate from her and leave Will fatherless. Despite his anger, Robin is overjoyed to learn that he has a brother, and reconciles with Will.\n\nOn the day of the wedding and hangings, Robin and his men infiltrate Nottingham Castle, freeing the prisoners. Although Robin's band originally planned to free their friends and retreat, Azeem reveals himself and his willingness to fight the Sheriff, inciting the peasants to revolt. After a fierce fight, Robin kills the Sheriff, but is attacked by Mortianna with a spear. Azeem slays Mortianna, fulfilling his life-debt to Robin. Tuck kills the Bishop by burdening him with treasure and throwing him out a window.\n\nRobin and Marian profess their love for each other and are married in the forest. Their wedding is briefly interrupted by King Richard, who blesses the marriage and thanks Robin for his deeds.\n\nCast[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Kevin Costner as Robin Hood (Robin of Locksley)[6]\n  \u2022 Morgan Freeman as Azeem\n  \u2022 Christian Slater as Will Scarlet\n  \u2022 Alan Rickman as George, Sheriff of Nottingham[7]\n  \u2022 Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio as Marian Dubois\n  \u2022 Geraldine McEwan as Mortianna\n  \u2022 Mike McShane as Friar Tuck\n  \u2022 Brian Blessed as Lord Locksley\n  \u2022 Michael Wincott as Guy of Gisborne\n  \u2022 Nick Brimble as Little John\n  \u2022 Harold Innocent as the Bishop of Hereford\n  \u2022 Walter Sparrow as Duncan\n  \u2022 Daniel Newman as Wulf\n  \u2022 Sean Connery (uncredited) as King Richard\n  \u2022 Jack Wild as Much the miller's son\n  \u2022 Daniel Peacock as Bull\n\nProduction[edit]\n\nSycamore Gap at Hadrian's Wall, today known as the \"Robin Hood Tree\"[8]\n\nRickman turned down the role of the sheriff twice before he was told he could have carte blanche with his interpretation of the character.\n\nOn the DVD commentary for ITV's Robin of Sherwood television series, which ran from 1983 to 1986, writer and creator Richard Carpenter explains that the stunt coordinator from the Robin of Sherwood series, Terry Walsh, was hired to do stunt work for Prince of Thieves. While on set, Walsh noticed a Saracen assassin character named Nasir was in the film. That character was a creation of Carpenter and is exclusive to the Robin of Sherwood series. Once the creators of Prince of Thieves realized a potential for copyright infringement, they changed the character's name from Nasir to Azeem. Carpenter also explains that Costner and others involved in Prince of Thieves have admitted to watching Robin of Sherwood as inspiration for their film.[citation needed]\n\nFilming[edit]\n\nPrincipal exteriors were shot on location in the United Kingdom. A second unit filmed the medieval walls and towers of the Cit\u00e9 de Carcassonne in the town of Carcassonne in Aude, France, for the portrayal of Nottingham and its castle. Locksley Castle was Wardour Castle in Wiltshire \u2013 restored in an early shot using a matte painting. Marian's manor was filmed at Hulne Priory in Northumberland. Scenes set in Sherwood Forest were filmed throughout England: Burnham Beeches in Buckinghamshire was used for the outlaws' encampment, Aysgarth Falls in Yorkshire for the fight scene between Robin and Little John, and Hardraw Force in North Yorkshire was the location where Marian sees Robin bathing.[9] Sycamore Gap on Hadrian's Wall was used for the scene when Robin first confronts the sheriff's men.[10] Chalk cliffs at Seven Sisters, Sussex were used as the locale for Robin's return to England from the Crusades.[11]\n\nInterior scenes were completed at Shepperton Studios in Surrey.[9]\n\nSoundtrack[edit]\n\nThe original music score was composed, orchestrated and conducted by Michael Kamen. An excerpt from the main title music was subsequently used as the logo music for Morgan Creek,[12] and has been used by Walt Disney Home Video in intros for trailers on DVD\/Blu-ray.[13]\n\nRobin Hood: Prince of Thieves (Original Soundtrack)\nFilm score by Michael Kamen\nReleased July 2, 1991\nLength 60:22\nLabel Morgan Creek Productions\n  1. \"Overture\/A Prisoner of the Crusades\" (8:27)\n  2. \"Sir Guy of Gisborne\/The Escape to Sherwood\" (7:27)\n  3. \"Little John\/The Band in the Forest\" (4:52)\n  4. \"The Sheriff and His Witch\" (6:03)\n  5. \"Maid Marian\" (2:57)\n  6. \"Training\/Robin Hood, Prince of Thieves\" (5:15)\n  7. \"Marian at the Waterfall\" (5:34)\n  8. \"The Abduction\/The Final Battle at the Gallows\" (9:53)\n  9. \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\" \u2013 Bryan Adams (6:33)\n  10. \"Wild Times\" \u2013 Jeff Lynne (3:12)\n\nRelease[edit]\n\nRobin Hood: Prince of Thieves was submitted for classification from the British Board of Film Classification and required 14 seconds to be cut from the film to obtain a PG rating.[2]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nChicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert praised Freeman's performance as well as Rickman's, but ultimately decried the film as a whole, giving it two stars and stating, \"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a murky, unfocused, violent, and depressing version of the classic story... The most depressing thing about the movie is that children will attend it expecting to have a good time.\"[14] The New York Times gave the film a negative review, with Vincent Canby writing that the movie is \"a mess, a big, long, joyless reconstruction of the Robin Hood legend that comes out firmly for civil rights, feminism, religious freedom, and economic opportunity for all.\"[15] The Los Angeles Times found the movie unsatisfactory, as well.[16] Costner was criticised for not attempting an English accent.[17]\n\nLanre Bakare, writing in The Guardian, calls Rickman's Sheriff, for which he won a BAFTA, a \"genuinely great performance\".[18] Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 53 critics to give the film a score of 49%.[19]\n\nPrince of Thieves was nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards: Kevin Costner won the Worst Actor award for his performance as Robin Hood, while Christian Slater received a nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performances in this film and Mobsters, but lost to Dan Aykroyd for Nothing but Trouble.[20]\n\nIn 2005, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.[21]\n\nBox office[edit]\n\nThe film grossed $25 million in its opening weekend and $18.3 million in its second. The film eventually made $390,493,908 at the global box office, making it the second-highest grossing film of 1991, immediately behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day. It enjoyed the second-best opening for a nonsequel, at the time.[22][23][24][25]\n\nAdaptations[edit]\n\nA tie-in video game of the same name was released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy. Developed by Sculptured Software Inc. and Bits Studios, respectively, and published by Virgin Games, Inc., it was featured as the cover game for the July 1991 issue of Nintendo Power magazine.[26]\n\nA toy line was released by Kenner, consisting of action figures and playsets. Notably, all but one of the figures were slightly modified from Kenner's well known Super Powers line, while Friar Tuck, as well as the vehicles and playset, were modified from Star Wars: Return of the Jedi toys.[27]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 iconFilm in the United States portal\n  \u2022 icon1990s portal\n  \u2022 Princess of Thieves \u2013 2001 television movie\n  \u2022 Robin Hood \u2013 English folk tale\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Men in Tights \u2013 1993 parody film\n  \u2022 Robin Hood \u2013 1991 British film\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Easton, Nina J. (1990-07-24). \"Costner May Put Morgan Creek Ahead of Robin Hood Pack\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b \"ROBIN HOOD - PRINCE OF THIEVES (PG) (CUT)\". British Board of Film Classification. July 4, 1991. Retrieved January 19, 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Billington, Michael (March 18, 1991). \"Robin Hood Freshens Up A Film Legend\". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved March 22, 2017.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991)\". Box Office Mojo. 1991-10-17. Retrieved 2016-10-29.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"1992 Grammy Awards\". metrolyrics.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2009. Retrieved January 1, 2009.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Dowd, Maureen (1991-06-09). \"FILM; Hollywood's Superhunk Heads for Nottingham\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Leydon, Joe (1991-06-09). \"Robin Hood' and the uncertain science of hype\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Sycamore Gap, a section of the wall between two crests just east of Milecastle 39, is locally known as the \"Robin Hood Tree\" for its use in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991).\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Pearce, Garth; Green, Simon (1991). Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. Bdd Promotional Book Co. pp.\u00a022\u201334. ISBN\u00a09780792456339.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Else, David & Sandra Bardwell, Belinda Dixon, Peter Dragicevich (2007). Lonely Planet: Walking in Britain. Lonely Planet. p.\u00a0224. ISBN\u00a0978-1-7410-4202-3.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Pirani, Adam (May 1991). \"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves\". Starlog. p.\u00a040.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ David Victor (August 30, 2012). \"Studio Logo Music\". Retrieved November 25, 2015.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Film Score Monthly\". July 10, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves\". Chicago Sun Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Canby, Vincent (1991-06-14). \"A Polite Robin Hood In a Legend Recast\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-02-21.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Turan, Kenneth (1991-06-14). \"'Robin': Medieval Dash, New Age Muddle\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ Easton, Nina J. (1991-06-23). \"A look inside Hollywood and the movies\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Bakare, Lanre. \"My guilty pleasure \u2013 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves\", The Guardian, March 26, 2014\n  19. Jump up ^ \"Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991)\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2013-06-10.\u00a0\n  20. Jump up ^ Wilson, John (2005). The Official Razzie Movie Guide: Enjoying the Best of Hollywood's Worst. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN\u00a00-446-69334-0.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores Nominees\" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-07.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Robin Hood prince of summer flicks with $18.3 million weekend\". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Fox, David J. (1991-06-25). \"Robin Hood Still Riding Ahead of Box Office Pack\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Fox, David J. (1991-06-18). \"'Robin' Hits Impressive Box Office Bull's-Eye\". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Can 'Robin Hood' Keep Up Its Box-office Momentum?\". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 2010-10-02.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Tilden, Gail, ed. (July 1991). Nintendo Power. Vol 26. ISSN\u00a01041-9551.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Salvatore, Ron. \"The recycling of the Force - Starwars\". The Star Wars Collectors Archive. Retrieved 2016-02-06.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves on IMDb\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves at the TCM Movie Database\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves at Box Office Mojo\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves at Rotten Tomatoes\n  \u2022 \"The Battle of Sherwood Forest\", a 1991 Entertainment Weekly cover story about the film's tumultuous production.\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves Transcript\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nRobin Hood\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Robin Hood\n  \u2022 Maid Marian\n  \u2022 Merry Men\n  \u2022 Much the Miller's Son\n  \u2022 Little John\n  \u2022 Friar Tuck\n  \u2022 Alan-a-Dale\n  \u2022 Will Scarlet\n  \u2022 Will Stutely\n  \u2022 Gilbert Whitehand\n  \u2022 Arthur a Bland\n  \u2022 David of Doncaster\n  \u2022 The Jolly Pinder of Wakefield\n  \u2022 Sheriff of Nottingham\n  \u2022 Guy of Gisbourne\n  \u2022 Prince John\n  \u2022 Bishop of Hereford\n  \u2022 Richard at the Lee\n  \u2022 King Richard\nSettings\n  \u2022 Sherwood Forest\n  \u2022 Nottingham\n  \u2022 Loxley\n  \u2022 Barnsdale\n  \u2022 Wentbridge\nScreen\nFilm\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1912)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1922)\n  \u2022 The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938)\n  \u2022 The Bandit of Sherwood Forest (1946)\n  \u2022 The Prince of Thieves (1948)\n  \u2022 The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952)\n  \u2022 The Men of Sherwood Forest (1954)\n  \u2022 Sword of Sherwood Forest (1960)\n  \u2022 A Challenge for Robin Hood (1967)\n  \u2022 The Scalawag Bunch (1971)\n  \u2022 Wolfshead: The Legend of Robin Hood (1973)\n  \u2022 The Arrows of Robin Hood (1975)\n  \u2022 Robin and Marian (1976)\n  \u2022 Aaj Ka Robin Hood (1988)\n  \u2022 O Mist\u00e9rio de Robin Hood (1990)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1991)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (2010)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (2018)\nTV\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1953)\n  \u2022 The Adventures of Robin Hood (1955)\n  \u2022 The Legend of Robin Hood (1968)\n  \u2022 The Legend of Robin Hood (1975)\n  \u2022 Robin of Sherwood (1984)\n  \u2022 The New Adventures of Robin Hood (1997)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (2006)\nAnimated\n  \u2022 Robin Hood Makes Good (1939)\n  \u2022 Rabbit Hood (1949)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood Daffy (1958)\n  \u2022 Robin Hoodwinked (1958)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1973)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1990)\n  \u2022 Young Robin Hood (1991)\n  \u2022 Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse (2012)\nParody\n  \u2022 When Things Were Rotten (1975)\n  \u2022 The Zany Adventures of Robin Hood (1984)\n  \u2022 Maid Marian and Her Merry Men (1989)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993)\nAlternate\nsettings\n  \u2022 Mexicali Rose (1939 film)\n  \u2022 Robin and the 7 Hoods (1964 film)\n  \u2022 Naan Sigappu Manithan (1985 Tamil film)\n  \u2022 Nyayam Meere Cheppali (1985 Telugu film)\n  \u2022 Catch Me Now (2008 Chinese TV series)\n  \u2022 Alyas Robin Hood (2016 Philippines TV series)\nPopular culture\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (Disney character)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (Once Upon a Time character)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (DC Comics character)\nChild ballads\n  \u2022 8: Erlinton\n  \u2022 102: Willie and Earl Richard's Daughter\n  \u2022 103: Rose the Red and White Lily\n  \u2022 115: Robyn and Gandeleyn\n  \u2022 117: A Gest of Robyn Hode\n  \u2022 118: Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne\n  \u2022 119: Robin Hood and the Monk\n  \u2022 120: Robin Hood's Death\n  \u2022 121: Robin Hood and the Potter\n  \u2022 123: Robin Hood and the Curtal Friar\n  \u2022 124: The Jolly Pinder of Wakefield\n  \u2022 126: Robin Hood and the Tanner\n  \u2022 127: Robin Hood and the Tinker\n  \u2022 128: Robin Hood Newly Revived\n  \u2022 129: Robin Hood and the Prince of Aragon\n  \u2022 130: Robin Hood and the Scotchman\n  \u2022 131: Robin Hood and the Ranger\n  \u2022 132: The Bold Pedlar and Robin Hood\n  \u2022 136: Robin Hood's Delight\n  \u2022 138: Robin Hood and Allan-a-Dale\n  \u2022 139: Robin Hood's Progress to Nottingham\n  \u2022 140: Robin Hood Rescuing Three Squires\n  \u2022 141: Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly\n  \u2022 142: Little John a Begging\n  \u2022 143: Robin Hood and the Bishop\n  \u2022 144: Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford\n  \u2022 145: Robin Hood and Queen Katherine\n  \u2022 146: Robin Hood's Chase\n  \u2022 147: Robin Hood's Golden Prize\n  \u2022 148: The Noble Fisherman\n  \u2022 149: The Noble Fisherman\n  \u2022 151: The King's Disguise, and Friendship with Robin Hood\n  \u2022 152: Robin Hood and the Golden Arrow\n  \u2022 153: Robin Hood and the Valiant Knight\n  \u2022 154: A True Tale of Robin Hood\nStage \/ theatre\n  \u2022 The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington (1598 and 1601 plays)\n  \u2022 The Merrie Men of Sherwood Forest (1871 operetta)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1890 opera)\n  \u2022 The Foresters (1892 play)\n  \u2022 Twang!! (1965 musical parody)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1934 opera)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (1998 ballet)\n  \u2022 Robin des Bois (2013 musical)\nVideo games\n  \u2022 Robin of the Wood (1985)\n  \u2022 The Curse of Sherwood (1987)\n  \u2022 The Adventures of Robin Hood (1991)\n  \u2022 Conquests of the Longbow: The Legend of Robin Hood (1991)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: The Legend of Sherwood (2002)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Defender of the Crown (2003)\n  \u2022 Volume (2015)\nLiterature\n  \u2022 Ivanhoe (1819)\n  \u2022 Maid Marian (1822)\n  \u2022 The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood (1883)\n  \u2022 Bows against the Barons (1934)\n  \u2022 The Once and Future King (1958)\n  \u2022 The Outlaws of Sherwood (1988)\n  \u2022 Through a Dark Mist (1991)\n  \u2022 Lady of the Forest (1992)\n  \u2022 In the Shadow of Midnight (1994)\n  \u2022 The Last Arrow (1997)\n  \u2022 Lady of Sherwood (1999)\n  \u2022 Ronin Hood of the 47 Samurai (2005)\n  \u2022 King Raven Trilogy (2006)\nMusic\n  \u2022 Legend (1984 soundtrack)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood (2006 soundtrack)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood \u2013 czwarta strza\u0142a (1997)\n  \u2022 \"Love\" (song)\n  \u2022 \"Not in Nottingham\" (song)\n  \u2022 \"(Everything I Do) I Do It for You\" (song)\n  \u2022 The Tale of Gamelyn\nAlan Dale\n  \u2022 Outlaw (2009)\n  \u2022 Holy Warrior (2010)\n  \u2022 King's Man (2011)\n  \u2022 Warlord (2012)\n  \u2022 Grail Knight (2013)\n  \u2022 The Iron Castle (2014)\n  \u2022 The King's Assassin (2015)\n  \u2022 The Death of Robin Hood (2016)\nRelated\n  \u2022 Miss Robin Hood\n  \u2022 Son of the Guardsman\n  \u2022 The Son of Robin Hood\n  \u2022 The Bandit of Sherwood Forest\n  \u2022 Princess of Thieves\n  \u2022 Robin Hood Morality Test\n  \u2022 \"Robot of Sherwood\"\n  \u2022 \"Robin Good and His Not-So-Merry Men\"\n  \u2022 Once Upon a Time\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFilms directed by Kevin Reynolds\n  \u2022 Fandango (1985)\n  \u2022 The Beast (1988)\n  \u2022 Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991)\n  \u2022 Rapa-Nui (1994)\n  \u2022 Waterworld (1995)\n  \u2022 One Eight Seven (1997)\n  \u2022 The Count of Monte Cristo (2002)\n  \u2022 Tristan & Isolde (2006)\n  \u2022 Hatfields & McCoys (2012)\n  \u2022 Risen (2016)\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Robin_Hood:_Prince_of_Thieves&oldid=840860443\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1991 films\n  \u2022 English-language films\n  \u2022 1990s action films\n  \u2022 1990s adventure films\n  \u2022 1990s romantic drama films\n  \u2022 1991 soundtracks\n  \u2022 American action adventure films\n  \u2022 American action films\n  \u2022 American adventure films\n  \u2022 American romantic drama films\n  \u2022 American films\n  \u2022 Crusades films\n  \u2022 Films scored by Michael Kamen\n  \u2022 Films directed by Kevin Reynolds\n  \u2022 Films set in Jerusalem\n  \u2022 Films set in Kent\n  \u2022 Films set in Cumbria\n  \u2022 Films shot in Buckinghamshire\n  \u2022 Films shot in East Sussex\n  \u2022 Films shot in France\n  \u2022 Films shot in Hampshire\n  \u2022 Films shot in North Yorkshire\n  \u2022 Films shot in Northumberland\n  \u2022 Films shot in Wiltshire\n  \u2022 Michael Kamen albums\n  \u2022 Morgan Creek Productions films\n  \u2022 Robin Hood films\n  \u2022 Films shot at Shepperton Studios\n  \u2022 Warner Bros. films\n  \u2022 Films adapted into video games\n  \u2022 Witchcraft in film\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from January 2016\n  \u2022 Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Album infoboxes lacking a cover\n  \u2022 Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d2\u10d0\u10da\u10e3\u10e0\u10d8\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 12 May 2018, at 17:16.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"9138184680389361935","title":"Client (computing)","text":"Client (computing)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nA computer network diagram of client computers communicating with a server computer via the Internet\n\nA client is a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server. The server is often (but not always) on another computer system, in which case the client accesses the service by way of a network.[1] The term applies to the role that programs or devices play in the client\u2013server model.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Overview\n  \u2022 2 Types\n    \u2022 2.1 Thick\n    \u2022 2.2 Thin\n    \u2022 2.3 Hybrid\n  \u2022 3 References\n\nOverview[edit]\n\nA client is a computer or a program that, as part of its operation, relies on sending a request to another program or a computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server(which may or may not be located on another computer). For example, web browsers are clients that connect to web servers and retrieve web pages for display. Email clients retrieve email from mail servers. Online chat uses a variety of clients, which vary depending on the chat protocol being used. Multiplayer video games or online video games may run as a client on each computer. The term \"client\" may also be applied to computers or devices that run the client software or users that use the client software.\n\nA client is part of a client\u2013server model, which is still used today. Clients and servers may be computer programs run on the same machine and connect via inter-process communication techniques. Combined with Internet sockets, programs may connect to a service operating on a possibly remote system through the Internet protocol suite. Servers wait for potential clients to initiate connections that they may accept.\n\nThe term was first applied to devices that were not capable of running their own stand-alone programs, but could interact with remote computers via a network. These computer terminals were clients of the time-sharing mainframe computer.\n\nTypes[edit]\n\nClient types and their features\nRelies on\nlocal storage\nRelies on\nlocal CPU\nFat client Yes Yes\nHybrid client No Yes\nThin client No No\n\nIn one classification, client computers and devices are either thick clients, thin clients, or hybrid clients.\n\nThick[edit]\n\nMain article: Thick client\n\nA Thick client, also known as a rich client or fat client, is a client that performs the bulk of any data processing operations itself, and does not necessarily rely on the server. The personal computer is a common example of a fat client, because of its relatively large set of features and capabilities and its light reliance upon a server. For example, a computer running an Art program (such as Krita or Sketchup) that ultimately shares the result of its work on a network is a thick client. A computer that runs almost entirely as a standalone machine save to send or receive files via a network is by standard called a workstation.\n\nThin[edit]\n\nMain article: Thin client\nA thin client\n\nA thin client is a minimal sort of client. Thin clients use the resources of the host computer. A thin client generally only presents processed data provided by an application server, which performs the bulk of any required data processing. A device using web application (such as Office Web Apps) is a thin client.\n\nHybrid[edit]\n\nA hybrid client is a mixture of the above two client models. Similar to a fat client, it processes locally, but relies on the server for storing persistent data. This approach offers features from both the fat client (multimedia support, high performance) and the thin client (high manageability, flexibility). A device running an online version of the video game Diablo III is an example of hybrid client.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Sadoski, Darleen. Client\/Server Software Architectures \u2013 An Overview, Software Technology Roadmap, 1997-08-02. Retrieved on 2008-09-16.\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nPeer-to-peer file sharing\nNetworks,\nprotocols\nCentralized\n  \u2022 Advanced Direct Connect\n  \u2022 Audiogalaxy\n  \u2022 CuteMX\n  \u2022 OpenNap\n  \u2022 Soribada\n  \u2022 Soulseek\nDecentralized\n  \u2022 Advanced Direct Connect\n  \u2022 Ares\n  \u2022 BitTorrent\n  \u2022 DAT\n  \u2022 eDonkey\n  \u2022 FastTrack\n  \u2022 Freenet\n  \u2022 GNUnet\n  \u2022 Gnutella\n  \u2022 Gnutella2\n  \u2022 I2P\n  \u2022 IPFS\n  \u2022 Kad\n  \u2022 OpenFT\n  \u2022 Perfect Dark\n  \u2022 RetroShare\n  \u2022 Share (P2P)\n  \u2022 Tribler\n  \u2022 Winny\n  \u2022 Zeronet\nHistoric\n  \u2022 Direct Connect\n  \u2022 Entropy\n  \u2022 Kazaa\n  \u2022 Morpheus\n  \u2022 Overnet\n  \u2022 Napster\n  \u2022 Scour\n  \u2022 WASTE\n  \u2022 WinMX\nComparisons\nof clients\n  \u2022 Advanced Direct Connect\n  \u2022 BitTorrent\n  \u2022 Direct Connect\n  \u2022 eDonkey\n  \u2022 Gnutella\n  \u2022 Gnutella2\nHyperlinks\n  \u2022 eD2k\n  \u2022 Magnet\n  \u2022 Metalink\nUses\n  \u2022 Broadcatching\n  \u2022 Segmented file transfer\n  \u2022 Music download\n  \u2022 Image sharing\n  \u2022 Disk sharing\n  \u2022 Peercasting\n  \u2022 Web hosting (freesite)\n  \u2022 Legal aspects\nConcepts\nPrivacy\n  \u2022 Friend-to-friend\n  \u2022 Darknet\n  \u2022 Open Music Model\n  \u2022 Anonymous P2P\n  \u2022 Private P2P\nInternal\ntechnologies\n  \u2022 DHT\n  \u2022 NAT traversal\n  \u2022 PEX\n  \u2022 Protocol Encryption\n  \u2022 SHA-1\n  \u2022 Super-seeding\n  \u2022 Merkle tree\n  \u2022 Tracker\n  \u2022 \u00b5TP\n  \u2022 UDP hole punching\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nNews aggregators\nClient\nsoftware\nStandalone\n  \u2022 Akregator\n  \u2022 BlogBridge\n  \u2022 FeedDemon\n  \u2022 Feedreader\n  \u2022 Flipboard\n  \u2022 Genieo\n  \u2022 Google Currents\n  \u2022 Google News\n  \u2022 Liferea\n  \u2022 NetNewsWire\n  \u2022 NewsAccess\n  \u2022 Newsbeuter\n  \u2022 NewsFire\n  \u2022 QuiteRSS\n  \u2022 RSS Bandit\n  \u2022 RSSOwl\n  \u2022 Seesmic\n  \u2022 WebFetch\nWeb browsers\n  \u2022 AOL Explorer\n  \u2022 Avant Browser\n  \u2022 Basilisk\n  \u2022 Camino\n  \u2022 iCab\n  \u2022 Flock\n  \u2022 Internet Explorer\n  \u2022 K-Meleon\n  \u2022 Kazehakase\n  \u2022 Maxthon\n  \u2022 Firefox\n  \u2022 GNOME Web\n  \u2022 Netscape Browser\n  \u2022 Netscape Navigator 9\n  \u2022 OmniWeb\n  \u2022 Opera\n  \u2022 Pale Moon\n  \u2022 Safari\n  \u2022 SeaMonkey\n  \u2022 Shiira\n  \u2022 Sleipnir\n  \u2022 Tencent Traveler\n  \u2022 Vivaldi\n  \u2022 Waterfox\nEmail clients\n  \u2022 Apple Mail\n  \u2022 Claws Mail\n  \u2022 Gnus\n  \u2022 IBM Notes\n  \u2022 Microsoft Outlook\n  \u2022 Mozilla Thunderbird\n  \u2022 Netscape Messenger 9\n  \u2022 Opera Mail\n  \u2022 Pegasus Mail\n  \u2022 The Bat!\n  \u2022 Windows Live Mail\n  \u2022 Zimbra\nWeb browser plugins\n  \u2022 Cooliris\n  \u2022 Sage\nWeb apps or\nmobile apps\n  \u2022 Bloglines\n  \u2022 CommaFeed\n  \u2022 Cheetah News\n  \u2022 Daylife\n  \u2022 Digg Reader\n  \u2022 Drupal\n  \u2022 Feedbin\n  \u2022 Feedly\n  \u2022 FriendFeed\n  \u2022 Google News\n  \u2022 Google Reader\n  \u2022 iGoogle\n  \u2022 dotCMS\n  \u2022 Imooty.eu\n  \u2022 Magnolia\n  \u2022 My Yahoo!\n  \u2022 News360\n  \u2022 NewsBlur\n  \u2022 Newsknowledge\n  \u2022 Netvibes\n  \u2022 Pageflakes\n  \u2022 Planet\n  \u2022 Pulse\n  \u2022 Rojo.com\n  \u2022 Prismatic\n  \u2022 Spokeo\n  \u2022 The Old Reader\n  \u2022 Tiny Tiny RSS\n  \u2022 TweetDeck\n  \u2022 WebGUI\n  \u2022 Windows Live Personalized Experience\n  \u2022 winnowTag\nMedia\naggregators\nPodcatcher\n  \u2022 Adobe Media Player\n  \u2022 Akregator\n  \u2022 Amarok\n  \u2022 Flock\n  \u2022 iTunes\n  \u2022 Juice\n  \u2022 MediaMonkey\n  \u2022 Miro\n  \u2022 Rhythmbox\n  \u2022 Songbird\n  \u2022 Winamp\n  \u2022 Zune\nRSS+BitTorrent\n  \u2022 BitLord\n  \u2022 BitTorrent 6\n  \u2022 Deluge\n  \u2022 Miro\n  \u2022 Opera Mail\n  \u2022 qBittorrent\n  \u2022 TorrentFlux\n  \u2022 Tribler\n  \u2022 \u03bcTorrent\n  \u2022 Vuze\nRelated\narticles\n  \u2022 Comparison of feed aggregators\n  \u2022 History of Media aggregation\n  \u2022 RSS enclosure\nItalics indicate discontinued software.\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nDownload managers\nClient software for downloading computer files\nMicrosoft Windows\nFreeware\n  \u2022 CryptLoad\n  \u2022 FlashGet\n  \u2022 Free Download Manager\n  \u2022 Free Studio\n  \u2022 Freemake Video Downloader\n  \u2022 Microsoft Download Manager\n  \u2022 Orbit Downloader\n  \u2022 Xunlei\nShareware\n  \u2022 DownloadStudio\n  \u2022 Download Accelerator Plus\n  \u2022 GetRight\n  \u2022 Go!Zilla\n  \u2022 Internet Download Accelerator\n  \u2022 Internet Download Manager\nUnix-like\n  \u2022 KGet\nMulti-platform\n  \u2022 cURL\n  \u2022 DownThemAll!\n  \u2022 FlashGot\n  \u2022 JDownloader\n  \u2022 Wget\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 Comparison of download managers\n  \u2022 Download acceleration\n  \u2022 Metalink\n  \u2022 Segmented file transfer\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Client_(computing)&oldid=844165126\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Clients (computing)\n  \u2022 Peer-to-peer computing\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from January 2014\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Az\u0259rbaycanca\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 \u041e\u043b\u044b\u043a \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 3 June 2018, at 02:14.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"879161514522242282","title":"United States Forces Japan","text":"United States Forces Japan\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nUnited States Forces Japan\n\u5728\u65e5\u7c73\u8ecd\nSeal of United States Forces Japan.png\nUSFJ\nCountry \u00a0Japan\n\u00a0United States\nSize 50,000 (approx.)\nHeadquarters Yokota Air Base, Fussa, Western Tokyo\nNickname(s) USFJ\n\nThe United States Forces Japan (USFJ) (\u5728\u65e5\u7c73\u8ecd, Zainichi Beigun) is an active subordinate unified command of the United States Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). It was activated at Fuch\u016b Air Station, Tokyo, Japan on 1 July 1957 to replace the Far East Command (FEC). USFJ is commanded by the Commander, U.S. Forces, Japan (COMUSJAPAN). COMUSJAPAN is also the Commander, Fifth Air Force. At present, USFJ is headquartered at Yokota Air Base, Tokyo, Japan.\n\nCOMUSJAPAN, plans, directs and supervises the execution of missions and responsibilities assigned by the Commander, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command (COMUSINDOPACOM). He establishes and implements policies to accomplish the mission of the United States Armed Forces in Japan. He is responsible for developing plans for the defense of Japan, and he must be prepared if contingencies arise, to assume operational control of assigned and attached U.S. forces for the execution of those plans.\n\nCOMUSJAPAN supports the Security Treaty and administers the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) between the United States and Japan. He is responsible for coordinating various matters of interest with the service commanders in Japan. These include matters affecting US-Japan relationships among and between Department of Defense (DOD) agencies; DOD agencies and the U.S. Ambassador to Japan; and DOD agencies and the Government of Japan (GOJ).\n\nUnder the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, the United States is obliged to protect Japan in close cooperation with the Japan Self-Defense Forces for maritime defense, ballistic missile defense, domestic air control, communications security (COMSEC) and disaster response operations.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 U.S. presence debate\n    \u2022 2.1 U.S. presence on Okinawa\n    \u2022 2.2 Survey among Japanese and Okinawans\n    \u2022 2.3 Status of forces agreement\n    \u2022 2.4 U.S. service member behavior\n    \u2022 2.5 Crime issues\n    \u2022 2.6 Osprey deployment in Okinawa\n  \u2022 3 Facilities\n    \u2022 3.1 List of current facilities\n    \u2022 3.2 List of former facilities\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nJGSDF soldiers at Camp Kinser\nUnited States Forces helped Japanese in Operation Tomodachi following the 2011 T\u014dhoku earthquake and tsunami\n\nAfter the Japanese surrender in the end of World War II in Asia, the United States Armed Forces assumed administrative authority in Japan. The Japanese Imperial Army and Navy were decommissioned, and the U.S. Armed Forces took control of their military bases until the new government could be formed and positioned to reestablish authority. Allied forces planned to demilitarize Japan, and new government adopted the Constitution of Japan with a no-armed-force clause in 1947.\n\nAfter the Korean War began in 1950, Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan and the Japanese government established the paramilitary \"National Police Reserve\", which was later developed into the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF).\n\nIn 1951, the Treaty of San Francisco was signed by the allied countries and Japan, which restored its formal sovereignty. At the same time, the U.S. and Japan signed the Japan-America Security Alliance. By this treaty, USFJ is responsible for the defense of Japan. As part of this agreement, the Japanese government requested that the U.S. military bases remain in Japan, and agreed to provide funds and various interests specified in the Status of Forces Agreement. At the expiration of the treaty, the United States and Japan signed the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan. The status of the United States Forces Japan was defined in the U.S.\u2013Japan Status of Forces Agreement. This treaty is still in effect, and it forms the basis of Japan's foreign policy.\n\nIn the Vietnam War, the US military bases in Japan, especially those in Okinawa Prefecture, were used as important strategic and logistic bases. In 1970, the Koza riot occurred against the US military presence in Okinawa. The USAF strategic bombers were deployed in the bases in Okinawa, which was still administered by the U.S. government. Before the 1972 reversion of the island to Japanese administration, it has been speculated but never confirmed that up to 1,200 nuclear weapons may have been stored at Kadena Air Base, Okinawa in the 1960s.[1]\n\nAs of 2013[update], there are approximately 50,000 U.S. military personnel stationed in Japan, along with approximately 40,000 dependents of military personnel and another 5,500 American civilians employed there by the United States Department of Defense. The United States Seventh Fleet is based in Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture. The 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF) is based in Okinawa. 130 USAF fighters are stationed in the Misawa Air Base and Kadena Air Base.[2]\n\nThe Japanese government paid \u00a5217 billion (US$2.0 billion) in 2007[3] as annual host-nation support called Omoiyari Yosan (\u601d\u3044\u3084\u308a\u4e88\u7b97, sympathy budget or compassion budget).[4] As of the 2011 budget, such payment was no longer to be referred to as Omoiyari Yosan or sympathy budget.[5] Japan compensates 75 percent of U.S. basing costs \u2014 $4.4 billion.[6]\n\nThe U.S. government employs over 8,000 Master Labor Contract (MLC)\/Indirect Hire Agreement (IHA) workers on Okinawa (per the Labor Management Organization) not including Okinawan contract workers.[7]\n\nImmediately after the 2011 T\u014dhoku earthquake and tsunami, 9,720 dependents of United States military and government civilian employees in Japan evacuated the country, mainly to the United States.[8]\n\nThe relocation of the U.S. Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to Henoko had been resolved in December 2013 with the signing of the landfill agreement by the governor of Okinawa. Under the terms of the U.S.-Japan agreement 5,000 U.S. Marines should have been relocated to Guam and 4,000 U.S. Marines to other Pacific locations such as Hawaii or Australia, while some 10,000 Marines were to remain on Okinawa.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15] No timetable for the Marines redeployment had been announced, but The Washington Post reported that U.S. Marines would leave Okinawa as soon as suitable facilities on Guam and elsewhere were ready.[12] The relocation move was expected to cost 8.6 billion US Dollars[9] and includes a $3.1bn cash commitment from Japan for the move to Guam as well as for developing joint training ranges on Guam and on Tinian and Pagan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.[10] Certain parcels of land on Okinawa which have been leased for use by the American military were supposed to be turned back to Japanese control via a long-term phased return process according to the agreement.[12] These returns have been ongoing since 1972.[citation needed] However, as of July 2016, the situation has not been settled.\n\nFurther information: Relocation of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma\n\nIn May 2014, in a strategic shift by the United States to Asia and the Pacific, it was revealed the US was deploying two unarmed Global Hawk long-distance surveillance drones to Japan for surveillance missions over China and North Korea.[16]\n\nU.S. presence debate[edit]\n\nDo they need bases in Henoko or Futenma? Are they unnecessary? Even aside from this discussion, security is changing.\u2014Former Japan Minister of Defense Fumio Kyuma[17]\n\nU.S. presence on Okinawa[edit]\n\nSee also: Okinawa Prefecture \u00a7\u00a0U.S. military controversy\n\nOkinawa makes up only 0.6 percent of the nation's land area;[2] yet, approximately 62% of U.S. bases in Japan (exclusive use only) are in Okinawa.[18][19]\n\nSurvey among Japanese and Okinawans[edit]\n\nWhile, in 2002, 73.4% of Japanese citizens appreciate the mutual security treaty with the U.S. and the presence of the USFJ,[20][needs update] part of the population demands a reduction in the number of U.S. military bases in Okinawa.[21]\n\nIn May 2010, a survey of the Okinawan people conducted by the Mainichi Shimbun and the Ry\u016bky\u016b Shimp\u014d, found that 71% of Okinawans surveyed thought that the presence of Marines on Okinawa was not necessary (15% said it was necessary.). Asked what they thought about 62% of United States Forces Japan bases (exclusive use) being concentrated in Okinawa, 50% said that the number should be reduced, 41% said that the bases should be removed. Asked about the US-Japan security treaty, 55% said it should be changed to a peace treaty, 14% said it should be abolished and 7% said it should be maintained.[22]\n\nMany of the bases, such as Yokota Air Base, Naval Air Facility Atsugi and Kadena Air Base, are located in the vicinity of residential districts, and local citizens have complained about excessive aircraft noise.[23][24][25] The 2014 poll by Ry\u016bky\u016b Shimp\u014d found that 80% of surveyed Okinawans want the Marine Corps Air Station Futenma moved out of the prefecture.[26]\n\nOn 25 June 2018 residents of the island of Okinawa have rallied against the construction of a new airfield intended for the US military base in the United States. The activists, armed with placards and banners, went to sea on seventy boats and ships. The posters read: \u201cDo not build a base\u201d and \u201cStop throwing gravel\u201d. Protesters urged the Japanese authorities to stop the expansion of the US military presence on the island. Some of the boats went to the guarded construction site, where they came across the Coast Guard patrol vessels. Some activists were arrested for invading a prohibited zone.[27]\n\nStatus of forces agreement[edit]\n\nThere is also debate over the Status of Forces Agreement due to the fact that it covers a variety of administrative technicalities blending the systems which control how certain situations are handled between the U.S.'s and Japan's legal framework.[28]\n\nU.S. service member behavior[edit]\n\nBetween 1972 and 2009, U.S. servicemen committed 5,634 criminal offenses, including 25 murders, 385 burglaries, 25 arsons, 127 rapes, 306 assaults and 2,827 thefts.[29] Yet, per Marine Corps Installations Pacific data, U.S. service members are convicted of far fewer crimes than local Okinawans.[30] According to the U.S.-Japan Status of Forces Agreement, when U.S. personnel crimes are committed both off-duty and off-base, they should always be prosecuted under the Japanese law.[31]\n\nOn 12 February 2008, the National Police Agency (of Japan) or NPA, released its annual criminal statistics that included activity within the Okinawan prefecture. These findings held American troops were only convicted of 53 crimes per 10,000 U.S. male servicemen, while Okinawan males were convicted of 366 crimes per 10,000. The crime rate found a U.S. serviceman in Okinawa to be 86% less likely to convicted of a crime by the Japanese government than an Okinawan male.[32]\n\nCrime issues[edit]\n\nSee also: Yumiko-chan incident, 1995 Okinawa rape incident, and Michael Brown Okinawa assault incident\nGIs in Special Comfort Facility Association during occupation of Japan.\n\nAt the beginning of the occupation of Japan, in 1945, many U.S. soldiers participated in the Special Comfort Facility Association.[33] The Japanese government recruited 55,000 women to work providing sexual services to US military personnel.[33] The Association was closed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers.[33]\n\nIn more recent history, \"crimes ranging from rape to assault and hit-and-run accidents by U.S. military personnel, dependents and civilians have long sparked protests in the prefecture,\" stated The Japan Times.[34] \"A series of horrific crimes by present and former U.S. military personnel stationed on Okinawa has triggered dramatic moves to try to reduce the American presence on the island and in Japan as a whole,\" commented The Daily Beast in 2009.[35]\n\nIn 1995, the abduction and rape of a 12-year-old Okinawan schoolgirl by two U.S. marines and one U.S. sailor led to demands for the removal of all U.S. military bases in Japan. Other controversial incidents include helicopter crashes, the Girard incident, the Michael Brown Okinawa assault incident, the death of Kinjo family and the death of Yuki Uema. In February 2008, a 38-year-old U.S. Marine based on Okinawa was arrested in connection with the reported rape of a 14-year-old Okinawan girl.[36] This triggered waves of protest against American military presence in Okinawa and led to tight restrictions on off-base activities.[37][38] Although the accuser withdrew her charges the U.S. military court-martialed the suspect and sentenced him to 4 years in prison under the stricter rules of the military justice system.[39]\n\nU.S. Forces Japan designated 22 February as a Day of Reflection for all U.S. military facilities in Japan, and established the Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Task Force in an effort to prevent similar incidents.[40] In November 2009, Staff Sgt. Clyde \"Drew\" Gunn, a U.S. Army soldier stationed at Torii Station was involved in a hit-and-run accident of a pedestrian in Yomitan Village on Okinawa. Later, in April 2010, the soldier was charged with failing to render aid and vehicular manslaughter.[41] Staff Sgt. Gunn, of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, was eventually sentenced to 2 years and 8 months in jail on 15 October 2010.[42]\n\nIn 2013, two U.S. military personnel, Seaman Christopher Browning, of Athens, Texas, and Petty Officer 3rd Class Skyler Dozierwalker, of Muskogee, Oklahoma, were found guilty by the Naha District Court of raping and robbing a woman in her 20s in a parking lot in October. Both admitted committing the crime. The case outraged many Okinawans, a number of whom have long complained of military-related crime on their island, which hosts thousands of U.S. troops. It also sparked tougher restrictions for all 50,000 U.S. military personnel in Japan, including a curfew and drinking restrictions.[43]\n\nOn 13 May 2013, in a very controversial statement, Toru Hashimoto, co-leader of the Japan Restoration Association said to a senior American military official at the Marine Corps base in Okinawa \"We can\u2019t control the sexual energy of these brave marines.\" and told United States soldiers should make more use of the local adult entertainment industry to reduce sexual crimes against local women.[44] Hashimoto also told the necessity of former Japanese Army comfort women and of prostitutes for the US military in other countries such as Korea.[44]\n\nIn June 2016, after a civilian worker at the base was charged with murdering a Japanese woman, tens of thousands of people protested in Okinawa.[45] Organizers estimated turnout at 65,000 people, which would be the largest anti-base protests in Okinawa since 1995.[46]\n\nIn November 2017, an intoxicated US service member was arrested following a vehicle crash on the Japanese island of Okinawa that killed the other driver.[47]\n\nOsprey deployment in Okinawa[edit]\n\nIn October 2012, twelve MV-22 Ospreys were transferred to the US Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to replace aging Vietnam-era Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters in Okinawa.[48] In October 2013, an additional 12 Ospreys arrived, again to replace CH-46 Sea Knights, increasing the number of Ospreys to 24. Japanese Defence Minister Satoshi Morimoto explained the Osprey aircraft is safe adding that two recent accidents were 'caused by human factors'.[49] Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda also stated that the Japanese government was convinced of the MV-22's safety.[50] Various incidents involving V-22 Ospreys have occurred in Okinawa.[51] On 5 April, 2018, it was announced that the US Air Force is to officially deploy CV-22 Osprey aircraft at its Yokota Air Base on the outskirts of Tokyo in a few months. The deployment would be the first of Ospreys in Japan other than in Okinawa, where the US Marines have already deployed their version of the aircraft, known as the MV-22s.[52]\n\nOn 25 April, 2018 two US Air Force Osprey MV-22, deployed at US Marine Corps Air Station Futenma on the Okinawa island, made an emergency landing at the Amami Airport on the nearby island in Kagoshima Prefecture. US Ospreys have experienced numerous mishaps in recent years, prompting Japanese officials to call for revision of certain provisions of the US-Japan Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which outlines the rights and privileges of foreign military personnel present in the country. [5]\n\nFacilities[edit]\n\nList of current facilities[edit]\n\nU.S. military bases in Japan\nU.S. military facilities in Okinawa\n\nThe USFJ headquarters is at Yokota Air Base, about 30\u00a0km west of central Tokyo.\n\nThe U.S. military installations in Japan and their managing branches are as follows:\n\nBranch\n(MilDep)\nUSFJ Facilities\nAdmin Code\nName of Installation Primary Purpose\n(Actual)\nLocation\nAir Force FAC 1054 Camp Chitose\n(Chitose III, Chitose Administration Annex)\nCommunications Chitose, Hokkaido\nFAC 2001 Misawa Air Base Air Base Misawa, Aomori\nFAC 3013 Yokota Air Base Air Base Fussa, Tokyo\nFAC 3016 Fuchu Communications Station Communications Fuchu, Tokyo\nFAC 3019 Tama Service Annex\n(Tama Hills Recreation Center)\nRecreation Inagi, Tokyo\nFAC 3048 Camp Asaka\n(South Camp Drake AFN Transmitter Site)\nBarracks\n(Broadcasting)\nWako, Saitama\nFAC 3049 Tokorozawa Communications Station\n(Tokorozawa Transmitter Site)\nCommunications Tokorozawa, Saitama\nFAC 3056 Owada Communication Site Communications Niiza, Saitama\nFAC 3162 Yugi Communication Site Communications Hachioji, Tokyo\nFAC 4100 Sofu Communication Site Communications Iwakuni, Yamaguchi\nFAC 5001 Itazuke Auxiliary Airfield Air Cargo Terminal Hakata-ku, Fukuoka\nFAC 5073 Sefurisan Liaison Annex\n(Seburiyama Communications Station)\nCommunications Kanzaki, Saga\nFAC 5091 Tsushima Communication Site Communications Tsushima, Nagasaki\nFAC 6004 Okuma Rest Center Recreation Kunigami, Okinawa\nFAC 6006 Yaedake Communication Site Communications Motobu, Okinawa\nFAC 6022 Kadena Ammunition Storage Area Storage Onna, Okinawa\nFAC 6037 Kadena Air Base Air Base Kadena, Okinawa\nFAC 6077 Tori Shima Range Training Kumejima, Okinawa\nFAC 6078 Idesuna Jima Range Training Tonaki, Okinawa\nFAC 6080 Kume Jima Range Training Kumejima, Okinawa\nArmy FAC 2070 Shariki Communication Site Communications Tsugaru, Aomori\nFAC 3004 Akasaka Press Center\n(Hardy Barracks)\nOffice Minato, Tokyo\nFAC 3067 Yokohama North Dock Port Facility Yokohama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3079 Camp Zama Office Zama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3084 Sagami General Depot Logistics Sagamihara, Kanagawa\nFAC 3102 Sagamihara Housing Area Housing Sagamihara, Kanagawa\nFAC 4078 Akizuki Ammunition Depot Storage Etajima, Hiroshima\nFAC 4083 Kawakami Ammunition Depot Storage Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima\nFAC 4084 Hiro Ammunition Depot Storage Kure, Hiroshima\nFAC 4152 Kure Pier No.6 Port Facility Kure, Hiroshima\nFAC 4611 Haigamine Communication Site Communications Kure, Hiroshima\nFAC 6007 Gesaji Communication Site Communications Higashi, Okinawa\nFAC 6036 Torii Communications Station\n(Torii Station)\nCommunications Yomitan, Okinawa\nFAC 6064 Naha Port Port Facility Naha, Okinawa\nFAC 6076 Army POL Depots Storage Uruma, Okinawa\nNavy FAC 2006 Hachinohe POL Depot Storage Hachinohe, Aomori\nFAC 2012 Misawa ATG Range\n(R130, Draughon Range)\nTraining Misawa, Aomori\nFAC 3033 Kisarazu Auxiliary Landing Field Air Facility Kisarazu, Chiba\nFAC 3066 Negishi Dependent Housing Area\n(Naval Housing Annex Negishi)\nHousing Yokohama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3083 Naval Air Facility Atsugi Air Facility Ayase, Kanagawa\nFAC 3087 Ikego Housing Area and Navy Annex Housing Zushi, Kanagawa\nFAC 3090 Azuma Storage Area Storage Yokosuka, Kanagawa\nFAC 3096 Kamiseya Communications Station - returned to Japanese Gov 2015\n(Naval Support Facility Kamiseya - returned to Japanese Gov 2015)\nCommunications\n(Housing)\nYokohama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3097 Fukaya Communication Site\n(Naval Transmitter Station Totsuka)\nCommunications Yokohama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3099 United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka Port Facility Yokosuka, Kanagawa\nFAC 3117 Urago Ammunition Depot Storage Yokosuka, Kanagawa\nFAC 3144 Tsurumi POL Depot Storage Yokohama, Kanagawa\nFAC 3181 Iwo Jima Communication Site Communications\n(Training)\nOgasawara, Tokyo\nFAC 3185 New Sanno U.S. Forces Center Recreation Minato, Tokyo\nFAC 5029 United States Fleet Activities Sasebo Port Facility Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5030 Sasebo Dry Dock Area Port Facility Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5032 Akasaki POL Depot Storage Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5033 Sasebo Ammunition Supply Point Storage Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5036 Iorizaki POL Depot Storage Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5039 Yokose POL Depot Storage Saikai, Nagasaki\nFAC 5050 Harioshima Ammunition Storage Area Storage Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5086 Tategami Basin Port Area Port Facility Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5118 Sakibe Navy Annex Hangar Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5119 Hario Dependent Housing Area\n(Hario Family Housing Area)\nHousing Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 6028 Tengan Pier Port Facility Uruma, Okinawa\nFAC 6032 Camp Shields Barracks Okinawa, Okinawa\nFAC 6046 Awase Communications Station Communications Okinawa, Okinawa\nFAC 6048 White Beach Area Port Facility Uruma, Okinawa\nFAC 6084 Kobi Sho Range Training Ishigaki, Okinawa\nFAC 6085 Sekibi Sho Range Training Ishigaki, Okinawa\nFAC 6088 Oki Daito Jima Range Training Kitadaito, Okinawa\nMarine\nCorps\nFAC 3127 Camp Fuji Barracks Gotenba, Shizuoka\nFAC 3154 Numazu Training Area Training Numazu, Shizuoka\nFAC 4092 Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni Air Station Iwakuni, Yamaguchi\nFAC 6001 Northern Training Area\n(Incl. Camp Gonsalves)\nTraining Kunigami, Okinawa\nFAC 6005 Ie Jima Auxiliary Airfield Training Ie, Okinawa\nFAC 6009 Camp Schwab Training Nago, Okinawa\nFAC 6010 Henoko Ordnance Ammunition Depot Storage Nago, Okinawa\nFAC 6011 Camp Hansen Training Kin, Okinawa\nFAC 6019 Kin Red Beach Training Area Training Kin, Okinawa\nFAC 6020 Kin Blue Beach Training Area Training Kin, Okinawa\nFAC 6029 Camp Courtney Barracks Uruma, Okinawa\nFAC 6031 Camp McTureous Barracks Uruma, Okinawa\nFAC 6043 Camp Kuwae (Camp Lester) Medical Facility Chatan, Okinawa\nFAC 6044 Camp Zukeran (Camp Foster) Barracks Chatan, Okinawa\nFAC 6051 Marine Corps Air Station Futenma Air Station Ginowan, Okinawa\nFAC 6056 Makiminato Service Area (Camp Kinser) Logistics Urasoe, Okinawa\nFAC 6082 Tsuken Jima Training Area Training Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa Prefecture, Yamaguchi Prefectures. (Although these camps are dispersed throughout Okinawa and the rest of Japan they are all under the heading of Camp Smedley D. Butler):\n    \u2022 Camp McTureous, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Courtney, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Foster, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Kinser, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Hansen, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Schwab, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Camp Gonsalves (Jungle Warfare Training Center), Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Kin Blue Beach Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Kin Red Beach Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture\n    \u2022 Higashionna Ammunition Storage Point II\n    \u2022 Henoko Ordnance Ammunition Depot\n  \u2022 Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Okinawa Prefecture (return after the MCAS Futenma relocates to Camp Schwab)\n  \u2022 Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni\n  \u2022 Camp Fuji, Shizuoka Prefecture\n  \u2022 Numazu Training Area, Shizuoka Prefecture\n  \u2022 Ie Jima Auxiliary Airfield, Okinawa Prefecture\n  \u2022 Tsuken Jima Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture\n\nJSDF-USFJ Joint Use Facilities and Areas\n\nTemporary use facilities and areas are as follows:\n\nUSFJ Facilities\nAdmin Code\nName of Installation Primary\nPurpose\nLocation\nFAC 1066 Camp Higashi Chitose (JGSDF) Training Chitose, Hokkaido\nFAC 1067 Hokkaido Chitose Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Chitose, Hokkaido\nFAC 1068 Chitose Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Chitose, Hokkaido\nFAC 1069 Betsukai Yausubetsu Large Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Betsukai, Hokkaido\nFAC 1070 Camp Kushiro (JGSDF) Barracks Kushiro, Hokkaido\nFAC 1071 Camp Shikaoi (JGSDF) Training Shikaoi, Hokkaido\nFAC 1072 Kamifurano Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Kamifurano, Hokkaido\nFAC 1073 Camp Sapporo (JGSDF) Training Sapporo, Hokkaido\nFAC 1074 Shikaoi Shikaribetsu Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Shikaoi, Hokkaido\nFAC 1075 Camp Obihiro (JGSDF) Training Obihiro, Hokkaido\nFAC 1076 Asahikawa Chikabumidai Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Asahikawa, Hokkaido\nFAC 1077 Camp Okadama (JGSDF) Recreation Sapporo, Hokkaido\nFAC 1078 Nayoro Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Nayoro, Hokkaido\nFAC 1079 Takikawa Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Takikawa, Hokkaido\nFAC 1080 Bihoro Training Area (JGSDF) Training Bihoro, Hokkaido\nFAC 1081 Kutchan Takamine Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Kutchan, Hokkaido\nFAC 1082 Engaru Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Engaru, Hokkaido\nFAC 2062 Camp Sendai (JGSDF) Training Sendai, Miyagi\nFAC 2063 Camp Hachinohe (JGSDF) Barracks Hachinohe, Aomori\nFAC 2064 Iwate Iwatesan Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Takizawa, Iwate\nFAC 2065 Taiwa Ojojihara Large Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Taiwa, Miyagi\nFAC 2066 Kasuminome Airfield (JGSDF) Airfield Sendai, Miyagi\nFAC 2067 Aomori Kotani Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Aomori, Aomori\nFAC 2068 Hirosaki Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Hirosaki, Aomori\nFAC 2069 Jinmachi Otakane Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Murayama, Yamagata\nFAC 3104 Nagasaka Rifle Range (JGSDF) Training Yokosuka, Kanagawa\nFAC 3183 Fuji Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi\nGotenba, Shizuoka\nFAC 3184 Camp Takigahara (JGSDF) Training Gotenba, Shizuoka\nFAC 3186 Takada Sekiyama Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Joetsu, Niigata\nFAC 3187 Hyakuri Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Omitama, Ibaraki\nFAC 3188 Soumagahara Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Shinto, Gunma\nFAC 3189 Camp Asaka (JGSDF) Training Asaka, Saitama\nFAC 4161 Komatsu Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Komatsu, Ishikawa\nFAC 4162 1st Service School (JMSDF) Training Etajima, Hiroshima\nFAC 4163 Haramura Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima\nFAC 4164 Imazu Aibano Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Takashima, Shiga\nFAC 4165 Gifu Air Base (JASDF) Recreation Kakamigahara, Gifu\nFAC 4166 Camp Itami (JGSDF) Training Itami, Hyogo\nFAC 4167 Nihonbara Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Nagi, Okayama\nFAC 4168 Miho Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Sakaiminato, Tottori\nFAC 5115 Nyutabaru Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Shintomi, Miyazaki\nFAC 5117 Sakibe Rifle Range (JMSDF) Training Sasebo, Nagasaki\nFAC 5120 Hijudai-Jumonjibaru Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Yufu, Oita\nBeppu, Oita\nFAC 5121 Tsuiki Air Base (JASDF) Air Base Chikujo, Fukuoka\nFAC 5122 Omura Air Base (JMSDF) Recreation Omura, Nagasaki\nFAC 5123 Oyanohara-Kirishima Maneuver Area (JGSDF) Training Yamato, Kumamoto\nEbino, Miyazaki\nFAC 5124 Camp Kita Kumamoto (JGSDF) Training Kumamoto, Kumamoto\nFAC 5125 Camp Kengun (JGSDF) Training Kumamoto, Kumamoto\nFAC 6181 Ukibaru Jima Training Area Training Uruma, Okinawa\n\nIn Okinawa, U.S. military installations occupy about 10.4 percent of the total land usage. Approximately 74.7 percent of all the U.S. military facilities in Japan are located on the island of Okinawa.\n\nList of former facilities[edit]\n\nThe United States has returned some facilities to Japanese control. Some are used as military bases of the JSDF; others have become civilian airports or government offices; many are factories, office buildings or residential developments in the private sector. Due to the Special Actions Committee on Okinawa, more land in Okinawa is in the process of being returned. These areas include\u2014Camp Kuwae [also known as Camp Lester], MCAS Futenma, areas within Camp Zukeran [also known as Camp Foster], about 9,900 acres (40\u00a0km2) of the Northern Training Area, Aha Training Area, Gimbaru Training Area (also known as Camp Gonsalves), small portion of the Makiminato Service Area (also known as Camp Kinser), and Naha Port.\n\nArmy:\n\n  \u2022 Army Composite Service Group Area (later, Chinen Service Area), Nanj\u014d, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Army STRATCOM Warehouse (later, Urasoe Warehouse), Urasoe, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Bluff Area (later, Yamate Dependent Housing Area), Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Bolo Point Auxiliary Airfield (later, Trainfire Range), Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Bolo Point Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Bender, \u014cta, Gunma\n  \u2022 Camp Boone, Ginowan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Burness, Ch\u016b\u014d, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Camp Chickamauga, 19th Infantry, Beppu, Oita[53]\n  \u2022 Camp Chigasaki, Chigasaki, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Camp Chitose Annex (Chitose I, II), Chitose, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Camp Coe, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Camp Crawford, Sapporo, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Camp Drake, Asaka, Saitama\n  \u2022 Camp Drew, \u014cizumi, Gunma\n  \u2022 Camp Eta Jima, Etajima, Hiroshima\n  \u2022 Camp Fowler, Sendai, Miyagi\n  \u2022 Camp Fuchinobe (Office Japan, NSAPACREP), Sagamihara, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Camp Hakata, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka[53]\n  \u2022 Camp Hardy, Ginoza, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Haugen, Hachinohe, Aomori\n  \u2022 Camp Katakai, Kuj\u016bkuri, Chiba\n  \u2022 Camp King (later, Omiya Ordnance Sub Depot), Omiya, Saitama\n  \u2022 Camp Kokura, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Camp Kubasaki (later, Kubasaki School Area), [Nakagusuku, Okinawa]\n  \u2022 Camp Loper, Tagaj\u014d, Miyagi\n  \u2022 Camp McGill, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Camp McNair, Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi\n  \u2022 Camp Mercy, Ginowan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Moore, Kawasaki, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Camp Mower 34th Infantry, Sasebo, Nagasaki[53]\n  \u2022 Camp Nara, Nara, Nara\n  \u2022 Camp Ojima, \u014cta, Gunma\n  \u2022 Camp Otsu, \u014ctsu, Shiga\n  \u2022 Camp Palmer, Funabashi, Chiba\n  \u2022 Camp Schimmelpfennig, Sendai, Miyagi\n  \u2022 Camp Stilwell, Maebashi, Gunma\n  \u2022 Camp Weir, Shinto, Gunma\n  \u2022 Camp Whittington, Kumagaya, Saitama\n  \u2022 Camp Wood, 21st Infantry, Kumamoto[53]\n  \u2022 Camp Younghans, Higashine, Yamagata\n  \u2022 Chibana Army Annex (later, Chibana Site), Okinawa, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Chinen Army Annex (later, Chinen Site), Chinen, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Chuo Kogyo (later, Niikura Warehouse Area), Wako, Saitama\n  \u2022 Deputy Division Engineer Office, Urasoe, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Division School Center, Kokura[53]\n  \u2022 Etchujima Warehouse, Koto, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Funaoka Ammunition Depot, Shibata, Miyagi\n  \u2022 Hachinohe LST Barge Landing Area, Hachinohe, Aomori\n  \u2022 Hakata Transportation Office, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Hamby Auxiliary Airfield, Chatan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Hosono Ammunition Depot, Seika, Kyoto\n  \u2022 Iribaru (Nishihara) Army Annex, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Ishikawa Army Annex, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Japan Logistical Command (Yokohama Customs House), Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Jefferson Heights, Chiyoda, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Kanagawa Milk Plant, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Kashiji Army Annex, Chatan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Kishine Barracks, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Kobe Pier No. 6, Kobe, Hyogo\n  \u2022 Kobe Port Building, Kobe, Hyogo\n  \u2022 Koza Radio Relay Annex (later, Koza Communication Site), Okinawa, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Kure Barge Landing Area, Kure, Hiroshima\n  \u2022 Lincoln Center, Chiyoda, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Moji Port, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Nagoya Procurement (Purchasing and Contracting) Office, Nagoya, Aichi\n  \u2022 Naha Army Annex (later, Naha Site), Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Naha Service Center, Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Namihira Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Negishi Racetrack Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Okinawa Regional Exchange Cold Storage (later, Naha Cold Storage), Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Okinawa Regional Exchange Dry Storage Warehouse (later, Makiminato Warehouse), Urasoe, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Onna Point Army Annex (later, Onna Site), Onna, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Oppama Ordnance Depot, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Ota Koizumi Airfield (Patton Field Air Drop Range), Oizumi, Gunma\n  \u2022 Palace Heights, Chiyoda, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Pershing Heights (Headquarters, U.S. Far East Command\/United Nations Command), Shinjuku, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Sakuradani Rifle Range, Chikushino, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Sanno Hotel Officer's Quarter, Chiyoda, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Shikotsuko Training Area, Chitose, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Shinzato Communication Site, Nanjo, Okinawa\n  \u2022 South Ammunition Storage Annex (later, South Ammunition Storage Area), Yaese, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Sunabe Army Annex, Chatan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Tana Ammunition Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Tairagawa (Deragawa) Communication Site, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Tengan Communication Site, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Tokyo Army Hospital, Ch\u016b\u014d, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Tokyo Quartermaster Depot, Minato, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Tokyo Ordnance Depot (later, Camp Oji), Kita, Tokyo\n  \u2022 U.S. Army Medical Center, Sagamihara, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 U.S. Army Printing and Publication Center, Far East, Kawasaki, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 U.S. Army Procurement Agency, Japan, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Center Pier (MSTS-FE), Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Engineering Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Motor Command, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Ordnance Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama POL Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Servicemen Club, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Signal Supply Depot, Kawasaki, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Signal Maintenance Depot (JLC Air Strip), Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama South Pier, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yomitan Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Zama Rifle Range, Sagamihara, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Zukeran Propagation Annex (later, Communication Site), Chatan, Okinawa\n\nNavy:\n\n  \u2022 Haiki (Sasebo) Rifle Range, Sasebo, Nagasaki\n  \u2022 Inanba Shima Gunnery Firing Range, Mikurajima, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Kinugasa Ammunition Depot, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Koshiba POL Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Ominato Communication Site, Ominato, Aomori\n  \u2022 Omura Rifle Range, Omura, Nagasaki\n  \u2022 Makiminato Service Area Annex, Urasoe, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Minamitorishima Communication Site, Ogasawara, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Nagahama Rifle Range, Kure, Hiroshima\n  \u2022 Nagai Dependent Housing Area (Admiralty Heights), Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Nagiridani Dependent Housing Area, Sasebo, Nagasaki\n  \u2022 Naval Air Facility Naha, Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Naval Air Facility Oppama, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Navy EM Club, Yokosuka, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Niigata Sekiya Communication Site, Chuo-ku, Niigata\n  \u2022 Shinyamashita Dependent Housing Area (Bayside Court), Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Sobe Communication Site (NSGA Hanza), Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Tokachibuto Communication Site, Urahoro, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Tomioka Storage Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Tsujido Maneuver Area, Chigasaki, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Bakery, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Beach (Honmoku) Dependent Housing Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Chapel Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokohama Cold Storage, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yokosuka Naval Pier, Yokosuka, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Yosami Communication Site, Kariya, Aichi\n\nAir Force:\n\n  \u2022 Ashiya Air Base (later, ATG Range), Ashiya, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Asoiwayama Liaison Annex, Tobetsu, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Brady Air Base (later, Gannosu Air Station), Higashi-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Chiran Communication Site, Chiran, Kagoshima\n  \u2022 Chitose Air Base, Chitose, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Daikanyama Communication Site, Yugawara, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Fuchu Air Station (Headquarters, USFJ\/Fifth Air Force, 1957\u20131974), Fuchu, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Funabashi Communication Site, Funabashi, Chiba\n  \u2022 Grant Heights Dependent Housing Area, Nerima, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Green Park Housing Annex, Musashino, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Hachinohe Small Arms Range, Hachinohe, Aomori\n  \u2022 Hamura School Annex, Hamura, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Haneda Air Base (later, Postal Service Annex), Ota, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Hanshin Auxiliary Airfield, Yao, Osaka\n  \u2022 Hirao Communication Site, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Itami Air Base, Itami, Hyogo\n  \u2022 Itazuke Administration Annex (Kasugabaru DHA), Kasuga, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Itazuke Air Base, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Johnson Air Base (later, Air Station, Family Housing Annex), Iruma, Saitama\n  \u2022 Kadena Dependent Housing Area, Yomitan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Kanto Mura Dependent Housing Area and Auxiliary Airfield, Chofu, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Kasatoriyama Radar Site, Tsu, Mie\n  \u2022 Kashiwa Communication Site (Camp Tomlinson), Kashiwa, Chiba\n  \u2022 Komaki (Nagoya) Air Base, Komaki, Aichi\n  \u2022 Kozoji Ammunition Depot, Kasugai, Aichi\n  \u2022 Kume Jima Air Station, Kumejima, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Kushimoto Radar Site, Kushimoto, Wakayama\n  \u2022 Miho Air Base, Sakaiminato, Tottori\n  \u2022 Mineoka Liaison Annex, Minamiboso, Chiba\n  \u2022 Mito ATG Range, Hitachinaka, Ibaraki\n  \u2022 Miyako Jima Air Station, Miyakojima, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Miyako Jima VORTAC Site, Miyakojima, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Moriyama Air Station, Nagoya, Aichi\n  \u2022 Naha Air Base, Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Naha Air Force\/Navy Annex, Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Najima Warehouse Area, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Niigata Air Base, Niigata, Niigata\n  \u2022 Ofuna Warehouse, Yokohama, Kanagawa\n  \u2022 Oshima Communication Center, Oshima, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Rokko Communication Site, Kobe, Hyogo\n  \u2022 Senaha Communications Station, Yomitan, Okinawa (returned to the Japanese government in September 2006)\n  \u2022 Sendai Kunimi Communication Site, Sendai, Miyagi\n  \u2022 Showa (later, Akishima) Dependent Housing Area, Akishima, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Shiroi Air Base, Kashiwa, Chiba\n  \u2022 Sunabe Warehouse, Chatan, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Tachikawa Air Base, Tachikawa, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Tokyo Communication Site (NTTPC Central Telephone Exchange), Ch\u016b\u014d, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Wajima Liaison Annex, Wajima, Ishikawa\n  \u2022 Wajiro Water Supply Site, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Wakkanai Air Station, Wakkanai, Hokkaido\n  \u2022 Washington Heights Dependent Housing Area, Shibuya, Tokyo\n  \u2022 Yamada Ammunition Depot, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka\n  \u2022 Yokawame Communication Site, Misawa, Aomori\n  \u2022 Yozadake Air Station, Itoman, Okinawa\n\nMarines:\n\n  \u2022 Aha Training Area, Kunigami, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Gifu, Kakamigahara, Gifu\n  \u2022 Camp Hauge, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Camp Okubo, Uji, Kyoto\n  \u2022 Camp Shinodayama, Izumi, Osaka\n  \u2022 Gimbaru Training Area, Kin, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Ihajo Kanko Hotel, Uruma, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Makiminato Housing Area, Naha, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Onna Communication Site, Onna, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Awase Golf Course, Okinawa Prefecture (returned to the Japanese government in April 2010)\n  \u2022 Yaka Rest Center, Kin, Okinawa\n  \u2022 Yomitan Auxiliary Airfield, Yomitan, Okinawa (returned to the Japanese government in 2006, parachute drop training ended in March 2001)\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 United States Forces Korea (USFK)\n  \u2022 United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands\n  \u2022 United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands\n  \u2022 Operation Tomodachi\n  \u2022 Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \u7591\u60d1\u304c\u6674\u308c\u308b\u306e\u306f\u3044\u3064\u304b, Okinawa Times, 16 May 1999\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Yoshida, Reiji, \"Basics of the U.S. military presence\", Japan Times, 25 March 2008, p. 3.\n  3. Jump up ^ \u601d\u3044\u3084\u308a\u4e88\u7b97\uff18\u5104\u5186\u6e1b\u3067\u65e5\u7c73\u5408\u610f\u3001\u5149\u71b1\u6c34\u6599\u3092\uff13\u5e74\u9593\u3067, Yomiuri Shinbun, 12 December 2007\n  4. Jump up ^ PRESS RELEASE U.S. and Japan Sign Alliance Support Agreement Archived 27 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine., The embassy of the United States in Japan\n  5. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/news\/2011\/01\/22\/national\/host-nation-deal-inked-not-sympathy-budget\/#.WAOBmCRbTGs\n  6. Jump up ^ Zeynalov, Mahir (2017-12-25). \"Defending Allies: Here is how much US Gains from Policing World\". The Globe Post. Retrieved 2018-05-10.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Purpose and Duties\". Labor Management Organization. Retrieved 2012-03-10.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Tritten, Travis J., \"Evacuation from Japan a vacation? Not so much\", Stars and Stripes, 31 May 2011.\n  9. ^ Jump up to: a b Seales, Rebecca (27 April 2012). \"End of an era: U.S. cuts back presence in Okinawa as 9,000 Marines prepare to move out\". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b \"US agrees to Okinawa troop redeployment\". Al Jazeera. 27 April 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Shanker, Thom (26 April 2012). \"U.S. Agrees to Reduce Size of Force on Okinawa\". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  12. ^ Jump up to: a b c Greg Jaffe and Emily Heil (27 April 2012). \"U.S. comes to agreement with Japan to move 9,000 Marines off Okinawa\". The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"Okinawa deal between US and Japan to move marines\". BBC. 27 April 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"U.S., Japan unveil revised plan for Okinawa\". The Asahi Shimbun. 27 April 2012. Archived from the original on 30 April 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Quintana, Miguel (28 April 2012). \"Japan Welcomes US Base Agreement\". Voice of America. Retrieved 28 April 2012.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Advanced US drones deployed in Japan to keep watch on China, North Korea\". The Japan News.Net. Retrieved 31 May 2014.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ http:\/\/english.ryukyushimpo.jp\/2018\/02\/16\/28494\/\n  18. Jump up ^ [1] Archived 4 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine., Okinawa Prefectural Government\n  19. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.asahi.com\/ajw\/articles\/AJ201606290073.html\n  20. Jump up ^ \"\u81ea\u885b\u968a\u30fb\u9632\u885b\u554f\u984c\u306b\u95a2\u3059\u308b\u4e16\u8ad6\u8abf\u67fb\". The Cabinet Office of Japan. 2002. Archived from the original on 22 October 2010.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ \"Japanese protest against US base\". BBC News. 8 November 2009.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ \"\u6bce\u65e5\u4e16\u8ad6\u8abf\u67fb\uff1a\u8fba\u91ce\u53e4\u79fb\u8a2d\u306b\u53cd\u5bfe\uff18\uff14\uff05 \u6c96\u7e04\u770c\u6c11\u5bfe\u8c61\". Megalodon.jp. Retrieved 2012-03-10.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ \u57fa\u5730\u9a12\u97f3\u306e\u554f\u984c Archived 4 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Yamato City\n  24. Jump up ^ \u6a2a\u7530\u57fa\u5730\u306b\u304a\u3051\u308b\u9a12\u97f3\u9632\u6b62\u5bfe\u7b56\u306e\u5fb9\u5e95\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\uff08\u8981\u8acb\uff09 Archived 24 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine., Tokyo Metropolitan Government\n  25. Jump up ^ \u5609\u624b\u7d0d\u753a\u306e\u6982\u8981 Archived 30 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Kadena Town\n  26. Jump up ^ Isabel Reynolds; Takashi Hirokawa (2014-11-17). \"Opponent of U.S. Base Wins Okinawa Vote in Setback for Abe\". Bloomberg. Retrieved 9 February 2017.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ Template:Https:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/news\/2018\/06\/25\/national\/protest-held-sea-okinawa-land-reclamation-work-u-s-marine-corps-futenma-base\/\n  28. Jump up ^ \"New Okinawa minister says Japan-U.S. SOFA should be 're-examined' after Osprey crash\". The Japan Times Online. 2017-08-09. ISSN\u00a00447-5763. Retrieved 2018-01-14.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Hearst, David (2011-03-07). \"Second battle of Okinawa looms as China's naval ambition grows\". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-05-20.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ [2], Ethos Data\n  31. Jump up ^ [3], SOFA Agreement\n  32. Jump up ^ \"\u5728\u65e5\u7c73\u8ecd\u30fb\u6c96\u7e04\u99d0\u7559\u7c73\u8ecd\u306e\u72af\u7f6a\u7387\u3092\u8003\u3048\u308b - \u99c4\u72ac\u65e5\u8a8c\". D.hatena.ne.jp. 2008-02-14. Retrieved 2012-03-10.\u00a0\n  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c KRISTOF, NICHOLAS (1995-10-27). \"Fearing G.I. Occupiers, Japan Urgesd Women Into Brothels\". New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-14.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/news\/2016\/06\/26\/national\/crime-legal\/u-s-civilian-arrested-fresh-okinawa-dui-case-man-injured\/#.V54kfSOLTZs\n  35. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.thedailybeast.com\/articles\/2016\/06\/08\/the-suitcase-murder-tearing-the-u-s-and-japan-apart.html\n  36. Jump up ^ Lah, Kyung (10 February 2008). \"U.S. Marine accused of raping teen in Okinawa\". CNN.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Japanese protest against US base\". Al Jazeera. 23 March 2008.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Curfew for US troops in Okinawa\". BBC. 20 February 2008.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.newser.com\/story\/27674\/okinawa-marine-gets-4-years-for-teen-sex-abuse.html\n  40. Jump up ^ U.S. imposes curfew on Okinawa forces, The Japan Times, 21 February 2008\n  41. Jump up ^ [4][dead link]\n  42. Jump up ^ David Allen. \"U.S. soldier sentenced to Japanese jail for hit-and-run on Okinawa - News\". Stripes. Retrieved 2012-03-10.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"U.S. Navy sailors convicted in Okinawa rape\". USA Today. Retrieved 2013-03-19.\u00a0\n  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Tabuchi, Hiroko (13 May 2013). \"Women Forced Into WWII Brothels Served Necessary Role, Osaka Mayor Says\". New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-14.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ Ben Westcott, Japanese woman's murder provokes protests against U.S. bases in Okinawa, CNN (June 20, 2016).\n  46. Jump up ^ Jonathan Soble, At Okinawa Protest, Thousands Call for Removal of U.S. Bases, New York Times (June 19, 2016).\n  47. Jump up ^ http:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/2017\/11\/19\/asia\/okinawa-american-drunk-driver\/\n  48. Jump up ^ \u82f1\u8a9e\u5b66\u7fd2\u30b5\u30a4\u30c8. \"\u793e\u8aac | \u82f1\u8a9e\u306e\u30cb\u30e5\u30fc\u30b9 | The Japan Times ST \u30aa\u30f3\u30e9\u30a4\u30f3 \u2015 \u82f1\u5b57\u65b0\u805e\u793e\u30b8\u30e3\u30d1\u30f3\u30bf\u30a4\u30e0\u30ba\u306e\u82f1\u8a9e\u5b66\u7fd2\u30b5\u30a4\u30c8\". st.japantimes.co.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 2018-01-14.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ \"US Osprey military aircraft begin Okinawa base move\". BBC News. 1 October 2012.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 8 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.\u00a0\n  51. Jump up ^ \"Osprey - The Japan Times\". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2018-01-14.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www3.nhk.or.jp\/nhkworld\/en\/news\/20180405_30\/\n  53. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e A Soldier in Kyushu, By Capt. William B. Koons, 1 October 1947\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to United States Forces Japan.\n  \u2022 United States Forces Japan\n  \u2022 U.S. Naval Forces Japan\n  \u2022 U.S. Forces, Japan (GlobalSecurity.org)\n  \u2022 Overseas Presence: Issues Involved in Reducing the Impact of the U.S. Military Presence on Okinawa, GAO, March 1998\n  \u2022 U.S. Military Issues in Okinawa\n  \u2022 LMO\n\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=United_States_Forces_Japan&oldid=855462814\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 United States military in Japan\n  \u2022 Japan\u2013United States relations\n  \u2022 United States Armed Forces in Okinawa Prefecture\n  \u2022 Commands of the United States Armed Forces\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from March 2012\n  \u2022 CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)\n  \u2022 Use American English from January 2017\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles written in American English\n  \u2022 Articles containing Japanese-language text\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2016\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from July 2018\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from August 2010\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 18 August 2018, at 13:41\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-8377155967940203923","title":"Supreme Court of the United States","text":"Listen to this article\n\nSupreme Court of the United States\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\"SCOTUS\" redirects here. For other uses, see SCOTUS (disambiguation).\nSupreme Court of the United States\nSeal of the United States Supreme Court.svg\nEstablished March\u00a04, 1789\n(228 years ago)\n\u00a0(1789-03-04)[1]\nCountry United States\nLocation Washington, D.C., United States\nCoordinates 38\u00b053\u203226\u2033N 77\u00b000\u203216\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff38.89056\u00b0N 77.00444\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 38.89056; -77.00444Coordinates: 38\u00b053\u203226\u2033N 77\u00b000\u203216\u2033W\ufeff \/ \ufeff38.89056\u00b0N 77.00444\u00b0W\ufeff \/ 38.89056; -77.00444\nComposition method Presidential nomination with Senate confirmation\nAuthorized by United States Constitution\nJudge term length Life tenure\nNo. of positions 9, by statute\nWebsite www.supremecourt.gov\nChief Justice of the United States\nCurrently John G. Roberts\nSince September 29, 2005\nThis article is part of the series on the\nUnited States\nSupreme Court\nThe Court\n  \u2022 Decisions\n  \u2022 Procedure\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Court Building\nCurrent membership\nChief Justice\nJohn Roberts\nAssociate Justices\nAnthony Kennedy\nClarence Thomas\nRuth Bader Ginsburg\nStephen Breyer\nSamuel Alito\nSonia Sotomayor\nElena Kagan\nNeil Gorsuch\nRetired Associate Justices\nJohn Paul Stevens\nSandra Day O'Connor\nDavid Souter\nAll members\nList of all members\nby court\nby seat\nby time in office\nby education\nSuccession\nTimeline\nList of Chief Justices\nList of Associate Justices\nSpecialty lists\nAll nominations\nUnsuccessful nominations\nNominations late in presidency\nCourt demographics\nJustices who served in Congress\nIdeological leanings of justices\nCourt functionaries\n  \u2022 Clerks\n  \u2022 Reporter of Decisions\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Police\n  \u2022 Other countries\n  \u2022 Law Portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nThe Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case, in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.\n\nAccording to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed).[2] In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting that while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C.\n\nThe Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) similar to and in line with other acronyms such as POTUS (President of the United States).[3]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n    \u2022 1.1 Earliest beginnings to Marshall\n    \u2022 1.2 From Taney to Taft\n    \u2022 1.3 The New Deal era\n    \u2022 1.4 Warren and Burger\n    \u2022 1.5 Rehnquist and Roberts\n  \u2022 2 Composition\n    \u2022 2.1 Size of the Court\n    \u2022 2.2 Appointment and confirmation\n      \u2022 2.2.1 Recess appointments\n    \u2022 2.3 Tenure\n  \u2022 3 Membership\n    \u2022 3.1 Current justices\n    \u2022 3.2 Court demographics\n    \u2022 3.3 Retired justices\n    \u2022 3.4 Seniority and seating\n    \u2022 3.5 Salary\n    \u2022 3.6 Judicial leanings\n  \u2022 4 Facilities\n  \u2022 5 Jurisdiction\n    \u2022 5.1 Justices as Circuit Justices\n  \u2022 6 Process\n    \u2022 6.1 Case selection\n    \u2022 6.2 Oral argument\n    \u2022 6.3 Supreme Court bar\n    \u2022 6.4 Decision\n    \u2022 6.5 Published opinions\n      \u2022 6.5.1 Citations to published opinions\n  \u2022 7 Institutional powers and constraints\n  \u2022 8 Law clerks\n    \u2022 8.1 Politicization of the Court\n  \u2022 9 Criticism\n    \u2022 9.1 Judicial activism\n    \u2022 9.2 Failing to protect individual rights\n    \u2022 9.3 Supreme Court has too much power\n    \u2022 9.4 Courts are poor check on executive power\n    \u2022 9.5 Federal versus state power\n    \u2022 9.6 Secretive proceedings\n    \u2022 9.7 Judicial interference in political disputes\n    \u2022 9.8 Not choosing enough cases to review\n    \u2022 9.9 Lifetime tenure\n    \u2022 9.10 Accepting gifts\n  \u2022 10 See also\n  \u2022 11 References\n    \u2022 11.1 Bibliography\n  \u2022 12 Further reading\n  \u2022 13 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nMain article: History of the Supreme Court of the United States\nSupreme Court of the United States\n\nThe ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of \"justice\" to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as \"judge\", even though it is the term used in the Constitution.[4]\n\nThe Court first convened on February 2, 1790[5] with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: \"[T]he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices \u2014 William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia \u2014 sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home.\"[6]\n\nThe sixth member, James Iredell, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two).[7] However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789.[8]\n\nEarliest beginnings to Marshall[edit]\n\nMain articles: Jay Court, Rutledge Court, Ellsworth Court, and Marshall Court\n\nUnder Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789\u20131801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue.[9] The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige,[10] a situation not helped by the highest-profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment.[11]\n\nChief Justice Marshall\n\nThe Court's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801\u201335).[12] Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress,[13] including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison)[14][15] and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden).[16][17][18][19]\n\nThe Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim,[20] a remnant of British tradition,[21] and instead issuing a single majority opinion.[20] Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the Court's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804\u201305 helped cement the principle of judicial independence.[22][23]\n\nFrom Taney to Taft[edit]\n\nMain articles: Taney Court, Chase Court, Waite Court, Fuller Court, White Court, and Taft Court\n\nThe Taney Court (1836\u201364) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects.[24] Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford,[25] which helped precipitate the Civil War.[26] In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864\u20131910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution[19] and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York;[27] Adair v. United States).[28]\n\nUnder the White and Taft Courts (1910\u201330), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York),[29] grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases)[30] and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children's Hospital).[31]\n\nThe New Deal era[edit]\n\nMain articles: Hughes Court, Stone Court, and Vinson Court\n\nDuring the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930\u201353), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935[32] and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler).[33][34][35] During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend.\n\nWarren and Burger[edit]\n\nMain articles: Warren Court and Burger Court\n\nThe Warren Court (1953\u201369) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties.[36] It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.)[37] and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut),[38] limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp),[39][40] incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States\u2014prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel),[41][42]\u2014and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona);[43] At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.[44]\n\nThe Burger Court (1969\u201386) marked a conservative shift.[45] It also expanded Griswold's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade),[46] but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke)[47] and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo),[48] and dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia),[49] then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).[49][50][51]\n\nRehnquist and Roberts[edit]\n\nMain articles: Rehnquist Court and Roberts Court\n\nThe Rehnquist Court (1986\u20132005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism,[52] emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores).[53][54][55][56][57] It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas),[58] and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons-Harris) and reaffirmed Roe's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey).[59] The Court's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial.[60][61]\n\nThe Roberts Court (2005\u2013present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court.[62][63] Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly-Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart),[64] climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same-sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment),[65] Heller-McDonald (Second Amendment)[66] and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment).[67][68]\n\nComposition[edit]\n\nSize of the Court[edit]\n\nArticle III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six \"judges\". Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863.[69]\n\nIn 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine,[70] where it has since remained.\n\nPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70\u00a0years 6\u00a0months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to \"pack\" the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt's New Deal.[71] The plan, usually called the \"court-packing plan\", failed in Congress.[72] Nevertheless, the Court's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.[73]\n\nAppointment and confirmation[edit]\n\nMain article: Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States\nThe Roberts Court (April 2017 \u2013 present). Front row (left to right): Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Anthony Kennedy, John Roberts (Chief Justice), Clarence Thomas, and Stephen Breyer. Back row (left to right): Elena Kagan, Samuel A. Alito, Sonia Sotomayor, and Neil Gorsuch.\n\nThe U.S. Constitution states that the President \"shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court.\"[74] Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice's decisions may end up being contrary to a president's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.\n\nIn modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955.[75] Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.\n\nAlthough Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy.[76][77][78] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.[79]\n\nNot every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.[80]\n\nOnce the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office.[81] The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date.[82]\n\nBefore 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past.[83] According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number\u00a0of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).[84][85]\n\nRecess appointments[edit]\n\nWhen the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed.[86]\n\nNo president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts.[87] In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a \"sense of the Senate\" resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in \"unusual circumstances.\"[88] Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action.[88][89]\n\nThe 2014 Supreme Court ruling in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice Breyer writing for the Court, stated, \"We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business.\"[90] This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions.[91]\n\nTenure[edit]\n\nThe Constitution provides that justices \"shall hold their offices during good behavior\" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term \"good behavior\" is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire.[92] Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805).[93] Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.[94]\n\nBecause justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).\n\nDespite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.\n\nThree presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.[95]\n\nMembership[edit]\n\nSee also: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States\n\nCurrent justices[edit]\n\nThe court is currently filled with nine justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was Neil Gorsuch, who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the Senate.\n\nName Date of birth Appointed by Senate confirmation vote Age at appointment Current age First day \/\nLength of service\nPrevious positions Succeeded\nRoberts\n\nRoberts, JohnJohn Roberts\n(Chief Justice)\n\n000000001955-01-27-0000January 27, 1955\nBuffalo, New York\nBush, George W.George W. Bush 78\u201322 50 7001620000000000000\u266062 000000002005-09-29-0000September 29, 2005\n12\u00a0years, 2\u00a0months\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (2003\u20132005);\nPrincipal Deputy Solicitor General (1989\u20131993);\nAssociate Counsel to the President (1982\u20131986)\nWilliam Rehnquist\nKennedy\n\nKennedy, AnthonyAnthony Kennedy\n\n000000001936-07-23-0000July 23, 1936\nSacramento, California\nReagan, RonaldRonald Reagan 97\u20130 51 7001810000000000000\u266081 000000001988-02-18-0000February 18, 1988\n29\u00a0years, 10\u00a0months\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (1975\u20131988);\nPrivate practice (1963\u20131975)\nLewis Powell\nThomas\n\nThomas, ClarenceClarence Thomas\n\n000000001948-06-23-0000June 23, 1948\nPin Point, Georgia\nBush, George H. W.George H. W. Bush 52\u201348 43 7001690000000000000\u266069 000000001991-10-23-0000October 23, 1991\n26\u00a0years, 1\u00a0month\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1990\u20131991);\nChairman, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1982\u20131990);\nAssistant Attorney General in Missouri under State Attorney General John Danforth (1974\u20131977)\nThurgood Marshall\nGinsburg\n\nGinsburg, Ruth BaderRuth Bader Ginsburg\n\n000000001933-03-15-0000March 15, 1933\nBrooklyn, New York\nClinton, BillBill Clinton 96\u20133 60 7001840000000000000\u266084 000000001993-08-10-0000August 10, 1993\n24\u00a0years, 4\u00a0months\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1980\u20131993);\nGeneral Counsel, American Civil Liberties Union (1973\u20131980)\nByron White\nBreyer\n\nBreyer, StephenStephen Breyer\n\n000000001938-08-15-0000August 15, 1938\nSan Francisco, California\n87\u20139 55 7001790000000000000\u266079 000000001994-08-03-0000August 3, 1994\n23\u00a0years, 4\u00a0months\nChief Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1990\u20131994);\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1980\u20131990)\nHarry Blackmun\nAlito\n\nAlito, SamuelSamuel Alito\n\n000000001950-04-01-0000April 1, 1950\nTrenton, New Jersey\nGeorge W. Bush 58\u201342 55 7001670000000000000\u266067 000000002006-01-31-0000January 31, 2006\n11\u00a0years, 10\u00a0months\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (1990\u20132006);\nU.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey (1987\u20131990);\nDeputy Assistant Attorney General (1985\u20131987);\nAssistant to the Solicitor General (1981\u20131985)\nSandra Day O'Connor\nSotomayor\n\nSotomayor, SoniaSonia Sotomayor\n\n000000001954-06-25-0000June 25, 1954\nThe Bronx, New York\nObama, BarackBarack Obama 68\u201331 55 7001630000000000000\u266063 000000002009-08-08-0000August 8, 2009\n8\u00a0years, 4\u00a0months\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1998\u20132009);\nDistrict Judge, District Court for the Southern District of New York (1992\u20131998)\nDavid Souter\nKagan\n\nKagan, ElenaElena Kagan\n\n000000001960-04-28-0000April 28, 1960\nManhattan, New York\n63\u201337 50 7001570000000000000\u266057 000000002010-08-07-0000August 7, 2010\n7\u00a0years, 4\u00a0months\nSolicitor General of the United States (2009\u20132010);\nDean of Harvard Law School (2003\u20132009);\nAssociate White House Counsel (1995\u20131999);\nDeputy Director of the Domestic Policy Council (1995\u20131999);\nJohn Paul Stevens\nGorsuch\n\nGorsuch, NeilNeil Gorsuch\n\n000000001967-08-29-0000August 29, 1967\nDenver, Colorado\nTrump, DonaldDonald Trump 54\u201345 49 7001500000000000000\u266050 000000002017-04-10-0000April 10, 2017\n8\u00a0months and 8\u00a0days\nCircuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit (2006\u20132017);\nPrincipal Deputy Associate Attorney General and Acting Associate Attorney General (2005\u20132006);\nAntonin Scalia\n\nCourt demographics[edit]\n\nMain article: Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States\n\nThe Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African-American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito's parents were born in Italy,[96][97] and Justice Ginsburg's father was born in Russia.[98] At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian.[99] The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background.[100] Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado.[101] In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.[102]\n\nMost justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists.[103][104] The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836,[105] and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis.[106] Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices.[99]\n\nRacial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967.[106] Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981.[106] Marshall was succeeded by African-American Clarence Thomas in 1991.[107] O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993.[108] After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Hispanic and Latina justice;[106] and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court's history.[108]\n\nThere have been six foreign-born justices in the Court's history: James Wilson (1789\u20131798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790\u20131799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793\u20131806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889\u20131910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922\u20131939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939\u20131962), born in Vienna, Austria.[106]\n\nRetired justices[edit]\n\nThere are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.\n\nThe status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.\n\nIn recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role.[109][110] The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed.[111][112]\n\nName Date of birth Appointed by Retired under Confirmation vote Age at appointment Current age First day Date of retirement Length of service\nStevens\n\nJohn Paul Stevens\n\n000000001920-04-20-0000April 20, 1920\nChicago, Illinois\nGerald Ford Barack Obama 98\u20130 55 7001970000000000000\u266097 December 19, 1975 June 29, 2010 34\u00a0years, 6\u00a0months and 10\u00a0days\nO'Connor\n\nSandra Day O'Connor\n\n000000001930-03-26-0000March 26, 1930\nEl Paso, Texas\nRonald Reagan George W. Bush 99\u20130 51 7001870000000000000\u266087 September 25, 1981 January 31, 2006 24\u00a0years, 4\u00a0months and 6\u00a0days\nSouter\n\nDavid Souter\n\n000000001939-09-17-0000September 17, 1939\nMelrose, Massachusetts\nGeorge H. W. Bush Barack Obama 90\u20139 51 7001780000000000000\u266078 000000001990-10-09-0000October 9, 1990 June 29, 2009 18\u00a0years, 8\u00a0months and 20\u00a0days\n\nSeniority and seating[edit]\n\nMany of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service.\n\nThe interior of the United States Supreme Court\nThe interior of the United States Supreme Court\n\nDuring Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch).\n\nIn the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk.[113] Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days.[114] Justice Elena Kagan comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2439 days.\n\nSalary[edit]\n\nMain article: Federal judge salaries in the United States\n\nAs of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300.[115] Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.\n\nJudicial leanings[edit]\n\nSee also: Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices\n\nAlthough justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.\n\nFollowing the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas and Alito (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy (appointed by President Reagan) is generally considered \"a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals\",[116] and up until Justice Scalia's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings.[117][118][119] Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.[120]\n\nTom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is \"in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions.\"[121] He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20% were decided by a 5-to-4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal\/conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court.[122] Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal-defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.\n\nAccording to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22%) were decided by a 5\u20134 vote, with an average of 70% of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15% of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62% of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44% of all the 5\u20134 decisions.[123]\n\nIn the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case).[124][125] Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48%, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9\u20130 or 8\u20130), and 16 decisions were made by a 5\u20134 vote (about 20%, compared to 18% in the October 2009 term, and 29% in the October 2008 term).[126] However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5\u20134 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the \"swing vote\"). This represents 87% of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63% of the 5\u20134 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court.[124][127][128][129][130]\n\nIn the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44%) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20%, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5\u20134. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.[123][131][132]\n\nIn the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49% of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51% of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5\u20134 in 23 cases (29% of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96%) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54%) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5\u20134 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83%) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91%) cases during the term, in line with his position as the \"swing vote\" of the Court.[133][134]\n\nFacilities[edit]\n\nThe present U.S. Supreme Court building as viewed from the front\nFrom the 1860s until the 1930s, the court sat in the Old Senate Chamber of the U.S. Capitol.\nMain article: United States Supreme Court Building\n\nThe Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police.[135]\n\nLocated across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue,[136][137] the building is open to the public from 9\u00a0am to 4:30\u00a0pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays.[136] Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film.[135] When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30\u00a0am to 3:30\u00a0pm and reservations are not necessary.[135] When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available.[138] The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10\u00a0am, and these 15 to 30-minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis.[135] Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.[136]\n\nJurisdiction[edit]\n\nInscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from Marbury v. Madison, in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review\nMain article: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States\n\nCongress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states,[139] but may decline to hear such cases.[140] It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear \"all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens.\"[141]\n\nIn 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp.[142] The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court's history.[143][144] The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob\u2014aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded\u2014and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: \"To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now.\"[143] The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.[143][144][145]\n\nIn all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.[citation needed]\n\nThe Court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions),[146] the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari),[147] the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari),[148] the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari),[149] the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari),[150] and \"final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had\" (through certiorari).[150] In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B. J. F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions.[151] The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called \"collateral review\" of state cases. It has to be noted that this \"collateral review\" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.[152]\n\nSince Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain \"cases\" or \"controversies\", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is \"capable of repetition yet evading review\", the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief.[153]\n\nJustices as Circuit Justices[edit]\n\nThe United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a \"circuit justice\" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.\n\nUnder the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to \"ride circuit\", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891.\n\nToday, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death-penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it \"granted\" or \"denied\" or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion\u2014referred to as an in-chambers opinion\u2014in such matters if he or she wishes.\n\nA circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.\n\nThe chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.\n\nAs of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is:[154]\n\nCircuit Justice\nDistrict of Columbia Circuit Chief Justice Roberts\nFirst Circuit Justice Breyer\nSecond Circuit Justice Ginsburg\nThird Circuit Justice Alito\nFourth Circuit Chief Justice Roberts\nFifth Circuit Justice Alito\nSixth Circuit Justice Kagan\nSeventh Circuit Justice Kagan\nEighth Circuit Justice Gorsuch\nNinth Circuit Justice Kennedy\nTenth Circuit Justice Sotomayor\nEleventh Circuit Justice Thomas\nFederal Circuit Chief Justice Roberts\n\nFour of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit).\n\nProcess[edit]\n\nMain article: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States\n\nA term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as \"sittings\" and \"recesses.\" Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.\n\nCase selection[edit]\n\nNearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as \"cert\". The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals \"by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case.\"[155] Court may only review \"final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had\" if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law.[156] The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona.\n\nThere are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford,[157] parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact.[158] Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado.\n\nA cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices' clerks are excluded. The rule of four permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.\n\nThe court grants a petition for cert only for \"compelling reasons\", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include:\n\n  \u2022 Resolving a conflict in the interpretation of a federal law or a provision of the federal Constitution\n  \u2022 Correcting an egregious departure from the accepted and usual course of judicial proceedings\n  \u2022 Resolving an important question of federal law, or to expressly review a decision of a lower court that conflicts directly with a previous decision of the Court.\n\nWhen a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a \"circuit split.\" If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case.\n\nTo manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the \"cert pool.\" Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.[159][160][161] [162]\n\nOral argument[edit]\n\nWhen the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or \"friends of the court\", may also file briefs. The Court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare),[163] and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.\n\nSupreme Court bar[edit]\n\nIn order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.[164] Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.[165] Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.[166]\n\nDecision[edit]\n\nAt the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions,[167] circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns.[168][169]\n\nIt is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices.[170] If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there.[171] This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945).[172]\n\nPublished opinions[edit]\n\nThe Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports\u2014or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations\u2014to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.\n\nAs of the beginning of October Term 2016[ref], there are:\n\n  \u2022 564 final bound volumes of U.S. Reports, covering cases through the end of October Term 2010, which ended on September 28, 2011.[173]\n  \u2022 16 volumes' worth of opinions available in slip opinion form (volumes 565\u2013580)[174]\n\nAs of March 2012[update], the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012.[citation needed] This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle, where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports.\n\nOpinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition (simply known as Lawyers' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with \"S. Ct.\" representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and \"L. Ed.\" representing the Lawyers' Edition.[175][176]\n\nCitations to published opinions[edit]\n\nMain article: Case citation \u00a7\u00a0Supreme Court of the United States\n\nLawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form \"vol U.S. page, pin (year)\", where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to \"pinpoint\" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with \"___\".\n\nInstitutional powers and constraints[edit]\n\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThis article is part of a series on the\nPolitics of the\nUnited States of America\nGreater coat of arms of the United States.svg\nFederal Government[show]\n  \u2022 Constitution of the United States\n  \u2022 Law\n  \u2022 Taxation\nLegislature[show]\nSeal of the United States Congress.svg\n  \u2022 United States Congress\n\nUnited States House of Representatives 194-1-240.svg 115th United States Senate.svg\n\n\nSeal of the United States House of Representatives.svg\n\n  \u2022 House of Representatives\n  \u2022 Speaker Paul Ryan (R)\n  \u2022 Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy (R)\n  \u2022 Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D)\n  \u2022 Congressional districts\n\nSeal of the United States Senate.svg\n\n  \u2022 United States Senate\n  \u2022 President Mike Pence (R)\n  \u2022 President Pro Tempore Orrin Hatch (R)\n  \u2022 President Pro Tempore Emeritus Patrick Leahy (D)\n  \u2022 Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R)\n  \u2022 Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D)\nExecutive[show]\nSeal of the President of the United States.svg\n  \u2022 President of the United States\n  \u2022 Donald Trump (R)\n\nSeal of the Vice President of the United States.svg\n\n  \u2022 Vice President of the United States\n  \u2022 Mike Pence (R)\n\n  \u2022 Cabinet\n  \u2022 Federal agencies\n  \u2022 Executive Office\nJudiciary[show]\nSeal of the United States Supreme Court.svg\n  \u2022 Supreme Court of the United States\n  \u2022 Chief Justice John Roberts\n  \u2022 Kennedy\n  \u2022 Thomas\n  \u2022 Ginsburg\n  \u2022 Breyer\n  \u2022 Alito\n  \u2022 Sotomayor\n  \u2022 Kagan\n  \u2022 Gorsuch\n\n  \u2022 Courts of Appeals\n  \u2022 District Courts (list)\n  \u2022 Other tribunals\nElections[show]\n  \u2022 Presidential elections\n  \u2022 Midterm elections\n  \u2022 Off-year elections\nPolitical parties[show]\n  \u2022 Democratic\n  \u2022 Republican\n\n  \u2022 Third parties\nFederalism[show]\n  \u2022 State Government\n\n  \u2022 Governors\n  \u2022 Legislatures (List)\n  \u2022 State courts\n    \u2022 Local government\n  \u2022 Other countries\n  \u2022 Atlas\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\n\nThe Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.[177] Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: \"A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute.\"\n\nThe Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.[177]\n\nSince the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being \"the most separated and least checked of all branches of government.\"[178] Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure \"during good behavior\", and their pay may \"not be diminished\" while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.[177] The Supreme Court, it is noted, cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, \"John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!\";[179] however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.\n\nSupreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:\n\n  \u2022 Chisholm v. Georgia (1793) \u2013 overturned by the Eleventh Amendment (1795)\n  \u2022 Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) \u2013 overturned by the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) and the Fourteenth Amendment (1868)\n  \u2022 Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895) \u2013 overturned by the Sixteenth Amendment (1913)\n  \u2022 Minor v. Happersett (1875) \u2013 overturned by the Nineteenth Amendment (1920)\n  \u2022 Oregon v. Mitchell (1970) \u2013 overturned by the Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971)\n\nWhen the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.[180]\n\nIn addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted \"with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.\" The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871).\n\nOn the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974).\n\nLaw clerks[edit]\n\nSee also: Law clerk and List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States\n\nEach Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.[181] Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.\n\nThe first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882.[181][182] Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a \"stenographer-secretary\".[183] Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.\n\nThe first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas.[181] The first African-American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter.[181] A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.[181] Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.[184]\n\nSeven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William H. Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John G. Roberts, Jr. for William H. Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked.\n\nSeveral current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John G. Roberts, Jr. for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.\n\nPoliticization of the Court[edit]\n\nClerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. \"Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s\", according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School.[185][186] \"As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts\", former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said.[185] David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. \"We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives\", Professor Garrow said. \"Each side is putting forward only ideological purists.\"[185]\n\nAccording to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is \"a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law.\"[185] A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44% of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three-quarters said justices' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.[187]\n\nCriticism[edit]\n\nThe court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:\n\nJudicial activism[edit]\n\nThe Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology.[188] An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts,[188][189] and which was reversed in the 1930s.[190][191][192] An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the \"right to privacy\" inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous.[188] Legal scholars,[193][194] justices,[195] and presidential candidates[196] have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan[197] and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater.[198] More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations.[199] Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became \"irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court...the people will have ceased to be their own rulers.\"[200] Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: \"You do what you think is right and let the law catch up.\"[201] During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions.[202][203] Critics from both sides complain that activist-judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead.[204][205][206] Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano,[207] Phyllis Schlafly,[208] Mark R. Levin,[209] Mark I. Sutherland,[210] and James MacGregor Burns.[211][212] Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan.[213][214] Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: \"What judges have wrought is a coup d'\u00e9tat,\u00a0\u2013 slow-moving and genteel, but a coup d'\u00e9tat nonetheless.\"[215] Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, \"their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like.\"[216] One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects \"certainly a legislative body.\"[217]\n\nFailing to protect individual rights[edit]\n\nCourt decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery;[218] Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal;[219] Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights.[220][221] Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has \"become increasingly hostile to voters\" by siding with Indiana's voter identification laws which tend to \"disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters\", according to one report.[222] Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for \"eroding individual rights.\"[216] However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was \"limited\" to sovereign territory.[223]\n\nSupreme Court has too much power[edit]\n\nThis criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an \"increasingly central role in American governance.\"[224] It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009.[225] A reporter wrote that \"Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy\" left open the \"possibility of further judicial review\" but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch.[225] Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such \"unreviewable power\" it is likely to \"self-indulge itself\" and unlikely to \"engage in dispassionate analysis\".[226] Larry Sabato wrote \"excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court.\"[227]\n\nCourts are poor check on executive power[edit]\n\nBritish constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.[228][229] In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.\n\nFederal versus state power[edit]\n\nThere has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison[230] and Alexander Hamilton[231] argued in The Federalist Papers that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,[232][233][234][235] others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.[236] The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants \"powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\" The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.[237] Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was \"complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution.\"[238] Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is \"quite broad.\"[239] Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today.[238] Advocates of states' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy.[240] One critic wrote \"the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law.\"[241] However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends \"protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level.\"[242]\n\nSecretive proceedings[edit]\n\nThe Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.[243] According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; \"Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed \"cartel\", only revealing itself through \"public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings\".[244] The reviewer writes: \"few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives.\"[244] Larry Sabato complains about the Court's \"insularity.\"[227] A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61% of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would \"be good for democracy\", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.[245][246] In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists.[247][248] In a 2009 interview on C-SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a \"very open\" institution with only the justices' private conferences inaccessible to others.[247] In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.\n\nJudicial interference in political disputes[edit]\n\nSome Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals.[244][249][250][251][252][253] Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a \"scathing dissent\" argued against the court wading into so-called political questions.[254]\n\nNot choosing enough cases to review[edit]\n\nSenator Arlen Specter said the Court should \"decide more cases\".[216] On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.[247]\n\nLifetime tenure[edit]\n\nCritic Larry Sabato wrote: \"The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day.\"[227] Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity.[255] James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has \"produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times.\"[211] Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson[256] and Sabato[227][257] as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein,[258] among others.[259] However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote \"nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office.\"[260]\n\nAccepting gifts[edit]\n\nThe 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday.[261] Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors.[262] Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications.[263] Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: \"There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial.\"[262]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Supreme Court of the United States portal\n  \u2022 Government of the United States portal\n  \u2022 Law portal\n  \u2022 Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates\n  \u2022 Federal judicial appointment history\n  \u2022 List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States\n    \u2022 by court composition\n    \u2022 by seat\n    \u2022 by time in office\n  \u2022 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States\n  \u2022 List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices\n  \u2022 List of United States Chief Justices by time in office\n  \u2022 Lists of United States Supreme Court cases\n  \u2022 Oyez Project\n  \u2022 Segal\u2013Cover score\n  \u2022 Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States\n  \u2022 Landmark Supreme Court decisions (selection)\n    \u2022 Marbury v. Madison (1803, judicial review)\n    \u2022 McCulloch v. Maryland (1819, implied powers)\n    \u2022 Gibbons v. Ogden (1824, interstate commerce)\n    \u2022 Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857, slavery)\n    \u2022 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896, separate but equal treatment of races)\n    \u2022 Brown v. Board of Education (1954, school segregation of races)\n    \u2022 Engel v. Vitale (1962, state-sponsored prayers in public schools)\n    \u2022 Abington School District v. Schempp (1963, Bible readings and recitation of the Lord's prayer in U.S. public schools)\n    \u2022 Gideon v. Wainwright (1963, right to an attorney)\n    \u2022 Griswold v. Connecticut (1965, privacy in marriage)\n    \u2022 Miranda v. Arizona (1966, rights of those detained by police)\n    \u2022 In re Gault (1967, rights of juvenile suspects)\n    \u2022 Loving v. Virginia (1967, interracial marriage)\n    \u2022 Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971, religious activities in public schools)\n    \u2022 New York Times Co. v. United States (1971, freedom of the press)\n    \u2022 Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972, privacy for unmarried people)\n    \u2022 Roe v. Wade (1973, abortion)\n    \u2022 Miller v. California (1973, obscenity)\n    \u2022 United States v. Nixon (1974, executive privilege)\n    \u2022 Buckley v. Valeo (1976, campaign finance)\n    \u2022 Bowers v. Hardwick (1986, sodomy)\n    \u2022 Bush v. Gore (2000, presidential election)\n    \u2022 Lawrence v. Texas (2003, sodomy, privacy)\n    \u2022 District of Columbia v. Heller (2008, gun rights)\n    \u2022 Citizens United v. FEC (2010, campaign finance)\n    \u2022 United States v. Windsor (2013, same-sex marriage)\n    \u2022 Shelby County v. Holder (2013, voting rights)\n    \u2022 Obergefell v. Hodges (2015, same-sex marriage)\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Lawson, Gary; Seidman, Guy (2001). \"When Did the Constitution Become Law?\". Notre Dame Law Review. 77: 1\u201337.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"The Court as an Institution \u2013 Supreme Court of the United States\". www.supremecourt.gov. Retrieved February 1, 2017.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Safire, William, \"On language: POTUS and FLOTUS,\" New York Times, October 12, 1997. Retrieved August 27, 2013.\n  4. Jump up ^ Johnson, Barnabas. Almanac of the Federal Judiciary, p. 25 (Aspen Law & Business, 1988).\n  5. Jump up ^ \"A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court\" (PDF). United States Supreme Court. Retrieved December 31, 2009.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Bordewich, Fergus (2016). The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government. Simon & Schuster. p.\u00a0195. ISBN\u00a01451691939.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ Shugerman, Jed. \"A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court\", Georgia Law Review, Vol. 37, p. 893 (2002\u201303).\n  8. Jump up ^ Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court, p. 101 (Penguin 2006).\n  9. Jump up ^ Ashmore, Anne (August 2006). \"Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2\u2013107 (1791\u201382)\" (PDF). Library, Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved April 26, 2009.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Scott Douglas Gerber (editor) (1998). \"Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall\". New York University Press. ISBN\u00a00-8147-3114-7. Retrieved October 31, 2009. (page 3) Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige.\u00a0CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)\n  11. Jump up ^ Manning, John F. (2004). \"The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts\". Yale Law Journal. 113 (8): 1663\u20131750. doi:10.2307\/4135780.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Epps, Garrett (October 24, 2004). \"Don't Do It, Justices\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case Ware v. Hylton, (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain.\n  14. Jump up ^ Rosen, Jeffrey (July 5, 2009). \"Black Robe Politics\" (book review of Packing the Court by James MacGregor Burns). The Washington Post. Retrieved October 31, 2009. From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its \"supremacy\" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's \"brilliant political coup\" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America \u2013 Marbury v. Madison (1803)\". U.S. News & World Report. 2003. Archived from the original on September 20, 2003. Retrieved October 31, 2009. With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of \"checks and balances\" created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Sloan, Cliff; McKean, David (February 21, 2009). \"Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters\". Newsweek. Retrieved October 31, 2009. More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"The Constitution In Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court\" (PDF). The New York Times. February 27, 1893. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The decision \u2026 in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Souter, Breyer (December 13, 2000). \"Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore\". USA Today. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court \u2026 The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).\u00a0CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)\n  19. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Decisions of the Supreme Court \u2013 Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred an Eleven Years\" (PDF). The New York Times. February 3, 1901. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Supreme Quiz\". The Washington Post. October 2, 2000. Archived from the original on May 30, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2009. According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions \u2013 each issuing one \u2013 so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual \"concurring\" and \"dissenting\" opinions.\u00a0\n  21. Jump up ^ Slater, Dan (April 18, 2008). \"Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions\u2013a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ Suddath, Claire (December 19, 2008). \"A Brief History Of Impeachment\". Time. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair \u2026 But Chase never committed a crime\u00a0\u2014 he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 10, 1996). \"Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives \u2026 This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III\" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Edward Keynes; with Randall K. Miller (1989). \"The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion\". Duke University Press. Retrieved October 31, 2009. (page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (May 27, 2009). \"Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 31, 2009. But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had \"no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect\", has ensured his place in history\u2014not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Irons, Peter (2006). A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution. United States: Penguin Books. pp.\u00a0176\u2013177. ISBN\u00a00-14-303738-2. The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p.176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p.177)\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ \"Liberty of Contract?\". Exploring Constitutional Conflicts. October 31, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The term \"substantive due process\" is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner\u2014the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ \"Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161\". Cornell University Law School. 1908. Retrieved October 31, 2009. No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 --- Decided: January 27, 1908\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Bodenhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (1993). The Bill of Rights in modern America. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p.\u00a0245. ISBN\u00a0978-0-253-35159-3. \u2026 of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ White, Edward Douglass. \"Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366\". Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Siegan, Bernard H. (1987). The Supreme Court's Constitution. Transaction Publishers. p.\u00a0146. ISBN\u00a0978-0-88738-671-8. Retrieved October 31, 2009. In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p.146)\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Biskupic, Joan (March 29, 2005). \"Supreme Court gets makeover\". USA Today. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Justice Roberts (September 21, 2005). \"Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 31, 2009. I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. Lochner era cases\u00a0\u2013 Adkins in particular\u00a0\u2013 evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers.\u00a0[dead link]\n  34. Jump up ^ Lipsky, Seth (October 22, 2009). \"All the News That's Fit to Subsidize\". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 31, 2009. He was a farmer in Ohio \u2026 during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow\u2014even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Cohen, Adam (December 14, 2004). \"What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard \u2026 for paving the way for strong federal action...\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ United Press International (September 25, 1971). \"Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)\". U.S. News & World Report. May 17, 1954. Archived from the original on November 6, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the \"separate but equal\" \u2026 and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement...\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ \"Essay: In defense of privacy\". Time. July 15, 1966. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the \"right of privacy\" to be derived from the Constitution itself.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Gibbs, Nancy (December 9, 1991). \"America's Holy War\". Time. Retrieved October 31, 2009. In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. \"It is no part of the business of government\", ruled the court, \"to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite.\"\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ Mattox, William R., Jr; Trinko, Katrina (August 17, 2009). \"Teach the Bible? Of course\". USA Today. Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Public schools need not proselytize\u00a0\u2014 indeed, must not\u00a0\u2014 in teaching students about the Good Book \u2026 In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that \"study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education\", was permissible under the First Amendment.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ \"The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle\". Time Magazine. June 18, 1965. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision\u2014Mapp v. Ohio (1961).\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ \"The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment\". Time. April 16, 1965. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). \u2026 the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts.\" But in the light of Gideon \u2026 ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.'\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ \"Guilt and Mr. Meese\". The New York Times. January 31, 1987. Retrieved October 31, 2009. 1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 21, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2016.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ Earl M. Maltz, The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law (University Press of Kansas; 2016)\n  46. Jump up ^ O'Connor, Karen (January 22, 2009). \"Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy...\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ \"Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose\". Time. July 10, 1978. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'\u2026\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ \"Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo\". The New York Times. November 12, 1998. Retrieved October 31, 2009. ...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.\u00a0\n  49. ^ Jump up to: a b Staff writer (June 29, 1972). \"Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Furman v. Georgia \u2026 Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds) The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press, 1992, ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6\n  51. Jump up ^ \"A Supreme Revelation\". The Wall Street Journal. April 19, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous \"never mind\" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier.\u00a0\n  52. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (January 8, 2009). \"The Chief Justice on the Spot\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (September 4, 2005). \"William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school.\u00a0\n  54. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (June 12, 2005). \"The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (March 22, 2005). \"Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ Amar, Vikram David (July 27, 2005). \"Casing John Roberts\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. SEMINOLE TRIBE v. FLORIDA (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 1, 1999). \"Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface \u2026 On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Lindenberger, Michael A. \"The Court's Gay Rights Legacy\". Time. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals.\u00a0\n  59. Jump up ^ Justice Sotomayor (July 16, 2009). \"Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' \u2013 The 'Roe' recital\". USA Today. Archived from the original on August 22, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ Kamiya, Gary (July 4, 2001). \"Against the Law\". Salon. Retrieved November 21, 2012. ...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. \u2026 It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. \u2026\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ Krauthammer, Charles (December 18, 2000). \"The Winner in Bush v. Gore?\". Time. Retrieved October 31, 2009. Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. \u2026 the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks\u2014and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, \u2026\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Babington, Charles; Baker, Peter (September 30, 2005). \"Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice\". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 1, 2009. John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (July 1, 2007). \"In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right\". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2009. It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared \u2026 This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ Savage, Charlie (July 14, 2009). \"Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled\". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2009. Gonzales v. Carhart\u00a0\u2014 in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call \"partial birth abortion\"\u00a0\u2014 to be settled law.\u00a0\n  65. Jump up ^ \"A Bad Day for Democracy\". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved January 22, 2010.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ Barnes, Robert (October 1, 2009). \"Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights\". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 1, 2009. The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller...\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (April 18, 2008). \"Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment\". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2009. His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (June 26, 2008). \"Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape\". The New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2009. The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday \u2026 The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ Federal Judiciary Act (1789), National Archives and Records Administration, retrieved 2017-09-12\n  70. Jump up ^ 16\u00a0Stat.\u00a044\n  71. Jump up ^ Mintz, S. (2007). \"The New Deal in Decline\". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on May 5, 2008. Retrieved October 27, 2009.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ Hodak, George (2007). \"February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan\". ABAjournal.com. American Bar Association. Retrieved January 29, 2009.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ \"Justices, Number of\", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press 1992, ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6\n  74. Jump up ^ See Article Two of the United States Constitution.\n  75. Jump up ^ \"United States Senate. \"Nominations\"\".\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ Jim Brunner (24 March 2017). \"Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court\". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 9 April 2017. In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist \u2014 and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's \"deeply troubled\" by Gorsuch's \"extreme conservative perspective on women's health,\" citing his \"inability\" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the \"Hobby Lobby\" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ McCaskill, Claire (31 March 2017). \"Gorsuch: Good for corporations, bad for working people\". Medium. Retrieved 9 April 2017. I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn't. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist \u2013 for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination.\u00a0\n  78. Jump up ^ Schallhorn, Kaitlyn (23 March 2017). \"Schumer: Democrats will filibuster SCOTUS nominee Neil Gorsuch\". TheBlaze. Retrieved 7 April 2017. Schumer added that Gorsuch's record shows he has a \"deep-seated conservative ideology\" and \"groomed by the Federalist Society,\" a conservative nonprofit legal organization.\u00a0\n  79. Jump up ^ Matt Flegenheimer (6 April 2017). \"Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch\". The New York Times. After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.\u00a0\n  80. Jump up ^ \"U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789\". United States Senate. Retrieved 8 April 2017.\u00a0\n  81. Jump up ^ See 5 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a02902.\n  82. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a04. If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence.\n  83. Jump up ^ Balkin, Jack M. \"The passionate intensity of the confirmation process\". Jurist. Archived from the original on December 18, 2007. Retrieved February 13, 2008.\u00a0\n  84. Jump up ^ \"The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  85. Jump up ^ McMillion, Barry J. (October 19, 2015). \"Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote\" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved February 14, 2016.\u00a0\n  86. Jump up ^ Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). \"Appendix Two\". Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press. pp.\u00a0965\u2013971. ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6.\u00a0\n  87. Jump up ^ See, e.g., Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of William Pryor. Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved \"the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century\" 544 U.S. 942 (2005) (Stevens, J., concurring in denial of cert) (internal quotation marks deleted).\n  88. ^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Louis (September 5, 2001). \"Recess Appointments of Federal Judges\" (PDF). CRSN Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. RL31112: 16. Retrieved August 6, 2010. Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.\u00a0\n  89. Jump up ^ The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48\u20134, and Republicans opposed it 33\u20130.\n  90. Jump up ^ \"National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al\" (PDF). pp.\u00a034, 35.\u00a0 In the opinion for the Court, Breyer states \"In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here.\" Later, the opinion states: \"For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares.\"\n  91. Jump up ^ \"Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week\". NPR. Retrieved January 25, 2017.\u00a0\n  92. Jump up ^ \"How the Federal Courts Are Organized: Can a federal judge be fired?\". Federal Judicial Center. fjc.gov. Archived from the original on September 15, 2012. Retrieved March 18, 2012.\u00a0\n  93. Jump up ^ \"History of the Federal Judiciary: Impeachments of Federal Judges\". Federal Judicial Center fjc.gov. Retrieved March 18, 2012.\u00a0\n  94. Jump up ^ Appel, Jacob M. (August 22, 2009). \"Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved August 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  95. Jump up ^ Ali, Ambreen (June 16, 2010). \"How Presidents Influence the Court\". Congress.org. Archived from the original on June 18, 2010. Retrieved June 16, 2010.\u00a0\n  96. Jump up ^ Walthr, Matthew (April 21, 2014). \"Sam Alito: A Civil Man\". The American Spectator. Retrieved 15 June 2017 \u2013 via The ANNOTICO Reports.\u00a0\n  97. Jump up ^ DeMarco, Megan (February 14, 2008). \"Growing up Italian in Jersey: Alito reflects on ethnic heritage\". The Times. Trenton, New Jersey. Retrieved 15 June 2017.\u00a0\n  98. Jump up ^ Halberstam, Malvina (1 March 2009). \"Ruth Bader Ginsburg\". Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 15 June 2017.\u00a0\n  99. ^ Jump up to: a b Neil Gorsuch was raised Catholic, but attends an Episcopalian church. It is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. Burke, Daniel (March 22, 2017). \"What is Neil Gorsuch's religion? It's complicated\". CNN. Springer said she doesn't know whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. \"I have no evidence that Judge Gorsuch considers himself an Episcopalian, and likewise no evidence that he does not.\" Gorsuch's younger brother, J.J., said he too has \"no idea how he would fill out a form. He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years.\"\u00a0\n  100. Jump up ^ Baker, Peter (August 7, 2010). \"Kagan Is Sworn in as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court\". The New York Times. Retrieved August 8, 2010.\u00a0\n  101. Jump up ^ Mark Sherman, Is Supreme Court in need of regional diversity? (May 1, 2010).\n  102. Jump up ^ O'Brien, David M. (2003). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (6th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. p.\u00a046. ISBN\u00a00-393-93218-4.\u00a0\n  103. Jump up ^ \"Religion of the Supreme Court\". adherents.com. January 31, 2006. Retrieved July 9, 2010.\u00a0\n  104. Jump up ^ Segal, Jeffrey A.; Spaeth, Harold J. (2002). The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited. Cambridge Univ. Press. p.\u00a0183. ISBN\u00a00-521-78971-0.\u00a0\n  105. Jump up ^ Schumacher, Alvin. \"Roger B. Taney\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Retrieved 3 May 2017. He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court.\u00a0\n  106. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\". Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original on March 20, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2017.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ de Vogue, Ariane (October 22, 2016). \"Clarence Thomas' Supreme Court legacy\". CNN. Retrieved 3 May 2017.\u00a0\n  108. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The Four Justices\". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2017.\u00a0\n  109. Jump up ^ David N. Atkinson, Leaving the Bench (University Press of Kansas 1999) ISBN\u00a00-7006-0946-6\n  110. Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (September 9, 2010). \"An Invisible Chief Justice\". The New York Times. Retrieved September 9, 2010. Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. [\u2026] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home.\u00a0\n  111. Jump up ^ Ward, Artemus (2003). Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court. SUNY Press. p.\u00a0358. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7914-5651-4. One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute.[1] p. 9\u00a0\n  112. Jump up ^ Stolzenberg, Ross M.; Lindgren, James (May 2010). \"Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices\". Demography. 47 (2): 269\u2013298. doi:10.1353\/dem.0.0100. PMC\u00a03000028\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a020608097. If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met.\u00a0\n  113. Jump up ^ See for example Sandra Day O'Connor:How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice, by Joan Biskupic, Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice by Clare Cushman, Journal of Supreme Court History 32 no. 3 (2008), pp. 282\u2013296.\n  114. Jump up ^ \"Breyer Just Missed Record as Junior Justice\". Retrieved January 11, 2008.\u00a0\n  115. Jump up ^ \"Judicial Compensation\". United States Courts. Retrieved May 15, 2017.\u00a0\n  116. Jump up ^ Lane, Charles (January 31, 2006). \"Kennedy Seen as The Next Justice In Court's Middle\". The Washington Post. If, as many expect, Alito forms a four-vote conservative bloc with Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, that would leave Justice Anthony M. Kennedy\u00a0\u2013 a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals on gay rights, the death penalty and abortion\u00a0\u2013 as the court's least predictable member.\u00a0\n  117. Jump up ^ Toobin, Jeffrey (2007). The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. Doubleday. ISBN\u00a00-385-51640-1.\u00a0\n  118. Jump up ^ \"End-of-Term Statistical Analysis\u00a0\u2013 October Term 2011\" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States Blog (SCOTUSblog). June 30, 2012. Justice Kennedy is, for the fourth consecutive Term, the Justice most likely to appear in the majority.\u00a0\n  119. Jump up ^ See also SCOTUSblog's Stat Pack: Bhatia, Kedar (June 30, 2012). \"Final October Term 2011 Stat Pack and Summary Memo\".\u00a0\n  120. Jump up ^ Mears, Bill (March 20, 2017). \"Take a look through Neil Gorsuch's judicial record\". Fox News. A Fox News analysis of that record \u2013 including some 3,000 rulings he has been involved with \u2013 reveals a solid, predictable conservative philosophy, something President Trump surely was attuned to when he nominated him to fill the open ninth seat. The record in many ways mirrors the late Justice Antonin Scalia's approach to constitutional and statutory interpretation.\u00a0\n  121. Jump up ^ Goldstein, Tom (June 30, 2010). \"Everything you read about the Supreme Court is wrong (except here, maybe)\". SCOTUSblog. Retrieved July 7, 2010.\u00a0\n  122. Jump up ^ Among the examples mentioned by Goldstein for the 2009 term were:\n    \u2022 Dolan v. United States, which interpreted judges' prerogatives broadly, typically a \"conservative\" result. The majority consisted of the five junior Justices: Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, Alito, and Sotomayor.\n    \u2022 Magwood v. Patterson, which expanded habeas corpus petitions, a \"liberal\" result, in an opinion by Thomas, joined by Stevens, Scalia, Breyer, and Sotomayor.\n    \u2022 Shady Grove Orthopedic Associates v. Allstate Insurance Co., which yielded a pro-plaintiff result in an opinion by Scalia joined by Roberts, Stevens, Thomas, and Sotomayor.\n    Goldstein notes that in the 2009 term, the justice most consistently pro-government was Alito, and not the commonly perceived \"arch-conservatives\" Scalia and Thomas.\n  123. ^ Jump up to: a b \"October 2011 Term, Five to Four Decisions\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2012.\u00a0\n  124. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Final October 2010 Stat Pack available\". SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  125. Jump up ^ \"End of Term statistical analysis\u00a0\u2013 October 2010\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. July 1, 2011. Retrieved July 2, 2011.\u00a0\n  126. Jump up ^ \"Cases by Vote Split\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  127. Jump up ^ \"Justice agreement\u00a0\u2013 Highs and Lows\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  128. Jump up ^ \"Justice agreement\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ \"Frequency in the majority\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  130. Jump up ^ \"Five-to-Four cases\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2011.\u00a0\n  131. Jump up ^ \"October 2011 term, Cases by votes split\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2012.\u00a0\n  132. Jump up ^ \"October 22011 term, Strength of the Majority\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2012.\u00a0\n  133. Jump up ^ Bhatia, Kedar (June 29, 2013). \"October Term 2012 summary memo\". SCOTUSblog. Retrieved June 29, 2013.\u00a0\n  134. Jump up ^ \"Final October Term 2012 Stat Pack\" (PDF). SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.\u00a0\n  135. ^ Jump up to: a b c d \"Plan Your Trip (quote:) \"In mid-May, after the oral argument portion of the Term has concluded, the Court takes the Bench Mondays at 10AM for the release of orders and opinions.\"\". US Senator John McCain. October 24, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\u00a0\n  136. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Visiting the Court\". Supreme Court of the United States. March 18, 2010. Retrieved March 19, 2010.\u00a0\n  137. Jump up ^ \"Visiting-Capitol-Hill\". docstoc. October 24, 2009. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved October 24, 2009.\u00a0\n  138. Jump up ^ \"How The Court Works\". The Supreme Court Historical Society. October 24, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\u00a0\n  139. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01251(a)\n  140. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (March 21, 2016). \"Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws\". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2017.\u00a0\n  141. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01251(b)\n  142. Jump up ^ United States v. Shipp, 203 U.S. 563 (Supreme Court of the United States 1906).\n  143. ^ Jump up to: a b c Curriden, Mark (June 2, 2009). \"A Supreme Case of Contempt\". ABA Journal. American Bar Association. Retrieved 27 April 2017. On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history.\u00a0\n  144. ^ Jump up to: a b Hindley, Meredith (November 2014). \"Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson\". Humanities. National Endowment for the Humanities. 35 (6). Retrieved 27 April 2017. United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial.\u00a0\n  145. Jump up ^ Linder, Douglas. \"United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)\". Famous Trials. Retrieved 27 April 2017.\u00a0\n  146. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01254\n  147. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01259\n  148. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01258\n  149. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01260\n  150. ^ Jump up to: a b 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01257\n  151. Jump up ^ Brannock, Steven; Weinzierl, Sarah (2003). \"Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall\" (PDF). Stetson Law Review. XXXII: 368\u2013369, 387\u2013390. Retrieved 27 April 2017.\u00a0\n  152. Jump up ^ Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 306 (1989)\n  153. Jump up ^ Gutman, Jeffrey. \"Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness\". Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys. Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law. Retrieved 27 April 2017.\u00a0\n  154. Jump up ^ Allotment Order dated June 27, 2017.\n  155. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01254\n  156. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01257; see also Adequate and independent state grounds\n  157. Jump up ^ James, Robert A. (1998). \"Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials\" (PDF). The Green Bag. 2d. 1 (4): 378. Retrieved February 5, 2013.\u00a0\n  158. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01872 See Georgia v. Brailsford, 3 U.S. 1 (1794), in which the Court conducted a jury trial.\n  159. Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (October 21, 2005). \"Roberts Dips Toe Into Cert Pool\". Legal Times. Retrieved October 31, 2007.\u00a0\n  160. Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (July 4, 2006). \"Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party\". Legal Times. Retrieved October 31, 2007.\u00a0\n  161. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (September 25, 2008). \"A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool'\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 17, 2008.\u00a0\n  162. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (May 1, 2017). \"Gorsuch, in sign of independence, is out of Supreme Court's clerical pool\". The New York Times. Retrieved May 2, 2017.\u00a0\n  163. Jump up ^ For example, the arguments on the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for Bush v. Gore were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in United States v. Nixon lasted three hours; and the Pentagon papers case was given a two-hour argument. Christy, Andrew (November 15, 2011). \"'Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever\". NPR. Retrieved March 31, 2011.\u00a0 The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of California v. Arizona, in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962.Bobic, Igor (March 26, 2012). \"Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years\". Talking Points Memo. Retrieved January 31, 2014.\u00a0\n  164. Jump up ^ Glazer, Eric M.; Zachary, Michael (February 1997). \"Joining the Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court\". Volume LXXI, No. 2. Florida Bar Journal. p.\u00a063. Retrieved February 3, 2014.\u00a0\n  165. Jump up ^ Gresko, Jessica (March 24, 2013). \"For lawyers, the Supreme Court bar is vanity trip\". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp.\u00a02A. Archived from the original on March 23, 2013.\u00a0\n  166. Jump up ^ \"How The Court Works; Library Support\". The Supreme Court Historical Society. Retrieved February 3, 2014.\u00a0\n  167. Jump up ^ See generally, Tushnet, Mark, ed. (2008) I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases, Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, ISBN\u00a0978-0-8070-0036-6\n  168. Jump up ^ Kessler, Robert. \"Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?\". The Atlantic. Retrieved March 24, 2017.\u00a0\n  169. Jump up ^ Johnson, Benny. \"The 2016 Running of the Interns\". Independent Journal Review. Retrieved March 24, 2017.\u00a0\n  170. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a01\n  171. Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a02109\n  172. Jump up ^ Pepall, Lynne; Richards, Daniel L.; Norman, George (1999). Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing. pp.\u00a011\u201312.\u00a0\n  173. Jump up ^ \"Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October Term, 2010\" (PDF). United States Reports. Washington D.C.: Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States. 564. October 2016. Retrieved May 15, 2017.\u00a0\n  174. Jump up ^ \"Sliplists\". Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved May 15, 2017.\u00a0\n  175. Jump up ^ \"Supreme Court Research Guide\". law.georgetown.edu. Georgetown Law Library. Retrieved August 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  176. Jump up ^ \"How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions\". lib.guides.umd.edu. University of Maryland University Libraries. Retrieved August 22, 2012.\u00a0\n  177. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch. New York City: Oxford University Press. pp.\u00a0117\u2013118. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-530917-1.\u00a0\n  178. Jump up ^ Mendelson, Wallace (1992). \"Separation of Powers\". In Hall, Kermit L. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press. p.\u00a0775. ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6.\u00a0\n  179. Jump up ^ The American Conflict by Horace Greeley (1873), p. 106; also in The Life of Andrew Jackson (2001) by Robert Vincent Remini\n  180. Jump up ^ Vile, John R. (1992). \"Court curbing\". In Hall, Kermit L. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press. p.\u00a0202. ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6.\u00a0\n  181. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Peppers, Todd C. (2006). Courtiers of the Marble Palace: The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk. Stanford University Press. pp.\u00a0195, 1, 20, 22, and 22\u201324 respectively. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8047-5382-1.\u00a0\n  182. Jump up ^ Weiden, David; Ward, Artemus (2006). Sorcerers' Apprentices: 100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court. NYU Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8147-9404-3.\u00a0\n  183. Jump up ^ Chace, James (2007). Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World. New York City: Simon & Schuster (published 1998). p.\u00a044. ISBN\u00a0978-0-684-80843-7.\u00a0\n  184. Jump up ^ List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States\n  185. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Liptak, Adam (September 7, 2010). \"Polarization of Supreme Court Is Reflected in Justices' Clerks\". The New York Times. Retrieved September 7, 2010.\u00a0\n  186. Jump up ^ William E. Nelson; Harvey Rishikof; I. Scott Messinger; Michael Jo (November 2009). \"The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation?\" (PDF). Vanderbilt Law Review. p.\u00a01749. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2010. Retrieved September 7, 2010.\u00a0\n  187. Jump up ^ Liptak and Kopicki, The New York Times, June 7, 2012 Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll\n  188. ^ Jump up to: a b c See for example \"Judicial activism\" in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, edited by Kermit Hall; article written by Gary McDowell\n  189. Jump up ^ Root, Damon W. (September 21, 2009). \"Lochner and Liberty\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  190. Jump up ^ Bernstein, David. Only One Place of Redress: African Americans, Labor Regulations, and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal, p. 100 (Duke University Press, 2001): \"The Court also directly overturned Lochner by adding that it is no 'longer open to question that it is within the legislative power to fix maximum hours.'\"\n  191. Jump up ^ Dorf, Michael and Morrison, Trevor. Constitutional Law, p. 18 (Oxford University Press, 2010).\n  192. Jump up ^ Patrick, John. The Supreme Court of the United States: A Student Companion, p. 362 (Oxford University Press, 2006).\n  193. Jump up ^ Steinfels, Peter (May 22, 2005). \"'A Church That Can and Cannot Change': Dogma\". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  194. Jump up ^ Savage, David G. (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 23, 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2009. a lack of judicial authority to enter an inherently political question that had previously been left to the states\u00a0\n  195. Jump up ^ Lewis, Neil A. (September 19, 2002). \"Judicial Nominee Says His Views Will Not Sway Him on the Bench\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009. he has written scathingly of Roe v. Wade\u00a0\n  196. Jump up ^ \"Election Guide 2008: The Issues: Abortion\". The New York Times. 2008. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  197. Jump up ^ Buchanan, Pat (July 6, 2005). \"The judges war: an issue of power\". Townhall.com. Retrieved October 23, 2009. The Brown decision of 1954, desegregating the schools of 17 states and the District of Columbia, awakened the nation to the court's new claim to power.\u00a0\n  198. Jump up ^ Clymer, Adam (May 29, 1998). \"Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  199. Jump up ^ Stone, Geoffrey R. (March 26, 2012). \"Citizens United and conservative judicial activism\" (PDF). University of Illinois Law Review. University of Illinois. 2012 (2): 485\u2013500.\u00a0\n  200. Jump up ^ Lincoln, Abraham (March 4, 1861). \"First Inaugural Address\". National Center. Retrieved October 23, 2009. At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal.\u00a0\n  201. Jump up ^ Will, George F. (May 27, 2009). \"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 22, 2009. Thurgood Marshall quote taken from the Stanford Law Review, summer 1992\u00a0\n  202. Jump up ^ Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court. London: Penguin, 1999. ISBN\u00a00-670-87006-4\n  203. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (January 31, 2009). \"To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009. Every judge who's been appointed to the court since Lewis Powell...in 1971...has been more conservative than his or her predecessor\u00a0\n  204. Jump up ^ Babington, Charles (April 5, 2005). \"Senator Links Violence to 'Political' Decisions\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  205. Jump up ^ Liptak, Adam (February 2, 2006). \"A Court Remade in the Reagan Era's Image\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  206. Jump up ^ Savage, David G. (July 13, 2008). \"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  207. Jump up ^ Andrew P. Napolitano (February 17, 2005). \"No Defense\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  208. Jump up ^ Edsall, Thomas B.; Fletcher, Michael A. (September 5, 2005). \"Again, Right Voices Concern About Gonzales\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  209. Jump up ^ Lane, Charles (March 20, 2005). \"Conservative's Book on Supreme Court Is a Bestseller\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  210. Jump up ^ Mark I. Sutherland; Dave Meyer; William J. Federer; Alan Keyes; Ed Meese; Phyllis Schlafly; Howard Phillips; Alan E. Sears; Ben DuPre; Rev. Rick Scarborough; David C. Gibbs III; Mathew D. Staver; Don Feder; Herbert W. Titus (2005). Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America. St. Louis, Missouri: Amerisearch Inc. p.\u00a0242. ISBN\u00a00-9753455-6-7.\u00a0\n  211. ^ Jump up to: a b Kakutani, Michiko (July 6, 2009). \"Appointees Who Really Govern America\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 27, 2009.\u00a0\n  212. Jump up ^ Emily Bazelon (July 6, 2009). \"The Supreme Court on Trial: James MacGregor Burns takes aim at the bench\". Slate. Retrieved October 27, 2009.\u00a0\n  213. Jump up ^ Special keynote address by President Ronald Reagan, November 1988, at the second annual lawyers convention of the Federalist Society, Washington, D.C.\n  214. Jump up ^ Stuart Taylor Jr. (October 15, 1987). \"Reagan Points to a Critic, Who Points Out It Isn't So\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  215. Jump up ^ Kelley Beaucar Vlahos (September 11, 2003). \"Judge Bork: Judicial Activism Is Going Global\". Fox News. Retrieved October 23, 2009. What judges have wrought is a coup d'\u00e9tat\u00a0\u2013 slow moving and genteel, but a coup d'\u00e9tat nonetheless.\u00a0\n  216. ^ Jump up to: a b c Naftali Bendavid (July 13, 2009). \"Franken: 'An Incredible Honor to Be Here'\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  217. Jump up ^ Hazard, Geoffrey C. Jr. (1978\u201379). \"Supreme Court as a Legislature\". 64. Cornell L. Rev.: 1. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011.\u00a0\n  218. Jump up ^ William Safire (April 24, 2005). \"Dog Whistle\". New York Times Magazine. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  219. Jump up ^ David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 23, 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  220. Jump up ^ Laura Mansnerus (October 16, 2005). \"Diminished Eminence In a Changed Domain\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  221. Jump up ^ Ronald Smothers (October 16, 2005). \"In Long Branch, No Olive Branches\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  222. Jump up ^ Adam Cohen (January 15, 2008). \"Editorial Observer \u2013 A Supreme Court Reversal: Abandoning the Rights of Voters\". New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  223. Jump up ^ David G. Savage (July 13, 2008). \"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 30, 2009. This suggests that the right of habeas corpus was not limited to English subjects \u2026 protects people who are captured \u2026 at Guantanamo \u2026 Wrong, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in dissent. He said English history showed that the writ of habeas corpus was limited to sovereign English territory\u00a0\n  224. Jump up ^ George F. Will (May 27, 2009). \"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  225. ^ Jump up to: a b James Taranto (June 9, 2009). \"Speaking Ruth to Power\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 22, 2009.\u00a0\n  226. Jump up ^ Woodward, Bob; Scott Armstrong (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. United States of America: Simon & Schuster. p.\u00a0541. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7432-7402-9. A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other\u00a0\n  227. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Larry Sabato (September 26, 2007). \"It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  228. Jump up ^ Christopher Moore (November 1, 2008). \"Our Canadian Republic \u2013 Do we display too much deference to authority \u2026 or not enough?\". Literary Review of Canada. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  229. Jump up ^ Tomkins, Adam (2002). \"In Defence of the Political Constitution\". United Kingdom: 22 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 157. Bush v. Gore\u00a0\n  230. Jump up ^ Madison, James (1789). \"The Federalist Papers\/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered\". Wikisource. Retrieved October 24, 2009. the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty\u00a0\n  231. Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius) (1789). \"Federalist No. 28\". Independent Journal. Retrieved October 24, 2009. Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government.\u00a0\n  232. Jump up ^ Madison, James (January 25, 1788). \"The Federalist\". Independent Journal (44 (quote: 8th para)). Retrieved October 27, 2009. seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.\u00a0\n  233. Jump up ^ Madison, James (February 16, 1788). \"The Federalist No. 56 (quote: 6th para)\". Independent Journal. Retrieved October 27, 2009. In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act.\u00a0\n  234. Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (December 14, 1787). \"The Federalist No. 22 (quote: 4th para)\". New York Packet. Retrieved October 27, 2009. The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy.\u00a0\n  235. Jump up ^ Madison, James (January 22, 1788). \"The Federalist Papers\". New York Packet. Retrieved October 27, 2009. The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits.\u00a0\n  236. Jump up ^ Akhil Reed Amar (1998). \"The Bill of Rights \u2013 Creation and Reconstruction\". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved October 24, 2009. many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials\u2014especially federal courts\u2014as the special guardians of those rights.\u00a0\n  237. Jump up ^ Scott Gold (June 14, 2005). \"Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 24, 2012. Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said.\u00a0\n  238. ^ Jump up to: a b Robert B. Reich (September 13, 1987). \"The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista\". New York Times Magazine. Retrieved October 27, 2009.\u00a0\n  239. Jump up ^ FDCH e-Media (January 10, 2006). \"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 30, 2009. I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place \u2013 Samuel Alito\u00a0\n  240. Jump up ^ Cohen, Adam (December 7, 2003). \"Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 30, 2009. But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as laboratories of democracy\u00a0\n  241. Jump up ^ Graglia, Lino (July 19, 2005). \"Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies\". University of Texas School of Law. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  242. Jump up ^ Hornberger, Jacob C. (October 30, 2009). \"Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment\". The Future of Freedom Foundation. Retrieved October 30, 2009. Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom.\u00a0\n  243. Jump up ^ James Vicini (April 24, 2008). \"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling\". Reuters. Retrieved October 23, 2009. The nine-member Supreme Court conducts its deliberations in secret and the justices traditionally won't discuss pending cases in public\u00a0\n  244. ^ Jump up to: a b c Margolick, David (September 23, 2007). \"Meet the Supremes\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009. Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted.\u00a0\n  245. Jump up ^ \"Public Says Televising Court Is Good for Democracy\". PublicMind.fdu.edu. March 9, 2010. Retrieved December 14, 2010.\u00a0\n  246. Jump up ^ Mauro, Tony (March 9, 2010). \"Poll Shows Public Support for Cameras at the High Court\". The National Law Journal. Retrieved December 18, 2010.\u00a0\n  247. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"C-SPAN Supreme Court Week\". CSPAN. October 4, 2009. Retrieved October 25, 2009.\u00a0\n  248. Jump up ^ James Vicini (April 24, 2008). \"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling\". Reuters. Retrieved October 23, 2009. Scalia was interviewed for the CBS News show \"60 Minutes\u00a0\n  249. Jump up ^ David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). \"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 23, 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2009. UC Berkeley law professor Goodwin Liu described the decision as 'utterly lacking in any legal principle\" and added that the court was \"remarkably unashamed to say so explicitly.'\u00a0\n  250. Jump up ^ McConnell, Michael W. (June 1, 2001). \"Two-and-a-Half Cheers for Bush v Gore\". University of Chicago Law Review. Retrieved February 16, 2016.\u00a0\n  251. Jump up ^ CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl) (July 14, 2009). \"Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 23, 2009. Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute\"\u00a0\n  252. Jump up ^ Adam Cohen (Opinion section) (March 21, 2004). \"Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. Gore\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 23, 2009. The Bush v. Gore majority, made up of Mr. Rehnquist and his fellow conservatives, interpreted the equal protection clause in a sweeping way they had not before, and have not since. And they stated that the interpretation was 'limited to the present circumstances,' words that suggest a raw exercise of power, not legal analysis.\u00a0\n  253. Jump up ^ Kevin McNamara (letter to the editor) (June 3, 2009). \"Letters \u2013 Supreme Court Activism?\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2009.\u00a0\n  254. Jump up ^ CQ Transcriptions (January 13, 2006). \"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court\". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 28, 2009. ...Baker v. Carr, the reapportionment case. We heard Justice Frankfurter who delivered a scathing dissent in that...\u00a0\n  255. Jump up ^ Linda Greenhouse (September 10, 2007). \"New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 10, 2009.\u00a0\n  256. Jump up ^ Levinson, Sanford (February 9, 2009). \"Supreme court prognosis \u2013 Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms\". The Guardian. Manchester. Retrieved October 10, 2009.\u00a0\n  257. Jump up ^ See also Arthur D. Hellman, \"Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?\", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices (Carolina Academic Press, 2006), p. 291.\n  258. Jump up ^ Richard Epstein, \"Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices\", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices (Carolina Academic Press, 2006), p. 415.\n  259. Jump up ^ Brian Opeskin, Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges, Oxford J Legal Studies 2015 35: 627\u2013663.\n  260. Jump up ^ Alexander Hamilton (June 14, 1788). \"The Federalist No. 78\". Independent Journal. Retrieved October 28, 2009. and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security.\u00a0\n  261. Jump up ^ O'Brien, Reity (June 20, 2014). \"Justice Obscured: Supreme court justices earn quarter-million in cash on the side\". Center for Public Integrity.\u00a0\n  262. ^ Jump up to: a b Lipton, Eric (February 26, 2016). \"Scalia Took Dozens of Trips Funded by Private Sponsors\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  263. Jump up ^ Berman, Mark; Markon, Jerry (February 17, 2016). \"Why Justice Scalia was staying for free at a Texas resort\". The Washington Post.\u00a0\n\nBibliography[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States, 5 vols., Detroit [etc.]\u00a0: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008\n  \u2022 The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States (2013 ed.) (PDF).\n  \u2022 Biskupic, Joan and Elder Witt. (1997). Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly. ISBN\u00a01-56802-130-5\n  \u2022 Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-505835-6.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-530917-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Harvard Law Review Assn., (2000). The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, 17th ed. [18th ed., 2005. ISBN\u00a0978-600-01-4329-9]\n  \u2022 Irons, Peter. (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: Viking Press. ISBN\u00a00-670-87006-4.\n  \u2022 Rehnquist, William. (1987). The Supreme Court. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN\u00a00-375-40943-2.\n  \u2022 Skifos, Catherine Hetos. (1976).\"The Supreme Court Gets a Home\", Supreme Court Historical Society 1976 Yearbook. [in 1990, renamed The Journal of Supreme Court History (ISSN 1059-4329)]\n  \u2022 Warren, Charles. (1924). The Supreme Court in United States History. (3 volumes). Boston: Little, Brown and Co.\n  \u2022 Woodward, Bob and Armstrong, Scott. The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court (1979). ISBN\u00a0978-0-7432-7402-9.\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Historical Society. \"The Court Building\" (PDF). Retrieved February 13, 2008.\u00a0\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-506557-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Beard, Charles A. (1912). The Supreme Court and the Constitution. New York: Macmillan Company. Reprinted Dover Publications, 2006. ISBN\u00a00-486-44779-0.\n  \u2022 Corley, Pamela C.; Steigerwalt, Amy; Ward, Artemus. (2013). The Puzzle of Unanimity: Consensus on the United States Supreme Court. Stanford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8047-8472-6.\n  \u2022 Cushman, Barry. (1998). Rethinking the New Deal Court. Oxford University Press.\n  \u2022 Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789\u20131995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN\u00a0978-1-56802-126-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN\u00a0978-1-56802-126-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Garner, Bryan A. (2004). Black's Law Dictionary. Deluxe 8th ed. Thomson West. ISBN\u00a00-314-15199-0.\n  \u2022 Greenburg, Jan Crawford, Jan. (2007). Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control for the United States Supreme Court. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN\u00a0978-1-59420-101-1.\n  \u2022 Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN\u00a00-87187-554-3.\u00a0\n  \u2022 McCloskey, Robert G. (2005). The American Supreme Court. 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN\u00a00-226-55682-4.\n  \u2022 O'Brien, David M. (2008). Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN\u00a00-393-93218-4.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Spaeth, Harold J. (1979). Supreme Court Policy Making: Explanation and Prediction (3rd ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7167-1012-7.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Toobin, Jeffrey. The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN\u00a00-385-51640-1.\n  \u2022 Urofsky, Melvin and Finkelman, Paul. (2001). A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a00-19-512637-8 & ISBN\u00a00-19-512635-1.\n  \u2022 Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p.\u00a0590. ISBN\u00a00-8153-1176-1.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Historical Society. \"The Court Building\" (PDF). Retrieved February 13, 2008.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Supreme Court of the United States.\nWikiquote has quotations related to: Supreme Court of the United States\nWikisource has original text related to this article:\nSupreme Court of the United States\nListen to this article (info\/dl)\n\n\nThis audio file was created from a revision of the article \"Supreme Court of the United States\" dated 2006-08-05, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)\nMore spoken articles\n  \u2022 Official website\n  \u2022 Supreme Court decisions from World Legal Information Institution (contains no advertisements)\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Collection from the Legal Information Institute\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Opinions from FindLaw\n  \u2022 U.S. Supreme Court Decisions (v. 1+) from Justia, Oyez and U.S. Court Forms\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Records and Briefs from Cornell Law Library\n  \u2022 Milestone Cases in Supreme Court History from InfoPlease\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789\n  \u2022 Scales of Justice: The History of Supreme Court Nominations\u00a0\u2013 Radio program explores history of appointments and confirmations\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Historical Society\n  \u2022 Complete\/Searchable 1991\u20132004 Opinions and Orders\n  \u2022 The Supreme Court Database A research database with information about cases from 1946 to 2011\n  \u2022 The Oyez Project\u00a0\u2013 audio recordings of oral arguments\n  \u2022 \"U.S. Supreme Court collected news and commentary\". The New York Times.\u00a0\n  \u2022 U.S. Supreme Court collected news and commentary at The Washington Post\n  \u2022 C-SPAN's The Supreme Court: Home to America's Highest Court\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Briefs Hosted by the American Bar Association\n  \u2022 Works by Supreme Court of the United States at Project Gutenberg\n  \u2022 Works by or about Supreme Court of the United States at Internet Archive\n  \u2022 Works by Supreme Court of the United States at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSupreme Court of the United States\nThe Court\n  \u2022 Decisions\n  \u2022 Procedures\n  \u2022 History\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Building\n    \u2022 Old City Hall, Philadelphia 1791\u20131800\n    \u2022 U.S. Capitol Chamber 1819\u20131860\n    \u2022 U.S. Capitol Chamber 1860\u20131935\nSeal of the United States Supreme Court\nCurrent members\nChief Justice\nJohn Roberts\nAssociate Justices\nAnthony Kennedy\nClarence Thomas\nRuth Bader Ginsburg\nStephen Breyer\nSamuel Alito\nSonia Sotomayor\nElena Kagan\nNeil Gorsuch\nRetired Associate Justices\nJohn Paul Stevens\nSandra Day O'Connor\nDavid Souter\nCurrent nominations\nNo Vacancies\nAll members\n  \u2022 List of all members\n    \u2022 by court\n    \u2022 by seat\n    \u2022 by time in office\n    \u2022 by education\n    \u2022 succession\n    \u2022 timeline\n  \u2022 List of Chief Justices\n  \u2022 List of Associate Justices\n  \u2022 All nominations\n  \u2022 Unsuccessful nominations\n  \u2022 Nominations near end of presidency\n  \u2022 Court demographics\n  \u2022 Justices who served in Congress\n  \u2022 Ideological leanings\nCourt functionaries\n  \u2022 Clerk\n  \u2022 Reporter of Decisions\n  \u2022 Supreme Court Police\nLaw clerks\n  \u2022 Chief Justice\n  \u2022 Seat 1\n  \u2022 Seat 2\n  \u2022 Seat 3\n  \u2022 Seat 4\n  \u2022 Seat 6\n  \u2022 Seat 8\n  \u2022 Seat 9\n  \u2022 Seat 10\n  \u2022 All\nRelated\n  \u2022 United States Solicitor General\n  \u2022 United States Reports\n  \u2022 Lawyers' Edition\n  \u2022 Amicus curiae\n  \u2022 Other countries\n  \u2022 Law Portal\n[show]\nLinks to related articles\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nSupreme Courts of North America\nSovereign states\n  \u2022 Antigua and Barbuda\n  \u2022 Bahamas\n  \u2022 Barbados\n  \u2022 Belize\n  \u2022 Canada\n  \u2022 Costa Rica\n  \u2022 Cuba\n  \u2022 Dominica\n  \u2022 Dominican Republic\n  \u2022 El Salvador\n  \u2022 Grenada\n  \u2022 Guatemala\n  \u2022 Haiti\n  \u2022 Honduras\n  \u2022 Jamaica\n  \u2022 Mexico\n  \u2022 Nicaragua\n  \u2022 Panama\n  \u2022 Saint Kitts and Nevis\n  \u2022 Saint Lucia\n  \u2022 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\n  \u2022 Trinidad and Tobago\n  \u2022 United States\n[show]\n\u00a0\nSupreme Court of the United States\nThe Roberts Court\nChief Justice: J. Roberts (2005\u2013present)\n2010\u20132016:\n  \u2022 A. Scalia\n  \u2022 A. Kennedy\n  \u2022 C. Thomas\n  \u2022 R. B. Ginsburg\n  \u2022 S. Breyer\n  \u2022 S. Alito\n  \u2022 S. Sotomayor\n  \u2022 E. Kagan\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHistory of the Supreme Court of the United States by Chief Justice\n  1. Jay Court (1789\u20131795; cases)\n  2. Rutledge Court (1795; cases)\n  3. Ellsworth Court (1796\u20131800; cases)\n  4. Marshall Court (1801\u20131835; cases)\n  5. Taney Court (1836\u20131864; cases)\n  6. Chase Court (1864\u20131873; cases)\n  7. Waite Court (1874\u20131888; cases)\n  8. Fuller Court (1888\u20131910; cases)\n  9. White Court (1910\u20131921; cases)\n  10. Taft Court (1921\u20131930; cases)\n  11. Hughes Court (1930\u20131941; cases)\n  12. Stone Court (1941\u20131946; cases)\n  13. Vinson Court (1946\u20131953; cases)\n  14. Warren Court (1953\u20131969; cases)\n  15. Burger Court (1969\u20131986; cases)\n  16. Rehnquist Court (1986\u20132005; cases)\n  17. Roberts Court (2005\u2013present; cases)\nSeal of the United States Supreme Court.svg\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nHighest judicial bodies in the United States\nFederal court\n  \u2022 Supreme Court of the United States\n  \u2022 1st Cir.\n  \u2022 2nd Cir.\n  \u2022 3rd Cir.\n  \u2022 4th Cir.\n  \u2022 5th Cir.\n  \u2022 6th Cir.\n  \u2022 7th Cir.\n  \u2022 8th Cir.\n  \u2022 9th Cir.\n  \u2022 10th Cir.\n  \u2022 11th Cir.\n  \u2022 DC Cir.\n  \u2022 Fed. Cir.\n  \u2022 Armed Forces\nState supreme courts\n  \u2022 Alabama\n  \u2022 Alaska\n  \u2022 Arizona\n  \u2022 Arkansas\n  \u2022 California\n  \u2022 Colorado\n  \u2022 Connecticut\n  \u2022 Delaware\n  \u2022 Florida\n  \u2022 Georgia\n  \u2022 Hawaii\n  \u2022 Idaho\n  \u2022 Illinois\n  \u2022 Indiana\n  \u2022 Iowa\n  \u2022 Kansas\n  \u2022 Kentucky\n  \u2022 Louisiana\n  \u2022 Maine\n  \u2022 Maryland\n  \u2022 Massachusetts\n  \u2022 Michigan\n  \u2022 Minnesota\n  \u2022 Mississippi\n  \u2022 Missouri\n  \u2022 Montana\n  \u2022 Nebraska\n  \u2022 Nevada\n  \u2022 New Hampshire\n  \u2022 New Jersey\n  \u2022 New Mexico\n  \u2022 New York\n  \u2022 North Carolina\n  \u2022 North Dakota\n  \u2022 Ohio\n  \u2022 Oklahoma (Civil) (Criminal)\n  \u2022 Oregon\n  \u2022 Pennsylvania\n  \u2022 Rhode Island\n  \u2022 South Carolina\n  \u2022 South Dakota\n  \u2022 Tennessee\n  \u2022 Texas (Civil) (Criminal)\n  \u2022 Utah\n  \u2022 Vermont\n  \u2022 Virginia\n  \u2022 Washington\n  \u2022 West Virginia\n  \u2022 Wisconsin\n  \u2022 Wyoming\nTerritorial supreme courts\n  \u2022 American Samoa\n  \u2022 District of Columbia\n  \u2022 Guam\n  \u2022 Northern Mariana Islands\n  \u2022 Puerto Rico\n  \u2022 United States Virgin Islands\nObsolete\n  \u2022 Panama Canal Zone\n  \u2022 Philippine Islands\nComplete list\n  \u2022 Courts of the United States (Federal and state, all levels)\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUnited States Military Judicial Authority\n  \u2022 Military justice\n  \u2022 Law of the United States\nAuthority\n  \u2022 United States Constitution, Article I\n  \u2022 Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ)\nStandards\n  \u2022 Manual for Courts-Martial\n  \u2022 Convening authority (court-martial)\nJudge Advocate General's Corps (JAG)\nArmy\n  \u2022 Judge Advocate General's Corps, Army (Army JAG)\nMarine Corps\n  \u2022 Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division\nNavy\n  \u2022 Judge Advocate General's Corps, Navy (Navy JAG)\nAir Force\n  \u2022 Judge Advocate General's Corps, Air Force\nCoast Guard\n  \u2022 Coast Guard Legal Division\nNon-judicial punishment\n  \u2022 UCMJ Article 15\n  \u2022 Military tribunals in the United States\nCourt systems\nTrial\n  \u2022 Courts-martial\n  \u2022 Guantanamo military commissions\nAppeal\n  \u2022 Army Court of Criminal Appeals\n  \u2022 Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals\n  \u2022 Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals\n  \u2022 Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals\n  \u2022 Court of Military Commission Review\nDiscretionary\nreview\n  \u2022 Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces\n  \u2022 Supreme Court\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nLaw of the United States\nConstitutional law\n  \u2022 Federalism\n  \u2022 Separation of powers\n  \u2022 Civil rights\nScales of justice\nCourts of the\nUnited States\nFederal courts\n  \u2022 Supreme (SCOTUS)\n  \u2022 Appeals\n  \u2022 District (list)\n  \u2022 Bankruptcy\n  \u2022 Claims\n  \u2022 International Trade\n  \u2022 Tax\nState courts\n  \u2022 State supreme\nEducation\n  \u2022 Law school\n  \u2022 Law School Admission Test\n  \u2022 Admission to the bar\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nUnited States\u00a0articles\nHistory\nBy event\n  \u2022 Timeline of U.S. history\n  \u2022 Pre-Columbian era\n  \u2022 Colonial era\n    \u2022 Thirteen Colonies\n    \u2022 military history\n    \u2022 Continental Congress\n  \u2022 American Revolution\n    \u2022 War\n  \u2022 American frontier\n  \u2022 Drafting and ratification of Constitution\n  \u2022 Federalist Era\n  \u2022 War of 1812\n  \u2022 Territorial acquisitions\n  \u2022 Territorial evolution\n  \u2022 Mexican\u2013American War\n  \u2022 Civil War\n  \u2022 Reconstruction Era\n  \u2022 Indian Wars\n  \u2022 Gilded Age\n  \u2022 Progressive Era\n  \u2022 African-American Civil Rights Movement 1865\u20131895\u00a0\/ 1896\u20131954\n  \u2022 Spanish\u2013American War\n  \u2022 Imperialism\n  \u2022 World War I\n  \u2022 Roaring Twenties\n  \u2022 Great Depression\n  \u2022 World War II\n    \u2022 home front\n    \u2022 Nazism in the United States\n  \u2022 American Century\n  \u2022 Cold War\n  \u2022 Korean War\n  \u2022 Space Race\n  \u2022 Civil Rights Movement\n  \u2022 Feminist Movement\n  \u2022 Vietnam War\n  \u2022 Post-Cold War (1991\u20132008)\n  \u2022 War on Terror\n    \u2022 War in Afghanistan\n    \u2022 Iraq War\n  \u2022 Recent events (2008\u2013present)\nBy topic\n  \u2022 Outline of U.S. history\n  \u2022 Demographic\n  \u2022 Discoveries\n  \u2022 Economic\n    \u2022 debt ceiling\n  \u2022 Inventions\n    \u2022 before 1890\n    \u2022 1890\u20131945\n    \u2022 1946\u201391\n    \u2022 after 1991\n  \u2022 Military\n  \u2022 Postal\n  \u2022 Technological and industrial\nGeography\n  \u2022 Territory\n    \u2022 counties\n    \u2022 federal district\n    \u2022 federal enclaves\n    \u2022 Indian reservations\n    \u2022 insular zones\n    \u2022 minor outlying islands\n    \u2022 populated places\n    \u2022 states\n  \u2022 Earthquakes\n  \u2022 Extreme points\n  \u2022 Islands\n  \u2022 Mountains\n    \u2022 peaks\n    \u2022 ranges\n    \u2022 Appalachian\n    \u2022 Rocky\n  \u2022 National Park Service\n    \u2022 National Parks\n  \u2022 Regions\n    \u2022 East Coast\n    \u2022 West Coast\n    \u2022 Great Plains\n    \u2022 Gulf\n    \u2022 Mid-Atlantic\n    \u2022 Midwestern\n    \u2022 New England\n    \u2022 Pacific\n    \u2022 Central\n    \u2022 Eastern\n    \u2022 Northern\n    \u2022 Northeastern\n    \u2022 Northwestern\n    \u2022 Southern\n    \u2022 Southeastern\n    \u2022 Southwestern\n    \u2022 Western\n  \u2022 Rivers\n    \u2022 Colorado\n    \u2022 Columbia\n    \u2022 Mississippi\n    \u2022 Missouri\n    \u2022 Ohio\n    \u2022 Rio Grande\n    \u2022 Yukon\n  \u2022 Time\n  \u2022 Water supply and sanitation\nPolitics\nFederal\nExecutive\n  \u2022 Cabinet\n  \u2022 Civil service\n  \u2022 Executive departments\n  \u2022 Executive Office\n  \u2022 Independent agencies\n  \u2022 Law enforcement\n  \u2022 President of the United States\n  \u2022 Public policy\nCongress\n  \u2022 House of Representatives\n    \u2022 current members\n    \u2022 Speaker\n  \u2022 Senate\n    \u2022 current members\n    \u2022 President pro tempore\n    \u2022 Vice President\nJudiciary\n  \u2022 Courts of appeals\n  \u2022 District courts\n  \u2022 Supreme Court\nLaw\n  \u2022 Bill of Rights\n    \u2022 civil liberties\n  \u2022 Code of Federal Regulations\n  \u2022 Constitution\n    \u2022 federalism\n    \u2022 preemption\n    \u2022 separation of powers\n  \u2022 Federal Reporter\n  \u2022 United States Code\n  \u2022 United States Reports\nIntelligence\n  \u2022 Central Intelligence Agency\n  \u2022 Defense Intelligence Agency\n  \u2022 Federal Bureau of Investigation\n  \u2022 National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency\n  \u2022 National Reconnaissance Office\n  \u2022 National Security Agency\n  \u2022 Office of the Director of National Intelligence\nUniformed\n  \u2022 Armed Forces\n    \u2022 Army\n    \u2022 Marine Corps\n    \u2022 Navy\n    \u2022 Air Force\n    \u2022 Coast Guard\n  \u2022 National Guard\n  \u2022 NOAA Corps\n  \u2022 Public Health Service Corps\n  \u2022 51st state\n    \u2022 political status of Puerto Rico\n    \u2022 District of Columbia statehood movement\n  \u2022 Elections\n    \u2022 Electoral College\n  \u2022 Foreign relations\n    \u2022 Foreign policy\n  \u2022 Ideologies\n    \u2022 anti-Americanism\n    \u2022 exceptionalism\n    \u2022 nationalism\n  \u2022 Local government\n  \u2022 Parties\n    \u2022 Democratic\n    \u2022 Republican\n    \u2022 Third parties\n  \u2022 Red states and blue states\n    \u2022 Purple America\n  \u2022 Scandals\n  \u2022 State government\n    \u2022 governor\n    \u2022 state legislature\n    \u2022 state court\n  \u2022 Uncle Sam\nEconomy\n  \u2022 By sector\n    \u2022 Agriculture\n    \u2022 Banking\n    \u2022 Communications\n    \u2022 Energy\n    \u2022 Insurance\n    \u2022 Manufacturing\n    \u2022 Mining\n    \u2022 Tourism\n    \u2022 Trade\n    \u2022 Transportation\n  \u2022 Companies\n    \u2022 by state\n  \u2022 Currency\n  \u2022 Exports\n  \u2022 Federal budget\n  \u2022 Federal Reserve System\n  \u2022 Financial position\n  \u2022 Labor unions\n  \u2022 Public debt\n  \u2022 Social welfare programs\n  \u2022 Taxation\n  \u2022 Unemployment\n  \u2022 Wall Street\nSociety\nCulture\n  \u2022 Americana\n  \u2022 Architecture\n  \u2022 Cinema\n  \u2022 Cuisine\n  \u2022 Dance\n  \u2022 Demography\n  \u2022 Education\n  \u2022 Family structure\n  \u2022 Fashion\n  \u2022 Flag\n  \u2022 Folklore\n  \u2022 Languages\n    \u2022 American English\n    \u2022 Indigenous languages\n    \u2022 ASL\n      \u2022 Black American Sign Language\n    \u2022 HSL\n    \u2022 Plains Sign Talk\n    \u2022 Arabic\n    \u2022 Chinese\n    \u2022 French\n    \u2022 German\n    \u2022 Italian\n    \u2022 Russian\n    \u2022 Spanish\n  \u2022 Literature\n  \u2022 Media\n    \u2022 Journalism\n    \u2022 Internet\n    \u2022 Newspapers\n    \u2022 Radio\n    \u2022 Television\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Names\n  \u2022 People\n  \u2022 Philosophy\n  \u2022 Public holidays\n  \u2022 Religion\n  \u2022 Sexuality\n  \u2022 Sports\n  \u2022 Theater\n  \u2022 Visual art\nSocial class\n  \u2022 Affluence\n  \u2022 American Dream\n  \u2022 Educational attainment\n  \u2022 Homelessness\n  \u2022 Home-ownership\n  \u2022 Household income\n  \u2022 Income inequality\n  \u2022 Middle class\n  \u2022 Personal income\n  \u2022 Poverty\n  \u2022 Professional and working class conflict\n  \u2022 Standard of living\n  \u2022 Wealth\nIssues\n  \u2022 Ages of consent\n  \u2022 Capital punishment\n  \u2022 Crime\n    \u2022 incarceration\n  \u2022 Criticism of government\n  \u2022 Discrimination\n    \u2022 affirmative action\n    \u2022 antisemitism\n    \u2022 intersex rights\n    \u2022 islamophobia\n    \u2022 LGBT rights\n    \u2022 racism\n    \u2022 same-sex marriage\n  \u2022 Drug policy\n  \u2022 Energy policy\n  \u2022 Environmental movement\n  \u2022 Gun politics\n  \u2022 Health care\n    \u2022 abortion\n    \u2022 health insurance\n    \u2022 hunger\n    \u2022 obesity\n    \u2022 smoking\n  \u2022 Human rights\n  \u2022 Immigration\n    \u2022 illegal\n  \u2022 International rankings\n  \u2022 National security\n    \u2022 Mass surveillance\n    \u2022 Terrorism\n  \u2022 Separation of church and state\n  \u2022 Outline\n  \u2022 Index\n  \u2022 Book\n  \u2022 Category\n  \u2022 Portal\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&oldid=815925358\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Supreme Court of the United States\n  \u2022 Constitutional courts\n  \u2022 National supreme courts\n  \u2022 1789 establishments in the United States\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from January 2011\n  \u2022 Use mdy dates from March 2017\n  \u2022 Coordinates not on Wikidata\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 All articles with unsourced statements\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from October 2016\n  \u2022 All articles containing potentially dated statements\n  \u2022 Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2012\n  \u2022 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from January 2017\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Spoken articles\n  \u2022 Articles with hAudio microformats\n  \u2022 Articles with Project Gutenberg links\n  \u2022 Articles with Internet Archive links\n  \u2022 Articles with LibriVox links\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n  \u2022 Wikiquote\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u00c6nglisc\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00fa\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Brezhoneg\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Frysk\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 \u00cdslenska\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 \u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Latvie\u0161u\n  \u2022 L\u00ebtzebuergesch\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 Tagalog\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 18 December 2017, at 03:00.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5664751204279175363","title":"Tom Ellis (actor)","text":"Tom Ellis (actor)\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nTom Ellis\nTom Ellis 2015 SDCC.jpg\nTom Ellis at 2015 San Diego Comic-Con\nBorn Thomas John Ellis\n(1978-11-17) 17 November 1978 (age\u00a039)[1]\nCardiff, Wales\nResidence Los Angeles, California, U.S.\nVancouver, British Columbia, Canada\nNationality \u00a0United Kingdom\nAlma\u00a0mater Royal Conservatoire of Scotland\nSpouse(s)\nTamzin Outhwaite\n(m.\u00a02006; div.\u00a02014)\nChildren 3\n\nThomas John Ellis (born 17 November 1978), better known as Tom Ellis, is a Welsh actor. He is best known for playing Gary Preston in the sitcom Miranda (2009\u20132015) and Lucifer Morningstar in the television series Lucifer (2016\u2013).\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Early life\n  \u2022 2 Career\n  \u2022 3 Personal life\n  \u2022 4 Filmography\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nEarly life[edit]\n\nEllis was born in Cardiff, the son of Marilyn Jean (Hooper) and Christopher John Ellis.[1] His father, sister and uncle are all Baptist ministers, with his uncle, Robert Ellis, being principal of Regent's Park College, Oxford, which his father also attended.[2] Ellis attended High Storrs School in Sheffield during his education and was a French horn player in the City of Sheffield Youth Orchestra. Tom went on to study BA Dramatic Studies at the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, which was previously named Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD).\n\nCareer[edit]\n\nOther notable roles include Gary Preston in a hit TV show Miranda aired on BBC co-side with Miranda Hart from November 9, 2009 to January 1, 2015 , Justyn in Channel 4's No Angels and Thomas Milligan in the series three finale of the BBC One science-fiction television programme Doctor Who. In July and August 2009, Ellis starred in ITV comedy drama Monday Monday with Fay Ripley.[3][4] He was also cast as Detective Inspector Bland in Agatha Christie's Poirot. Ellis was the star of the USA network series Rush, playing a Hollywood physician. In February 2015, it was announced that Ellis was cast as Lucifer Morningstar in the Fox Television drama Lucifer, based on the comic with the same name, which premiered on 25 January 2016.[5]\n\nPersonal life[edit]\n\nIn 2005, Estelle Morgan, Ellis' ex-girlfriend, gave birth to Ellis' first daughter, Nora. Ellis was married to actress Tamzin Outhwaite from 2006 to 2014. On 25 June 2008, she gave birth to their first daughter, Florence Elsie. On 20 December 2008, the pair appeared on the ITV gameshow All Star Mr & Mrs Christmas Special. Their second daughter, Marnie Mae, was born on 2 August 2012. On 29 August 2013, a spokesperson for the couple stated that they had separated, and the following month Outhwaite filed for divorce.[6][7][8]\n\nAs of 2018, Ellis is engaged to television producer Meaghan Oppenheimer.[9]\n\nFilmography[edit]\n\nFilm and television roles\nYear Title Role Notes\n2001 The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby John Browdie\nHigh Heels and Low Lifes Police Officer\nBuffalo Soldiers Squash\n2001\u201302 Nice Guy Eddie Frank Bennett\n2003 Pollyanna Timothy\nI'll Be There Ivor\n2004 Messiah III: The Promise Dr. Phillip Ryder\nVera Drake Police Officer\n2005 Much Ado About Nothing Claudio\nMidsomer Murders Lee Smeeton Episode: \"Midsomer Rhapsody\"\nWaking the Dead Harry Taylor Episode: \"Straw Dog\"\n2005\u201306 No Angels Justyn\n2006 EastEnders Dr. Oliver Cousins\nThe Catherine Tate Show Detective Sergeant Sam Speed\n2007 Suburban Shootout P.C. Haines\nDoctor Who Tom Milligan Episode: \"Last of the Time Lords\"\nThe Catherine Tate Christmas Show Detective Sergeant Sam Speed\n2008 Trial & Retribution Nick Fisher\nMiss Conception Zak\nHarley Street Dr Ross Jarvis Episode: \"Episode 4\"\nThe Passion Apostle Philip\/Philip\n2009 Monday Monday Steven\n2009\u201315 Miranda Gary Preston\n2010 Dappers Marco\nMerlin Cenred\nAccused Neil\n2011 The Fades Mark Etches\nSugartown Max Burr\n2012 Gates Mark Pearson\nThe Secret of Crickley Hall Gabe Caleigh\n2013 Walking Stories Jarrod Short film\nAgatha Christie's Poirot Detective Inspector Bland Episode: \"Dead Man's Folly\"\nOnce Upon a Time Robin Hood Episode: \"Lacey\"\n2014 Rush Dr. William Rush Lead role; 10 episodes\n2015 The Strain Rob Bradley Episode: \"Identity\"\n2016\u2013present Lucifer Lucifer Morningstar Lead role\n2018 Family Guy Oscar Wilde (voice) Episode: \"V Is For Mystery\"[10]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Famous family trees: Tom Ellis\". 23 January 2013.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"BBC Website on Miranda\".\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (February 22, 2013). \"Hollywood Insider: What's Going on Behind the Scenes: TV's Pilot Season Goes (Very) High-Concept\". Entertainment Weekly. New York: Time Inc.: 26.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Tom Ellis, The Fades, Pulling, and Miranda, Gothica (TV 2013)\". Dread Central. Retrieved March 18, 2013.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Lucifer \u2013 Tom Ellis Gets His Horns\". Dread Central. Retrieved March 18, 2013.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Tamzin Outhwaite 'files for divorce from Tom Ellis, citing adultery'\", Express, 10 September 2013.\n  7. Jump up ^ (No author.) \"Tamzin Outhwaite 'Divorcing' Tom Ellis After He Reportedly Admits Cheating With One-Night Stand\", Huffington Post UK, 9 October 2013.\n  8. Jump up ^ Kelby McNally. \"'We're all moving forward' Tom Ellis speaks out about Tamzin Outhwaite split\", Express, 19 September 2013.\n  9. Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich, Matt (July 26, 2018). \"Matt's Inside Line: Scoop on Five-0, Legends, Lucifer, Supernatural, NCIS, S.W.A.T., Nashville Finale and More\". TVLine. Retrieved July 26, 2018.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ \"Listings - FAMILY GUY on FOX - TheFutonCritic.com\". www.thefutoncritic.com.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Tom Ellis on IMDb\nAuthority control Edit this at Wikidata\n  \u2022 WorldCat Identities\n  \u2022 GND: 1061394867\n  \u2022 ISNI: 0000 0004 6470 5421\n  \u2022 LCCN: no2015002583\n  \u2022 VIAF: 311618208\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Tom_Ellis_(actor)&oldid=854207705\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1978 births\n  \u2022 21st-century Welsh male actors\n  \u2022 British male film actors\n  \u2022 British male soap opera actors\n  \u2022 British male television actors\n  \u2022 Living people\n  \u2022 People educated at High Storrs School\n  \u2022 People from Cardiff\n  \u2022 British expatriates in Canada\n  \u2022 Alumni of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from November 2012\n  \u2022 Infobox person using alma mater\n  \u2022 Articles with hCards\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Cymraeg\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 9 August 2018, at 17:44\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2996588444670045892","title":"Darth Maul","text":"Darth Maul\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nMaul\nStar Wars character\nDarth Maul.png\nRay Park as Darth Maul in Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace.\nFirst appearance Star Wars: The Phantom Menace (1999)\nCreated by George Lucas\nPortrayed by Ray Park\nVoiced by\n  \u2022 Peter Serafinowicz (Episode I)\n  \u2022 Samuel Witwer (The Clone Wars, Rebels, Battlefront II (2017) and Solo: A Star Wars Story)\nshow\nOther:\n  \u2022 Gregg Berger (Star Wars: Episode I: The Phantom Menace (video game))\n  \u2022 David W. Collins (Elite Squadron)\n  \u2022 Stephen Stanton (Battlefront II (2005))\n  \u2022 Jess Harnell (Star Wars: Demolition, Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds and Star Wars: Racer Revenge)\n  \u2022 Lee Tockar (Droid Tales)\nInformation\nSpecies Dathomirian Zabrak\nGender Male\nOccupation Sith apprentice, Crime lord\nAffiliation Order of the Lords of the Sith\nShadow Collective\nCrimson Dawn\nFamily Savage Opress (brother)\nMother Talzin (mother)\nHomeworld Dathomir[1]\n\nMaul is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. Trained as Darth Sidious's first apprentice, he serves as a Sith Lord and a master of wielding a double-bladed lightsaber. He first appears in Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace (portrayed by Ray Park and voiced by Peter Serafinowicz). Despite his apparent demise in that film at the hands of Obi-Wan Kenobi, he would later return in the Star Wars: The Clone Wars animated television series, and would go on to make further appearances in the Star Wars Rebels series and the 2018 film Solo: A Star Wars Story, all voiced by Sam Witwer.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Characteristics\n    \u2022 1.1 Concept and creation\n    \u2022 1.2 Portrayal\n  \u2022 2 Appearances\n    \u2022 2.1 Films\n      \u2022 2.1.1 The Phantom Menace\n      \u2022 2.1.2 Solo: A Star Wars Story\n    \u2022 2.2 Animated series\n      \u2022 2.2.1 The Clone Wars\n      \u2022 2.2.2 Rebels\n    \u2022 2.3 Comics\n      \u2022 2.3.1 Darth Maul\n      \u2022 2.3.2 Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir\n    \u2022 2.4 Novels\n      \u2022 2.4.1 Ahsoka\n    \u2022 2.5 Legends\/Non-canonical\n  \u2022 3 In popular culture\n  \u2022 4 References\n  \u2022 5 External links\n\nCharacteristics[edit]\n\nConcept and creation[edit]\n\nAfter getting frustrated with a drawing of production designer Gavin Bocquet, Iain McCaig started covering it in tape. Both he and Lucas liked the result, described as \"a kind of Rorschach pattern\". The final drawing had McCaig's own face, with the skin removed, and some Rorschach experimentation (dropping ink onto paper, folding it in half then opening).[2]\n\nDarth Maul's head originally had feathers, based on prayer totems, but the Creature Effects crew led by Nick Dudman interpreted those feathers as horns, modifying his features into those common in popular depictions of the devil.[3]\n\nHis clothing was also modified, from a tight body suit with a muscle pattern to the Sith robe based on samurai pleats, because the lightsaber battles involved much jumping, spinning, running, and rolling.[4] Another concept had Maul a masked figure, something that could rival Darth Vader, while the senatorial characters would sport painted and tattooed faces. It was later decided to apply the painted and tattooed faces to Maul rather than the senator.[4]\n\nPortrayal[edit]\n\nDarth Maul was physically portrayed by actor and martial artist Ray Park in The Phantom Menace.[5] The character was voiced by comedian\/voice actor\/director Peter Serafinowicz in The Phantom Menace and Lego videogame adaptation of the prequel trilogy; while Samuel Witwer performed the character's voice in the animated series The Clone Wars, Rebels, and in the live action movie Solo: A Star Wars Story. Actors Gregg Berger, Jess Harnell, Stephen Stanton, Clint Bajakian, and David W. Collins have all voiced him in Legends adaptations and minor appearances.\n\nAppearances[edit]\n\nMain article: Star Wars canon\n\nFilms[edit]\n\nThe Phantom Menace[edit]\n\nMain article: Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace\n\nIntroduced in Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is ordered by Darth Sidious to capture Queen Padm\u00e9 Amidala. On Tatooine, Maul fights Qui-Gon Jinn while approaching the Queen's starship. While Anakin Skywalker (the future Darth Vader) gets on board, Qui-Gon engages Maul in a lightsaber duel, but the Jedi Master escapes. Eventually, Maul fights Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan Kenobi simultaneously. Maul duels Qui-Gon and eventually kills him. Although Obi-Wan is almost knocked down into a shaft, he uses the Force to propel himself out of the pit, and equips himself with Qui-Gon's lightsaber to bisect Maul, seemingly killing him, after which the two separated pieces of Maul's body fall into the shaft.[6]\n\nSolo: A Star Wars Story[edit]\n\nMain article: Solo: A Star Wars Story\n\nRay Park reprises his role from The Phantom Menace as Darth Maul, with Sam Witwer providing the voice,[7] reprising his role from the animated series, The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels.[8] Maul is revealed to be the master of the crime syndicate Crimson Dawn that crime lord Dryden Vos answers to. Qi'ra tells Maul that Vos and his men were killed by Tobias Beckett and his accomplices, but neglects to name Han Solo and Chewbacca. Maul commands her to meet with him on Dathomir and warns her that they will work more closely from now on, igniting his lightsaber.\n\nAnimated series[edit]\n\nThe Clone Wars[edit]\n\nMain article: Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)\n\nDarth Maul appears in the fourth and fifth seasons of the animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars.\n\nIn the third season, Darth Maul\u2019s origins are elaborated upon: he is portrayed as a warrior of the Nightbrother clan on the planet Dathomir inhabited by the dominant Nightsister witchcraft society led by Mother Talzin. Maul\u2019s tattoos are described as the markings of a warrior (in contrast to earlier sources which identify his body art as Sith markings). Talzin has Savage Opress find his long-lost brother.\n\nIn the fourth season, Darth Maul is revealed to be alive, having survived his presumed death at Obi-Wan Kenobi\u2019s hands. Having ended up on the junkyard planet Lotho Minor via a dumpster craft, Maul has suffered from amnesia since Obi-Wan defeated him. Opress finds Maul and brings him to the devastated Dathomir, where Talzin restores Maul\u2019s mind and gives him robotic legs. Maul and Opress set about a plan to exact revenge on Obi-Wan.[9] Maul proceeds to attack a village on planet Raydonia as his first attempt on Obi-Wan's life, only to be thwarted due to Asajj Ventress\u2019s unexpected appearance to collect a bounty on Opress. Maul and Opress overpower Obi-Wan and Ventress, but Maul lets them go upon realizing that the Jedi know of his existence, deciding to await another opportunity.[10]\n\nIn the fifth season, Maul takes Opress as his apprentice, and begins building a criminal empire. Needing followers, they travel to Florrum and manage to convince Weequay pirate Jiro and his crew to join them and betray their leader Hondo Ohnaka. Maul\u2019s pirates attack Hondo\u2019s loyal forces, and Maul once again duels Obi-Wan while Opress fights and kills Jedi Master Adi Gallia. Obi-Wan and Hondo forces retreat and regroup inside Hondo\u2019s compound. Maul's forces eventually break in and Obi-Wan draws the two brothers away from the pirates, engaging them in a two-on-one duel while the pirate factions fight elsewhere in the compound. Obi-Wan, though outnumbered, cuts off Opress\u2019s arm and forces the Sith Lords to retreat. Meanwhile, Honda wins back his crew by \u201cpersuading\u201d them under threat of heavy artillery. Obi-Wan blows off one of Maul\u2019s robotic legs and badly damages Maul\u2019s ship. Maul and Opress manage to escape, but get stuck in dead space due to the damage to their ship. After several days, they are found close to death by the Death Watch Mandalorian warriors, led by Pre Vizsla, who gives Maul a new set of legs and Opress a new mechanical arm. Maul offers Vizsla the chance to reclaim Mandalore by recruiting the Black Sun and Pyke crime families and Jabba the Hutt\u2019s minions to create the criminal syndicate named The Shadow Collective.\n\nFrom there, Maul engineers Vizsla\u2019s rise to power: he orders his henchmen to attack Mandalore so the Death Watch can arrest them and appear as heroes to the denizens who have long lived under Duchess Satine Kryze\u2019s pacifist rule. Vizsla betrays Maul, imprisoning both Savage and him. Easily breaking free, Maul challenges Vizsla to a duel to take over the Death Watch and Mandalore; he succeeds in killing Vizsla and then claims his former co-conspirator\u2019s darksaber.[clarification needed] He wins the loyalty of most Death Watch members, but Bo Katan retreats along with those loyal to their previous leader. Maul then puts the disgraced former prime minister Almec, whom Satine had imprisoned for corruption, in power as a puppet leader, solidifying his control over Mandalore. Maul then anticipates Satine being broken out of prison and her attempt to contact the Jedi Council as part of his plan to get Obi-Wan to Mandalore. Once Obi-Wan arrives and attempts to rescue Satine, Maul captures him and exacts revenge on the Jedi by murdering Satine right in front of him, hoping to make the Jedi suffer as much as he once did. Obi-Wan is later freed by the Night Owl rebels (Bo Katan\u2019s Death Watch faction) who request Republic aid.\n\nMaul senses Darth Sidious arriving on Mandalore. Although impressed with his former apprentice\u2019s survival, Sidious declares Maul a rival and uses the Force to push and choke him and Opress. He then engages them both in lightsaber combat, fatally injuring Opress. After Opress dies from his wounds, Sidious reminds Maul of the Rule of Two, and tells him that he has been replaced. Enraged, Maul pulls out both his lightsaber and darksaber\u200a[clarification needed] and proceeds to fight Sidious on equal ground, but Sidious ultimately defeats him. Maul pleads for mercy, but Sidious ignores him and tortures him with blasts of Force lightning. Sidious reveals that he has no intention of killing Maul, remarking that he has other uses for his former apprentice.\n\nRebels[edit]\n\nMain article: Star Wars Rebels\n\nAn older Maul appears in the season 2 finale of Star Wars Rebels.[11] Tracked by an Inquisitor named the Eighth Brother, Maul is stranded on the ancient Sith world of Malachor, where he is discovered by series protagonist Ezra Bridger among the ruins. Introducing himself as \"Old Master\" and seeking revenge against Sidious, Maul leads Ezra into an ancient Sith temple, where they discover a holocron that Maul claims can give them the knowledge needed to defeat the Sith. After recovering it, the two find Ezra's master Kanan Jarrus and former Jedi Ahsoka Tano locked in battle with the Eighth Brother. They also find the Fifth Brother and the Seventh Sister, who have been pursuing the Rebels for some time. Maul \u2013 having cast aside the title of Darth \u2013 then reveals a new lightsaber disguised as a walking stick and joins the Jedi in battling their enemies.\n\nAfter the Inquisitors retreat, Maul wins the Jedi's trust by denouncing the Sith, and tells them that he cannot defeat Darth Vader on his own. Working together, he and the Jedi ascend towards the top of the Sith temple and successfully defeat the three Inquisitors. It is then that Maul reveals his intention to take Ezra as his apprentice, having already tricked him into activating the temple. After blinding Kanan, Maul briefly duels Ahsoka before facing Kanan again, only to be knocked off the temple's edge. However, he survives the fall and escapes Malachor in the Eighth Brother's TIE Fighter.\n\nMonths after the events on Malachor, Maul once again reveals himself to the Jedi as he takes the Ghost's crew hostage. He threatens to kill them unless Kanan and Ezra bring both the Sith and Jedi holocrons to him. Despite an attempt by the Rebels to escape, Maul successfully recaptures them and takes them to a remote base in the Outer Rim where he awaits the arrival of the Jedi. After they arrive, the holocrons are hazardously united allowing Ezra and Maul to see visions of their desires: Ezra sees images of a way to destroy the Sith, images including \"twin suns\", while Maul sees a vision of his own. Kanan begs Ezra to look away before he sees something he doesn't want to while Maul tells him to ignore Kanan and keep looking. Ezra heeds his master's words and breaks off the connection, which causes a great explosion. Maul escapes in the confusion, uttering, \"He lives.\"\n\nMaul reappears after finding the Rebellion's secret base. He tells Ezra that because the connection was severed, they got bits and pieces of each other's visions. With the holocrons destroyed from the events of their previous meeting, Maul discovered another way to get the information he needed. With Ezra he travels to Dathomir, former home of the Night Sisters, and recreates one of their spells to temporarily meld his and Ezra's minds. After the spell is completed Ezra, who was still looking for a way to destroy the Sith, and Maul realize they are both looking for Obi-Wan Kenobi.\n\nIn the episode \"Twin Suns\", Maul is shown lost on Tatooine. He decides to use Ezra to lure Obi-Wan out of hiding. During their confrontation, Maul deduces that Obi-Wan is not only hiding, but is protecting someone. In a swift duel, Obi-Wan fatally wounds Maul. As he lies dying in Obi-Wan's arms, Maul asks if the person he is protecting is the Chosen One, and Obi-Wan replies \"he is\". Maul declares that this \"Chosen One\" will avenge them, and dies.\n\nComics[edit]\n\nDarth Maul[edit]\n\nIn 2017, Marvel released Star Wars: Darth Maul a 5-issue prequel series centered on Darth Maul before the events of The Phantom Menace.[12]\n\nDarth Maul: Son of Dathomir[edit]\n\nMain article: Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir\n\nDark Horse Comics produced Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir based on the scripts and storyboards of an unproduced 4-episode story arc intended for The Clone Wars Season 6. After killing Savage Opress, Darth Sidious takes Maul to a Separatist prison, where Count Dooku tortures him for information about the Shadow Collective. Prime Minister Almec arranges Maul's escape and the latter then heads back to Zanbar to command the Death Watch army. However, he is followed there by General Grievous and his droids, who then battle with Maul and the Mandalorians. While they put up a fierce fight, Maul and his minions are ultimately overwhelmed by the droids. During the battle, Maul tears through the droid ranks and attacks Grievous, but is overpowered and forced to retreat. Afterwards, Maul confers with Mother Talzin (revealed to be his biological mother) and plots to draw out Sidious by capturing Dooku and General Grievous. The scheme works, and Talzin is able to restore herself to her physical form, but she sacrifices herself to save Maul. Although Maul escapes with a company of loyal Mandalorians, the Shadow Collective has fallen apart due to the conflict with Sidious, as the Hutts, Pykes, and Black Sun have all abandoned Maul.\n\nNovels[edit]\n\nAhsoka[edit]\n\nMain article: Star Wars: Ahsoka\n\nIn flashbacks during the novel Star Wars: Ahsoka, it is revealed that during the final days of the Clone Wars, Maul and his forces were besieged on Mandalore by an army of clone troopers led by Ahsoka Tano and Captain Rex. During the siege, Maul confronts and duels Ahsoka, and though he proves to be the stronger fighter, the former Jedi outwits him and traps him in a ray shield. However, before Maul can be taken into official custody, Order 66 is enacted and the clone troopers following Ahsoka turn on her, with the exception of Rex. With Rex's life in peril, Ahsoka abandons the chance of killing Maul, allowing the former Sith to escape once again. This battle was originally intended to be depicted in the series finale of The Clone Wars had the series not been prematurely cancelled \u2013 Anakin and Obi-Wan were dispatched to Mandalore with Ahsoka, but were immediately called back to Coruscant to rescue Chancellor Palpatine, thus leading into the opening sequence of Revenge of the Sith.\n\nLegends\/Non-canonical[edit]\n\nWith the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.[13][14][15]\n\nAs portrayed in the novel Darth Plagueis, the titular Sith Lord sends his apprentice, Darth Sidious, to the Force-rich world of Dathomir. A Dathomiri witch, or Night-sister, senses Sidious' power in the Force and approaches him. She assumes he is a Jedi and begs him to take her Zabrak infant son. She realizes Sidious is not a Jedi, and explains how she is trying to save her son from a Nightsister named Talzin, who killed Maul's father. It is implied that Maul has a twin brother and that Talzin is only aware of one child. Sidious realizes the infant is strong in the Force, and would become a threat if found by the Jedi. Concealing the existence of his own master, Sidious raises Maul to believe that he is a Sith apprentice, but he actually intends him to be an expendable\u2014albeit useful\u2014minion rather than an heir. Maul himself acknowledges his shortcomings, such as his limited understanding of politics, even as he tries to become a true Sith.\n\nAs portrayed in the novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter, Maul was raised by Sidious for as long as he can remember. He then trains Maul as a Sith, marking his body with Sith tattoos. Maul initially goes on several missions of terror for his master, killing politicians, crime bosses, merchants and warlords.\n\nSeveral sources depict Maul returning from the dead in several different forms. The story \"Resurrection\" from Star Wars Tales 9 depicts a cult creating a duplicate of Maul as a replacement for Darth Vader, only for Vader to kill him. The story \"Phantom Menaces\" in Star Wars Tales #17 (set after Return of the Jedi) depicts Luke Skywalker visiting Maul's home planet of Iridonia in an ambassadorial capacity, where he faces a \"solid state hologram\" of Maul projected from Maul's salvaged brain as part of a scientist's attempt to recreate Maul as Iridonia's \"champion\". Luke recognizes the disruption that Maul's existence is causing in the Force, and shuts down the life-support systems keeping the brain alive.\n\nIn 2005, Dark Horse Comics published Star Wars: Visionaries, a compilation of comic art short stories. One story \"Old Wounds\", considered to be non-canonical to Star Wars lore, depicts Maul, now with longer horns on his head, surviving his bisection at Obi-Wan's hands, replacing his missing bottom half with cybernetic legs, similar to those of General Grievous. He then follows Obi-Wan throughout the galaxy, finally tracking him down on Tatooine a few years after the events of Star Wars: Episode III \u2013 Revenge of the Sith. Maul taunts Obi-Wan, saying that after he kills him, he will take a toddler-aged Luke Skywalker to his master, Emperor Palpatine. Maul plans to kill Darth Vader, and resume his rightful place at Palpatine's side as his apprentice. He ignites his new double-bladed lightsaber, and engages Obi-Wan in a lightsaber duel, but Obi-Wan again bests him in combat, cutting off his opponent's horns. The Sith Lord is killed, unexpectedly, by a blaster bolt to the head from Owen Lars. Obi-Wan thanks Owen, and says he will take Maul's body into the desert and burn it so he can never come back.\n\nIn early 2012, a young adult novel entitled Star Wars: The Wrath of Darth Maul was released by Scholastic. In the 2014 novel, Star Wars: Maul: Lockdown, set before The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is sent into an infamous galactic prison. Maul is also featured prominently in comic series starting in this period, Star Wars: The Clone Wars: The Sith Hunters & Darth Maul: Death Sentence. Set in the period of the Clone Wars around the various episodes that featured Maul, Sith Hunters and Death Sentence detail his and Savage Opress' journey across the galaxy as they seek vengeance on the Jedi.\n\nIn popular culture[edit]\n\nSince the release of The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul has proven to be a popular character. IGN named Darth Maul the 16th greatest Star Wars character, noting, \"Of the countless characters to walk in and out of the Star Wars saga, none looks or acts more badass than Darth Maul.\"[16]\n\nDarth Maul-related merchandise was popular among Hasbro Star Wars toy lines, with plastic recreations of his double bladed lightsaber and various action figures in his likeness developed. Darth Maul has been the focal point of the toy marketing campaign surrounding the 2012 re-release of The Phantom Menace, being featured on the packaging for the toy line.[17]\n\nIn December 2017, an 8-year-old Ontario boy went viral on the Internet with a video of him pretending to be Darth Maul and displaying his martial arts skills.[18]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Star Wars portal\n  \u2022 icon1990s portal\n  1. Jump up ^ \"Maul, Darth\". Star wars Databank. Lucasfilm. Retrieved 2011-09-24.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ \"Designing a Sith Lord\". Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2015-02-06.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Moyers, Bill (1999-04-26). \"Of Myth And Men\". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2009-04-20.\u00a0\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Designing a Sith Lord Archived June 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.\n  5. Jump up ^ Wetmore, Jr., Kevin J. (10 August 2017). The Empire Triumphant: Race, Religion and Rebellion in the Star Wars Films. McFarland & Company. p.\u00a0127. ISBN\u00a09781476611716.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace\n  7. Jump up ^ Simpson, George (24 May 2018). \"Solo 2: How two MAJOR Star Wars villains are set up for the inevitable sequel\". Daily Express. Express Newspapers. Retrieved 24 May 2018.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"The Solo: A Star Wars Story Ending Explained\". GamesRadar. May 17, 2018. Retrieved May 19, 2018.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)\n  10. Jump up ^ Valby, Karen. \"Entertainment Weekly \u2013 Darth Maul Lives!\". Insidetv.ew.com. Retrieved 2012-06-13.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ \"'Star Wars: Rebels' resurrects a familiar old foe\". Ew.com. Retrieved 10 November 2017.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Juba, Joe (2016-11-14). \"Darth Maul To Star In New Star Wars Comic Book - News\". www.GameInformer.com. Retrieved 2016-12-19.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Hood, Bryan (December 15, 2015). \"Why Disney Blew Up More Than 30 Years of Star Wars Canon\". Bloomberg. Retrieved November 29, 2016.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"The Legendary Star Wars Expanded Universe Turns a New Page\". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ \"Disney and Random House announce relaunch of Star Wars Adult Fiction line\". StarWars.com. April 25, 2014. Retrieved May 26, 2016.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Darth Maul- #16\". Ign.com. Archived from the original on 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2012-06-13.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"Star Wars Crafts and Creativity - StarWars.com\". StarWars.com. Retrieved 10 November 2017.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.ctvnews.ca\/canada\/eight-year-old-karate-kid-goes-viral-with-darth-maul-skills-1.3711625\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Darth Maul in the StarWars.com Databank\n  \u2022 Darth Maul on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki\n  \u2022 Darth Maul on IMDb\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nFictional universe of Star Wars\nConcepts\n  \u2022 The Force\n  \u2022 Architecture\n  \u2022 Languages\n  \u2022 Physics\nOrganizations\n  \u2022 First Order\n  \u2022 Galactic Empire\n  \u2022 Galactic Republic\n  \u2022 Jedi\n  \u2022 New Republic\n  \u2022 Rebel Alliance\n  \u2022 Resistance\n  \u2022 Sith\nCharacters\n  \u2022 Admiral Ackbar\n  \u2022 Padm\u00e9 Amidala\n  \u2022 Cassian Andor\n  \u2022 Wedge Antilles\n  \u2022 Cad Bane\n  \u2022 Darth Bane\n  \u2022 BB-8\n  \u2022 Jar Jar Binks\n  \u2022 C-3PO\n  \u2022 Lando Calrissian\n  \u2022 Chewbacca\n  \u2022 Lieutenant Connix\n  \u2022 Poe Dameron\n  \u2022 Count Dooku\n  \u2022 Jyn Erso\n  \u2022 Boba Fett\n  \u2022 Jango Fett\n  \u2022 Finn (FN-2187)\n  \u2022 Saw Gerrera\n  \u2022 Greedo\n  \u2022 Tag Greenley\n  \u2022 General Grievous\n  \u2022 HK-47\n  \u2022 Jabba the Hutt\n  \u2022 General Hux\n  \u2022 Mara Jade\n  \u2022 Kanan Jarrus\n  \u2022 Qi'ra\n  \u2022 Qui-Gon Jinn\n  \u2022 K-2SO\n  \u2022 Maz Kanata\n  \u2022 Kyle Katarn\n  \u2022 Obi-Wan Kenobi\n  \u2022 Kreia\n  \u2022 Orson Krennic\n  \u2022 Darth Maul\n  \u2022 Nien Nunb\n  \u2022 Leia Organa\n  \u2022 Bink Otauna\n  \u2022 Emperor Palpatine\n  \u2022 Captain Phasma\n  \u2022 Admiral Piett\n  \u2022 R2-D2\n  \u2022 Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)\n  \u2022 Revan\n  \u2022 Rey\n  \u2022 Captain Rex\n  \u2022 Bodhi Rook\n  \u2022 Bail Organa\n  \u2022 Anakin Skywalker\/Darth Vader\n  \u2022 Luke Skywalker\n  \u2022 Supreme Leader Snoke\n  \u2022 Han Solo\n  \u2022 Jacen Solo\n  \u2022 Starkiller\n  \u2022 Ahsoka Tano\n  \u2022 Grand Moff Tarkin\n  \u2022 Grand Admiral Thrawn\n  \u2022 Rose Tico\n  \u2022 Asajj Ventress\n  \u2022 Watto\n  \u2022 Wicket W. Warrick\n  \u2022 Mace Windu\n  \u2022 Yoda\nLists\n  \u2022 The Clone Wars characters\n  \u2022 Rebels characters\n  \u2022 Legends characters\n    \u2022 KotOR\nGroups\n  \u2022 Militaries\n    \u2022 Clone trooper\n    \u2022 Stormtrooper\n    \u2022 Droid Army\n    \u2022 Rogue Squadron\n  \u2022 Families\n    \u2022 Skywalker\n    \u2022 Solo\n  \u2022 Music Bands\n    \u2022 Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes\n    \u2022 Max Rebo Band\nPlanets and moons\n  \u2022 Alderaan\n  \u2022 Bespin\n  \u2022 Coruscant\n  \u2022 Dagobah\n  \u2022 Endor\n  \u2022 Hoth\n  \u2022 Jakku\n  \u2022 Kashyyyk\n  \u2022 Naboo\n  \u2022 Tatooine\n  \u2022 Yavin\nSpecies\n  \u2022 A\u2013E\n    \u2022 Bantha\n    \u2022 Droid\n    \u2022 Ewok\n  \u2022 F\u2013J\n    \u2022 Hutt\n  \u2022 K\u2013O\n  \u2022 P\u2013T\n    \u2022 Sarlacc\n    \u2022 Tusken Raiders\n  \u2022 U\u2013Z\n    \u2022 Wookiee\n  \u2022 List of creatures\nTechnology\nWeapons\n  \u2022 Blaster\n  \u2022 Death Star\n  \u2022 Lightsaber\nTerrestrial vehicles\n  \u2022 Landspeeder\n  \u2022 Speeder bike\n  \u2022 Sandcrawler\n  \u2022 Walkers\nStarfighters\n  \u2022 A-wing\n  \u2022 B-wing\n  \u2022 TIE fighter\n  \u2022 X-wing\n  \u2022 Y-wing\nSpacecraft\n  \u2022 Death Star\n  \u2022 Millennium Falcon\n  \u2022 Mon Calamari cruiser\n  \u2022 Star Destroyer\n  \u2022 Tantive IV\nOther\n  \u2022 Clone Wars\n  \u2022 Galactic Civil War\n  \u2022 Mos Eisley\n    \u2022 Mos Eisley Cantina\n  \u2022 Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 Category Category\n  \u2022 Portal Portal\nPortals\nAccess related topics\n  \u2022 Alcatel 9109HA.png1990s portal\n  \u2022 Friendly stickman.svgFictional characters portal\n  \u2022 Lightsaber blue.svgStar Wars portal\n\nFind out more on Wikipedia's\nSister projects\n  \u2022 Media\n    from Commons\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Darth_Maul&oldid=846617377\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Extraterrestrial superheroes\n  \u2022 Extraterrestrial supervillains\n  \u2022 Fantasy film characters\n  \u2022 Fantasy television characters\n  \u2022 Fictional amputees\n  \u2022 Fictional assassins\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 1999\n  \u2022 Fictional crime bosses\n  \u2022 Fictional cyborgs\n  \u2022 Fictional mass murderers\n  \u2022 Fictional telekinetics\n  \u2022 Male characters in film\n  \u2022 Revived fictional characters\n  \u2022 Sith\n  \u2022 Star Wars characters\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2018\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)\u200e\n  \u2022 \u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Interlingua\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Latina\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 Sloven\u010dina\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 21:31\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-2094324336345938061","title":"List of wealthiest historical figures","text":"List of wealthiest historical figures\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nText document with red question mark.svg\nSome of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nJohn D. Rockefeller is often considered the wealthiest person in modern history.[1][2]\n\nThe list of the wealthiest historical figures gathers published estimates as to the (inflation-adjusted) net-worth and fortunes of the wealthiest historical figures in comparison. Due to problems arising from different definitions of wealth, ways of measuring it, various economic models throughout history, as well as multiple other reasons\u2014this article discusses the wealthiest people in the following separate historical periods: Antiquity, Middle Ages and modern period. Accordingly\u2014because of the previously mentioned difficulties\u2014it is not possible to determine the single richest person in all of history.\n\nFor the modern period, wealth can be measured more or less objectively via inflation adjustment, e.g. comparing the nominal GDP of the United States of the respective periods, and then converting it into contemporary United States dollars. For the medieval and ancient history, comparison of wealth becomes more problematic, on one hand due to the inaccuracy or unreliability of records, on the other due to the difficulty of comparing a pre-industrial economy to a modern one, and especially in the presence of absolute monarchy, where an entire kingdom or empire is considered the ruler's personal property (this is also an issue in early modern to modern period, e.g. Davidson (2015) lists Joseph Stalin among The 10 Richest People of All Time for his \"complete control of a nation with 9.6% of global GDP\").[3]\n\nExcluding monarchs and autocrats, the wealthiest private individual in the history of capitalism is variously identified as Jakob Fugger (died 1525), of the early modern Fugger family of merchants and bankers,[4] and early 20th-century American entrepreneurs Andrew Carnegie (died 1919)[5] and John D. Rockefeller (died 1937). Frequently, one of these few people is considered to be the richest person of all time, depending on source.\n\nWhile the Rothschild family rose to the status of the wealthiest family of bankers in the 19th century, their wealth was distributed among a number of family members, preventing them from appearing among the wealthiest individuals. The richest among the Rothschilds was the head of its English branch\u2014Nathan Mayer Rothschild\u2014the richest person of his time.[6] Bernstein and Swan in All the Money in the World (2008) mention the top three richest Americans ever\u2014all tycoons of the Gilded Age\u2014respectively: John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt; Henry Ford was ranked only 12th.[7]\n\nAccording to Close (2016), the wealthiest woman in the history of capitalism, excluding monarchs, is L'Or\u00e9al heiress Liliane Bettencourt, whose net worth was at $40.7 billion in 2015.[8] Including monarchs, he mentions Empress Wu for Antiquity, Isabella of Castile for Middle Ages, and Catherine the Great for modern history.[9]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Early modern to modern period\n  \u2022 2 Middle Ages\n  \u2022 3 Antiquity\n  \u2022 4 See also\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 Further reading\n\nEarly modern to modern period[edit]\n\nListed individuals are thought to have had a net worth of at least the equivalent of 100 billion United States dollars. Therefore, it excludes figures such as Andrew W. Mellon, Richard B. Mellon, Stephen Van Rensselaer, A.T. Stewart, Heshen, J.P. Morgan, and others.\n\nName Photograph\/Portrait Lifetime Net worth (billion 2010 USD) Description\nJakob Fugger\nAlbrecht D\u00fcrer 080.jpg\n1459\u20131525\n\n(66 years)\n\n400[4] German merchant, mining entrepreneur and banker. He expanded Fugger family's assets by making their operations European wide. At one point, Fugger & family had an almost monopolistic hold on the European copper market.[10] At his death, Jakob Fugger bequeathed to his nephew Anton Fugger company assets totaling 2,032,652 guilders.[11] Referred to as \"Fugger the Rich\".\nJohn D. Rockefeller\nJohn D Rockefeller 1900.jpg\n1839\u20131937\n\n(97 years)\n\n336[3] On September 29, 1916, Rockefeller became the first person ever to reach a nominal personal fortune of US$1 billion (equivalent to US$16 billion in 2016).[12] Rockefeller amassed his fortune from the Standard Oil company, of which he was a founder, chairman and major shareholder. By the time of his death in 1937, estimates place his net worth in the range of US$300 billion to US$400 billion in adjusted dollars for the late 2000s (decade). When considering the real value of his wealth, Rockefeller is widely held to have been the wealthiest American, as well as the richest person in modern history.[13][14][15][16][17][18]\nAndrew Carnegie\nAndrew Carnegie, three-quarter length portrait, seated, facing slightly left, 1913.jpg\n1835\u20131919\n\n(84 years)\n\n310[3] Carnegie founded the Carnegie Steel Company, which was the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations in the United States; in 1901, Carnegie sold his company for US$480 million to J.P. Morgan, who then merged his company into U.S. Steel.[19] Capitalized at US$1.4 billion at the time, U.S. Steel was the first billion dollar company in the world. In his final years, Carnegie's net worth was US$475 million, but by the time of his death in 1919 he had donated most of his wealth to charities and other philanthropic endeavors and had only US$30 million left to his personal fortune. Carnegie's hundreds of millions accounted for about 0.60% of the U.S. annual GDP and has a real value estimated at about US$75 billion adjusted for the late 2000s (decade).[13][14]\nNicholas II of Russia\nNicholas II of Russia painted by Earnest Lipgart.jpg\n1868\u20131918\n\n(50 years)\n\n250-300 Emperor of All Russia from 1894 to 1917. Estimates of the wealth of Nicholas II remain wildly speculative. As emperor, and an autocrat, the resources under Nicholas II's command were virtually incalculable. However, the vast majority of this was officially owned by the State as Crown property. From this, supplemented by an annuity from the Treasury, he derived an annual income of 24 million roubles, from which he had to fund staff, the upkeep of imperial palaces and imperial theatres, annuities for the royal family, pensions, bequests, and other outgoings.[20] \"Before the end of the year, the Tsar was usually penniless; sometimes he reached this embarrassing state by autumn.\"[20] According to the Grand Marshall of the Court, Count Paul Benckendorff, his personal wealth only amounted to between 12.5 and 17.5 million roubles.[21]\nOsman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII\nMir osman ali khan.JPG\n1886\u20131967\n\n(81 years)\n\n210 The last Nizam of Hyderabad State in British India. Regarded as the wealthiest person in the world during his lifetime, his portrait was on the cover of Time magazine in 1937.[22] As a semi-autonomous monarch, he had his own mint, printing his own currency, the Hyderabadi rupee, and had a private treasury that was said to contain \u00a3100m in gold and silver bullion, and a further \u00a3400m of jewels (in 2008 terms). Among them was the Jacob Diamond, valued at some \u00a350m (in 2008 terms),[23][24][25] and used by the Nizam as a paperweight.[26]\nHenry Ford\nHenry ford 1919.jpg\n1863\u20131947\n\n(84 years)\n\n188\u2013199 Henry Ford was an American automotive engineer, entrepreneur, and founder of the Ford Motor Company. Through his designing of the Model T Ford and employing the assembly line means of rapid production, he was able to lower the base price of his product in order to reach a wider market. As production increased, Ford further reduced prices and increased salaries to reduce worker turnover. This resulted in a rapid increase in output, with Ford production rising from roughly 18,000 cars in 1909 to over 1 million cars in 1920. Despite Ford stating that his focus was increasing Ford Motor Company's benefit to society and to its employees, even at one point being sued by the Dodge brothers based on this premise, his company was massively profitable. His highest earnings were recorded at age 57 and he died at the age of 83 in 1947 at a net worth of US$188.1 billion (inflation-adjusted value in 2008 dollars).\nJohn Jacob Astor\nJohn Jacob Astor.jpg\n1763\u20131848\n\n(85 years)\n\n120\u2013138[27] American businessman, merchant, opium smuggler, fur trader, and investor. In 1801, Astor's nominal wealth was some US$250,000, and by the time of his death in 1848 his fortune had grown to US$20 million, making him America's first multi-millionaire.[13][14][15]\nCornelius Vanderbilt\nCornelius Vanderbilt Daguerrotype2.jpg\n1794\u20131877\n\n(83 years)\n\n105[28]\u2013205[29] American business magnate and philanthropist who built his wealth in railroads and shipping.\nStephen Girard\nStephen Girard by JR Lambdin.jpg\n1750\u20131831\n\n(81 years)\n\n105[30]\u2013120[31] French-born American banker. Before becoming a banker, he was a merchant and owned a fleet of trading ships.\nWilliam Henry Vanderbilt\nWilliam H Vanderbilt.jpg\n1821\u20131885\n\n(64 years)\n\n52-239[32] Railroad owner. Inherited much of his wealth from his father, Cornelius Vanderbilt,[30] who initiated the Vanderbilt family's involvement in railroad and shipping business. He doubled his father's fortune, to an amount estimated between $52 billion and $239 billion.[32]\n\nMiddle Ages[edit]\n\nAbsolute rulers or conquerors are sometimes listed for the territory they controlled rather than for their immediate personal wealth (Davidson (2015) for TIME.com listed Akbar I, Genghis Khan and Emperor Shenzong of Song for their imperial possessions, while Alan Rufus is listed for his immediate possessions within the feudal system of Norman England).[3]\n\nName Photograph\/Portrait Lifetime Description\nMusa I of Mali\nAfrican king from Catalan Atlas (1375).jpg\nc. 1280 \u2013 c. 1337 Mansa Musa, or Musa I of Mali is considered one of the richest men in history. Musa was the tenth emperor of the Mali Empire, one of the prosperous Sahelian kingdoms that developed along the Saharan slave trade routes in the later medieval period. Mansa Musa made his fortune by exploiting his country\u2019s salt and gold production.[3][33][34] Musa is said to have brought several tonnes of gold to Mecca when he made a pilgrimage there in 1324. Reported as being inconceivably rich by contemporaries, \"There\u2019s really no way to put an accurate number on his wealth.\"[35]\nWilliam the Conqueror\nKing William I ('The Conqueror') from NPG.jpg\nd. 1087 William the Conqueror became personally enormously wealthy from spoils of war during the Norman Conquest of England.[36]\nBasil II\nBasilios II.jpg\n958\u20131025 Byzantine emperor from 960 to 1025 at the time of the Eastern Roman Empire's greatest medieval territorial extent, also a time of considerable prosperity for the Empire.\nAlan Rufus\nAlan Rufus.png\nc. 1040\u20131093 Alan Rufus, 1st Lord of Richmond, was a relative and companion of William the Conqueror (Duke William II of Normandy) during the Norman Conquest of England. By 1086 he had become one of the richest and most powerful men of England.[36]\nWilliam de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey d. 1088 Fought alongside William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings and was rewarded with considerable land holdings in England.[30][36][37]\nRichard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel c. 1306\u20131376 English nobleman and admiral. Succeeded to the Earldom of Surrey in 1347.\nJohn of Gaunt\nJohnofgaunt.jpg\n1340\u20131399 Third son of King Edward III of England. Duke of Lancaster. Owned land in almost every county in England, with a household comparable to that of a monarch.[38]\n\nAntiquity[edit]\n\nMarcus Licinius Crassus is held to be the wealthiest person in Roman history, as he had a personal net worth equal to the treasury of Rome.[39]\n\nFor Classical Antiquity, even more than for the High Middle Ages, the definition of personal wealth becomes difficult to compare with the modern period; especially in the case of divine kings, where an entire empire might be considered the personal property of a deified emperor.\n\nName Lifetime Description\nMarcus Licinius Crassus c. 115 BC \u2013 53 BC Crassus inherited a fortune of 7 million sesterces after the death of his father in 87 BC. After several years of exile, Crassus was able to rebuild his family fortune by seizing the property of executed convicts for himself.[39] Crassus also expanded his wealth by trading in slaves and by purchasing whole neighborhoods of Rome as they burned, for drastically less than market value. Crassus was known in Rome as Dives, meaning \"The Rich\". It is believed that Crassus expanded his personal fortune to 170 million sesterces, while Pliny the Elder surmised his fortune to be valued even higher, at 200 million sesterces. This would place Crassus's net worth equal to the total annual budget of the Roman treasury.\n\nCrassus has often been listed among the \"wealthiest individuals in history\", although depending on the estimate of the \"adjusted value\" of a Roman sesterce, his net worth may also be placed in the range of US$200 million to US$20 billion.[40]\n\nAugustus Caesar 63 BC \u2013 19 August 14 AD Listed by Time Magazine with \"$4.6 trillion\" because he \"personally owned all of Egypt\".[3]\nCroesus died c. 546 BC The name of Croesus, a historical king of Lydia, was proverbial for wealth already in antiquity; this is probably due to his being the first ruler to issue true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation and not necessarily for his personal wealth.\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Forbes list of billionaires\n  \u2022 List of richest Americans in history\n  \u2022 List of wealthiest organizations\n  \u2022 List of wealthiest families\n  \u2022 List of wealthiest animals\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The Rockefellers: The Legacy Of History's Richest Man, Forbes 2014\n  2. Jump up ^ Guinness World Records claims John D. Rockefeller was the richest person.\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Jacob Davidson, time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time, 30 July 2015\n  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Daniel Eckert,So wurde Jakob Fugger zum reichsten Menschen der Historie (\"This is how Jakob Fugger became the wealthiest person in history\"), Die Welt, 6 June 2016 (in German). \"Auf heutige Verh\u00e4ltnisse hochgerechnet l\u00e4ge das Verm\u00f6gen des Bauernenkels bei unglaublichen 400 Milliarden Dollar (354 Milliarden Euro). In die N\u00e4he dieses Wertes kamen nur die Rothschilds, die in ihrer Glanzzeit im 19. Jahrhundert die m\u00e4chtigste Bankiersfamilie der Welt waren\" (\"Adjusted to current-day conditions, the net worth of the farmer's grandson would be close to astonishing 400 billion dollars (354 billion Euro). Only the Rothschild family, at their peak in the 19th century the most powerful family of bankers, came close to such a figure.\"\n  5. Jump up ^ listed at 372 billion US$2014 by Jacob Davidson, time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time, 30 July 2015: \"Rockefeller gets all the press, but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time. The Scottish immigrant sold his company, U.S. Steel, to J.P. Morgan for $480 million in 1901. That sum equates to about slightly over 2.1% of U.S. GDP at the time, giving Carnegie economic power equivalent to $372 billion in 2014.\"\n  6. Jump up ^ GDP: A Brief but Affectionate History p. 65\n  7. Jump up ^ All the Money in the World (2008) by Bernstein and Swan, p. 17 \"Introduction\"\n  8. Jump up ^ Kerry Close, The 10 Richest Women of All Time, time.com, 1 February 2016. Bettencourt ranks at #6 in this list, after five ancient rulers and monarchs of the Middle Ages and early modern period.\n  9. Jump up ^ Kerry Close, The 10 Richest Women of All Time, time.com. Empress Wu ranks at #1 in this list, Catherine the Great at #3, and Isabella of Castile at #5.\n  10. Jump up ^ Peter Geffcken: Fugger\u00a0\u2013 Geschichte einer Familie: \"Die Handelsherren mit dem Dreizack\". In: DAMALS 7\/2004\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Anton Fugger\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). \"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?\". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018.\u00a0 United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.\n  13. ^ Jump up to: a b c Staff (15 July 2007). \"The Wealthiest Americans Ever\". New York Times. Retrieved 30 September 2014.\u00a0\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Richest Americans in History\". Forbes. 24 August 1998. Retrieved 22 December 2009.\u00a0\n  15. ^ Jump up to: a b \"The richest Americans\". Forbes. Archived from the original on September 16, 2009. Retrieved 22 December 2009.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"The Rockefellers\". PBS. Retrieved 2007-05-29.\u00a0\n  17. Jump up ^ \"The Richest Americans\". Fortune magazine. Archived from the original on 2009-09-16. Retrieved 2007-07-17.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"The Wealthiest Americans Ever\". The New York Times. July 15, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-17.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ \"The Men Who Built America: Andrew Carnegie\". History.com.\u00a0\n  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Massie, Robert K. Nicholas and Alexandra, New York, Atheneum, 1967, p64\n  21. Jump up ^ Clarke, William The Lost Fortune of the Tsars, St. Martin's Griffin; Reprint edition, 1996, p101.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"The Nizam of Hyderabad\". Time.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ McCaffrey, Julie (3 February 2012). \"Exclusive: The last Nizam of Hyderabad was so rich he had a \u00a350m diamond paperweight.\" Mirror.co.uk. London.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ Bedi, Rahul (12 April 2008). \"India finally settles \u00a31million Nizam dispute\". The Daily Telegraph. London.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ \"Exhibitions at National Museum of India,New Delhi(India)\". 2 April 2009.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ Shah, Tahir. \"Alan the Red, the Brit who makes Bill Gates a pauper.\" Times Online. The Sunday Times. 7 October 2007. Web. 19 9ay 2010.\n  27. Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\".\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Fortune Magazine's \"richest Americans\" Archived 2009-09-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Fortune estimated his wealth at death at $105,000,000, or 1\/87 of the nation's GDP.\n  29. Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\".\u00a0\n  30. ^ Jump up to: a b c Gus Lubin, business insider The 20 Richest People Of All Time, 2 September 2010\n  31. Jump up ^ Hargreaves, Steve. \"The richest Americans in history\".\u00a0\n  32. ^ Jump up to: a b \"William Henry Vanderbilt\". www.newnetherlandinstitute.org.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ \"Meet Mansa Musa I of Mali \u2013 the richest human being in all history\". 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2016-09-17.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ \"10 Richest People of All Time\". 2016-09-04. Retrieved 2016-09-17.\u00a0\n  35. Jump up ^ Jacob Davidson. \"The 10 Richest People of All Time\". CNNMoney.\u00a0.\n  36. ^ Jump up to: a b c \"Estimate from historian William Rubenstein via The Times, converted to dollars at average rate since \u201907 (1:1.7) and adjusted for inflation.\"The 20 Richest People Of All Time, 4 September 2010. \"Although he became a monarch, we're counting the spoils of war before he took the throne, based on what he gave out to his sons Odo and Robert.\" \"he left the equivalent of $229.5 billion to his sons.\"\n  37. Jump up ^ The Domesday Book: England's Heritage Then and Now, ed. Thomas Hinde (UK: Coombe Books, 1996)\n  38. Jump up ^ Jonathan Sumption, Divided Houses: The Hundred Years War III (London: Faber & Faber, 2009), p. 9.\n  39. ^ Jump up to: a b Wallechinsky, David & Irving Wallace. \"Richest People in History Ancient Roman Crassus\". Trivia-Library. The People's Almanac. 1975 \u2013 1981. Web. 23 December 2009.\n  40. Jump up ^ \"Often named as the richest man ever, a more accurate conversion of sesterce would put his modern figure between $200 million and $20 billion.\" Peter L. Bernstein. The 20 Richest People Of All Time\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Philip Beresford, William D. Rubinstein, The Richest of the Rich: The Wealthiest 250 People in Britain since 1066, Harriman House, 2011.\n  \u2022 Michael Klepper, Robert Gunther, The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates\u2014A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present, Citadel Press, 1996.\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nLists of people by net worth\nBy citizenship\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 Austria\n  \u2022 Belgium\n  \u2022 Brazil\n  \u2022 Canada\n  \u2022 China (PRC)\n  \u2022 Cyprus\n  \u2022 Czech Republic\n  \u2022 Denmark\n  \u2022 Egypt\n  \u2022 Finland\n  \u2022 France\n  \u2022 Germany\n  \u2022 Greece\n  \u2022 Hong Kong\n  \u2022 Hungary\n  \u2022 India\n  \u2022 Indonesia\n  \u2022 Iran\n  \u2022 Ireland\n  \u2022 Israel\n  \u2022 Italy\n  \u2022 Japan\n  \u2022 Kazakhstan\n  \u2022 Kenya\n  \u2022 South Korea\n  \u2022 Kuwait\n  \u2022 Lebanon\n  \u2022 Malaysia\n  \u2022 Mexico\n  \u2022 Monaco\n  \u2022 Netherlands\n  \u2022 New Zealand\n  \u2022 Nigeria\n  \u2022 Norway\n  \u2022 Oman\n  \u2022 Pakistan\n  \u2022 Philippines\n  \u2022 Poland\n  \u2022 Portugal\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Saudi Arabia\n  \u2022 Singapore\n  \u2022 South Africa\n  \u2022 Spain\n  \u2022 Sweden\n  \u2022 Switzerland\n  \u2022 Taiwan (ROC)\n  \u2022 Thailand\n  \u2022 Turkey\n  \u2022 Uganda\n  \u2022 Ukraine\n  \u2022 UAE\n  \u2022 United Kingdom\n  \u2022 United States\n  \u2022 Venezuela\n  \u2022 Vietnam\nBy region\n  \u2022 Arab League\n  \u2022 South Asia\n  \u2022 South East Asia\n  \u2022 Africa\n  \u2022 World\nForbes lists\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 Forbes 400\nIn history\n  \u2022 List of wealthiest historical figures\n  \u2022 List of richest Americans in history\nOther\n  \u2022 Bloomberg Billionaires Index\n  \u2022 Forbes Fictional 15\n  \u2022 Financial Review Rich List (Australia)\n  \u2022 Hurun\n  \u2022 Muslims\n  \u2022 Royals\n  \u2022 Sunday Times Rich List (UK)\n  \u2022 Women\n  \u2022 Wealthiest Americans (1957)\n  \u2022 By alumni\n[show]\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nExtreme Wealth\nConcepts\n  \u2022 Billionaires\n  \u2022 Capital accumulation\n  \u2022 Distribution of wealth\n  \u2022 Dynastic wealth\n  \u2022 Economic inequality\n  \u2022 Geography and wealth\n  \u2022 High-net-worth individual\n    \u2022 UHNWI\n  \u2022 Millionaires\n  \u2022 National wealth\n  \u2022 Oligarchy\n  \u2022 Overaccumulation\n  \u2022 Paper wealth\n  \u2022 Plutocracy\n  \u2022 Plutonomy\n  \u2022 Wealth\n    \u2022 Wealth concentration\n    \u2022 Wealth effect\n    \u2022 Wealth management\n    \u2022 Wealth and religion\n    \u2022 Wealth tax\nLists of people\n  \u2022 Female billionaires\u200e\n  \u2022 Wealthiest Americans\n  \u2022 Richest royals\n  \u2022 Wealthiest families\n  \u2022 Wealthiest historical figures\n  \u2022 Forbes list of billionaires\nLists of\norganizations\n  \u2022 Companies by profit and loss\n  \u2022 Largest companies by revenue\n  \u2022 Largest financial services companies by revenue\n  \u2022 Largest manufacturing companies by revenue\n  \u2022 Public corporations by market capitalization\n  \u2022 Wealthiest organizations\nOther lists\n  \u2022 Cities by number of billionaires\n  \u2022 Countries by number of billionaires\n  \u2022 Most expensive things\n  \u2022 Wealthiest animals\nSee also\n  \u2022 Business magnate\n  \u2022 Business oligarch\n  \u2022 Philanthropy\n    \u2022 The Giving Pledge\n  \u2022 The rich get richer and the poor get poorer\n  \u2022 Upper class\n    \u2022 Nouveau riche\n    \u2022 Vieux riche\n  \u2022 Religion and poverty\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=List_of_wealthiest_historical_figures&oldid=839337633\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 History-related lists\n  \u2022 Lists of people by wealth\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with German-language external links\n  \u2022 Webarchive template wayback links\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Gagauz\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 Rom\u00e2n\u0103\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 2 May 2018, at 19:45.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"7004073847544964693","title":"Liverpool F.C. in European football","text":"This is a featured article. Click here for more information.\n\nLiverpool F.C. in European football\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nLiverpool F.C. in European football\nA silver trophy with red ribbons on it, set against a green background\nThe European Champion Clubs' Cup trophy won by Liverpool for a fifth time in 2005\nClub Liverpool F.C.\nMost appearance Jamie Carragher (150)\nTop scorer Steven Gerrard (41)\nFirst entry 1964\u201365 European Cup\nLatest entry 2018\u201319 UEFA Champions League\nTitles\nChampions League\n5[show]\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 1978\n  \u2022 1981\n  \u2022 1984\n  \u2022 2005\nEuropa League\n3[show]\n  \u2022 1973\n  \u2022 1976\n  \u2022 2001\nCup Winners' Cup 0\nSuper Cup\n3[show]\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2005\n\nLiverpool Football Club, an English professional association football club, is Britain's most successful team in Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) competitions. Since 1964, they have won eleven European trophies: the UEFA Champions League (formerly known as the European Cup) five times, the UEFA Europa League (formerly known as the UEFA Cup) three times, and the UEFA Super Cup three times.\n\nQualification for European competitions is determined by a team's success in its domestic league and cup competitions from the previous season. Liverpool competed in European competitions for 21 consecutive seasons until the 1985 European Cup Final, the occasion of the Heysel Stadium disaster, following which the club was banned from European competitions for six seasons. Since being readmitted in 1991, they have qualified for the Champions League (the successor to the European Cup) nine times and the Europa League (the successor to the Uefa Cup) nine times.\n\nAs a result of their victory in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final, Liverpool won the European Champion Clubs' Cup trophy outright, and were awarded a multiple winner badge. Liverpool's total of three UEFA Cup wins has been bettered only by Sevilla, who have won the competition five times. They have also won the UEFA Super Cup on three occasions, a total only Milan and Barcelona (five titles each) have bettered.\n\nBob Paisley is the club's most successful manager in Europe, with five trophies. Liverpool's biggest-margin win in Europe is an 11\u20130 victory over Str\u00f8msgodset in the 1974\u201375 European Cup Winners' Cup. In European competitions, Jamie Carragher holds the club record for the most appearances, with 150, and Steven Gerrard is the club's record goalscorer, with 41 goals.\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Background\n  \u2022 2 History\n    \u2022 2.1 First steps in Europe\u00a0\u2013 the Shankly years (1965\u201374)\n    \u2022 2.2 European domination\u00a0\u2013 the Paisley years (1974\u201383)\n    \u2022 2.3 Triumph and tragedy\u00a0\u2013 the Fagan years (1983\u201385)\n    \u2022 2.4 Return to Europe (1991\u20132004)\n    \u2022 2.5 Renewed European success\u00a0\u2013 the Ben\u00edtez years (2004\u201310)\n    \u2022 2.6 Decline and Resurgence (2010\u2013present)\n  \u2022 3 Records\n    \u2022 3.1 By season\n    \u2022 3.2 By competition\n    \u2022 3.3 By country\n  \u2022 4 Honours\n  \u2022 5 Notes\n  \u2022 6 References\n    \u2022 6.1 Bibliography\n  \u2022 7 External links\n\nBackground[edit]\n\nFurther information on the origins of European football: European Cup and UEFA Champions League history\n\nClub competitions between teams from different European countries can trace their origins as far back as 1897, when the Challenge Cup was created for clubs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, who did not meet under normal circumstances. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, named after entrepreneur and sportsman Thomas Lipton, was established in 1909 and was contested between clubs from Italy, Great Britain, Germany and Switzerland; the competition lasted for two years.[1] The earliest attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe was made by Swiss club FC Servette. Founded in 1930, the Coupe des Nations featured clubs of ten major European football leagues and was deemed a success. Due to financial reasons, the competition was abandoned.[2]\n\nThe first continental competition organised by UEFA was the European Cup in 1955. Conceived by Gabriel Hanot, the editor of L'\u00c9quipe, as a competition for winners of the European national football leagues, it is considered the most prestigious European football competition.[3][4] When the European Cup was first played, Liverpool were in the Second Division, following relegation from the First Division after the 1953\u201354 season, and thus were ineligible for the competition.[5] During their time in the Second Division, two further competitions were created: the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. Established in 1955, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was later re-branded as the UEFA Cup when it came under the auspices of UEFA in 1971.[6] Since the 2009\u201310 season, the competition has been known as the UEFA Europa League.[7] The UEFA Cup Winners' Cup was inaugurated in 1960 for the winners of domestic cup competitions.[6]\n\nIn 1962 Liverpool were promoted to the First Division. Two years later, they won the Football League championship, thus making their European debut in the 1964\u201365 European Cup. In the following years, further European competitions were inaugurated. The first, the UEFA Super Cup, was originally a match played between the winners of the European Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup. First established in 1973, it changed formats in 2000; since then, it has been contested between the winners of the Champions League (formerly the European Cup) and the Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup), following the Cup Winners' Cup amalgamation into the latter.[8] The Intercontinental Cup was a competition for the winners of the European Cup (later, the UEFA Champions League) and the South American equivalent, the Copa Libertadores. Established in 1960, the Intercontinental Cup was jointly organised by UEFA and the Confederaci\u00f3n Sudamericana de F\u00fatbol (CONMEBOL). It ran until 2004, when the FIFA Club World Cup, which includes the winners of all six confederations' regional championships replaced it.[9]\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nFirst steps in Europe\u00a0\u2013 the Shankly years (1965\u201374)[edit]\n\nStatue of a man with his arms held aloft\nStatue of Bill Shankly outside Anfield. Shankly was the first Liverpool manager to win a European trophy.\n\nBill Shankly began managing Liverpool in 1959, and it was under him that the team first competed in European competition in 1964\u201365, qualifying for the European Cup by winning the First Division championship the previous season.[10] The club's first opponents were Knattspyrnuf\u00e9lag Reykjav\u00edkur of Iceland, who they played in the preliminary round. Liverpool won 11\u20131 on aggregate. The next round, against Belgian club Anderlecht, was the first time in Liverpool's history that they wore their now common all-red strip. The decision was made to change from red shirts, white shorts and socks by Shankly, who wanted his players to make more of a psychological impact on opponents.[11] They beat Anderlecht and progressed to the semi-finals, where they met Italian team Internazionale. Before the first leg at Anfield, Shankly asked two injured players to parade the FA Cup, which Liverpool had won the previous week, to intimidate the Italians.[12] The team won the match 3\u20131,[13] but Inter won the second leg 3\u20130, securing a 4\u20133 aggregate victory. The second leg was controversial; Shankly described it as \"a war\".[14] He felt that the referee, Jose Maria Ortiz de Mendibel, had shown bias towards Internazionale,[15] and the Liverpool players felt cheated by his decisions.[14] The club's 1964\u201365 FA Cup victory ensured qualification for the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup the following season, and in that competition, they reached their first European final. Borussia Dortmund, Liverpool's opponents, employed counter-attacking tactics that had paid dividends in previous rounds and did so again, with the West Germans beating Liverpool 2\u20131 after extra time.[16]\n\nLiverpool face Petrolul in the first round of the 1966\u201367 European Cup.\n\nIn the next four seasons, they competed in the European Cup and Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, but failed to progress past the third round in either competition.[17] A tie against Dutch team Ajax during the 1966\u201367 European Cup was to prove pivotal in the history of Liverpool in European competition.[18] Ajax beat Liverpool 7\u20133 on aggregate. However, the style of football that Ajax played\u00a0\u2013 a patient passing game, inspired by Johann Cruyff\u00a0\u2013 convinced Shankly that Liverpool had to replicate this style to be successful in Europe.[19] Liverpool reached the semi-finals of the 1970\u201371 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing 1\u20130 on aggregate to Leeds United.[20] They competed in the 1971\u201372 European Cup Winners' Cup, despite losing the 1971 FA Cup Final, as the FA Cup winners, Arsenal, had also qualified for the European Cup by winning the league championship. Liverpool were eliminated in the second round by Bayern Munich of Germany, losing 3\u20131 on aggregate.[21]\n\nThe changes made to Liverpool's tactics came to fruition during the 1972\u201373 UEFA Cup. The club reached their second European final, where they faced Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach of Germany. Liverpool won the first leg 3\u20130 as a result of two goals from Kevin Keegan and one from Larry Lloyd. Victory in this first leg meant Liverpool only needed to avoid losing by three or more goals in order to win the final. This influenced their tactics\u00a0\u2013 The Times reported that Liverpool employed a \"holding action\" against the \"attacking Germans\".[22] The tactics worked, allowing M\u00f6nchengladbach only two goals, granting Liverpool a 3\u20132 aggregate victory.[23] Liverpool also won the First Division championship that season, and as a result qualified for the 1973\u201374 European Cup, where they were eliminated in the second round by Red Star Belgrade of Yugoslavia. At the end of that season, Shankly retired.[24]\n\nEuropean domination\u00a0\u2013 the Paisley years (1974\u201383)[edit]\n\nShankly was succeeded by his assistant, Bob Paisley, in 1974.[25] Liverpool competed in the Cup Winners' Cup during Paisley's first season and defeated Str\u00f8msgodset of Norway 11\u20130 at Anfield. This remains the club's largest margin of victory in all matches.[26] They lost in the next round to Hungarian side Ferencv\u00e1ros on the away goals rule. In 1975\u201376 the club entered the UEFA Cup after a second-place finish in the First Division. Victories over Hibernian (Scotland), Real Sociedad (Spain), \u015al\u0105sk Wroc\u0142aw (Poland), Dynamo Dresden (East Germany) and Barcelona (Spain) took Liverpool to their third European final. Crucial to their progress was goalkeeper Ray Clemence, who made two important penalty saves against Hibernian and Dresden, saving Liverpool from elimination on the away goals rule on both occasions.[27] Their opponents in the final were Club Brugge of Belgium. Liverpool recovered from a two-goal deficit to win the first leg at Anfield 3\u20132, with Ray Kennedy, Jimmy Case, and Keegan scoring a goal each in a span of six minutes. A 1\u20131 draw at the Jan Breydel Stadion in Bruges meant Liverpool won 4\u20133 on aggregate, earning their second UEFA Cup.[28]\n\nA set of gates with the inscription \"Paisley Gateway\" at the top. In the middle of the sets of gates are two emblems\nThe Paisley Gateway is a tribute to former manager Bob Paisley, who won a record three European Cups\u2014and three European trophies in successive seasons\u2014as Liverpool manager.\n\nAs the 1975\u201376 league champions, the club entered the 1976\u201377 European Cup. They defeated Crusaders of Northern Ireland and Trabzonspor of Turkey to reach the quarter-finals, where they faced the runners-up from the previous season, Saint-\u00c9tienne. The French team won the first leg 1\u20130. The second leg at Anfield began well for Liverpool when Keegan scored in the first two minutes. Saint-\u00c9tienne equalised to make the score 2\u20131 on aggregate in their favour. Kennedy scored for Liverpool, but the away goals rule meant they still needed another goal to win the tie. With six minutes remaining, David Fairclough was brought on to replace John Toshack; he immediately scored in front of the Kop, ensuring a 3\u20132 aggregate victory for Liverpool.[29] In the semi-finals, they defeated FC Z\u00fcrich of Switzerland 6\u20131 on aggregate to reach the final, where they met their opponents from the 1973 UEFA Cup Final, Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach. The final was held in Rome, four days after the club had lost the 1977 FA Cup Final to Manchester United. Before the match, Paisley announced that striker Toshack would be fit to start. However, he was not named in the matchday squad. This change upset the Germans' game plan and allowed Keegan to torment his marker, Berti Vogts.[30] Liverpool won 3\u20131 to become European champions for the first time.[31]\n\nBy winning the European Cup, they qualified for the European Super Cup and played the winners of the Cup Winners' Cup, German team Hamburg, who had just signed Keegan.[32] Liverpool won the tie 7\u20131 on aggregate.[33] Liverpool entered the 1977\u201378 European Cup as champions and received a bye in the first round. They defeated Dynamo Dresden and Portuguese team Benfica in the second round and quarter-finals, respectively. In the semi-final, the club again met Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach, who won the first leg 2\u20131. Liverpool won the second leg 3\u20130, progressing to a second successive European Cup final, this time against Club Brugge at Wembley Stadium in London. In the final Kenny Dalglish, who had been signed to replace Keegan, scored the winning goal after receiving the ball from a Graeme Souness pass. The 1\u20130 victory meant Liverpool became the first British team to retain the European Cup.[34] They faced Anderlecht in the 1978 European Super Cup, but failed to retain the trophy, losing 4\u20133 on aggregate against the Belgian side.[35] Liverpool were eliminated in the first round of the 1978\u201379 European Cup by English champions Nottingham Forest. Nottingham Forest won the tie 2\u20130 on aggregate, and went on to win the competition.[36] Liverpool entered the 1979\u201380 European Cup as English champions but were again eliminated in the first round, this time beaten 4\u20132 on aggregate by Dinamo Tbilisi of the Soviet Union.[37]\n\nLiverpool participated in the 1980\u201381 European Cup as English league champions, defeating Finnish champions Oulun Palloseura, Scottish club Aberdeen and CSKA Sofia of Bulgaria to qualify for the semi-finals, where they faced three-time champions Bayern Munich. The first leg at Anfield finished goalless. In the second leg at the Olympiastadion in Munich, Ray Kennedy scored in the 83rd minute and, although the German side equalised, Liverpool went through to the final on the away goals rule.[38] They faced Spanish side Real Madrid in the final, held at the Parc des Princes in Paris. Alan Kennedy scored the only goal to give Liverpool a 1\u20130 victory, which secured the club's\u2014and Paisley's\u2014third European Cup. As champions of Europe, Liverpool competed in the Intercontinental Cup against South American champions Flamengo of Brazil. Liverpool lost the match 3\u20130.[39] The club's defence of the European Cup in 1981\u201382 was ended by CSKA Sofia in the quarter-finals.[40] Another quarter-final exit occurred in the 1982\u201383 European Cup when Polish club Widzew \u0141\u00f3d\u017a eliminated Liverpool 4\u20133 on aggregate.[41] Paisley retired as manager at the end of the season and was succeeded by his assistant, Joe Fagan.[42]\n\nTriumph and tragedy\u00a0\u2013 the Fagan years (1983\u201385)[edit]\n\nFour trophies inside a glass cabinet. The trophies have ribbons on them and there is memorabilia next to them\nReplicas of the four European Cups Liverpool won from 1977 to 1984 on display in the club's museum\n\nLiverpool entered the 1983\u201384 European Cup as league champions for the fourth time in five seasons. Victories over Odense of Denmark and Spanish champions Athletic Bilbao brought Liverpool to face Portuguese champions Benfica in the quarter-finals.[43] Liverpool won the first leg at Anfield 1\u20130. In the second leg, their tactic of withdrawing Dalglish into midfield put Benfica's game plan into disarray,[44] leading to a 4\u20131 match victory and a 5\u20131 aggregate victory. Their opponents in the semi-finals were Dinamo Bucure\u0219ti of Romania. The tie proved a brutal encounter, characterised by Souness breaking the jaw of the Bucharest captain Lic\u0103 Movil\u0103, and was won 3\u20131 on aggregate by Liverpool.[44]\n\nFagan's first season in charge of Liverpool had been a successful one. When they reached their fourth European Cup final, they had already won the Football League Cup and the league championship;[45] victory in the European final against Italian side Roma would complete an unprecedented treble. The final was played at Rome's Stadio Olimpico, and Liverpool went ahead in the 13th minute when Phil Neal scored, though Roma equalised towards the end of the first half. The score remained the same throughout full and extra time; Liverpool won the subsequent penalty shoot-out, with Alan Kennedy scoring the winning penalty after goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar had put off Francesco Graziani, causing him to place his penalty over the crossbar.[46] After the game, gangs of Roma fans assaulted Liverpool supporters travelling back to their hotels.[47] Success in the European Cup entitled Liverpool to compete in the 1984 Intercontinental Cup. However, they were unable to beat the winners of the Copa Libertadores, Independiente of Argentina, who claimed a 1\u20130 victory.[48]\n\nLiverpool entered the 1984\u201385 European Cup as champions, and once again progressed to the final, where their opponents were Juventus of Italy. They aimed to win their fifth European Cup and keep the trophy. The 1985 European Cup Final was held at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. The choice of venue had been criticised due to the dilapidated state of the stadium, and the club tried to persuade UEFA to change the venue.[49] Before the kick-off, Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 people and injuring hundreds more.[50] Despite calls for an abandonment, the match was played, as it was felt that further trouble would be caused otherwise.[51]\n\nJuventus won the match 1\u20130; Michel Platini scored from the penalty spot to give Juventus their first European Cup.[52] UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool fans: the official UEFA observer stated, \"Only the English fans were responsible. Of that there is no doubt\".[53] Three days after the final, UEFA banned all English clubs from European competition for an indefinite period. Liverpool were initially given an additional three-year ban.[52] Fagan retired after the 1984\u201385 season and was succeeded by Dalglish, who took over as player-manager.[54]\n\nThe ban on English clubs in European competitions ultimately lasted for five years, and even when the ban was lifted in 1990, Liverpool were not re-admitted; they had to serve an extra year. The ban prevented them qualifying for the European Cup in 1986 (as league champions and FA Cup winners), the UEFA Cup in 1987 (as league runners-up), the European Cup in 1988 (as league champions), the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1989 (as FA Cup winners) and the European Cup in 1990 (as league champions).[55]\n\nReturn to Europe (1991\u20132004)[edit]\n\nLiverpool were allowed to return to European competition in the 1991\u201392 season, a year later than other English clubs. They qualified for the UEFA Cup as runners-up in the English league. Their manager by this stage was Graeme Souness, who had taken over towards the end of the previous season following Dalglish's resignation.[56]\n\nTheir first match, in the UEFA Cup, was against Finnish side Kuusyi Lahti, which they won 6\u20131.[57] A 6\u20132 aggregate victory set up a tie against Auxerre of France in the second round who they beat 3\u20132 on aggregate.[58] The club defeated Swarovski Tirol of Austria in the third round 6\u20130 on aggregate before losing to Genoa (Italy) 4\u20131 over two legs in the quarter finals.[59]\n\nLiverpool's victory over Sunderland in the 1992 FA Cup Final qualified them for the 1992\u201393 European Cup Winners' Cup, but this campaign was short-lived, as they were eliminated in the second round by Russian side Spartak Moscow.[60] Liverpool finished no higher than sixth in the Premier League during the next two seasons, thus failing to qualify for European competition. In the 1995\u201396 season, they entered the UEFA Cup, but again progressed no further than the second round, this time losing to Br\u00f8ndby of Denmark.[61]\n\nParis SG halted Liverpool's progress at the semi-final stage of the 1996\u201397 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup.\n\nAs runners-up to League champions Manchester United in the 1996 FA Cup Final, Liverpool were able to compete in the 1996\u201397 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. This proved the club's most successful campaign since their return to European competition, as they reached the semi-finals, where they were eliminated 3\u20132 on aggregate by Paris Saint\u2013Germain.[62] In the next two seasons, Liverpool played in the UEFA Cup but were eliminated at an early stage of the competition, by Strasbourg and Celta de Vigo, respectively.[63][64] A seventh-place finish in the 1998\u201399 FA Premier League meant the club did not qualify for Europe in 1999\u20132000.[65]\n\nHaving finished fourth in the 1999\u20132000 FA Premier League, Liverpool qualified for the 2000\u201301 UEFA Cup. Their victory in this competition marked a third win for a club. The entire season was the club's most successful since the 1983\u201384 season, as they won a cup treble consisting of the UEFA Cup, the FA Cup and the League Cup. Their opponents in the final in Dortmund were Alav\u00e9s of Spain. The match was tied at 4\u20134 in extra time when Alav\u00e9s defender Delf\u00ed Geli scored an own goal to give Liverpool victory on the golden goal rule.[66] The performance of Gary McAllister, whose free-kick resulted in the winning goal, was praised as \"outstanding\" by Trevor Brooking.[67] This was the club's first European trophy since their European Cup victory in 1984.[68] As UEFA Cup winners, Liverpool played in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup against Champions League winners Bayern Munich and won 3\u20132.[69]\n\nIn the 2001\u201302 season, Liverpool returned to the European Cup, now called the UEFA Champions League, for the first time since the Heysel disaster. A 2\u20130 victory over Roma in the second group stage meant they progressed to the quarter-finals.[70] They faced German club Bayer Leverkusen and won the first leg 1\u20130. The outlook for the second leg appeared to be to Liverpool's advantage, as their counter-attacking style of play had served them well during away matches throughout the season;[71] however, they lost the second leg 4\u20132 and were eliminated 4\u20133 on aggregate.[72]\n\nA second-place finish in the 2001\u201302 FA Premier League entitled Liverpool to participate in the Champions League for a second successive season, but they only finished third in their group and were eliminated from the competition.[73] The third-place finish meant they entered the 2002\u201303 UEFA Cup. Liverpool beat Dutch team Vitesse Arnhem and Auxerre to set up an all-British tie with Scottish team Celtic. A 1\u20131 draw in the first leg meant Liverpool would progress to the semi-finals if they did not concede a goal in the second leg at Anfield. However, Celtic scored before half-time and again in the second half to win 3\u20131 on aggregate.[74]\n\nLiverpool entered the UEFA Cup for the 2003\u201304 season, after Chelsea beat them on the final day of the previous league season to claim the fourth place needed to qualify for the Champions League.[75] Liverpool were eliminated in the fourth round by eventual runners-up Marseille of France. At the end of the season, manager G\u00e9rard Houllier was replaced by Rafael Ben\u00edtez.[76]\n\nRenewed European success\u00a0\u2013 the Ben\u00edtez years (2004\u201310)[edit]\n\nA stand of people standing up holding a mosiac which spells out Amicizia\nFans in the Kop hold a mosaic during the match with Juventus, 6 April 2005. Amicizia means \"friendship\" in Italian.\n\nLiverpool had finished fourth in the 2003\u201304 season, which qualified them to compete in the Champions League in the 2004\u201305 season. A poor start in the group stages, with two losses in their first five games, had the club facing elimination. A 3\u20131 victory over Greek side Olympiacos, however, eventually ensured their passage to the knock-out rounds. Liverpool beat Bayer Leverkusen and Juventus to reach the semi-finals, and progressed to the final after they beat Chelsea 1\u20130 on aggregate; the goal scored by Luis Garc\u00eda was referred to as a \"ghost goal\" by Chelsea manager Jos\u00e9 Mourinho, as it was unclear whether the ball crossed the goal line.[77] Liverpool's performances in Europe contrasted strongly with their league form, where they struggled to finish in the top-four and thus ensure qualification for the next Champions League season.[78]\n\nLiverpool faced six-time European champions Milan in the final at the Atat\u00fcrk Stadium in Istanbul on 25 May 2005. Trailing 3\u20130 at half-time, they scored three goals in a six-minute spell in the second half to level the score at 3\u20133. There were no goals during extra time, so the match was decided by a penalty shoot-out. With the shoot-out score at 3\u20132, Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek saved Andriy Shevchenko's penalty to give Liverpool victory.[79] The nature of Liverpool's comeback victory has led to the match being referred to as the \"miracle of Istanbul.\"[80] As this was the club's fifth European Cup victory, Liverpool were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs' Cup permanently, and a new trophy was commissioned for the following year's competition.[81] The victory also entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2005 UEFA Super Cup at Stade Louis II, Monaco in August. They defeated UEFA Cup winners CSKA Moscow of Russia 3\u20131(aet.) to win their third Super Cup.[82] Their success in the Champions League meant Liverpool also qualified for the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship, where they lost 1\u20130 in the final to Brazilian team S\u00e3o Paulo.[83]\n\nA fifth-place finish in the Premier League in 2004\u201305 meant Liverpool were not guaranteed entry into the Champions League, and faced the prospect of not being able to defend their European title. UEFA eventually ruled that they would be allowed to do so, but would be required to start in the first qualifying round, with no country protection, meaning they could face a team from England in the group stages.[84] This turned out to be the case\u2014Liverpool advanced through three qualifying rounds and were drawn with Chelsea in the group stages. They progressed from their group as winners but were beaten by Benfica in the first knock-out round.[85]\n\nIn the 2006\u201307 Champions League, Liverpool progressed from the group stages and beat holders Barcelona, PSV and Chelsea to face Milan in a rematch of the 2005 final.[86] The Liverpool team, which contained only five players from the 2005 final, enjoyed more possession than in 2005,[87] but two goals from Filippo Inzaghi gave Milan their seventh European Cup in a 2\u20131 win.[88]\n\nA line of people on a field, behind them are three red banners.UEFA Champions League quarter-final\nLiverpool lining up at Arsenal in the quarter-finals of the 2007\u201308 UEFA Champions League\n\nLiverpool were eliminated from the 2007\u201308 Champions League in the semi-finals by Chelsea, who they had beaten in the semi-finals in 2005 and 2007. A fourth-place finish in the 2007\u201308 Premier League secured their entry into the 2008\u201309 Champions League. Liverpool reached the quarter-finals and again faced Chelsea, but lost 7\u20135 on aggregate.[89]\n\nA second-place finish in the 2008\u201309 Premier League entitled Liverpool to compete in the 2009\u201310 UEFA Champions League, but their campaign was short-lived; they finished third in their group, and were eliminated from the competition. They entered the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League, progressing to the semi-finals, where they were eliminated by eventual winners Atl\u00e9tico Madrid of Spain on the away goals rule after the tie finished 2\u20132 on aggregate.[90]\n\nDecline and Resurgence (2010\u2013present)[edit]\n\nJ\u00fcrgen Klopp managing Liverpool in a 2015\u201316 UEFA Europa League match against FC Augsburg.\n\nRafael Ben\u00edtez left the club at the end of the 2009\u201310 season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson.[91] A seventh-place finish in the 2009\u201310 Premier League meant Liverpool would be competing in the 2010\u201311 Europa League. They beat Rabotni\u010dki of Macedonia and Trabzonspor of Turkey to progress to the group stage, where Liverpool were drawn alongside Napoli, FC Utrecht and Steaua Bucure\u0219ti. They won two games and drew four to finish top of their group with ten points and progress to the round of 32.[92] They were drawn against Sparta Prague in the next round. Before the tie was played, however, Hodgson was replaced by former manager Kenny Dalglish, who initially served as a caretaker manager.[93] A 1\u20130 aggregate victory ensured progression to the round of 16, in which Liverpool lost 1\u20130 on aggregate to eventual runners-up Braga.[94] A sixth-place finish in the 2010\u201311 Premier League meant the club failed to qualify for European competition for the first time since 1999.[95] On the following season, victory in the League Cup final ensured Liverpool a place in the 2012\u201313 Europa League.[96]\n\nLiverpool qualified for the knockout phase of the 2012\u201313 Europa League after winning their group at the group stage, but were eliminated from the competition at the round of 32 by Zenit Saint Petersburg on the away goals rule after a 0\u20132 loss away and a 3\u20131 win at home.[97] A seventh-place finish in the 2012\u201313 Premier League and a failure to secure qualification via domestic cups meant Liverpool failed to qualify for any European competition in the 2013\u201314 season. A second-placed finish in the 2013\u201314 Premier League, ensured Liverpool qualified for the group stage of the 2014\u201315 Champions League.[98] One win out of six in the group stage meant they were eliminated and entered into the knockout phase of the 2014\u201315 Europa League.[99] The campaign was short-lived, as Liverpool eliminated by Be\u015fikta\u015f in the round of 32.[100]\n\nFinishing sixth in the 2014\u201315 Premier League qualified Liverpool directly to the group stage of the 2015\u201316 Europa League, where they faced Sion, Bordeaux and for the first time, Russian side Rubin Kazan.[101] During the group stage, manager Brendan Rodgers was replaced by J\u00fcrgen Klopp.[102] After winning the group, Liverpool qualified for the knockout phase, beating FC Augsburg in the round of 32 before facing bitter rivals Manchester United in the round of 16, the two clubs' first meeting in Europe.[103][104] Liverpool defeated them 3\u20131 on aggregate and victory led to a quarter-final tie with Klopp's former team Borussia Dortmund.[105][106] After a 1\u20131 draw in the first leg at Signal Iduna Park, Dortmund went 3\u20131 up in the return leg at Anfield with 33 minutes remaining, requiring Liverpool to score three goals due to the Away goals rule. Goals from Philippe Coutinho, Mamadou Sakho and a last minute winner from Dejan Lovren, however, saw Liverpool complete the comeback and qualify for their first European semi-final since 2010.[107] There they faced Villarreal, completing a second comeback after overturning a 1\u20130 defeat in the first leg at El Madrigal to qualify for the final with a 3\u20131 aggregate win.[108][109] Liverpool played Sevilla in the final at St. Jakob-Park, Basel, on 18 May, losing 3\u20131. A 4th-place finish in the 2016\u201317 Premier League qualified Liverpool for the 2017\u201318 UEFA Champions League and a return to Europe's premier club tournament for only the second time in 8 years during the 2010s. On 17 October 2017, Liverpool won 7-0 away to Maribor in the third round of matches of the group stage of the 2017\u201318 UEFA Champions League. The win was a record away win for Liverpool in European competitions and also the biggest away win by an English team in the history of the European Cup.[110][111] After qualifying top of their group, they proceeded to defeat Porto 5-0 at the Estadio de Dragao, before holding them to a 0-0 draw on the return leg, then defeated domestic rivals Manchester City 3-0 and 2-1, and in the semi-finals, defeated Roma 5-2 at Anfield, before a 4-2 loss led to a 7-6 aggregate win, taking them to the final, against holders Real Madrid. Liverpool lost the final by 3-1 but finished 4th in the 2017\u201318 Premier League to qualify for the 2018\u201319 UEFA Champions League.[112]\n\nRecords[edit]\n\nMain article: List of Liverpool F.C. statistics and records\nJamie Carragher's 150 European appearances\u2013including the pictured 2006 clash with Benfica\u2013is a club record.\n  \u2022 Most appearances in European competition: Jamie Carragher, 150[113]\n  \u2022 Most goals in European competition: Steven Gerrard, 41[114]\n  \u2022 First European match: Liverpool 6\u20130 Knattspyrnuf\u00e9lag Reykjav\u00edkur, European Cup, first round, 17 August 1964[115]\n  \u2022 First goal scored in Europe: Gordon Wallace, against KR Reykjavik[116]\n  \u2022 Biggest win: Liverpool 11\u20130 Str\u00f8msgodset, in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, 17 September 1974[115]\n  \u2022 Biggest defeat: Liverpool 1\u20135 Ajax, in the European Cup, 7 December 1966[117]\n  \u2022 Highest European home attendance: 55,104, against Barcelona in the 1975\u201376 UEFA Cup, 14 April 1976[118][119]\n  \u2022 Lowest European home attendance: 12,021 against Dundalk in the 1982\u201383 European Cup[118]\n\nBy season[edit]\n\nKey\n\n  \u2022 P = Played\n  \u2022 W = Games won\n  \u2022 D = Games drawn\n  \u2022 L = Games lost\n  \u2022 F = Goals for\n  \u2022 A = Goals against\n  \u2022 GD = Goal difference\n  \u2022 Grp = Group stage\n\n  \u2022 R1 = First round\n  \u2022 R2 = Second round\n  \u2022 R3 = Third round\n  \u2022 R4 = Fourth round\n  \u2022 R16 = Round of 16\n  \u2022 R32 = Round of 32\n  \u2022 QF = Quarter-final\n  \u2022 SF = Semi-final\n\nKey to colours:\n\nGold Winners\nSilver Runners-up\n\nLiverpool F.C. record in European football by season[120][121][122]\nSeason Competition P W D L F A Round\n1964\u201365 European Cup 9 5 3 1 18 5 SF\n1965\u201366 European Cup Winners' Cup 9 5 1 3 12 6 Runners-up\n1966\u201367 European Cup 4 1 1 2 6 8 R2\n1967\u201368 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 6 3 0 3 13 5 R3\n1968\u201369 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 1 3 0 1 3 3 R1\n1969\u201370 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 4 3 0 1 17 3 R2\n1970\u201371 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 10 5 4 1 13 4 SF\n1971\u201372 European Cup Winners' Cup 4 1 1 2 4 5 R2\n1972\u201373 UEFA Cup 12 8 2 2 17 6 Winners\n1973\u201374 European Cup 4 1 1 2 5 5 R2\n1974\u201375 European Cup Winners' Cup 4 2 2 0 12 1 R2\n1975\u201376 UEFA Cup 12 8 3 1 25 8 Winners\n1976\u201377 European Cup 9 7 0 2 22 5 Winners\n1977 European Super Cup 2 1 1 0 7 1 Winners\n1977\u201378 European Cup 7 5 0 2 17 7 Winners\n1978 European Super Cup 2 1 0 1 3 4 Runners-up\n1978\u201379 European Cup 2 0 1 1 0 2 R1\n1979\u201380 European Cup 2 1 0 1 2 4 R1\n1980\u201381 European Cup 9 6 3 0 24 4 Winners\n1981 Intercontinental Cup 1 0 0 1 0 3 Runners-up\n1981\u201382 European Cup 6 4 1 1 14 6 QF\n1982\u201383 European Cup 6 4 0 2 13 6 QF\n1983\u201384 European Cup 9 7 2 0 16 3 Winners\n1984 European Super Cup 1 0 0 1 0 2 Runners-up\n1984 Intercontinental Cup 1 0 0 1 0 1 Runners-up\n1984\u201385 European Cup 9 6 1 2 18 5 Runners-up\n1991\u201392 UEFA Cup 8 4 0 4 16 8 QF\n1992\u201393 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 4 2 0 2 10 8 R2\n1995\u201396 UEFA Cup 4 1 2 1 2 2 R2\n1996\u201397 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 8 6 1 1 18 9 SF\n1997\u201398 UEFA Cup 4 1 2 1 4 5 R2\n1998\u201399 UEFA Cup 6 2 2 2 11 5 R3\n2000\u201301 UEFA Cup 13 8 4 1 19 9 Winners\n2001 UEFA Super Cup 1 1 0 0 3 2 Winners\n2001\u201302 UEFA Champions League 14 5 7 2 14 11 QF\n2002\u201303 UEFA Champions League 6 2 2 2 12 8 Grp\n2002\u201303 UEFA Cup 6 4 1 1 6 3 QF\n2003\u201304 UEFA Cup 8 4 3 1 14 7 R4\n2004\u201305 UEFA Champions League 15 8 3 4 14 11 Winners\n2005 UEFA Super Cup 1 1 0 0 3 1 Winners\n2005 FIFA Club World Cup 2 1 0 1 3 1 Runners-up\n2005\u201306 UEFA Champions League 14 8 3 3 20 7 R16\n2006\u201307 UEFA Champions League 15 8 4 3 23 12 Runners-up\n2007\u201308 UEFA Champions League 14 8 3 3 34 11 SF\n2008\u201309 UEFA Champions League 12 7 4 1 22 12 QF\n2009\u201310 UEFA Champions League 6 2 1 3 5 7 Grp\n2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League 8 5 0 3 14 8 SF\n2010\u201311 UEFA Europa League 14 7 6 1 16 5 R16\n2012\u201313 UEFA Europa League 12 7 2 3 20 13 R32\n2014\u201315 UEFA Champions League 6 1 2 3 5 9 Grp\n2014\u201315 UEFA Europa League 2 1 0 1 1 1 R32\n2015\u201316 UEFA Europa League 15 6 7 2 19 13 Runners-up\n2017\u201318 UEFA Champions League 15 9 4 2 47 19 Runners-up\n2018\u201319 UEFA Champions League 3 2 0 1 7 3\n\nBy competition[edit]\n\nLiverpool F.C. record in European football by competition[123]\nCompetition P W D L F A\nEuropean Cup\/UEFA Champions League 199 113 43 43 376 175\nUEFA Cup Winners' Cup 29 16 5 8 57 29\nUEFA Cup\/UEFA Europa League 124 66 34 24 186 94\nInter-Cities Fairs Cup 22 12 4 6 46 15\nUEFA Super Cup 7 4 1 2 16 10\nIntercontinental Cup 2 0 0 2 0 4\nFIFA Club World Cup 2 1 0 1 3 1\nTotal 385 212 87 86 684 328\n\nBy country[edit]\n\nLiverpool F.C. record in Continental football by country[124]\nCountry[a] Pld W D L F A GD Win%\n\u00a0Argentina 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000100000000000000\u26601 \u22121 005000000000000000000\u26600.00\n\u00a0Austria 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001130000000000000\u266013 7000300000000000000\u26603 +10 07001666700000000000\u266066.67\n\u00a0Belarus 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000400000000000000\u26604 5000000000000000000\u26600 +4 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Belgium 7001130000000000000\u266013 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001220000000000000\u266022 7000900000000000000\u26609 +13 07001769200000000000\u266076.92\n\u00a0Brazil 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000400000000000000\u26604 \u22124 005000000000000000000\u26600.00\n\u00a0Bulgaria 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000700000000000000\u26607 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000200000000000000\u26602 7001200000000000000\u266020 7001100000000000000\u266010 +10 07001700000000000000\u266070.00\n\u00a0Costa Rica 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000300000000000000\u26603 5000000000000000000\u26600 +3 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Cyprus 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000800000000000000\u26608 7000200000000000000\u26602 +6 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Czech Republic 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000500000000000000\u26605 7000200000000000000\u26602 +3 07001750000000000000\u266075.00\n\u00a0Denmark 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000100000000000000\u26601 +5 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0England 7001220000000000000\u266022 7000700000000000000\u26607 7000900000000000000\u26609 7000600000000000000\u26606 7001250000000000000\u266025 7001210000000000000\u266021 +4 07001318200000000000\u266031.82\n\u00a0Finland 7001120000000000000\u266012 7000900000000000000\u26609 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001430000000000000\u266043 7000700000000000000\u26607 +36 07001750000000000000\u266075.00\n\u00a0France 7001270000000000000\u266027 7001160000000000000\u266016 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000900000000000000\u26609 7001410000000000000\u266041 7001220000000000000\u266022 +19 07001592600000000000\u266059.26\n\u00a0Germany 7001420000000000000\u266042 7001210000000000000\u266021 7001140000000000000\u266014 7000700000000000000\u26607 7001760000000000000\u266076 7001370000000000000\u266037 +39 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Georgia 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000400000000000000\u26604 \u22122 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Greece 7000800000000000000\u26608 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001180000000000000\u266018 7000500000000000000\u26605 +13 07001750000000000000\u266075.00\n\u00a0Hungary 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000700000000000000\u26607 7000400000000000000\u26604 +3 07001400000000000000\u266040.00\n\u00a0Iceland 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7001110000000000000\u266011 7000100000000000000\u26601 +10 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Ireland 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000400000000000000\u26604 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7001190000000000000\u266019 7000100000000000000\u26601 +18 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Israel 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000200000000000000\u26602 +1 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Italy 7001280000000000000\u266028 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000700000000000000\u26607 7001110000000000000\u266011 7001340000000000000\u266034 7001350000000000000\u266035 \u22121 07001357100000000000\u266035.71\n\u00a0Lithuania 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000500000000000000\u26605 7000100000000000000\u26601 +4 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Luxembourg 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000100000000000000\u26601 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 +2 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Macedonia 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000400000000000000\u26604 5000000000000000000\u26600 +4 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Netherlands 7001140000000000000\u266014 7000800000000000000\u26608 7000500000000000000\u26605 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001220000000000000\u266022 7001120000000000000\u266012 +10 07001571400000000000\u266057.14\n\u00a0Northern Ireland 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000700000000000000\u26607 5000000000000000000\u26600 +7 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Norway 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7001160000000000000\u266016 7000100000000000000\u26601 +15 07001750000000000000\u266075.00\n\u00a0Poland 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000500000000000000\u26605 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001130000000000000\u266013 7000500000000000000\u26605 +8 07001833300000000000\u266083.33\n\u00a0Portugal 7001220000000000000\u266022 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000600000000000000\u26606 7001360000000000000\u266036 7001190000000000000\u266019 +17 07001454500000000000\u266045.45\n\u00a0Romania 7001150000000000000\u266015 7001100000000000000\u266010 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000100000000000000\u26601 7001240000000000000\u266024 7000900000000000000\u26609 +15 07001666700000000000\u266066.67\n\u00a0Russia 7001130000000000000\u266013 7000700000000000000\u26607 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000400000000000000\u26604 7001270000000000000\u266027 7001140000000000000\u266014 +13 07001538500000000000\u266053.85\n\u00a0Scotland 7001140000000000000\u266014 7000700000000000000\u26607 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000300000000000000\u26603 7001180000000000000\u266018 7000900000000000000\u26609 +9 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Serbia 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000400000000000000\u26604 +2 07001333300000000000\u266033.33\n\u00a0Slovakia 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000800000000000000\u26608 5000000000000000000\u26600 +8 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Slovenia 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 5000000000000000000\u26600 7001140000000000000\u266014 7000100000000000000\u26601 +13 07001750000000000000\u266075.00\n\u00a0Spain 7001400000000000000\u266040 7001150000000000000\u266015 7001120000000000000\u266012 7001130000000000000\u266013 7001500000000000000\u266050 7001440000000000000\u266044 +6 07001375000000000000\u266037.50\n\u00a0Sweden 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000400000000000000\u26604 7000100000000000000\u26601 +3 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0\u00a0Switzerland 7001130000000000000\u266013 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000500000000000000\u26605 7000200000000000000\u26602 7001290000000000000\u266029 7001180000000000000\u266018 +11 07001461500000000000\u266046.15\n\u00a0Turkey 7001120000000000000\u266012 7000600000000000000\u26606 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000400000000000000\u26604 7001220000000000000\u266022 7001110000000000000\u266011 +11 07001500000000000000\u266050.00\n\u00a0Ukraine 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000300000000000000\u26603 7000100000000000000\u26601 +2 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\u00a0Wales 7000200000000000000\u26602 7000200000000000000\u26602 5000000000000000000\u26600 5000000000000000000\u26600 7000600000000000000\u26606 5000000000000000000\u26600 +6 7002100000000000000\u2660100.00\n\nHonours[edit]\n\nLiverpool F.C. honours in European competition\nHonour No. Years\nEuropean Cup\/UEFA Champions League 5 1977, 1978, 1981, 1984, 2005\nUEFA Cup\/UEFA Europa League 3 1973, 1976, 2001\nUEFA Super Cup 3 1977, 2001, 2005\n\nNotes[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ The table excludes former nations such as East Germany and the Soviet Union.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Wearmouth, Rachel (1 September 2008). \"BBC films story of World Cup winners\". The Northern Echo. Darlington. Retrieved 26 May 2012.\n  2. Jump up ^ Nemzeti Sport, 9 July 1930, p. 3.\n  3. Jump up ^ Moore 2000, p.\u00a0217.\n  4. Jump up ^ \"Football's premier club competition\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Retrieved 25 December 2011.\n  5. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, pp.\u00a050\u201351.\n  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Moore 2000, p.\u00a0220.\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Uefa Cup given new name in revamp\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 26 September 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2012.\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Club competition winners do battle\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Retrieved 2 September 2011.\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Competition format\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). 13 July 2005. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2011.\n  10. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a067.\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Reds sport all-red kit for first time\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.\n  12. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a018.\n  13. Jump up ^ Lacey, David (5 May 1965). \"From the archive: Liverpool 3\u20131 Internazionale\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 6 June 2011.\n  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Hodgson, Guy (3 March 1999). \"Football: History not on United's side\u00a0\u2013 European Cup quarter-final: Italian clubs have usually had the upper hand on some pulsating nights of action\". The Independent. London. Retrieved 6 June 2011.\n  15. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a020.\n  16. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a067.\n  17. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, pp.\u00a052\u201357.\n  18. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a078.\n  19. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a048.\n  20. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a095.\n  21. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, pp.\u00a062\u201363.\n  22. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool Survive Test Of Character\". The Times. London. 24 May 1973. p.\u00a010.\n  23. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a0105.\n  24. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a039.\n  25. Jump up ^ Graham 1985, p.\u00a044.\n  26. Jump up ^ \"Matches\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 11 August 2010.\n  27. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a0180.\n  28. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a0118.\n  29. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0103.\n  30. Jump up ^ Lacey, David (26 May 2007). \"Technocrat to blame for Athens anti-climax\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 June 2011.\n  31. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a0186.\n  32. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0130.\n  33. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0131.\n  34. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a0188.\n  35. Jump up ^ \"1978: Anderlecht back on top\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Retrieved 3 June 2011.\n  36. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a0133.\n  37. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a0189.\n  38. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0154.\n  39. Jump up ^ \"Toyota Cup 1981\". F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2011.\n  40. Jump up ^ Kelly 1988, p.\u00a0154.\n  41. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, pp.\u00a0163\u2013164.\n  42. Jump up ^ Graham 1985, p.\u00a053.\n  43. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0164.\n  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0166.\n  45. Jump up ^ Graham 1985, p.\u00a054.\n  46. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0169.\n  47. Jump up ^ Keith, John (5 April 2005). \"Heysel remembered: the horror of a tragedy waiting to happen\". The Independent. London. Retrieved 26 January 2012.\n  48. Jump up ^ Bobrowsky, Josef; Jos\u00e9 Gorgazzi, Osvaldo (13 February 2005). \"Intercontinental Club Cup 1984\". Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). Retrieved 25 November 2011.\n  49. Jump up ^ \"Fagan steps down after Heysel tragedy\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2012.\n  50. Jump up ^ Graham 1985, p.\u00a055.\n  51. Jump up ^ Coslett, Paul (1 April 2008). \"Heysel Disaster\". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 May 2011.\n  52. ^ Jump up to: a b Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0189.\n  53. Jump up ^ Hanley, James (2 April 2005). \"English fans were responsible. No doubt\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 29 December 2008.\n  54. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool legend Fagan dies\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2 July 2001. Retrieved 27 May 2011.\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Manager: Kenny Dalglish\". This Is Anfield. Retrieved 2014-08-06.\n  56. Jump up ^ Murray, Scott (8 October 2008). \"On Second Thoughts: Graeme Souness\". The guardian. Retrieved 9 August 2015.\n  57. Jump up ^ Brierley, Stephen (19 September 1991). \"Saunders spells end for Finnish\". The Guardian. London. p.\u00a016.\n  58. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0204.\n  59. Jump up ^ Hale & Ponting 1992, p.\u00a0206.\n  60. Jump up ^ Ross, James M. (13 November 2006). \"Cup Winners' Cup 1992\u201393\". Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). Retrieved 1 September 2011.\n  61. Jump up ^ Stokkermans, Karel (15 January 2010). \"UEFA Cup 1995\u201396\". Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). Retrieved 1 September 2011.\n  62. Jump up ^ \"1996\/97: Ronaldo spot on for Bar\u00e7a\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). 14 May 1997. Archived from the original on 3 May 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  63. Jump up ^ \"Brave words, brave hearts and insufficient rewards\". Liverpool Echo. Liverpool. 5 November 1997. Retrieved 1 September 2011.\n  64. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool suffer Spanish inquisition\". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 24 November 1998. Retrieved 1 September 2011.\n  65. Jump up ^ RSSSF (20 December 1999). \"England 1998\/99\". Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 1 September 2011.\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool 5 Alaves 4\". UEFA.com. 16 May 2001. Archived from the original on 7 August 2001. Retrieved 5 August 2015.CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)\n  67. Jump up ^ Brooking, Trevor (17 May 2001). \"McAllister the man\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 4 June 2011.\n  68. Jump up ^ \"Dortmund delight as Reds win thriller\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  69. Jump up ^ \"2001: Owen keeps Reds rolling\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). 1 September 2001. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  70. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool reach last eight\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 20 March 2002. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  71. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool gain upper hand\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 3 April 2002. Retrieved 5 June 2011.\n  72. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool suffer Euro woe\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 9 April 2002. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  73. Jump up ^ McCarra, Kevin (13 November 2002). \"Liverpool revival comes too late\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  74. Jump up ^ \"Celtic brush aside Liverpool\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 20 March 2003. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  75. Jump up ^ Brodkin, Jon (12 May 2003). \"Ranieri's men finally show their mettle\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  76. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool appoint Benitez\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 16 June 2004. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  77. Jump up ^ \"The world according to Mourinho\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 31 October 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2010.\n  78. Jump up ^ McCarra, Kevin (14 April 2005). \"Liverpool set up Chelsea clash\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 June 2011.\n  79. Jump up ^ \"AC Milan 3\u20133 Liverpool (aet)\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 25 May 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2010.\n  80. Jump up ^ Wilson, Paul; Oliver, Brian; Mochlinski, Kaz (29 May 2005). \"The miracle of Istanbul\". The Observer. London. Retrieved 22 December 2011.\n  81. Jump up ^ \"Regulations for the UEFA Champions League 2006\u201307\" (PDF). Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). p.\u00a011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2006.\n  82. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool 3\u20131 CSKA Moscow (aet)\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 26 August 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2010.\n  83. Jump up ^ \"Sao Paulo 1\u20130 Liverpool\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 18 December 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2011.\n  84. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool get in Champions League\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 10 June 2005. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  85. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool 0\u20132 Benfica (agg 0\u20133)\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 8 March 2006. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  86. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool 1\u20130 Chelsea (Agg: 1\u20131)\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1 May 2007. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  87. Jump up ^ Harrold, Michael (23 May 2007). \"Inzaghi inspires Milan to glory\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2011.\n  88. Jump up ^ McNulty, Phil (23 May 2007). \"AC Milan 2\u20131 Liverpool\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  89. Jump up ^ McCarra, Kevin (14 April 2009). \"Lampard double sees off gallant Liverpool\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  90. Jump up ^ McCarra, Kevin (30 April 2010). \"Liverpool's hopes of silverware ended by Atl\u00e9tico Madrid's Diego Forl\u00e1n\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 31 August 2010.\n  91. Jump up ^ \"Roy Hodgson leaves Fulham to become Liverpool manager\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1 July 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  92. Jump up ^ \"Group Stage\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). 7 May 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.\n  93. Jump up ^ \"Roy Hodgson exits and Kenny Dalglish takes over\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 8 January 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  94. Jump up ^ Sanghera, Mandeep (17 March 2011). \"Liverpool 0\u20130 Braga (agg 0\u20131)\". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  95. Jump up ^ McVay, David (22 May 2011). \"Aston Villa 1 Liverpool 0: match report\". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 28 May 2011.\n  96. Jump up ^ \"European qualification: The permutations\". Premier League. 26 April 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2012.\n  97. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool fall short against Zenit despite Luis Su\u00e1rez free-kick goals\". Guardian. 22 February 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.\n  98. Jump up ^ \"Champions League draw: Liverpool face Real Madrid, while Manchester City are drawn in group of death\". Daily Telegraph. 28 August 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.\n  99. Jump up ^ McNulty, Phil (9 December 2014). \"Liverpool 1\u20131 Basel\". BBC Sport. Retrieved 23 May 2015.\n  100. Jump up ^ Whalley, Mike (26 February 2015). \"Besiktas 1\u20130 Liverpool\". BBC Sport. Retrieved 23 May 2015.\n  101. Jump up ^ \"2015-16 UEFA Europa League: Group B\". UEFA.com. 27 November 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.\n  102. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool FC Confirm Juergen Klopp appointment\". Liverpoolfc.com. 8 October 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  103. Jump up ^ \"2015-16 UEFA Europa League: Liverpool edge out Augsburg\". UEFA.com. 25 February 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  104. Jump up ^ \"Manchester United draw Liverpool in the Europa League\". BBC Sport. 26 February 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  105. Jump up ^ McNulty, Phil (17 March 2016). \"Manchester United 1 - 1 Liverpool\". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  106. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool manager Jurgen Klopp faces Dortmund reunion in Europa League\". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). 18 March 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  107. Jump up ^ McNulty, Phil (14 April 2016). \"Liverpool 4 - 3 Borussia Dortmund (5-4 agg.)\". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  108. Jump up ^ \"2015-16 UEFA Europa League Semi Final - Semi Final 1 First Leg\". UEFA.com. 28 April 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  109. Jump up ^ \"2015-16 UEFA Europa League Semi Final - Semi Final 1 Second Leg\". UEFA.com. 5 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.\n  110. Jump up ^ \"Roberto Firmino and Mohamed Salah lead Liverpool rout of Maribor\". Guardian. 17 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.\n  111. Jump up ^ \"Maribor 0 Liverpool 7\". BBC Sport. 17 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.\n  112. Jump up ^ \"Real Madrid 3 Liverpool 1: as it happened\". Guardian. 26 May 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2018.\n  113. Jump up ^ \"Jamie Carragher\". LFC History. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  114. Jump up ^ \"Steven Gerrard\". LFC History. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  115. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Matches\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  116. Jump up ^ Platt, Mark (11 September 2010). \"Reds first ever Euro tie\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2011.\n  117. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool\". Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Retrieved 12 February 2012.\n  118. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Attendances\". Liverpool F.C. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2011.\n  119. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool 1\u20131 Barcelona\". UEFA. Retrieved 7 June 2017.\n  120. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool in Europe\u00a0\u2013 Season by Season\". LFC History. Retrieved 2 August 2012.\n  121. Jump up ^ Liversedge 1991, p.\u00a0218.\n  122. Jump up ^ \"Fixtures and results\". F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.\n  123. Jump up ^ \"Competition Stats\". LFC History. Retrieved 25 October 2018.\n  124. Jump up ^ \"Liverpool Head-To-Head\". Statto Organisation. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.\n\nBibliography[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Graham, Matthew (1985). Liverpool. Twickenham: Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd. ISBN\u00a0978-0-600-50254-8.\n  \u2022 Hale, Steve; Ponting, Ivan (1992). Liverpool in Europe. Enfield: Guinness. ISBN\u00a0978-0-85112-569-5.\n  \u2022 Kelly, Stephen F. (1988). The Official Illustrated History of Liverpool FC: You'll Never Walk Alone. London: Queen Anne Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-356-19594-0.\n  \u2022 Liversedge, Stan (1991). Liverpool:The Official Centenary History. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd. ISBN\u00a0978-0-600-57308-1.\n  \u2022 Moore, Glenn (2000). The Concise Encyclopedia of World Football. London: Parragon. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7525-4466-3.\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 English football portal\n  \u2022 flagMerseyside portal\n  \u2022 Official Liverpool FC website\n  \u2022 Official UEFA site\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nLiverpool Football Club\n  \u2022 Honours\n  \u2022 Managers\n  \u2022 Seasons\n  \u2022 Records and statistics\n  \u2022 Reserves & Academy\n  \u2022 Current season\nHistory\n  \u2022 1892\u20131959\n  \u2022 1959\u201385\n  \u2022 1985\u2013present\n  \u2022 Europe\n  \u2022 Founding Fathers of Merseyside Football\nHome stadium\n  \u2022 Anfield\nTraining ground\n  \u2022 Melwood\n  \u2022 The Academy\nPlayers\n  \u2022 100+ appearances\n  \u2022 25\u201399 appearances\n  \u2022 1\u201324 appearances\nRivalries\n  \u2022 League record by opponent\n  \u2022 Merseyside derby\n  \u2022 Manchester United rivalry\nTragedies\n  \u2022 Heysel disaster\n  \u2022 Hillsborough disaster\nSupporters\n  \u2022 Reclaim The Kop\n  \u2022 Spirit of Shankly\nMedia\n  \u2022 LFC TV\n  \u2022 Being: Liverpool\n  \u2022 Liverpool (video game)\n  \u2022 Well Red magazine\nBooks\n  \u2022 43 Years with the Same Bird\n  \u2022 Red or Dead\nFilms\n  \u2022 Fifteen Minutes That Shook the World\n  \u2022 One Night in Istanbul\n  \u2022 Will\nSongs\n  \u2022 \"Anfield Rap\"\n  \u2022 \"The Fields of Anfield Road\"\n  \u2022 \"You'll Never Walk Alone\"\nRelated articles\n  \u2022 2005\u201306 UEFA Champions League qualification\n  \u2022 A.F.C. Liverpool\n  \u2022 The Boot Room\n  \u2022 Fenway Sports Group\n  \u2022 Liverpool F.C. Women\n  \u2022 Respect 4 All\n  \u2022 Spice Boys\n  \u2022 Spion Kop\n  \u2022 Superleague Formula team\n  \u2022 1915 British football betting scandal\n  \u2022 \u00a0Wikipedia book Book\n  \u2022 \u00a0Category Category\n  \u2022 \u00a0WikiProject WikiProject\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nEnglish football clubs in international competitions\n  \u2022 Arsenal\n  \u2022 Aston Villa\n  \u2022 Birmingham City\n  \u2022 Blackburn Rovers\n  \u2022 Bolton Wanderers\n  \u2022 Bradford City\n  \u2022 Burnley\n  \u2022 Chelsea\n  \u2022 Coventry City\n  \u2022 Crystal Palace\n  \u2022 Derby County\n  \u2022 Everton\n  \u2022 Fulham\n  \u2022 Hull City\n  \u2022 Ipswich Town\n  \u2022 Leeds United\n  \u2022 Leicester City\n  \u2022 Liverpool\n  \u2022 London XI\n  \u2022 Manchester City\n  \u2022 Manchester United\n  \u2022 Middlesbrough\n  \u2022 Millwall\n  \u2022 Newcastle United\n  \u2022 Norwich City\n  \u2022 Nottingham Forest\n  \u2022 Portsmouth\n  \u2022 Queens Park Rangers\n  \u2022 Sheffield Wednesday\n  \u2022 Southampton\n  \u2022 Stoke City\n  \u2022 Sunderland\n  \u2022 Tottenham Hotspur\n  \u2022 Watford\n  \u2022 West Bromwich Albion\n  \u2022 West Ham United\n  \u2022 Wigan Athletic\n  \u2022 Wolverhampton Wanderers\n  \u2022 English clubs in the European Cup and UEFA Champions League\n  \u2022 List of football matches between British clubs in UEFA competitions\n\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Liverpool_F.C._in_European_football&oldid=865746094\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 English football clubs in European football\n  \u2022 Liverpool F.C.\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Unfit url\n  \u2022 Use British English from September 2012\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from November 2012\n  \u2022 Pages using deprecated image syntax\n  \u2022 Featured articles\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 25 October 2018, at 21:35\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"4271801379015990665","title":"You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again","text":"You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nYou'll Never Make Love In This Town Again is a book published in January 1996 which describes the stories of three prostitutes and one actress about their sexual encounters with various Hollywood celebrities. The sisters Robin Greer and Liza Greer are contributors along with Linda Hammond and Alexandra D. Datig, identified in the book as \"Tiffany\". The book generated extensive notoriety and sales, and was also the subject of a low-budget documentary.[1]\n\nThe book was the subject of several reported lawsuits. On 1 March 1996 the woman referred to as \"Tiffany\" sued the publisher Dove Books, and its executive, Michael Viner.[2] The action was dismissed by the Superior Court on October 23, 1996, but on July 15, 1999, it was reinstated and remanded for further proceedings by the California Court of Appeal (Second District). In its published opinion, the court noted that \"it appears that defense counsel violated several state wide rules of court and local rules, and that these violations resulted in unnecessary litigation and cost to plaintiff and her attorney in time and money,\" and instructed the Superior Court to consider sanctions against defendants and their attorneys.[3] Linda Hammond sued Viner for sexual harassment. The suit was dropped.\n\nIn another case, Viner sued Hollywood madam Heidi Fleiss for slander, based on statements Fleiss made on a radio talk show about Viner and authors of the book. In 2000 a jury ruled in Fleiss's favor.[4] In another case, one of the authors claimed that she had been forced unfairly to agree to reduced royalties under her contract with the publisher, and she won a jury verdict in her favor.[5]\n\nThere were two sequels Once More With Feeling: You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again was published in 1996. It told the stories of prostitute Michelle (who appears on the cover), prostitute Lisa, and graphic artist Sophie, among others.\n\nHooking Up: You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again, appeared in 2006. It told the tales of prostitute Olivia, porn publicist Carly Milne,[6] and prostitute Amanda.\n\nBooks[edit]\n\n  \u2022 You'll Never Make Love In This Town Again by Robin Greer et al., Dove Books, Beverly Hills, CA (1995). ISBN\u00a00-7871-0404-3[7]\n  \u2022 Once More With Feeling: You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again by Michelle, Lisa et al. Dove Books, Beverly Hills, CA (1996). ISBN\u00a00-7871-1035-3[8]\n  \u2022 Hooking Up: You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again Again by Olivia et al., Phoenix Books (October 2006) ISBN\u00a01-59777-504-5[9]\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Kenneth Turan, \"'You'll Never Make Love . . .' Now a Tell-All Documentary\", Los Angeles Times, October 18, 1996.\n  2. Jump up ^ Josh Getlin, \"Titillating Tell-All Triggers a Tawdry Tinseltown Tiff\", Los Angeles Times, April 16, 2006.\n  3. Jump up ^ Datig v. Dove Books, 73 Cal. App. 4th 964, 983 (1999).\n  4. Jump up ^ David Robb, \"Fleiss Cleared Of Slander In Viner's Lawsuit\", The Hollywood Reporter, August 28, 2000.\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Make Love Not Law\", Los Angeles Times, January 11, 1998.\n  6. Jump up ^ http:\/\/carlymilne.com\/\n  7. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/1597775428\n  8. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/0787110361\n  9. Jump up ^ https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/1597775045\/\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=You%27ll_Never_Make_Love_in_This_Town_Again&oldid=801318855\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 1996 books\n  \u2022 Books about prostitution\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\nAdd links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 19 September 2017, at 00:04.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"6208258807366605734","title":"Urban heat island","text":"This is a good article. Follow the link for more information.\n\nUrban heat island\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nTokyo, an example of an urban heat island. Normal temperatures of Tokyo go up more than those of the surrounding area.\n\nAn urban heat island (UHI) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities. The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak. UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter. The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces.[1][2] Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.[3] As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The less-used term heat island refers to any area, populated or not, which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area.[4]\n\nMonthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities, partially due to the UHI. Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons, and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes. The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone, and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems.\n\nNot all cities have a distinct urban heat island. Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas, which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat.\n\nThere are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming. Research on China[5] indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30%.[6] On the other hand, one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends.[7] Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change.[8]\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Causes\n  \u2022 3 Diurnal behavior\n  \u2022 4 Seasonal behavior\n  \u2022 5 Prediction\n  \u2022 6 Impact on animals\n  \u2022 7 Other impacts on weather and climate\n  \u2022 8 Health effects\n    \u2022 8.1 Inequality of tree canopy cover\n  \u2022 9 Impact on nearby water bodies\n  \u2022 10 Impact on energy usage\n  \u2022 11 Mitigation\n  \u2022 12 Mitigation policies, measures and other strategies\n    \u2022 12.1 AB32 scoping plan\n  \u2022 13 Implementation of policies\n  \u2022 14 AB32 and urban heat islands\n  \u2022 15 EPA Compendium of Strategies\n  \u2022 16 Incentives\n  \u2022 17 Weatherization\n  \u2022 18 Outreach and education\n  \u2022 19 Tree protection ordinances\n  \u2022 20 Co-benefits of mitigation strategies\n    \u2022 20.1 Trees and gardens aid mental health\n    \u2022 20.2 Tree planting as empowerment and community building\n    \u2022 20.3 Green roofs as food production\n    \u2022 20.4 Green roofs and wildlife biodiversity\n    \u2022 20.5 Urban forests and a cleaner atmosphere\n    \u2022 20.6 Green building programs\n  \u2022 21 Cost analysis\n  \u2022 22 Global warming\n  \u2022 23 Urban cold island\n  \u2022 24 See also\n  \u2022 25 References\n  \u2022 26 Further reading\n  \u2022 27 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the 1810s, although he was not the one to name the phenomenon.[9]\n\nCauses[edit]\n\nThermal (top) and vegetation (bottom) locations around New York City via infrared satellite imagery. A comparison of the images shows that where vegetation is dense, temperatures are cooler.\n\nThere are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI); for example, dark surfaces absorb significantly more solar radiation, which causes urban concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the day;[1] materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs, such as concrete and asphalt, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including heat capacity and thermal conductivity) and surface radiative properties (albedo and emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the energy budget of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas.[10] Another major reason is the lack of evapotranspiration (for example, through lack of vegetation) in urban areas. The U.S. Forest Service found in 2018 that cities in the United States are losing 36 million trees each year.[11] With a decreased amount of vegetation, cities also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees, and the removal of carbon dioxide.[12][13]\n\nOther causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the \"urban canyon effect\". Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents pollutants from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to the UHI.[3][14][15] High levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere.[10] As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it also increases the concentration of ozone, a greenhouse gas whose production accelerates with an increase in temperature.[16]\n\nSome cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter.[17][18] The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in \"68\u00a0\u00b0F (20\u00a0\u00b0C) downtown, 64\u00a0\u00b0F (18\u00a0\u00b0C) in the suburbs\". \"The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8\u20135.4\u00a0\u00b0F (1.0\u20133.0\u00a0\u00b0C) warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22\u00a0\u00b0F (12\u00a0\u00b0C).\"[19][unreliable source?]\n\nThe UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes [20]\n\nDiurnal behavior[edit]\n\nThe IPCC stated that \"it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures.\"[21] For example, Barcelona, Spain is 0.2\u00a0\u00b0C (0.4 \u00b0F) cooler for daily maxima and 2.9\u00a0\u00b0C (5.2 \u00b0F) warmer for minima than a nearby rural station.[22] A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by 3.7\u00a0\u00b0F (2.1 \u00b0C).[23] Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior. The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI.[24]\n\nThroughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are free of clouds, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of solar radiation. Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high heat capacities, urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy. For example, concrete can hold roughly 2,000 times as much heat as an equivalent volume of air. As a result, the large daytime surface temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote sensing.[25] As is often the case with daytime heating, this warming also has the effect of generating convective winds within the urban boundary layer. It is theorized that, due to the atmospheric mixing that results, the air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or nonexistent during the day, though the surface temperatures can reach extremely high levels.[26]\n\nAt night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating causes the atmospheric convection to decrease, and the urban boundary layer begins to stabilize. If enough stabilization occurs, an inversion layer is formed. This traps urban air near the surface, and keeping surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces, forming the nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI. Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas, the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the blocking of \"sky view\" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is blocked by the buildings in an urban area. Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in these conditions.[27]\n\nSeasonal behavior[edit]\n\nThis section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nThe urban heat island temperature difference is not only usually larger at night than during the day, but also larger in winter than in summer. This is particularly so in regions where snow is pervasive, as cities generally retain snow for much shorter time periods than the surrounding countryside (due to higher capacity to retain heat, as well as human-activity such as plowing). This decreases the albedo of the city and thereby magnifies the heating effect. Higher wind speeds in rural areas, particularly in winter, can also function to make them cooler than urban areas. Regions with distinct wet and dry seasons will exhibit a larger urban heat island effect during the dry season. The thermal time constant of moist soil is much higher than that of dry soil.[28] As a result, moist rural soils will cool slower than dry rural soils and act to minimize the nocturnal temperature difference between urban and rural regions.[29]\n\nPrediction[edit]\n\nIf a city or town has a good system of taking weather observations the UHI can be measured directly.[30] An alternative is to use a complex simulation of the location to calculate the UHI, or to use an approximate empirical method.[31][32] Such models allow the UHI to be included in estimates of future temperatures rises within cities due to climate change.\n\nLeonard O. Myrup published the first comprehensive numerical treatment to predict the effects of the urban heat island (UHI) in 1969. His paper surveys UHI and criticizes then-existing theories as being excessively qualitative. A general purpose, numerical energy budget model is described and applied to the urban atmosphere. Calculations for several special cases as well as a sensitivity analysis are presented. The model is found to predict the correct order of magnitude of the urban temperature excess. The heat island effect is found to be the net result of several competing physical processes. In general, reduced evaporation in the city center and the thermal properties of the city building and paving materials are the dominant parameters. It is suggested that such a model could be used in engineering calculations to improve the climate of existing and future cities.[33]\n\nImpact on animals[edit]\n\nAnt colonies in urban heat islands have an increased heat tolerance at no cost to cold tolerance.[34]\n\nSpecies that are good at colonizing can utilize conditions provided by urban heat islands to thrive in regions outside of their normal range. Examples of this include grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) and the common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus).[35] Grey-headed flying foxes, found in Melbourne, Australia, colonized urban habitats following increase in temperatures there. Increased temperatures, causing warmer winter conditions, made the city more similar in climate to the more northerly wildland habitat of the species.\n\nWith attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands, temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced. With temperate climates, urban heat islands will extend the growing season, therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species.[36] This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature. With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near-surface air temperature, precipitation will warm rapidly, causing runoff into nearby streams, lakes and rivers (or other bodies of water) to provide excessive thermal pollution. The increase in the thermal pollution has the ability to increase water temperature by 20 to 30 degrees. This increase will cause the fish species inhabiting the body of water to undergo thermal stress and shock due to the rapid change in temperature to their climate.[37]\n\nUrban heat islands caused by cities have altered the natural selection process.[38] Selective pressures like temporal variation in food, predation and water are relaxed causing for a new set of selective forces to roll out. For example, within urban habitats, insects are more abundant than in rural areas. Insects are ectotherms. This means that they depend on the temperature of the environment to control their body temperature, making for the warmer climates of the city perfect for their ability to thrive. A study done in Raleigh, North Carolina conducted on Parthenolecanium quercifex (oak scales), showed that this particular species preferred warmer climates and were therefore found in higher abundance in the urban habitats than on oak trees in rural habitats. Over time of living in urban habitats, they have adapted to thrive in warmer climates than in cooler.[39]\n\nThe presence of non-native species is heavily dependent on the amount of human activity.[40] An example of this can be seen in the populations of cliff swallows seen taking nests under the eaves of homes in urban habitats. They make their homes using the shelter provided by the humans in the upper regions of homes, allowing for an influx in their populations due to added protection and reduced predator numbers.\n\nOther impacts on weather and climate[edit]\n\nAside from the effect on temperature, UHIs can produce secondary effects on local meteorology, including the altering of local wind patterns, the development of clouds and fog, the humidity, and the rates of precipitation.[41] The extra heat provided by the UHI leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. In addition, the UHI creates during the day a local low pressure area where relatively moist air from its rural surroundings converges, possibly leading to more favorable conditions for cloud formation.[42] Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32\u00a0km) to 40 miles (64\u00a0km) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[43] Some cities show a total precipitation increase of 51%.[44]\n\nResearch has been done in a few areas suggesting that metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat island.[45] Using satellite images, researchers discovered that city climates have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) away from a city's edges. Growing seasons in 70\u00a0cities in eastern North America were about 15\u00a0days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a city's influence.[46]\n\nHealth effects[edit]\n\nImage of Atlanta, Georgia, showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white.\n\nUHIs have the potential to directly influence the health and welfare of urban residents. Within the United States alone, an average of 1,000 people die each year due to extreme heat.[47] As UHIs are characterized by increased temperature, they can potentially increase the magnitude and duration of heat waves within cities. Research has found that the mortality rate during a heat wave increases exponentially with the maximum temperature,[48] an effect that is exacerbated by the UHI. The nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a heat wave, as it deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in rural areas during the night.[49]\n\nResearch in the United States suggests that the relationship between extreme temperature and mortality varies by location. Heat is more likely to increase the risk of mortality in cities in the northern part of the country than in the southern regions of the country. For example, when Chicago, Denver, or New York experience unusually hot summertime temperatures, elevated levels of illness and death are predicted. In contrast, parts of the country that are mild to hot year-round have a lower public health risk from excessive heat. Research shows that residents of southern cities, such as Miami, Tampa, Los Angeles, and Phoenix, tend to be acclimated to hot weather conditions and therefore less vulnerable to heat related deaths. However, as a whole, people in the United States appear to be adapting to hotter temperatures further north each decade. However, this might be due to better infrastructure, more modern building design, and better public awareness.[50]\n\nIncreased temperatures have been reported to cause heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat syncope, and heat cramps.[51] Some studies have also looked at how severe heat stroke can lead to permanent damage to organ systems.[51] This damage can increase the risk of early mortality because the damage can cause severe impairment in organ function.[51] Other complications of heat stroke include respiratory distress syndrome in adults and disseminated intravascular coagulation.[52] Some researchers have noted that any compromise to the human body's ability to thermoregulate would in theory increase risk of mortality.[51] This includes illnesses that may affect a person's mobility, awareness, or behavior.[51] Researchers[52] have noted that individuals with cognitive health issues (e.g. depression, dementia, Parkinson's disease) are more at risk when faced with high temperatures and \"need to take extra care\"[51] as cognitive performance has been shown to be differentially affected[53] by heat. People with diabetes,[51] are overweight,[52] have sleep deprivation,[52] or have cardiovascular\/cerebrovascular conditions should avoid too much heat exposure.[51][52] Some common medications that have an effect on thermoregulation can also increase the risk of mortality. Specific examples include anticholinergics,[51] diuretics,[51] phenotiazines[52] and barbiturates.[52] Not only health, but heat can also affect behavior. A U.S. study suggests that heat can make people more irritable and aggressive, noting that violent crimes increased by 4.58 out of 100,000 for every one degree increase in temperature.[54]\n\nA researcher found that high UHI intensity correlates with increased concentrations of air pollutants that gathered at night, which can affect the next day's air quality.[54] These pollutants include volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.[52] The production of these pollutants combined with the higher temperatures in UHIs can quicken the production of ozone.[54] Ozone at surface level is considered to be a harmful pollutant.[54] Studies suggest that increased temperatures in UHIs can increase polluted days but also note that other factors (e.g. air pressure, cloud cover, wind speed) can also have an effect on pollution.[54]\n\nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that it \"is difficult to make valid projections of heat-related illness and death under varying climate change scenarios\" and that \"heat\u2013related deaths are preventable, as evidenced by the decline of all-cause mortality during heat events over the past 35 years\".[55] However, some studies suggest the possibility that health impacts from UHIs are disproportionate because the impacts can be unevenly distributed based on a variety of factors (e.g. age,[52][56] ethnicity and socioeconomic status[57]). This raises the possibility of health impacts from UHIs being an environmental justice issue.\n\nInequality of tree canopy cover[edit]\n\nRelationship between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover\n\nIn recent years, researchers have discovered a strong correlation between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover. In 2010, researchers at Auburn University and University of Southern California found that the presence of trees are \"highly responsive to changes in [neighborhood] income.\"[58] Low-income neighborhoods tend to have significantly fewer trees than neighborhoods with higher incomes. They described this unequal distribution of trees as a demand for \"luxury,\" rather than \"necessity.\"[59] According to the study, \"for every 1 percent increase in per capita income, demand for forest cover increased by 1.76 percent. But when income dropped by the same amount, demand decreased by 1.26 percent.\"[59]\n\nTrees are a necessary feature in combating the urban heat island effect because they reduce air temperatures by 10\u00a0\u00b0F or 5.5\u00a0\u00b0C,[60] and surface temperatures by up to 20-45\u00a0\u00b0F or 11-25\u00a0\u00b0C.[61] Researchers hypothesized that less-well-off neighborhoods do not have the financial resources to plant and maintain trees. Affluent neighborhoods can afford more trees, on \"both public and private property.\"[62] Part of this is also that wealthier homeowners and communities can afford more land, which can be kept open as green space, whereas poorer ones are often rentals, where landowners try to maximize their profit by putting as much density as possible on their land.\n\nAdditionally, many blogging sites overlay satellite imagery provided by Google Maps and census data to confirm or debunk the aforementioned research.[63]\n\nImpact on nearby water bodies[edit]\n\nUHIs also impair water quality. Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess heat to stormwater, which then drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Additionally, increased urban water body temperatures lead to a decrease in diversity in the water.[64] In August 2001, rains over Cedar Rapids, Iowa, led to a 10.5C (18.9F) rise in the nearby stream within one hour, which led to a fish kill. Since the temperature of the rain was comparatively cool, it could be attributed to the hot pavement of the city. Similar events have been documented across the American Midwest, as well as Oregon and California.[65] Rapid temperature changes can be stressful to aquatic ecosystems.[66] Permeable pavements may mitigate these effects by percolating water through the pavement into subsurface storage areas where it can be dissipate through absorption and evaporation.[67]\n\nImpact on energy usage[edit]\n\nImages of Salt Lake City, Utah, show positive correlation between white reflective roofs and cooler temperatures. Image A depicts an aerial view of Salt Lake City, Utah, site of 865,000-square-foot (80,400\u00a0m2) white reflective roof. Image B is a thermal infrared image of same area, showing hot (red and yellow) and cool (green and blue) spots. The reflective vinyl roof, not absorbing solar radiation, is shown in blue surrounded by other hot spots.\n\nAnother consequence of urban heat islands is the increased energy required for air conditioning and refrigeration in cities that are in comparatively hot climates. The Heat Island Group estimates that the heat island effect costs Los Angeles about US$100\u00a0million per year in energy.[68] Conversely, those that are in cold climates such as Moscow, Russia would have less demand for heating. However, through the implementation of heat island reduction strategies, significant annual net energy savings have been calculated for northern locations such as Chicago, Salt Lake City, and Toronto.[69]\n\nMitigation[edit]\n\nGreen roof of City Hall in Chicago, Illinois.\n\nThe temperature difference between urban areas and the surrounding suburban or rural areas can be as much as 5\u00a0\u00b0C (9.0\u00a0\u00b0F). Nearly 40 percent of that increase is due to the prevalence of dark roofs, with the remainder coming from dark-colored pavement and the declining presence of vegetation. The heat island effect can be counteracted slightly by using white or reflective materials to build houses, roofs, pavements, and roads, thus increasing the overall albedo of the city.[70] Relative to remedying the other sources of the problem, replacing dark roofing requires the least amount of investment for the most immediate return. A cool roof made from a reflective material such as vinyl reflects at least 75 percent of the sun's rays, and emit at least 70 percent of the solar radiation absorbed by the building envelope. Asphalt built-up roofs (BUR), by comparison, reflect 6 percent to 26 percent of solar radiation.[71]\n\nUsing light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature.[72] A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat creating warmer near-surface temperatures. Paving with light-colored concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete, communities may be able to lower average temperatures.[73] However, research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that, unless the nearby buildings are fitted with reflective glass, solar radiation reflected off light-colored pavements can increase building temperatures, increasing air conditioning demands.[74][75]\n\nA second option is to increase the amount of well-watered vegetation. These two options can be combined with the implementation of green roofs. Green roofs are excellent insulators during the warm weather months and the plants cool the surrounding environment. Air quality is improved as the plants absorb carbon dioxide with concomitant production of oxygen.[76] The city of New York determined that the cooling potential per area was highest for street trees, followed by living roofs, light covered surface, and open space planting. From the standpoint of cost effectiveness, light surfaces, light roofs, and curbside planting have lower costs per temperature reduction.[77]\n\nA hypothetical \"cool communities\" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3\u00a0\u00b0C (5\u00a0\u00b0F) after planting ten million trees, reroofing five million homes, and painting one-quarter of the roads at an estimated cost of US$1\u00a0billion, giving estimated annual benefits of US$170\u00a0million from reduced air-conditioning costs and US$360\u00a0million in smog related health savings.[78]\n\nMitigation strategies include:\n\n  \u2022 White roofs: Painting rooftops white has become a common strategy to reduce the heat island effect.[79] In cities, there are many dark colored surfaces that absorb the heat of the sun in turn lowering the albedo of the city.[79] White rooftops allow high solar reflectance and high solar emittance, increasing the albedo of the city or area the effect is occurring.[79]\n  \u2022 Green roofs: Green roofs are another method of decreasing the urban heat island effect. Green roofery is the practice of having vegetation on a roof; such as having trees or a garden. The plants that are on the roof increase the albedo and decreases the urban heat island effect.[79] This method has been studied and criticized for the fact that green roofs are affected by climatic conditions, green roof variables are hard to measure, and are very complex systems[79]\n  \u2022 Planting trees in cities: Planting trees around the city can be another way of increasing albedo and decreasing the urban heat island effect. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and provide shade. It is recommended to plant deciduous trees because they can provide many benefits such as more shade in the summer and not blocking warmth of winter[80]\n  \u2022 Green parking lots: Green parking lots use surfaces other than asphalt and vegetation to limit the impact urban heat island effect.\n\nMitigation policies, measures and other strategies[edit]\n\nAB32 scoping plan[edit]\n\nAB32 required the California Air Resources Board to create a scoping plan. This plan is California's approach on how to carry out their goal of combatting climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions by 2020 to levels from the 1990s. The scoping plan had four primary programs, advanced clean cars, cap and trade, renewables portfolio standard and low-carbon fuel standard all geared toward increased energy efficiency. The plan has main strategies to reduce green house gases such as having monetary incentives, regulations and voluntary actions. Every five years the scoping plan is updated.[81]\n\n  \u2022 The advanced clean car rules program was made to reduce tail pipe emissions. The Air Resources Board approved the program to control emissions for newer models from the year 2017 to 2025. Some of their goals by 2025 are to have more environmentally superior cars to be available in different models and different types of cars. New automobiles will emit 34 percent fewer global warming gases and 75 percent fewer smog-forming emissions. And if fully implemented consumers can save an average of $6,000 over the life of the car.[82]\n  \u2022 The renewable portfolio standard mandates to increase renewable energy from a variety of sources such as solar power and wind. Investor-owned utilities, community choice aggregators and electric service providers are required to increase procurement to 33% by 2020.[83]\n  \u2022 Low carbon fuel standards is administered by the California Air Resources Board and attempts to make wider choice of cleaner fuels to Californians. Producers of petroleum-based fuels are required to reduce the carbon intensity of their products to 10 percent in 2020.[84]\n  \u2022 Cap and trade is designed to reduce the effects of climate change by setting a cap on greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. The cap will decline approximately three percent each year in 2013. The trading will create incentives to reduce the effects of climate change in California communities by reducing greenhouse gases through investments in clean technologies.[85]\n\nClean Air Act\n\nThe EPA has initiated several air quality requirements that help reduce ground-level ozone that leads to urban heat islands. In the Clean Air Act, one of the EPA's chief policies, there are certain regulations that are put in place to ensure the state's emissions stay below a certain level. Included in the Clean Air Act, all states must set forth a State Implementation Plan (SIP) which is designed to guarantee all states meet a central air quality standard.[86]\n\nState implementation plans and policies\n\n  \u2022 The Emerging and Voluntary Measures Policy allows a state to add unconventional forms of heat island mitigation. This can include removing pollution after it has already been emitted into air, water, or soil. These measures are not implemented into law, but they do make it possible for certain parties to voluntarily become more efficient. The purpose of this policy is for all polluting sources to follow by example and use the most successful forms of mitigation.[87]\n  \u2022 The Guidance on State Implementation Plan Credits for Emissions Reductions from Electric-Sector Energy Efficiency or Renewable Energy Measures is an educational tool for states to create an up-to-date and well-organized SIP. It allows states to include plans that meet the guidelines or plans that exceed expectations. Based on the success of their SIP, some states can have their plans incorporated into other SIPs.[88]\n  \u2022 The Bundled Measures Policy authorizes different factions within the state to collaborate on mitigation projects. This policy takes a more of a community-based approach by adding several groups for the purpose of multiple perspectives and inventive approaches. The Bundled Measures Policy is one method that generates co-benefits for both parties.[89] In example, if a partaking business were to add cool roofs, there will be a reduction in greenhouse gases which is beneficial for the environment as well as the need for excess energy which is beneficial for the business.\n\nImplementation of policies[edit]\n\nThe Seattle Green Factor, a multifaceted system for urban landscaping, has seen much success in the mitigation of urban heat islands. The program focuses on areas that are prone to high pollution, such as business districts. There are strict guidelines for any new construction that exceeds roughly 20 parking spaces, and this platform helps developers physically see their levels of pollution while trying different methods of construction to figure out the most effective course of action. Seattle has correspondingly produced a \"score sheet\" for cities to use in their city planning.[86]\n\nAB32 and urban heat islands[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Urban heat islands increase demand for energy consumption during the summer when temperatures rise. As a result of increased energy consumption, there is an increase in air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. This policy focuses on lowering greenhouse emissions, which contributes to lowering the heat island effect.[90]\n\nEPA Compendium of Strategies[edit]\n\nThis compendium focuses on a variety of issues dealing with urban heat islands. They describe how urban heat islands are created, who is affected, and how people can make a difference to reduce temperature. It also shows examples of policies and voluntary actions by state and local governments to reduce the effect of urban heat islands[91]\n\nIncentives[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) and the Sacramento Tree Foundation have partnered to provide the city of Sacramento shade trees for free. The program allows citizens to receive trees from four to seven feet tall. They also give them fertilizer, and delivery, all at no cost. They encourage citizens to plant their trees to benefit their home by reducing air conditioning costs. Approximately more than 450,000 shade trees have been planted in the Sacramento area.[92]\n  \u2022 The Eco-Roof Incentive Program: In Canada, grants are distributed throughout Toronto for installing green and cool roofs on residential and commercial buildings. This will reduce usage of energy and lower green house gas emissions.[93]\n  \u2022 Tree vitalize: This program is a partnership with multiple entities that focuses on helping restore tree cover in the city, it also educates citizens about the positive effects of trees on climate change and the urban heat island effect. And another goal they have is to build capacity among local governments to understand, protect and restore their urban trees. Because there is a need for educating citizens about the maintenance of trees, Treevitalize provides nine hours of classroom and field training to community residents. The classes cover a variety of topics such as tree identification, pruning, tree biology, and proper species selection.[94]\n\nWeatherization[edit]\n\nU.S. Department of Energy Weatherization Assistance Program helps low income recipients by covering their heating bills and helping the families to make their homes energy efficient. In addition, this program allows states to also use the funds to install cooling efficiency measures such as shading devices.[94]\n\nOutreach and education[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Tree Utah: a statewide non-profit organization is dedicated to educating communities about the environmental and social benefits provided by trees. They are also committed to planting thousands of trees throughout the state of Utah.[95]\n  \u2022 The Lawrence Hall of Science at UC Berkeley has a high-school level course called Global Systems Science. The course focuses on a variety of topics including climate change and the greenhouse effect.[96]\n\nTree protection ordinances[edit]\n\n  \u2022 A variety of local governments have implemented tree and landscape ordinances, which will help communities by providing shade during summer. Tree protection is an ordinance that does not allow someone to prune or remove trees without a city permit. An example is the city of Glendale, California: Through the Indigenous Tree Ordinance, the city of Glendale protects the following species of trees, the California sycamore, the coast live oak, mesa oak, valley oak, scrub oak, California bay. Anyone who is planning on removing or trimming the trees has to obtain an indigenous tree permit. Within the permit they have to provide detailed information about the number of trees affected, trunk diameter and the health of the tree itself. They also have to submit photographs of the site, and a site plan sketch.[97]\n  \u2022 Another example is the city of Berkeley, California. The tree protection ordinance prohibits the removal of coast live oak trees and any excessive pruning that can cause harm to the tree is also prohibited. The only exception is if the tree is poses a danger to life or limb and danger to the property.[98]\n  \u2022 The city of Visalia, California, has implemented a street tree ordinance intended to promote and regulate the planting, maintenance, and protection of street trees within the city. Their ordinance does not allow street trees to be altered, pruned or removed. Street trees are also protected during construction.[99]\n\nCo-benefits of mitigation strategies[edit]\n\nTrees and gardens aid mental health[edit]\n\n  \u2022 A large percentage of people who live in urban areas have access to parks and gardens in their areas, which are probably the only connections they have with nature. A study shows that having contact with nature helps promote our health and well-being. People who had access to gardens or parks were found to be healthier than those who did not.[100]\n  \u2022 Another study done investigating whether or not the viewing of natural scenery may influence the recoveries of people from undergoing surgeries, found that people who had a window with a scenic view had shorter postoperative hospital stays and fewer negative comments from nurses.[101]\n\nTree planting as empowerment and community building[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Los Angeles TreePeople, is an example of how tree planting can empower a community. Tree people provides the opportunity for people to come together, build capacity, community pride and the opportunity to collaborate and network with each other.[102]\n\nGreen roofs as food production[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Growing food on rooftops could be an option for fast growing communities. Popular plants grown for food include, chives, oregano and lavender these plants are suitable for green roofs because they are evolutionarily equipped for Mediterranean climate.[103]\n\nGreen roofs and wildlife biodiversity[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Green roofs are important for wildlife because they allow organisms to inhabit the new garden. To maximize opportunities to attract wildlife to a green roof, one must aid the garden to be as diverse as possible in the plants that are added. By planting a wide array of plants, different kinds of invertebrate species will be able to colonize, they will be provided with foraging sources and habitat opportunities.[103]\n\nUrban forests and a cleaner atmosphere[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Trees provide benefits such as absorbing carbon dioxide, and other pollutants.[104] Trees also provide shade and reduce ozone emissions from vehicles. By having many trees, we can cool the city heat by approximately 10 degrees to 20 degrees, which will help reducing ozone and helping communities that are mostly affected by the effects of climate change and urban heat islands.[105]\n\nGreen building programs[edit]\n\nVoluntary green building programs have been promoting the mitigation of the heat island effect for years.[106] For example, one of the ways for a site to earn points under the US Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System is to take action that reduces heat islands, minimizing impacts on microclimates and human and wildlife habitats. Credits associated with reflective roofing or planted roofs can help a building achieve LEED certification. Buildings also receive credits by providing shade.[107] Similarly, The Green Building Initiative (GBI)'s Green Globes program awards points to sites that take measures to decrease a building's energy consumption and reduce the heat island effect. As many as 10 points may be awarded to sites with roof coverage from vegetation, highly reflective materials, or a combination of the two.[108]\n\nCost analysis[edit]\n\nEvery year in the U.S. 15% of energy goes towards the air conditioning of buildings in these urban heat islands. According to Rosenfeld et al., \"the air conditioning demand has risen 10% within the last 40 years.\"[109] Home and business owners alike can benefit from building a cool community. A decrease in energy usage directly correlates to cost efficiency. Areas with substantial vegetation and reflective surface materials used for roofs of houses, pavement, and roads are proven to be more effective and cost efficient.\n\nIn a case study of the Los Angeles Basin, simulations showed that even when trees are not strategically placed in these urban heat islands, they can still aid in minimization of pollutants and energy reduction. It is estimated that with this wide-scale implementation, the city of Los Angeles can annually save $100M with most of the savings coming from cool roofs, lighter colored pavement, and the planting of trees. With a citywide implementation, added benefits from the lowering smog-level would result in at least one billion dollars of saving per year.[109]\n\nThe cost efficiency of green roofs is quite high because of several reasons. According to Carter, \"A conventional roof is estimated to be $83.78\/m2 while a green roof was estimated at $158.82\/m2.\"[110] For one, green roofs have over double the lifespan of a conventional roof, effectively decelerating the amount of roof replacements every year. In addition to roof-life, green roofs add stormwater management reducing fees for utilities. The cost for green roofs is more in the beginning, but over a period of time, their efficiency provides financial as well as health benefits.\n\nIn Capital E Analysis' conclusions of the financial benefits of green buildings, it was determined that green roofs successfully lowered energy usage and raised health benefits. For every square foot of green roof used in one study the savings amounted to $5.80 energy-wise. There were also savings seen in the emissions, water, and maintenance categories. Overall, the savings amounted to $52.90-$71.30 on average while the cost of going green totaled -$3.00-$5.00.[111]\n\nGlobal warming[edit]\n\nBecause some parts of some cities may be hotter than their surroundings, concerns have been raised that the effects of urban sprawl might be misinterpreted as an increase in global temperature. Such effects are removed by homogenization from the raw climate record by comparing urban stations with surrounding stations. While the \"heat island\" warming is an important local effect, there is no evidence that it biases trends in the homogenized historical temperature record. For example, urban and rural trends are very similar.[21]\n\nThe Third Assessment Report from the IPCC says:\n\nHowever, over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where urban heat islands are most apparent, both the trends of lower-tropospheric temperature and surface air temperature show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28\u00b0C\/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27\u00b0C\/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.[21]\n\nGround temperature measurements, like most weather observations, are logged by location. Their siting predates the massive sprawl, roadbuilding programs, and high- and medium-rise expansions which contribute to the UHI. More importantly, station logs allow sites in question to be filtered easily from data sets. Doing so, the presence of heat islands is visible, but overall trends change in magnitude, not direction. The effects of the urban heat island may be overstated. One study stated, \"Contrary to generally accepted wisdom, no statistically significant impact of urbanization could be found in annual temperatures.\" This was done by using satellite-based night-light detection of urban areas, and more thorough homogenisation of the time series (with corrections, for example, for the tendency of surrounding rural stations to be slightly higher in elevation, and thus cooler, than urban areas). If its conclusion is accepted, then it is necessary to \"unravel the mystery of how a global temperature time series created partly from urban in situ stations could show no contamination from urban warming.\" The main conclusion is that microscale and local-scale impacts dominate the mesoscale impact of the urban heat island. Many sections of towns may be warmer than rural sites, but surface weather observations are likely to be made in park \"cool islands.\"[112]\n\nNot all cities show a warming relative to their rural surroundings. After trends were adjusted in urban weather stations around the world to match rural stations in their regions, in an effort to homogenise the temperature record, in 42\u00a0percent of cases, cities were getting cooler relative to their surroundings rather than warmer. One reason is that urban areas are heterogeneous, and weather stations are often sited in \"cool islands\" \u2013 parks, for example \u2013 within urban areas.[113]\n\nStudies in 2004 and 2006 attempted to test the urban heat island theory, by comparing temperature readings taken on calm nights with those taken on windy nights.[114][115] If the urban heat island theory is correct then instruments should have recorded a bigger temperature rise for calm nights than for windy ones, because wind blows excess heat away from cities and away from the measuring instruments. There was no difference between the calm and windy nights, and one study said that \"we show that, globally, temperatures over land have risen as much on windy nights as on calm nights, indicating that the observed overall warming is not a consequence of urban development.\"[116][117]\n\nA view often held by those who reject the evidence for global warming is that much of the temperature increase seen in land based thermometers could be due to an increase in urbanization and the siting of measurement stations in urban areas.[117] For example, Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend (for 1979\u20132002) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied\u2014which had already been processed to remove the (modeled) UHI contribution.[118][119] Critics of this paper, including Gavin A. Schmidt,[120] have said the results can be explained away as an artifact of spatial autocorrelation. McKittrick and Nicolas Nierenberg stated further that \"the evidence for contamination of climatic data is robust across numerous data sets.\"[121]\n\nThe preliminary results of an independent assessment carried out by the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature group, and made available to the public in October 2011, found that among other scientific concerns raised by skeptics, the urban heat island effect did not bias the results obtained by NOAA, the Hadley Centre and NASA's GISS. The Berkeley Earth group also confirmed that over the past 50 years the land surface warmed by 0.911\u00a0\u00b0C, and their results closely matched those obtained from earlier studies.[122][123][124][125][126]\n\nClimate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report from the IPCC states the following.\n\nStudies that have looked at hemispheric and global scales conclude that any urban-related trend is an order of magnitude smaller than decadal and longer time-scale trends evident in the series (e.g., Jones et al., 1990; Peterson et al., 1999). This result could partly be attributed to the omission from the gridded data set of a small number of sites (<1%) with clear urban-related warming trends. In a worldwide set of about 270 stations, Parker (2004, 2006) noted that warming trends in night minimum temperatures over the period 1950 to 2000 were not enhanced on calm nights, which would be the time most likely to be affected by urban warming. Thus, the global land warming trend discussed is very unlikely to be influenced significantly by increasing urbanisation (Parker, 2006). ... Accordingly, this assessment adds the same level of urban warming uncertainty as in the TAR: 0.006\u00b0C per decade since 1900 for land, and 0.002\u00b0C per decade since 1900 for blended land with ocean, as ocean UHI is zero.[127]\n\nA 2014 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America looks at the potential of large-scale urban adaptation to counteract the effects of long-term global climate change. The researchers calculate that without any adaptive urban design, by 2100 the expansion of existing U.S. cities into regional megalopolises could raise near-surface temperatures between 1 and 2 degrees Celsius over large regions, \"a significant fraction of the 21st-century greenhouse gas-induced climate change simulated by global climate models.\" Large-scale adaptive design could completely offset this increase, however. For example, the temperature increase in California was calculated to be as high as 1.31 degrees Celsius, but a 100% deployment of \"cool roofs\" would result in a temperature drop of 1.47 degrees Celsius\u2014more than the increase.[128]\n\nUrban cold island[edit]\n\nIronically, the same urban area that is hotter in the day, can be colder than surrounding rural areas at ground level at night, leading to a new term urban cold island. Snow cover for example in rural areas, insulates plants. This was an unexpected discovery when studying the response of plants to urban environments.[129]\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Anthropogenic heat\n  \u2022 Cool roof\n  \u2022 Urban climatology\n  \u2022 Urban dust dome\n  \u2022 Urban reforestation\n  \u2022 Urban thermal plume\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Solecki, William D.; Rosenzweig, Cynthia; Parshall, Lily; Pope, Greg; Clark, Maria; Cox, Jennifer; Wiencke, Mary (2005). \"Mitigation of the heat island effect in urban New Jersey\". Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards. 6 (1): 39\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.hazards.2004.12.002.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies - Urban Heat Island Basics. By EPA. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print\n  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Li, Y.; Zhao, X. (2012). \"An empirical study of the impact of human activity on long-term temperature change in China: A perspective from energy consumption\". Journal of Geophysical Research. 117. Bibcode:2012JGRD..11717117L. doi:10.1029\/2012JD018132.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). \"Urban Heat Island\". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-06-19.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Huang, Q.; Lu, Y. (2015). \"The Effect of Urban Heat Island on Climate Warming in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration in China\". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12 (8): 8773\u20138789. doi:10.3390\/ijerph120808773.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Z.-C. Zhao (2011) Impacts of urbanization on climate change, 10,000 Scientific Difficult Problems: Earth Science (in Chinese), 10,000 scientific difficult problems Earth Science Committee Eds, 2011, Science Press, pp. 843\u2013846\n  7. Jump up ^ Peterson, T.C.; Gallo, K.P.; Lawrimore, J.; Owen, T.W.; Huang, A.; McKittrick, D.A. (1999). \"Global rural temperature trends\". Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (3): 329\u2013332. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26..329P. doi:10.1029\/1998GL900322.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Sachindra, D. A., Ng, A. W. M., Muthukumaran, S., & Perera, B. J. C. (2015). Impact of Climate Change on Urban Heat Island Effect and Extreme Temperatures: A Case Study. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society..\n  9. Jump up ^ Luke Howard, The climate of London, deduced from Meteorological observations, made at different places in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, 2 vol., London, 1818-20\n  10. ^ Jump up to: a b T. R. Oke (1982). \"The energetic basis of the urban heat island\". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 108 (455): 1\u201324. Bibcode:1982QJRMS.108....1O. doi:10.1002\/qj.49710845502.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Larsson, Naomi (10 May 2018). \"US cities losing 36 million trees a year, researchers find\". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 May 2018.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Santos, Fabiane. Trees \u2013 the Natural Air Conditioners. Scientific Scribbles. The University of Melbourne, 23 Aug. 2013. Web. 27 Sept. 2013. <http:\/\/blogs.unimelb.edu.au\/sciencecommunication\/2013\/08\/23\/trees-the-natural-air-conditioners\/>.\n  13. Jump up ^ United States. NASA. Air Pollution Prevention Through Urban Heat Island Mitigation: An Update on the Urban Heat Island Pilot Project. By Virginia Gorsevski, Haider Taha, Dale Quattrochi, and Jeff Luvall. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.\n  14. Jump up ^ Sailor, D. J. (2011). \"A review of methods for estimating anthropogenic heat and moisture emissions in the urban environment\". International Journal of Climatology. 31 (2): 189\u2013199. Bibcode:2011IJCli..31..189S. doi:10.1002\/joc.2106.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Chen, F.; Kusaka, H.; Bornstein, R.; Ching, J.; Grimmond, C. S. B.; Grossman-Clarke, S.; Loridan, T.; Manning, K. W.; Martilli, A.; Miao, S.; Sailor, D.; Salamanca, F. P.; Taha, H.; Tewari, M.; Wang, X.; Wyszogrodzki, A. A.; Zhang, C. (2011). \"The integrated WRF\/urban modelling system: Development, evaluation, and applications to urban environmental problems\". International Journal of Climatology. 31 (2): 273. Bibcode:2011IJCli..31..273C. doi:10.1002\/joc.2158.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ Union of Concerned Scientists. \"Rising Temperatures, Worsening Ozone Pollution.\" Climate Change and Your Health (2011): n. pag. Print.\n  17. Jump up ^ Imyunku (2009). \"Learning About Urban Heat Islands\". Pusan National University. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ Hinkel, Kenneth M. (March 2003). \"Barrow Urban Heat Island Study\". Department of Geography, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  19. Jump up ^ United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Heat Island Effect. By EPA. N.p., 29 August 2013. Web. 31 August 2015. <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/heatisld\/about\/index.htm>.\n  20. Jump up ^ T. Chakraborty; C. Sarangi; S. N. Tripathi (2017). \"Understanding Diurnality and Inter-Seasonality of a Sub-tropical Urban Heat Island\". Boundary-Layer Meteorology. 163 (2): 287\u2013309. Bibcode:2017BoLMe.163..287C. doi:10.1007\/s10546-016-0223-0.\u00a0CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)\n  21. ^ Jump up to: a b c IPCC (2001). \"Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Chapter 2.2 How Much is the World Warming?\". Archived from the original on 2009-06-12. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  22. Jump up ^ M. Carmen Moreno-garcia (1993-10-28). \"Intensity and form of the urban heat island in barcelona\". International Journal of Climatology. 14 (6): 705\u2013710. Bibcode:1994IJCli..14..705M. doi:10.1002\/joc.3370140609.\u00a0\n  23. Jump up ^ Keith C. Heidorn (2009). \"Luke Howard: The Man Who Named The Clouds\". Islandnet.com. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  24. Jump up ^ M. Roth; T. R. Oke & W. J. Emery (1989). \"Satellite-derived urban heat islands from three coastal cities and the utilization of such data in urban climatology\". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 10 (11): 1699\u20131720. Bibcode:1989IJRS...10.1699R. doi:10.1080\/01431168908904002.\u00a0\n  25. Jump up ^ H.-Y. Lee (1993). \"An application of NOAA AVHRR thermal data to the study or urban heat islands\". Atmospheric Environment. 27B: 1\u201313. Bibcode:1993AtmEB..27....1L. doi:10.1016\/0957-1272(93)90041-4.\u00a0\n  26. Jump up ^ I. Camilloni & V. Barros (1997). \"On the urban heat island effect dependence on temperature trends\". Climatic Change. 37 (4): 665\u2013681. doi:10.1023\/A:1005341523032.\u00a0\n  27. Jump up ^ C.J.G. (Jon) Morris (2006-07-09). \"Urban Heat Islands and Climate Change - Melbourne, Australia\". University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Archived from the original on March 10, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  28. Jump up ^ Swaid, Hanna (1991). \"NOCTURNAL VARIATION OF AIR-SURFACE TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS FOR TYPICAL URBAN AND RURAL SURFACES\". ScienceDirect. 25: 333\u2013341. Bibcode:1991AtmEB..25..333S. doi:10.1016\/0957-1272(91)90005-Y. Retrieved 7 December 2017.\u00a0\n  29. Jump up ^ Imamura, I.R. \"Role of soil moisture in the determination of urban heat island intensity in different climate regimes\" (PDF). Retrieved 7 December 2017.\u00a0\n  30. Jump up ^ Steeneveld, G.J. (2011). \"Quantifying urban heat island effects and human comfort for cities of variable size and urban morphology in the Netherlands\". Journal of Geophysical Research. 116: D20129. Bibcode:2011JGRD..11620129S. doi:10.1029\/2011JD015988.\u00a0\n  31. Jump up ^ Kershaw, T. J.; Sanderson, M.; Coley, D.; Eames, M. (2010). \"Estimation of the urban heat island for UK climate change projections\". Building Services Engineering Research and Technology. 31 (3): 251\u2013263. doi:10.1177\/0143624410365033.\u00a0\n  32. Jump up ^ Theeuwes, N. E.; Steeneveld, G.J.; Ronda, R.J.; Holtslag, A.A.M. (2017). \"A diagnostic equation for the daily maximum urban heat island effect for cities in northwestern Europe\". International Journal of Climatology. 37: 443\u2013454. Bibcode:2017IJCli..37..443T. doi:10.1002\/joc.4717.\u00a0\n  33. Jump up ^ Myrup, Leonard O. (1969). \"A Numerical Model of the Urban Heat Island\". Journal of Applied Meteorology. 8: 908\u2013918. Bibcode:1969JApMe...8..908M. doi:10.1175\/1520-0450(1969)008<0908:ANMOTU>2.0.CO;2.\u00a0\n  34. Jump up ^ Michael J. Angilletta Jr mail, Robbie S. Wilson, Amanda C. Niehaus, Michael W. Sears, Carlos A. Navas, Pedro L. Ribeiro (February 2007). \"Urban Physiology: City Ants Possess High Heat Tolerance\". PLoS ONE. 2: e258. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..258A. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0000258. PMC\u00a01797824\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a017327918.\u00a0CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)\n  35. Jump up ^ Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). \"From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology\". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21: 3. doi:10.1016\/j.tree.2005.11.019.\u00a0\n  36. Jump up ^ Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). \"From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology\". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21: 3. doi:10.1016\/j.tree.2005.11.019.\u00a0\n  37. Jump up ^ \"Islands in the Sun\". Institute on the Environment. University of Minnesota.\u00a0\n  38. Jump up ^ Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). \"From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology\". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21: 4. doi:10.1016\/j.tree.2005.11.019.\u00a0\n  39. Jump up ^ Tang, Teri. \"Where are the Insects?\". School of Life Sciences. Arizona State University. Retrieved 19 October 2014.\u00a0\n  40. Jump up ^ McDonnell, Mark J. (1997). \"Ecosystem processes along an urban-to-rural gradient\". Urban ecosystems. 1: 26.\u00a0\n  41. Jump up ^ Arizona Board of Regents (2006). \"Urban Climate \u2013 Climate Study and UHI via the Internet Wayback Machine\". Arizona State University. Archived from the original on 2007-11-23. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  42. Jump up ^ Chiel C. van Heerwaarden & J. Vil\u00e0-Guerau de Arellano (2008). \"Relative humidity as an indicator for cloud formation over heterogeneous land surfaces\". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 65 (10): 3263\u20133277. Bibcode:2008JAtS...65.3263V. doi:10.1175\/2008JAS2591.1.\u00a0\n  43. Jump up ^ Fuchs, Dale (2005-06-28). \"Spain goes hi-tech to beat drought\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  44. Jump up ^ Goddard Space Flight Center (2002-06-18). \"NASA Satellite Confirms Urban Heat Islands Increase Rainfall Around Cities\". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-17.\u00a0\n  45. Jump up ^ \"Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes\". Tornado Project. 1999. Archived from the original on 2005-11-14. Retrieved 2008-06-24.\u00a0\n  46. Jump up ^ Gretchen Cook-Anderson (2004-06-29). \"Urban Heat Islands Make Cities Greener\". NASA. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  47. Jump up ^ S. A. Changnon, Jr.; K. E. Kunkel & B. C. Reinke (1996). \"Impacts and responses to the 1995 heat wave: A call to action\". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 77 (7): 1497\u20131506. Bibcode:1996BAMS...77.1497C. doi:10.1175\/1520-0477(1996)077<1497:IARTTH>2.0.CO;2.\u00a0\n  48. Jump up ^ R. W. Buechley; J. Van Bruggen & L. E. Trippi (1972). \"Heat island = death island?\". Environmental Research. 5 (1): 85\u201392. Bibcode:1972ER......5...85B. doi:10.1016\/0013-9351(72)90022-9. PMID\u00a05032927.\u00a0\n  49. Jump up ^ J. F. Clarke (1972). \"Some effects of the urban structure on heat mortality\". Environmental Research. 5 (1): 93\u2013104. Bibcode:1972ER......5...93C. doi:10.1016\/0013-9351(72)90023-0. PMID\u00a05032928.\u00a0\n  50. Jump up ^ Robert E. Davis; Paul C. Knappenberger; Patrick J. Michaels & Wendy M. Novicoff (November 2003). \"Changing heat-related mortality in the United States\". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (14): 1712\u20131718. doi:10.1289\/ehp.6336. PMC\u00a01241712\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a014594620.\u00a0\n  51. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Kovats, R. Sari; Hajat, Shakoor (April 2008). \"Heat Stress and Public Health: A Critical Review\". Annual Review of Public Health. 29 (1): 41\u201355. doi:10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090843.\u00a0\n  52. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Koppe, Christina; Sari Kovats; Gerd Jendritzky; Bettina Menne (2004). \"Heat-waves: risks and responses\". Health and Global Environmental Change Series. 2.\u00a0\n  53. Jump up ^ Hancock, P. A.; Vasmatzidis, I. (January 2003). \"Research Article\". International Journal of Hyperthermia. 19 (3): 355\u2013372. doi:10.1080\/0265673021000054630.\u00a0\n  54. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e \"Assessment of International Urban Heat Island Research\" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy Report. Navigant Consulting. Retrieved 30 April 2014.\u00a0\n  55. Jump up ^ \"Heat-Related Morbidity and Mortality\". U.S. Center for Disease Control. USA Government. Retrieved 30 April 2014.\u00a0\n  56. Jump up ^ D\u00edaz, J.; Jord\u00e1n, A.; Garc\u00eda, R.; L\u00f3pez, C.; Alberdi, J.; Hern\u00e1ndez, E.; Otero, A. (1 February 2014). \"Heat waves in Madrid 1986\u20131997: effects on the health of the elderly\". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 75 (3): 163\u2013170. doi:10.1007\/s00420-001-0290-4.\u00a0\n  57. Jump up ^ Harlan, Sharon L.; Brazel, Anthony J.; Prashad, Lela; Stefanov, William L.; Larsen, Larissa (December 2006). \"Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress\". Social Science & Medicine. 63 (11): 2847\u20132863. doi:10.1016\/j.socscimed.2006.07.030.\u00a0\n  58. Jump up ^ Zhu, Pengyu; Zhang Yaoqui (2008). \"Demand for Urban Forests in United States Cities\". Landscape and Urban Planning. 84: 293\u2013300. doi:10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2007.09.005. Retrieved 7 May 2014.\u00a0\n  59. ^ Jump up to: a b De Chant, Tim. \"Urban Trees Reveal Income Inequality\". Per Square Mile. Retrieved 7 May 2014.\u00a0\n  60. Jump up ^ \"Top 22 Benefits of Trees\". Tree People. Retrieved 7 July 2014.\u00a0\n  61. Jump up ^ \"Trees and Vegetation\". EPA.gov. Retrieved 7 July 2014.\u00a0\n  62. Jump up ^ Chant, Tim. \"Urban Trees reveal income inequality\". Per Square Mile. Retrieved 7 July 2014.\u00a0\n  63. Jump up ^ \"Save Mount Sutro Forest\". Retrieved 22 July 2016.\u00a0\n  64. Jump up ^ NYS DEC. \"Streams Tributary to Onondaga Lake Biological Assessment.\" Dec.ny.gov. N.p., 2008. Web. 12 September 2013.\n  65. Jump up ^ Paul A. Tipler & Gene Mosca (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Macmillan. p.\u00a0686. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4292-0124-7. Retrieved 2011-01-14.\u00a0\n  66. Jump up ^ \"Urban Climate \u2013 Climate Study and UHI\". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2009-02-09. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  67. Jump up ^ \"Cool Pavement Report\" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. June 2005. pp.\u00a021, 43. Retrieved 2013-01-15.\u00a0\n  68. Jump up ^ Sheng-chieh Chang (2000-06-23). \"Energy Use\". Environmental Energies Technology Division. Archived from the original on March 11, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  69. Jump up ^ \"Aging and Weathering of Cool Roofing Membranes\" (PDF). Cool Roofing Symposium. 2005-08-23. Retrieved 2010-08-16.\u00a0\n  70. Jump up ^ Albers, R. A. W., Bosch, P. R., Blocken, B., Van Den Dobbelsteen, A. A. J. F., Van Hove, L. W. A., Spit, T. J. M., ... & Rovers, V. (2015). Overview of challenges and achievements in the Climate Adaptation of Cities and in the Climate Proof Cities program. Building and environment, 83, 1-10.\n  71. Jump up ^ \"Comprehensive Cool Roof Guide from the Vinyl Roofing Division of the Chemical Fabrics and Film Association\". Archived from the original on 2013-09-21.\u00a0\n  72. Jump up ^ \"Cool Pavement Report\" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. June 2005. p.\u00a014. Retrieved 2009-02-06.\u00a0\n  73. Jump up ^ Al Gore; A. Steffen (2008). World Changing: A User's Guide for the 21st Century. New York: Abrams. p.\u00a0258.\u00a0\n  74. Jump up ^ Yaghoobian, N.; Kleissl, J. (2012). \"Effect of reflective pavements on building energy use\". Urban Climate. 2: 25. doi:10.1016\/j.uclim.2012.09.002.\u00a0\n  75. Jump up ^ Yang, Jiachuan; Wang, Zhihua; Kaloush, Kamil E. (October 2013), Unintended Consequences: A Research Synthesis Examining the Use of Reflective Pavements to Mitigate the Urban Heat Island Effect (PDF), Tempe, Arizona: NCE SMART Innovations, retrieved 2013-11-25\u00a0\n  76. Jump up ^ \"Green (Planted) Roofs\". Retrieved 2010-08-07.\u00a0\n  77. Jump up ^ New York City Regional Heat Island Initiative (October 2006). \"Mitigating New York City's Heat Island With Urban Forestry, Living Roofs, and Light Surfaces\" (PDF). New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. p.\u00a0ii. Retrieved 2009-06-18.\u00a0\n  78. Jump up ^ Arthur Rosenfeld; Joseph Romm; Hashem Akbari; Alana Lloyd (February\u2013March 1997). \"Painting the Town White \u2013 and Green\". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2007-07-14. Retrieved 2007-09-29.\u00a0\n  79. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Zinzi, M., and S. Agnoli. \"Cool and green roofs. An energy and comfort comparison between passive cooling and mitigation urban heat island techniques for residential buildings in the Mediterranean region.\" Energy and Buildings. 55. (2012): 66-76. Print.\n  80. Jump up ^ Rosenfield, Arthur, Joseph Romm, Hashem Akbari, and Alana Lloyd. \"Painting the Town White -- and Green.\" MIT Technology Review. N.p., 14 07 1997. Web. 25 Feb 2014.\n  81. Jump up ^ AB 32 Scoping Plan.\" Scoping Plan. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.arb.ca.gov\/cc\/scopingplan\/scopingplan.htm>.\n  82. Jump up ^ \"California's Advanced Clean Cars Program.\" Advanced Clean Cars. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.arb.ca.gov\/msprog\/consumer_info\/advanced_clean_cars\/consumer_acc.htm>.\n  83. Jump up ^ \"California Renewables Portfolio Standard (RPS).\" California Publics Utilities Commission. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.cpuc.ca.gov\/PUC\/energy\/Renewables\/>.\n  84. Jump up ^ \"Low Carbon Fuel Standard.\" Low Carbon Fuel Standard. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.energy.ca.gov\/low_carbon_fuel_standard\/>.\n  85. Jump up ^ \"Cap-and-Trade Program.\" Air Resources Board. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.arb.ca.gov\/cc\/capandtrade\/capandtrade.htm>.\n  86. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies | Heat Island Effect | US EPA.\" EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/heatisland\/resources\/pdf\/ActivitiesCompendium.pdf>.\n  87. Jump up ^ \"Roadmap for Incorporating Energy Efficiency\/Renewable Energy Policies and Programs into State and Tribal Implementation Plans.\" US EPA.\" EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, July 2012 n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.\n  88. Jump up ^ \"Incorporating Emerging And Voluntary Measures In A State Implementation Plan (SIP). \"EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, September 2004. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ttn\/caaa\/t1\/memoranda\/evm_ievm_g.pdf>\n  89. Jump up ^ \"Page, Stephen, \"Guidance on Incorporating Bundled Measures in a State Implementation Plan.\" EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Aug. 2005 Web. 12 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ttn\/caaa\/t1\/memoranda\/10885guideibminsip.pdf>\n  90. Jump up ^ AB 32 Scoping Plan.\" Scoping Plan. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.arb.ca.gov\/cc\/scopingplan\/scopingplan.htm>.\n  91. Jump up ^ \"Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies | Heat Island Effect | US EPA.\" EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/heatisland\/resources\/compendium.htm>.\n  92. Jump up ^ \"SMUD.\" SMUD Video Player. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <https:\/\/www.smud.org\/en\/video\/cc-single-rebranded.html?bclid=38536226001&bctid=20363808001>.\n  93. Jump up ^ Ecoroof Incentive Program.\" Live Green Toronto, n.d. Web. <http:\/\/www.greenroofs.org\/resources\/EcoRoofBrochure_Email_2013.pdf>.\n  94. ^ Jump up to: a b \"TreeVitalize.\" TreeVitalize. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.\n  95. Jump up ^ \"About.\" TreeUtah. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.\n  96. Jump up ^ \"Global Systems Science.\" Global Systems Science. N.p., 2012. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.\n  97. Jump up ^ \"Indigenous Tree Program.\" City of Glendale, CA\u00a0:. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.glendaleca.gov\/government\/city-departments\/public-works\/indigenous-tree-program>.\n  98. Jump up ^ \"Tree Protection Program - City of Berkeley, CA.\" Planning and Development-City of Berkeley, CA. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.ci.berkeley.ca.us\/Planning_and_Development\/Home\/Tree_Protection_Program.aspx>.\n  99. Jump up ^ \"City of Visalia - Street Tree Ordinance.\" Street Tree Ordinance. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <http:\/\/www.ci.visalia.ca.us\/depts\/parks_n_recreation\/urban_forestry\/street_tree_ordinance.asp>.\n  100. Jump up ^ Maller, C. \"Healthy Nature Healthy People: 'contact with Nature' as an Upstream Health Promotion Intervention for Populations.\" Health Promotion International 21.1 (2005): 45-54. Print.\n  101. Jump up ^ Ulrich, R (1984). \"View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery\". Science. 224 (4647): 420\u201321. Bibcode:1984Sci...224..420U. doi:10.1126\/science.6143402.\u00a0\n  102. Jump up ^ Wilmsen, Carl. Partnerships for Empowerment: Participatory Research for Community-based Natural Resource Management. London: Earthscan, 2008. Print.\n  103. ^ Jump up to: a b Dunnett, Nigel. Small Green Roofs: Low-tech Options for Greener Living. Portland, Or.: Timber, 2011. Print.\n  104. Jump up ^ Hilltop Arboretum. \"Nature the Changing Climate and You: Act Locally!\" 5.4 (2007). Web. <http:\/\/hilltop.lsu.edu\/hilltop\/hilltop.nsf\/$Content\/Newsletters\/$file\/07winter.pdf>\n  105. Jump up ^ McPherson, Gregory, James Simpson, Paula Peper, Shelley Gardner, Kelaine Vargas, Scott Maco, and Qingfu Xiao. \"Coastal Plain Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting\". USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. (2006). Web.\n  106. Jump up ^ \"Voluntary Green Building Programs\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-21.\u00a0\n  107. Jump up ^ \"LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations Rating System\". US Green Building Council. November 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-17.\u00a0\n  108. Jump up ^ \"Green Globes\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2011-07-27.\u00a0\n  109. ^ Jump up to: a b Rosenfeld, Arthur H., et al. \"Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction.\" Energy and Buildings 28.1 (1998): 51-62.\n  110. Jump up ^ Carter, Timothy; Keeler, Andrew (2008). \"Life-cycle cost\u2013benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems\". Journal of environmental management. 87 (3): 350\u2013363. doi:10.1016\/j.jenvman.2007.01.024.\u00a0\n  111. Jump up ^ Kats, Gregory. Green building costs and financial benefits. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Technology Collaborative, 2003.\n  112. Jump up ^ T. C. Peterson (2003). \"Assessment of Urban Versus Rural In Situ Surface Temperatures in the Contiguous United States: No Difference Found\" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 16 (18): 2941\u20132959. Bibcode:2003JCli...16.2941P. doi:10.1175\/1520-0442(2003)016<2941:AOUVRI>2.0.CO;2.\u00a0\n  113. Jump up ^ J. Hansen; R. Ruedy; M. Sato; M. Imhoff; W. Lawrence; D. Easterling; T. Peterson & T. Karl (2001). \"A closer look at United States and global surface temperature change\". Journal of Geophysical Research. 106: 239\u2013247. Bibcode:2001JGR...10623947H. doi:10.1029\/2001JD000354.\u00a0\n  114. Jump up ^ D. E. Parker (2004). \"Climate: Large-scale warming is not urban\". Nature. 432 (7015): 290. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..290P. doi:10.1038\/432290a. PMID\u00a015549087.\u00a0\n  115. Jump up ^ David E. Parker (2006). \"A demonstration that large-scale warming is not urban\" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 19 (12): 2882\u20132895. Bibcode:2006JCli...19.2882P. doi:10.1175\/JCLI3730.1.\u00a0\n  116. Jump up ^ Parker, David E. (2004). \"Large-scale warming is not urban\" (PDF). Nature. 432 (7015): 290\u2013290. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..290P. doi:10.1038\/432290a. PMID\u00a015549087. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  117. ^ Jump up to: a b Black, Richard (2004-11-18). \"Climate change sceptics 'wrong'\". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-08-02.\u00a0\n  118. Jump up ^ McKitrick, R.R.; Michaels, P.J. (2007). \"Quantifying the influence of anthropogenic surface processes and inhomogeneities on gridded global climate data\" (PDF). J. Geophys. Res. 112: D24S09. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11224S09M. doi:10.1029\/2007JD008465.\u00a0\n  119. Jump up ^ Non-technical summary of M&M 2007 by McKitrick\n  120. Jump up ^ Schmidt, G. A. (2009). \"Spurious correlations between recent warming and indices of local economic activity\". International Journal of Climatology. 29 (14): 2041\u20132048. Bibcode:2009IJCli..29.2041S. doi:10.1002\/joc.1831.\u00a0\n  121. Jump up ^ Ross McKitrick; Nicolas Nierenberg (2010-01-01). \"Socioeconomic patterns in climate data\". Journal of Economic and Social Measurement. 35 (3): 149\u2013175. doi:10.3233\/JEM-2010-0336.\u00a0. Also see [1] for a non-technical summary, and comments on the publication delay.\n  122. Jump up ^ Jeff Tollefson (2011-10-20). \"Different method, same result: global warming is real\". Nature News. doi:10.1038\/news.2011.607. Retrieved 2011-10-22.\u00a0\n  123. Jump up ^ \"Cooling the Warming Debate: Major New Analysis Confirms That Global Warming Is Real\". Science Daily. 2011-10-21. Retrieved 2011-10-22.\u00a0\n  124. Jump up ^ Ian Sample (2011-10-20). \"Global warming study finds no grounds for climate sceptics' concerns\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2011-10-22.\u00a0\n  125. Jump up ^ Richard Black (2011-10-21). \"Global warming 'confirmed' by independent study\". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-10-21.\u00a0\n  126. Jump up ^ \"Climate change: The heat is on\". The Economist. 2011-10-22. Retrieved 2011-10-22.\u00a0\n  127. Jump up ^ Kevin E. Trenberth; Philip D. Jones; Peter Ambenje; Roxana Bojariu; David Easterling; Albert Klein Tank; David Parker; Fatemeh Rahimzadeh; James A. Renwick; Matilde Rusticucci; Brian Soden & Panmao Zhai (2007). \"IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Chapter 3 - Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change\" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p.\u00a0244. Retrieved 2009-06-27.\u00a0\n  128. Jump up ^ Georgescu, Matei; Morefield, Philip E.; Bierwagen, Britta G.; Weaver, Christopher P. (2014). \"Urban Adaptation Can Roll Back Warming of Emerging Megapolitan Regions\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111: 2909\u20132914. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.2909G. doi:10.1073\/pnas.1322280111. PMC\u00a03939866\u202fFreely accessible. PMID\u00a024516126. Lay summary \u2013 JournalistsResource.org.\u00a0\n  129. Jump up ^ http:\/\/phys.org\/news\/2016-12-urban-cold-islands-evolution-cities.html\n\nFurther reading[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Arnfield, A. John (1 January 2003). \"Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island\". International Journal of Climatology. 23 (1): 1\u201326. Bibcode:2003IJCli..23....1A. doi:10.1002\/joc.859.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Gartland, Lisa (2008). Heat islands: understanding and mitigating heat in urban areas. London: Earthscan. ISBN\u00a09781844072507.\u00a0\n  \u2022 P. D. Jones; P.Y. Groisman; M. Coughlan; N. Plummer; W.-C. Wang; T.R. Karl (1990). \"Assessment of urbanization effects in time series of surface air temperature over land\". Nature. 347 (6289): 169\u2013172. Bibcode:1990Natur.347..169J. doi:10.1038\/347169a0.\u00a0\n  \u2022 Helmut E. Landsberg (1981). The Urban Climate. New York: Academic Press. ISBN\u00a00-12-435960-4.\u00a0\n  \u2022 J. Khodakarami; M.Hatami (2016). Heat Island: A New Variable In Architecture and Urbanism. Tehran, In Persian: Fekreno Book.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Urban heat islands.\n  \u2022 Land-Surface Air Temperature - from the IPCC\n  \u2022 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Heat Island Group\n  \u2022 The Surface Temperature Record and the Urban Heat Island From RealClimate.org\n  \u2022 Urban Heat Island research group - NSF project, Department of Geography, Indiana State University\n  \u2022 UrbanHeatIslands.com - Urban Heat islands in Canada and the world\n  \u2022 Cool Roof and Pavement Toolkit\n  \u2022 Global Cool Cities Alliance\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nGlobal warming and climate change\nshow\nTemperatures\n  \u2022 Brightness temperature\n  \u2022 Effective temperature\n  \u2022 Geologic record\n  \u2022 Hiatus\n  \u2022 Historical climatology\n  \u2022 Instrumental record\n  \u2022 Paleoclimatology\n  \u2022 Paleotempestology\n  \u2022 Proxy data\n  \u2022 Record of the past 1,000 years\n  \u2022 Satellite measurements\nshow\nCauses\nAnthropogenic\n  \u2022 Attribution of recent climate change\n  \u2022 Aviation\n  \u2022 Biofuel\n  \u2022 Black carbon\n  \u2022 Carbon dioxide\n  \u2022 Deforestation\n  \u2022 Earth's energy budget\n  \u2022 Earth's radiation balance\n  \u2022 Ecocide\n  \u2022 Fossil fuel\n  \u2022 Global dimming\n  \u2022 Global warming potential\n  \u2022 Greenhouse effect\n  \u2022 (Infrared window)\n  \u2022 Greenhouse gases\n  \u2022 (Halocarbons)\n  \u2022 Land use, land-use change and forestry\n  \u2022 Radiative forcing\n  \u2022 Tropospheric ozone\n  \u2022 Urban heat island\nNatural\n  \u2022 Albedo\n  \u2022 Bond events\n  \u2022 Climate oscillations\n  \u2022 Climate sensitivity\n  \u2022 Cloud forcing\n  \u2022 Cosmic rays\n  \u2022 Feedbacks\n  \u2022 Glaciation\n  \u2022 Global cooling\n  \u2022 Milankovitch cycles\n  \u2022 Ocean variability\n    \u2022 AMO\n    \u2022 ENSO\n    \u2022 IOD\n    \u2022 PDO\n  \u2022 Orbital forcing\n  \u2022 Solar variation\n  \u2022 Volcanism\nModels\n  \u2022 Global climate model\nshow\nHistory\n  \u2022 History of climate change science\n  \u2022 Atmospheric thermodynamics\n  \u2022 Svante Arrhenius\n  \u2022 James Hansen\n  \u2022 Charles David Keeling\nshow\nOpinion and climate change\n  \u2022 Environmental ethics\n  \u2022 Media coverage of climate change\n  \u2022 Public opinion on climate change\n  \u2022 (Popular culture)\n  \u2022 Scientific opinion on climate change\n  \u2022 Scientists opposing the mainstream assessment\n  \u2022 Climate change denial\n  \u2022 Global warming conspiracy theory\n  \u2022 By country & region\n  \u2022 (Africa\n  \u2022 Arctic\n  \u2022 Argentina\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 Bangladesh\n  \u2022 Belgium\n  \u2022 Canada\n  \u2022 China\n  \u2022 Europe\n  \u2022 European Union\n  \u2022 Finland\n  \u2022 Grenada\n  \u2022 Japan\n  \u2022 Luxembourg\n  \u2022 New Zealand\n  \u2022 Norway\n  \u2022 Russia\n  \u2022 Scotland\n  \u2022 South Korea\n  \u2022 Sweden\n  \u2022 Tuvalu\n  \u2022 United Kingdom\n  \u2022 United States)\nshow\nPolitics\n  \u2022 Clean Power Plan\n  \u2022 Climate change denial\n  \u2022 (Manufactured controversy)\n  \u2022 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)\n  \u2022 March for Science\n  \u2022 People's Climate March\n  \u2022 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC \/ FCCC)\n  \u2022 Global climate regime\nshow\nPotential effects and issues\nGeneral\n  \u2022 Abrupt climate change\n  \u2022 Anoxic event\n  \u2022 Arctic dipole anomaly\n  \u2022 Arctic haze\n  \u2022 Arctic methane release\n  \u2022 Climate change and agriculture\n  \u2022 Climate change and ecosystems\n  \u2022 Climate change and gender\n  \u2022 Climate change and poverty\n  \u2022 Current sea level rise\n  \u2022 Drought\n  \u2022 Economics of global warming\n  \u2022 Effect on plant biodiversity\n  \u2022 Effects on health\n  \u2022 Effects on humans\n  \u2022 Effects on marine mammals\n  \u2022 Environmental migrant\n  \u2022 Extinction risk from global warming\n  \u2022 Fisheries and climate change\n  \u2022 Forest dieback\n  \u2022 Industry and society\n  \u2022 Iris hypothesis\n  \u2022 Megadrought\n  \u2022 Ocean acidification\n  \u2022 Ozone depletion\n  \u2022 Physical impacts\n  \u2022 Polar stratospheric cloud\n  \u2022 Regime shift\n  \u2022 Retreat of glaciers since 1850\n  \u2022 Runaway climate change\n  \u2022 Season creep\n  \u2022 Shutdown of thermohaline circulation\nBy country\n  \u2022 Australia\n  \u2022 South Asia\n    \u2022 India\n    \u2022 Nepal\n  \u2022 United States\nshow\nMitigation\nKyoto Protocol\n  \u2022 Clean Development Mechanism\n  \u2022 Joint Implementation\n  \u2022 Bali Road Map\n  \u2022 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference\nGovernmental\n  \u2022 European Climate Change Programme\n  \u2022 G8 Climate Change Roundtable\n  \u2022 United Kingdom Climate Change Programme\n  \u2022 Paris Agreement\n    \u2022 United States withdrawal\n  \u2022 Regional climate change initiatives in the United States\n  \u2022 List of climate change initiatives\nEmissions reduction\n  \u2022 Carbon credit\n  \u2022 Carbon-neutral fuel\n  \u2022 Carbon offset\n  \u2022 Carbon tax\n  \u2022 Emissions trading\n  \u2022 Fossil-fuel phase-out\nCarbon-free energy\n  \u2022 Carbon capture and storage\n  \u2022 Efficient energy use\n  \u2022 Low-carbon economy\n  \u2022 Nuclear power\n  \u2022 Renewable energy\nPersonal\n  \u2022 Individual action on climate change\n  \u2022 Simple living\nOther\n  \u2022 Carbon dioxide removal\n  \u2022 Carbon sink\n  \u2022 Climate change mitigation scenarios\n  \u2022 Climate engineering\n  \u2022 Individual and political action on climate change\n  \u2022 Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation\n  \u2022 Reforestation\n  \u2022 Urban reforestation\n  \u2022 Climate Action Plan\n  \u2022 Climate action\nshow\nProposed adaptations\nStrategies\n  \u2022 Damming glacial lakes\n  \u2022 Desalination\n  \u2022 Drought tolerance\n  \u2022 Irrigation investment\n  \u2022 Rainwater storage\n  \u2022 Sustainable development\n  \u2022 Weather modification\nProgrammes\n  \u2022 Avoiding dangerous climate change\n  \u2022 Land allocation decision support system\n  \u2022 Glossary of climate change\n  \u2022 Index of climate change articles\n  \u2022 Category:Climate change\n  \u2022 Category:Global warming\n  \u2022 Portal:Global warming\nAuthority control\n  \u2022 LCCN: sh85141317\n  \u2022 NDL: 00971643\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&oldid=846018860\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Climate change science\n  \u2022 Climate forcing\n  \u2022 Urbanization\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\n  \u2022 All articles lacking reliable references\n  \u2022 Articles lacking reliable references from August 2015\n  \u2022 Articles needing additional references from December 2016\n  \u2022 All articles needing additional references\n  \u2022 Good articles\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers\n  \u2022 Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Esperanto\n  \u2022 Euskara\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\n  \u2022 Bahasa Melayu\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Norsk nynorsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Simple English\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n  \u2022 \u7cb5\u8a9e\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 15 June 2018, at 18:53\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"3945082142837053535","title":"Coat of arms of South Africa","text":"Coat of arms of South Africa\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nCoat of arms of the Republic of South Africa\nCoat of arms of South Africa.jpg\nDetails\nArmiger Republic of South Africa\nAdopted 27 April 2000\nCrest A Knobkierie and a Spear, a Protea flower, a Secretary bird with its wings expanded and a rising sun\nEscutcheon Or, representations of two San human figures of red ochre, statant respectant, the hands of the innermost arms clasped, with upper arms, inner wrist, waist and knee bands Argent, and a narrow border of red ochre\nSupporters Elephant tusks and ears of wheat\nMotto \u01c3ke e: \u01c0xarra \u01c1ke\n\"Diverse People Unite\" in |Xam\nPart of a series on the\nCulture of South Africa\nFlag of South Africa\nHistory\nPeople\nLanguages[show]\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 English\n  \u2022 Ndebele\n  \u2022 Northern Sotho\n  \u2022 Sotho\n  \u2022 Swazi\n  \u2022 Tswana\n  \u2022 Tsonga\n  \u2022 Venda\n  \u2022 Xhosa\n  \u2022 Zulu\nCuisine\nFestivals[show]\n  \u2022 Public holidays\nReligion\nArt\nLiterature[show]\n  \u2022 Writers\n  \u2022 Poets\nMusic and performing arts[show]\n  \u2022 Music\n  \u2022 Musicians\nMedia[show]\n  \u2022 Television\n  \u2022 Cinema\nSport\nMonuments[show]\n  \u2022 World Heritage Sites\nSymbols[show]\n  \u2022 Flag\n  \u2022 Coat of arms\n  \u2022 Flag of South Africa.svg South Africa portal\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nIn 2006, the State Herald of South Africa, Themba Mabaso, and the Deputy Herald, Marcel van Rossum, donned a tabard with the emble of the republic at the XXVIIth International Congress of Genealogical and Heraldic Sciences in St Andrews, Scotland\n\nThe present coat of arms of South Africa was introduced on Freedom Day 27 April 2000. It replaced the earlier national arms, which had been in use since 1910.[1] The motto \u01c3ke e: \u01c0xarra \u01c1ke is written in the Khoisan language of the \u01c0Xam people and translates literally to \"diverse people unite\". The previous motto, in Latin, was Ex Unitate Vires, translated as \"From unity, strength\".\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 History\n  \u2022 2 Blazon\n  \u2022 3 The oval shape of foundation\n  \u2022 4 The oval shape of ascendance\n  \u2022 5 1910 arms\n    \u2022 5.1 Evolution\n  \u2022 6 See also\n  \u2022 7 References\n  \u2022 8 External links\n\nHistory[edit]\n\nThe design process was initiated when, in 1999, the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology requested ideas for the new coat-of-arms from the public. A brief was then prepared based on the ideas received, along with input from the Cabinet. The Government Communication and Information System then approached Design South Africa to brief ten of the top designers. Three designers were chosen to present their concepts to the Cabinet. Iaan Bekker's design was chosen.\n\nThe new arms were introduced on Freedom Day, 27 April 2000. The change reflected the government's aim to highlight the democratic change in South Africa and a new sense of patriotism.\n\nThe coat of arms is a series of elements organised in distinct symmetric egg-like or oval shapes placed on top of one another. The completed structure of the coat of arms combines the lower and higher oval shape in a symbol of infinity. The path that connects the lower edge of the scroll, through the lines of the tusks, with the horizon above and the sun rising at the top, forms the shape of the cosmic egg from which the secretary bird rises. In the symbolic sense, this is the implied rebirth of the spirit of the great and heroic nation of South Africa.\n\nThe coat of arms is also a central part of the Seal of the Republic, traditionally considered to be the highest emblem of the State. Absolute authority is given to every document with an impression of the Seal of the Republic on it, as this means that it has been approved by the President of South Africa. Since 1997, however, the use of the Seal of the Republic has not actually been required by the Constitution, but it continues to be used.\n\nBlazon[edit]\n\nThe official blazon of the arms is:\n\nOr, representations of two San human figures of red ochre, statant respectant, the hands of the innermost arms clasped, with upper arm, inner wrist, waist and knee bands Argent, and a narrow border of red ochre; the shield ensigned of a spear and knobkierie in saltire, Sable. Thereabove a demi-secretary bird displayed Or, charged on the breast with a stylised representation of a protea flower with outer petals Vert, inner petals Or and seeded of nine triangles conjoined in three rows, the upper triangle Gules, the second row Vert, Or inverted and Vert, and the third row Vert, Or inverted, Sable, Or inverted and Vert. Above the head of the secretary bird an arc of seven rays facetted Or and Orange, the two outer rays conjoined to the elevated wings.\n\nUpon a riband Vert, the motto !KE E: \/XARRA \/\/KE in letters Argent. Issuant from the ends of the riband two pairs of elephant tusks curving inwards, the tips conjoined to the wings of the secretary bird, Or, therewithin and flanking the shields, two ears of wheat Brunatr\u00e9.[2]\n\nThe oval shape of foundation[edit]\n\nThe first element is the motto, in a green semicircle. Completing the semicircle are two symmetrically placed pairs of elephant tusks pointing upwards. Within the oval shape formed by the tusks are two symmetrical ears of wheat, that in turn frame a centrally placed gold shield.\n\nThe shape of the shield makes reference to the drum, and contains two human figures from Khoisan rock art. The figures are depicted facing one another in greeting and in unity.\n\nAbove the shield are a spear and a knobkierie, crossed in a single unit. These elements are arranged harmoniously to give focus to the shield and complete the lower oval shape of foundation.\n\n  \u2022 The motto\nThe motto is: !ke e: \/xarra \/\/ke, written in the Khoisan language of the \/Xam people, literally meaning \"diverse people unite\". It addresses each individual effort to harness the unity between thought and action. On a collective scale it calls for the nation to unite in a common sense of belonging and national pride - unity in diversity.\n  \u2022 The ears of wheat\nAn emblem of fertility, it also symbolises the idea of germination, growth and the feasible development of any potential. It relates to the nourishment of the people and signifies :the agricultural aspects of the Earth.\n  \u2022 Elephant tusks\nElephants symbolise wisdom, strength, moderation and eternity.\n  \u2022 The shield\nIt has a dual function as a vehicle for the display of identity and of spiritual defence. It contains the primary symbol of our nation.\n  \u2022 The human figures\nThe figures are depicted in an attitude of greeting, symbolising unity. This also represents the beginning of the individual\u2019s transformation into the greater sense of :belonging to the nation and by extension, collective humanity.\n  \u2022 The spear and knobkierie\nA dual symbol of defence and authority, they in turn represent the powerful legs of the secretary bird. The spear and knobkierie are lying down, symbolising peace.\n\nThe oval shape of ascendance[edit]\n\nImmediately above the oval shape of foundation, is the visual centre of the coat of arms, a protea. The petals of the protea are rendered in a triangular pattern reminiscent of the crafts of Africa.\n\nThe secretary bird is placed above the protea and the flower forms the chest of the bird. The secretary bird stands with its wings uplifted in a regal and uprising gesture. The distinctive head feathers of the secretary bird crown a strong and vigilant head. The rising sun above the horizon is placed between the wings of the secretary bird and completes the oval shape of ascendance.\n\nThe combination of the upper and lower oval shapes intersect to form an unbroken infinite course, and the great harmony between the basic elements result in a dynamic, elegant and thoroughly distinctive design. Yet it clearly retains the stability, gravity and immediacy that a coat of arms demands.\n\n  \u2022 The King protea\nThe protea is an emblem of the beauty of our land and the flowering of our potential as a nation in pursuit of the African Renaissance. The protea symbolises the holistic :integration of forces that grow from the Earth and are nurtured from above. The most popular colours of Africa have been assigned to the protea \u2013 green, gold, red and black.\n  \u2022 The secretary bird\nThe secretary bird is characterised in flight, the natural consequence of growth and speed. It is the equivalent of the lion on Earth. A powerful bird whose legs - depicted as the :spear and knobkierie - serve it well in its hunt for snakes, symbolising protection of the nation against its enemies. It is a messenger of the heavens and conducts its grace upon the Earth. In this sense it is a symbol of divine majesty. Its uplifted wings are an emblem of the ascendance of our nation, while simultaneously offering us its protection. It is :depicted in gold, which clearly symbolises its association with the sun and the highest power.\n  \u2022 The rising sun\nAn emblem of brightness, splendour and the supreme principle of the nature of energy. It symbolises the promise of rebirth, the active faculties of reflection, knowledge, good judgement and willpower. It is the symbol of the source of life, of light and the ultimate wholeness of humanity.\n\n1910 arms[edit]\n\nThe first coat of arms was granted by King George V by Royal Warrant on 17 September 1910.[3] This was a few months after the formation of the Union of South Africa.\n\nIt was a combination of symbols representing the four provinces (formerly colonies) that made up the Union.\n\n  \u2022 The first quarter is the figure of Hope, representing the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope.\n  \u2022 The two wildebeests of the second quarter represent the Colony of Natal.\n  \u2022 The orange tree in the third quarter was used as the symbol of the Orange Free State Republic.\n  \u2022 The wagon in the fourth quarter represented the Transvaal.\n  \u2022 The supporters are taken from the arms of the Orange River Colony and the Cape Colony.\n  \u2022 The lion holds four rods, bound together, symbolising the unification of the four former colonies.\n\nThe motto, Ex Unitate Vires was officially translated as \"Union is Strength\" until 1961, and thereafter as \"Unity is Strength\".\n\nEvolution[edit]\n\nMain article: Coat of arms of South Africa (1910\u20132000)\n\nThree official renditions of the arms were used. The original rendition (1910) was the only version used until 1930, and it continued to be used as the rank badge of warrant officers in the South African Defence Force and South African National Defence Force until 2002. The second version, painted in 1930 and known as the \"ordinary coat of arms\", and the third version, painted in 1932 and known as the \"embellished coat of arms\", were both used until 2000.\n\nCoat of arms of South Africa (1910\u20131930).png Coat of arms of South Africa (1930\u20131932).png Coat of arms of South Africa (1932\u20132000).svg\n1910 1930 1932\n\nSee also[edit]\n\n  \u2022 flagSouth Africa portal\n  \u2022 Heraldry portal\n  \u2022 South African heraldry\n  \u2022 Coat of arms of the Orange Free State\n  \u2022 Coat of arms of the Cape Colony\n  \u2022 Coat of arms of Natal\n  \u2022 Coat of arms of the Transvaal\n  \u2022 Coat of arms of the Orange River Colony\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ Brownell, F.G. (1993). National and Provincial Symbols\n  2. Jump up ^ Government Gazette no 21131 (28 April 2000)\n  3. Jump up ^ Government Gazette no 58 (15 November 1910)\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 South Africa Heraldry History\n  \u2022 Past and present\nhide\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCoats of arms and emblems of Africa\nSovereign states\n  \u2022 Algeria\n  \u2022 Angola\n  \u2022 Benin\n  \u2022 Botswana\n  \u2022 Burkina Faso\n  \u2022 Burundi\n  \u2022 Cameroon\n  \u2022 Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)\n  \u2022 Central African Republic\n  \u2022 Chad\n  \u2022 Comoros\n  \u2022 Democratic Republic of the Congo\n  \u2022 Republic of the Congo\n  \u2022 Djibouti\n  \u2022 Egypt\n  \u2022 Equatorial Guinea\n  \u2022 Eritrea\n  \u2022 Ethiopia\n  \u2022 Gabon\n  \u2022 The Gambia\n  \u2022 Ghana\n  \u2022 Guinea\n  \u2022 Guinea-Bissau\n  \u2022 Ivory Coast (C\u00f4te d'Ivoire)\n  \u2022 Kenya\n  \u2022 Lesotho\n  \u2022 Liberia\n  \u2022 Libya\n  \u2022 Madagascar\n  \u2022 Malawi\n  \u2022 Mali\n  \u2022 Mauritania\n  \u2022 Mauritius\n  \u2022 Morocco\n  \u2022 Mozambique\n  \u2022 Namibia\n  \u2022 Niger\n  \u2022 Nigeria\n  \u2022 Rwanda\n  \u2022 S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe\n  \u2022 Senegal\n  \u2022 Seychelles\n  \u2022 Sierra Leone\n  \u2022 Somalia\n  \u2022 South Africa\n  \u2022 South Sudan\n  \u2022 Sudan\n  \u2022 Swaziland\n  \u2022 Tanzania\n  \u2022 Togo\n  \u2022 Tunisia\n  \u2022 Uganda\n  \u2022 Zambia\n  \u2022 Zimbabwe\nStates with limited\nrecognition\n  \u2022 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic\n  \u2022 Somaliland\nDependencies and\nother territories\n  \u2022 Canary Islands\u00a0\/ Ceuta\u00a0\/ Melilla\u00a0\u00a0(Spain)\n  \u2022 Madeira\u00a0(Portugal)\n  \u2022 Mayotte\u00a0\/ R\u00e9union\u00a0(France)\n  \u2022 Saint Helena\u00a0\/ Ascension Island\u00a0\/ Tristan da Cunha\u00a0(United Kingdom)\n  \u2022 Western Sahara\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_South_Africa&oldid=851588623\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 National coats of arms\n  \u2022 National symbols of South Africa\n  \u2022 South African heraldry\n  \u2022 Coats of arms with tusks\n  \u2022 Coats of arms with spears\n  \u2022 Coats of arms with wheat\n  \u2022 Coats of arms with birds\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from July 2012\n  \u2022 Use South African English from July 2012\n  \u2022 All Wikipedia articles written in South African English\n  \u2022 Articles containing \/Xam-language text\n  \u2022 Articles containing Latin-language text\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nIn other projects\n\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Commons\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Afrikaans\n  \u2022 Asturianu\n  \u2022 Bosanski\n  \u2022 Catal\u00e0\n  \u2022 \u010ce\u0161tina\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Eesti\n  \u2022 \u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Galego\n  \u2022 \ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n  \u2022 Hrvatski\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09bf\u09b7\u09cd\u09a3\u09c1\u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09ae\u09a3\u09bf\u09aa\u09c1\u09b0\u09c0\n  \u2022 Bahasa Indonesia\n  \u2022 Italiano\n  \u2022 \u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n  \u2022 Lietuvi\u0173\n  \u2022 Magyar\n  \u2022 \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Nederlands\n  \u2022 \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\n  \u2022 Nordfriisk\n  \u2022 Norsk\n  \u2022 Polski\n  \u2022 Portugu\u00eas\n  \u2022 \u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\n  \u2022 Scots\n  \u2022 Sesotho\n  \u2022 Sesotho sa Leboa\n  \u2022 \u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\n  \u2022 Srpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\n  \u2022 Suomi\n  \u2022 Svenska\n  \u2022 \u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n  \u2022 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n  \u2022 \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\n  \u2022 Yor\u00f9b\u00e1\n  \u2022 \u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 23 July 2018, at 09:18\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"5908036375079101426","title":"Gail McIntyre","text":"Gail McIntyre\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\nGail McIntyre\nGailplatt 2008.jpg\nCoronation Street character\nPortrayed\u00a0by Helen Worth\nDuration 1974\u2013\nFirst\u00a0appearance Episode 1412\n29 July 1974[1]\nIntroduced\u00a0by H. V. Kershaw\nBook\u00a0appearances Coronation Street:\nThe Complete Saga\n\nNorman Bates with a Briefcase: The story of Richard Hillman\nSpin-off\nappearances\nEast Street (2010)\nClassification Present; regular\nProfile\nOther names\n  \u2022 Gail Potter\n  \u2022 Gail Tilsley\n  \u2022 Gail Platt\n  \u2022 Gail McIntyre\n  \u2022 Gail Hillman\n  \u2022 Gail Rodwell\nOccupation\n  \u2022 Receptionist\n  \u2022 Cleaner\n  \u2022 Waitress\n  \u2022 Factory Worker\n  \u2022 Newsagent\nHome\n  \u2022 8 Coronation Street (1991-\n  \u2022 33 Hammond Road (1985-1991)\n  \u2022 5 Buxton Close (1980-1983)\n  \u2022 5 Coronation Street (1979-1980, 1983-1985)\n  \u2022 11 Coronation Street (1976-1979)\n  \u2022 15a Coronation Street (1975-1976)\nshowFamily\nFather Ted Page\nMother Audrey Roberts\nStepfather Alf Roberts\nHalf-brothers Stephen Reid\nHusband\n  \u2022 Brian Tilsley (1979\u20131987, 1988\u20131989)\n  \u2022 Martin Platt (1991\u20132001)\n  \u2022 Richard Hillman (2002\u20132003)\n  \u2022 Joe McIntyre (2010)\n  \u2022 Michael Rodwell (2015\u20132016)\nSons Nick Tilsley\nDavid Platt\nDaughters Sarah Platt\nStepdaughters Tina McIntyre\nGrandsons\n  \u2022 Billy Platt\n  \u2022 Harry Platt\n  \u2022 Max Turner (step)\nGranddaughters Bethany Platt\nLily Platt\nGrandfathers Robert Potter\nGrandmothers Nancy Potter\n\nGail Rodwell (also Potter, Tilsley, Platt, Hillman and McIntyre) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street.[2] Portrayed by Helen Worth, the character first appeared on-screen on 29 July 1974. As of 2018, Gail has been on the show for 44 years, which currently makes her the third longest-running character on the show after Ken Barlow and Rita Tanner.\n\nGail is the daughter of Audrey Roberts (Sue Nicholls) and Ted Page (Michael Byrne) and is the mother of Nick Tilsley (Ben Price), Sarah Platt (Tina O'Brien) and David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd) and has featured in some of the most controversial and high-profile storylines in the soap involving her family and her number of relationships \u2014 jointly with Steve McDonald, she is the soap's most married character, having been married six times.[1]\n\nGail's storylines include her marriage to Brian Tilsley (Christopher Quinten); her vicious feud with her mother-in-law Ivy Tilsley (Lynne Perrie); coping when Brian is killed in a knife attack; marrying the much younger Martin Platt (Sean Wilson); coping when her teenage daughter Sarah falls pregnant at the age of 13; divorcing Martin and marrying serial killer Richard Hillman (Brian Capron); being kidnapped with Sarah, David and her granddaughter Bethany Platt (Emily Walton\/Lucy Fallon) by Richard and being driven into the canal by him; her feud with Eileen Grimshaw (Sue Cleaver) after her son Todd (Bruno Langley) comes out as gay while dating Sarah; throwing David out after he hides drugs in Bethany's toys; being pushed down the stairs by David after he discovers that she took Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) to a private abortion clinic to terminate a pregnancy fathered by David, marrying Tina's father Joe McIntyre (Reece Dinsdale); being imprisoned for Joe's murder when his plan to fake his own death goes wrong; a feud with David's wife Kylie Turner (Paula Lane); coping with the secret that Kylie slept with Nick and that her unborn baby may not be David's; marrying the burglar who robbed her home, Michael Rodwell (Les Dennis); keeping the secret that Andy Carver (Oliver Farnworth) is not actually Michael's son but an impostor; trying to help David come to terms with Kylie's death; and locking David in the cellar of the Bistro after discovering that he is going to kill Kylie's murderer.\n\nContents\n\n\u00a0[hide]\u00a0\n  \u2022 1 Storylines\n  \u2022 2 Casting\n  \u2022 3 Development\n    \u2022 3.1 Background\n    \u2022 3.2 Feud with Eileen Grimshaw\n    \u2022 3.3 Relationships\n      \u2022 3.3.1 Joe McIntyre\n      \u2022 3.3.2 Michael Rodwell\n  \u2022 4 Reception\n  \u2022 5 References\n  \u2022 6 External links\n\nStorylines[edit]\n\nGail Potter is a friend of Tricia Hopkins (Kathy Jones) and a boss. She is first seen when she tells Ray Langton (Neville Buswell) that Tricia fancies him. In April 1975, Gail discovers that the man her mother was living with - Frank Peterson - isn't her father as she thought. Angry, Gail leaves home, moving into the shop flat with her co-worker\/former schoolfriend, Tricia. Gail is plagued by nuisance telephone calls and when phone engineer, John Lane, turns up one evening to catch the culprit, Gail realises that it is him. Luckily, Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) sees him go in, her suspicions aroused, and the police are called.\n\nAfter the warehouse they work in burns down, Gail and Tricia work in the Corner Shop, but when Renee Bradshaw (Madge Hindle) buys the shop and flat in June 1976, the girls are evicted. Tricia leaves Weatherfield and Elsie Tanner (Pat Phoenix) returns, fortunately for Gail as Elsie ensures that she can stay in the flat. Elsie and Gail find work at Sylvia's Separates and move into No 11. She loses her virginity to Roy Thornley, but discovers that he is married and Gail is cited in a messy divorce. In December 1976, Sylvia's Separates is taken over by Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs) and renamed the Western Front. Elsie is moved from boutique manager to factory supervisor and Gail is promoted to manager with Suzie Birchall (Cheryl Murray), working for her. In early 1977, Suzie joins Elsie and Gail at No 11, and the three women become one of the programme's most popular groups.[2]\n\nIn November 1978, Mike Baldwin closes down the Western Front, but things look up for Gail in December when Brian Tilsley (Christopher Quinten) gatecrashes a party at Elsie's and asks her out. In January 1979, Gail gets a job working with Emily Bishop in Dawson's Cafe. By April, Brian and Gail are engaged, beginning a long feud between Gail and Brian's mother, Ivy (Lynne Perrie), and saw the arrival of Gail's mother, Audrey Potter (Sue Nicholls). Brian and Gail are married that November and move in with Brian's parents at number five. Gail and Brian move to a one-bedroomed house at 5 Buxton Close in August 1980 and on New Year's Eve, their son, Nicky (Warren Jackson) is born. The Tilsleys' marriage never seems wholly secure, especially with narcissistic Brian being given free rein by his doting mother, and soon hits a rocky spot. Gail is propositioned by Brian's friend, Colin Jackson, and Brian is dazzled by customer Glenda Fox. In January 1982, Brian's boss, Ron Sykes, announces that he is selling the business and emigrating to the Persian Gulf. Faced with the choice of working away or redundancy, Brian goes to work in Qatar. Gail makes friends with neighbour, Jackie Moffatt, but bored at home on her own, asks Jackie to look after Nicky while she works part-time in Jim Sedgewick's caf\u00e9 (she had briefly worked there when it first opened in 1980), now run by Jim's ex-wife, Alma Sedgewick, (Amanda Barrie).\n\nBrian announces that he is staying in the Gulf, extending his contract by two months. Lonely, Gail agrees to go for a drink with truck driver, Les Charlton, (Graham Fellows) but Nicky goes missing and is eventually found in the newly rebuilt number seven. A distressed Gail thinks about giving up her job and loses interest in Les. Unfortunately, Les's last visit coincides with Brian's return and he makes it very clear to Les that he is not welcome. Brian decides not to return to Qatar and admits having \"had a drink\" with a nurse and Gail realizes that his friendship with her was a lot closer than he is admitting. In August 1982, using the money he made in Qatar, Brian opens a garage in partnership with Ron Sykes and for a while, the Tilsleys are happy. In March 1983, things seem to be going so well that Brian takes out a bank loan and buys Ron Sykes's share of the garage. However, there is a change in fortunes - Brian's father, Bert (Peter Dudley), is seriously injured while overinflating a tyre at the garage and dies soon afterwards, and the business starts losing money - forcing Brian to put it up for sale. He is talked out of selling by Gail and Mike Baldwin, deciding to sell the house in Buxton Close instead, and move back in with Ivy. The Tilsleys' marriage now begins to crumble as living under the same roof irritates Ivy and Gail and when in August 1984, Gail is offered the job of manageress at Jim's Cafe, she takes it - annoying Brian and Ivy. A couple of months later, there is more friction when Brian finds that Audrey's latest boyfriend, George Hepworth (Richard Moore), made a pass at Gail. By April 1985, Gail has had enough and leaves Brian, moving her and Nicky into a bedsit. This finally makes Brian get a council house so Gail and Nicky move in there with him.\n\nEarly in 1986, Brian's Australian cousin, Ian Latimer (Michael Loney) visits and stays with Ivy. Soon he and Gail are having an affair. Gail admits this to Brian on learning that she is pregnant and doesn't know who is the father. Blood tests show that Sarah-Louise (Lynsay & Leah King), who is born in January 1987, cannot be Ian's but Brian never really bonds with Sarah-Louise, and moves in with his new girlfriend, Liz Turnbull (Catriona A Elliott). Soon after, Brian divorces Gail. Gail starts dating Jeff Singleton (Jonathan Barlow), and Brian doesn't like the idea of him being a stand-in father. After Brian's abortive attempt to kidnap Nicky, Brian and Gail reconcile and he moves back into Hammond Road, and they remarry in February 1988. However, Gail realises that she married too young and Brian's old-fashioned attitudes about wives mean that the marriage will never work so they separate again but continue living under the same roof. Eventually, Gail asks for another divorce after a massive row one evening in February 1989. Brian's attempt to find other female company that same evening results in him stabbed to death outside a nightclub.\n\nAlma returns to Weatherfield from Spain late in 1988, and in June 1989, offers Gail a 40% partnership in Jim's Caf\u00e9, which she accepts. Martin Platt (Sean Wilson) has been working at the caf\u00e9 since 1985. To Gail's surprise, she finds herself attracted to Martin, who is 10 years younger than her. Martin comforts Gail when she is upset about recent events and a few kisses leads to them ending up in bed together.\n\nMuch against Ivy and Audrey's wishes, Martin moves in with Gail and the children and she soon becomes pregnant. Feeling that she can't cope with three children and doesn't want Martin to be tied down too young, she decides to have an abortion. Martin catches her just as her train pulls out of the station and persuades her not to go ahead so David (Thomas Ormson) is born on Christmas Day 1990. Gail and Martin marry in September 1991 and in December, Martin buys number eight and the Platt family move in. Gail's emotional trials are far from over. When Martin studies to become a nurse, Carmel Finnan (Catherine Cusack), a fellow student, stays with them in late 1992 and becomes besotted with Martin. Gail angrily throws her out after Carmel tells Gail that she is too old for Martin but she returns a few weeks later, claiming she's expecting Martin's baby, and tries to kidnap David. This causes a fight between her and Gail and Carmel falls down the stairs. At hospital, it is found that she isn't pregnant and her grandfather arrives, explaining her mental history.\n\nDuring 1994, tensions build as Nicky refuses to acknowledge Martin as a \"father\", causing problems for Martin and Gail. Depressed after Christmas celebrations at work, Martin sleeps with Cathy Power, (Theresa Brindley) and is caught kissing her Audrey's husband, Alf Roberts, (Bryan Mosley). Alf and Martin agree to keep it between them but when Audrey finds out, Martin confesses everything to Gail. Gail takes the betrayal very badly, and although they continue to live together, she and Martin barely speak but reconcile after a family holiday in North Wales. However, tensions with Nick (as he now wants to be called) grow and are aggravated by Ivy's death in August 1995. She leaves most of her estate to Nick - providing he changes his name back to Tilsley. Months of wrangling and bad feeling ensue, with Gail, Martin, Nick and Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff), Ivy's second husband, constantly arguing. In January 1996, Gail settles the row by getting Don to pay Nick \u00a312,000 for the house. Soon after, Gail meets her half-brother, Stephen Reid (Todd Boyce) when he visits Weatherfield. Later in 1996, Martin and Gail's marriage is strained, due to conflict between Nick and Martin so Stephen invites them to Canada for a holiday and Nick decides to go to school there, using the money Don paid him for Ivy's house.\n\nRoy Cropper (David Neilson) begins working in the caf\u00e9 with Gail when Alma wants to spend less time there and eventually, Alma sells her share in the caf\u00e9 to Roy after she and Gail fall out over Stephen's decision to cancel his contract with Mike. Gail and Roy get on very well and things tick over as usual. Roy even gives Gail and Martin a weekend trip to Paris from vouchers he has saved. In 1997, Don is in prison after attacking Mike and Alma but is diagnosed with terminal cancer and asks to see Gail to make amends for the trouble he caused since Ivy's death. Don leaves hospital, attacks Mike and crashes Alma's car into the viaduct, killing himself. Nick (now played by Adam Rickett) returns for the funeral and starts dating Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson), part of a loud, obnoxious family now living in number five. Gail is furious when Nick and Leanne elope to Scotland in January 1998.\n\nBrian's murderer, Darren Whately, is released from prison on parole and Nick persuades Leanne to write to him so he starts stalking her. Gail urges Nick to report him to the police when things get out of control and Darren is returned to prison. Leanne and Nick are shocked to learn that Leanne is pregnant, something Gail disapproves of, and their marriage ends after Nick pressures her to have an abortion and tell people that she miscarried. Nick returns to Canada, much to Gail's delight that he is no longer with Leanne, behaviour very similar to her former mother-in-law, Ivy.\n\nGail tires of her responsibility of the caf\u00e9 and sells her share to Roy and his new girlfriend Hayley Patterson (Julie Hesmondhalgh), but continues to work there. The caf\u00e9 relocates in 1999 to a new development on Victoria Street and is renamed Roy's Rolls. 1999 also sees Gail and Martin's marriage get into serious trouble after Gail demands Martin have a vasectomy after she has a pregnancy scare and doesn't want any more children. Martin refuses and Gail's unreasonable behaviour and anger pushes Martin to become good friends with another nurse, Rebecca Hopkins (Jill Halfpenny). They initially bond over troublesome spouses but soon begin an affair that lasts into 2000. Martin plans on leaving Gail for Rebecca, but this is put on hold when they discover that Sarah (now played by Tina O'Brien), now 13, is refusing to eat and being sick. Fearing that she is developing an eating disorder, Gail takes her to the doctors and learns that Sarah is five months pregnant and gives birth to Bethany (Emily & Amy Walton) in June 2000. Sarah struggles with motherhood and Gail quits her job so she can look after Bethany while Sarah is at school and enjoy being a teenager occasionally. The truth about Martin's affair comes out soon after the baby's birth and Gail is devastated. She tries to keep the family together but it doesn't work as Gail kept on taking her frustration out on Sarah, accusing her of being a bad mother which caused her to run away and to move into the Croppers' flat. Gail felt very guilty after Sarah returned home. She breaks down and tells Martin she wants a divorce. Martin leaves in October 2000, and he and Gail divorce in early 2001. Soon after Martin leaves, Gail gets a job as a receptionist in the newly built medical centre.\n\nThe character of Gail then becomes central to one of the soap's most high-profile plot lines in which episodes would go on to get viewing figures more than 17 million.[3] At first, Gail grows closer to her good friend Alma's cousin, Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), a financial advisor, after Alma's death. Smooth-talking Richard whisks Gail off her feet, and they marry in 2002. Little does she know that her apparently perfect husband, due to financial difficulties after proposals for a bail hostel to be built near apartments he had developed causes them not to sell, has become a serial killer to inherit money, murdering several Weatherfield residents and tries to kill others including Gail's mother, Audrey. When Audrey begins to suspect Richard, she tries to warn Gail but Gail believes Audrey is suffering from dementia as Richard made everyone, including Audrey at first believe through the use of secret mind games. This leads to a row and Gail cuts off contact with Audrey when she continues to call Richard a murderer, much to Audrey's heartache. Also, while Gail was still oblivious to Richard's actions, Sarah was involved in a serious car crash with then boyfriend, Aidan Critchley (Dean Ashton), after he steals Ken Barlow's (William Roache) car. Aidan escapes from the wreckage, leaving Sarah for dead. Fortunately she makes a full recovery but never forgives Aiden for what he did. When Gail begins to suspect that her husband is more than he seems, she confronts him with her suspicions and Richard admits everything to her in a special two-hander episode broadcast on 24 February 2003, admitting he killed Maxine Peacock (Tracy Shaw) and his ex-wife Patricia (Annabelle Apsion). He also reveals that he tried to kill Emily, Audrey, and left Rovers' landlord Duggie Ferguson (John Bowe) to die, all for his financial benefit. Gail also discovers Richard is a serial con-artist. Absolutely horrified, Gail brands him \"Norman Bates With A Briefcase\" and throws him out before giving a statement to the police about Richard's confessions. Gail also reconciles with Audrey and just as Gail starts to rebuild her life, Richard returns in March 2003. He takes Gail, Sarah, David (now played by Jack P. Shepherd) and Bethany hostage and attempts to gas them in the garage but people notice the noise from the garage so he drives them all into the canal. Gail, Sarah, David and Bethany survive but Richard drowns. Gail later finds out that she faces financial ruin, due to Richard's actions and could lose her house. Vera Duckworth (Elizabeth Dawn) accuses her of being in league with Richard, as she and her husband Jack (Bill Tarmey) also face financial instability as Richard was their financial advisor. However, Audrey saves the day by using her life savings to buy the house for Gail and her family but Gail's troubles continue. There is soon conflict with Sarah when Sarah and Bethany move into a flat with Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley). Gail calls Social Services, hoping to get Bethany returned to her so Sarah will have to return too. When this doesn't work, Gail and Sarah have no contact for several months. Sarah becomes pregnant again and she and Todd get engaged, further angering Gail, just like her relationship with her former mother-in-law Ivy. However, Todd admits to Sarah that he is gay so they break up and Sarah & Bethany move out, returning to live with Gail. When Sarah tells Gail what has happened, the fight between Gail and Eileen (Sue Cleaver), Todd's mother, turns physical as Gail is furious at the position Todd has left Sarah in, 16 years old and 7 months pregnant with her 2nd child. Unfortunately Sarah is rushed to hospital with a placental abruption and needs an emergency caesarean. She survives but baby Billy is very ill and dies the day after he is born.\n\nGail also does her best to come between Nick and his new girlfriend, Maria Sutherland (Samia Ghadie), believing that Maria will break Nick's heart again as she emigrated with him to Canada briefly once before but returned alone, as she wasn't happy there. They eventually do break up, and despite being very cold with each other for several months, Gail comforts Maria when she is devastated that Nick leaves to start a new job in Nottingham.\n\nIn 2005, Gail begins a relationship with chiropodist Phil Nail (Clive Russell), much to David's annoyance and he constantly tries to come between them.\n\nFrom early 2006, Gail receives cards from her late husband Richard, unnerving her so much that she becomes reliant on sleeping pills and drink. She contacts the police and thinks that new boyfriend, Phil, is responsible and this causes Phil and David to argue, resulting in him and Gail breaking up and Phil leaving. Her relationship with David is strained to the point of breakdown when she realizes that he is sending the cards.[4] She takes him to the police to close the case but doesn't press charges. Gail forgives David and believes that she can keep him in line, only to find that he is not going to school. On Christmas Day 2006, David unveils Ivy Brennan's diary, revealing Gail's planned abortion and he also exposes Audrey's affair with Bill Webster (Peter Armitage). David runs away from home when Gail tells him she wants him to start paying rent, but returns with the police after claiming that Gail is abusing him. The final straw is when Bethany swallows an ecstasy tablet that was hidden in her doll's head by David in September 2007. Bethany is rushed to intensive care, and following an ultimatum from Sarah, Gail makes David move out and orders him not to attend Sarah's wedding to Jason Grimshaw (Ryan Thomas). As revenge, David writes a suicide note and leaves it on the kitchen table for Gail to find the day before the wedding. However, Sarah finds it first and believing it to be another attention-seeking stunt, she puts it in the bin. The next day, David sees his family celebrating the wedding, despite the suicide note. To prove his point, he drives his car into the same part of the canal that Richard had driven them all into four years earlier. A distraught Gail waits for hours for news on whether he is alive or dead, and when he eventually turns up at the house, Gail swears to him that she will never let the situation get so out of hand again. Her relationship with Sarah becomes strained when it is revealed that Sarah was aware of the suicide note when in fact he hadn't intended on killing himself at all, just ruin Sarah's wedding. She began to blamed herself, how her son David becomes evil since his father Martin left the town, and wish that she and Martin never divorce.\n\nGail's half brother Stephen comes to stay for Christmas and offers David a job in Milan which he accepts. However, as revenge for spoiling her wedding day, Sarah plants ecstasy tablets in his drawer at Audrey's salon and when Audrey finds them, Gail insists that David is not to go to Milan. Sarah is offered the job instead and plans on leaving with Jason and Bethany. However, she joyfully tells Jason what she did at the airport and disgusted with her, Jason returns to Weatherfield alone and tells Gail what really happened.\n\nIn March 2008, David's new girlfriend Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) tells Gail that she is pregnant with David's baby. Believing that neither of them are ready for parenthood, Gail offers to pay for Tina to have an abortion and to keep it from David, which Tina accepts. However, David soon finds out and is angry with Gail. He goes to pack his bags and Gail begs him not to go and tries to explain her reasons, but David doesn't want to know and pushes her away from him. Unfortunately, she is at the top of the stairs and has a terrible fall resulting in her being hospitalised and suffering from short-term amnesia. Gail eventually remembers who pushed her but forgives David believing she pushed him to it. However, believing that he should be punished for nearly killing his mother, he begins smashing up windows in the street resulting in him spending several weeks in prison. Ted Page (Michael Byrne), Gail's long lost father, gets in touch with Audrey. Gail finds out and is angry that she was not told. However, she arranges to meet Ted after he discovers he has a daughter, 3 grandchildren and 1 great-grandchild.\n\nGail takes a shine to Tina's father, Joe McIntyre (Reece Dinsdale), and they start dating. Joe later proposes to Gail on a boat he renovated. However, Gail is unaware that Joe is deeply in debt, as his business has collapsed and is frequently visited by a debt collector. Gail marries Joe in January 2010 despite his debt. While Gail and Joe are on holiday the next month, Joe tries to fake his own death for the life insurance money. He tells Gail, who is horrified, and asks him to go to the police but they argue on the boat and Joe falls, spraining his wrist. The fight is witnessed by another couple. Joe eventually manages to push Gail back on to the dock and he sets sail. Shortly afterwards, Joe is knocked from the boat and drowns but Gail thinks he has gone ahead with his plan so she calls David and tells him about Joe's plan and they agree to tell people that Joe has got a job in the Lake District, thinking he will return. They take Joe's boat in from the lake and go home. Gail is devastated when Joe's body is found. However, the police find many inconsistencies in her story, especially when the couple from the lakes come forward as witnesses. She is arrested during Joe's wake for his murder and later charged after an indignant Tina tells the police that Gail intends to visit her daughter in Milan and that she asked Tina to lie to them. Consequently, Gail is denied bail and her trial is scheduled for three months later. Gail fears the worst, especially when former neighbour Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) makes a false testimony against her claiming that Gail admitted in their prison cell to killing Joe with a rolling pin, but is relieved when she is found not guilty.\n\nGail learns that David is engaged to Kylie Turner (Paula Lane) and is against the marriage. Once David and Kylie are married Gail later warms to the marriage and allows them both to continue living with her. Gail and Audrey bump into Audrey's ex-boyfriend, professional con artist, Lewis Archer (Nigel Havers). They report him to the police but he is not charged and returns to Weatherfield, much to Audrey's horror. They reconcile, much to Gail's disgust, and live happily together. Lewis also gets a job at Nick's Bistro. However, Gail is sure that sooner or later Lewis will hurt Audrey so she plots with Gloria Price (Sue Johnston) to get proof that Lewis is really in love with Audrey. Audrey, however, finds out about this and doesn't stop them so when Lewis realizes that she knew, he leaves her. Wanting revenge, he later fools Gail into falling in love with him and they plan to remortgage her house and buy a hotel business in Italy. After telling her family this, and with Audrey and David disgusted, Lewis (by text) instructs Gail to turn on the DVD of 'Italian for Lovers' which David does. To the family's horror, Lewis has hacked her bank account, taken the money and left the country.\n\nGail meets a man named Michael Rodwell (Les Dennis), who turns up at her house pretending to be a gas man, who has come to the house to look at the \"gas leak\". He is revealed as a burglar and pushes Gail, causing her to fall over, and Kylie chases him out of the street, but he gets into his van and drives off. Gail starts to become anxious when she is home alone due to the burglary and is helped by her son David, Kylie and Audrey. However, Gail and Michael gradually grow close as Gail helps him to rebuild his life and she begins to stick up for him in front of David and Kylie. Eventually, Michael moves in with her.\n\nIn January 2015, Michael proposes to Gail, however she is taken aback by the proposal and Michael is scared that he had rushed into things and that she would leave him. However that evening at the bistro, Gail turns the tables and proposes to Michael. The celebrations are cut short when Michael collapses and is rushed to Weatherfield General. He later discovers he will require open heart surgery. When Sarah returns to Weatherfield in March 2015, she meets Michael but rudely refers to him as the 'burglar' before shaking hands. Gail and Michael are eventually married in April 2015.\n\nHowever, in June 2015 after Michael receives a photo album from his former wife Susan detailing the life of their son Gavin, it is revealed to Michael that Andy Carver has been posing as his son and the real Gavin is dead. Michael is horrified to learn that Gail (as well as David and Andy's girlfriend Steph) knew about the fake identity and aided Andy in keeping the lie secret. Michael walks out on Gail. Unable to forgive her, Michael later demands a divorce and moves in with his new friend Eileen Grimshaw. Later Michael tells Gail that he and Eileen shared a kiss and Gail and Eileen end up fighting in the street. In July, Gail is upset when Michael and Eileen begin a relationship.\n\nGail stands by David and Kylie when Max's biological father, Callum Logan (Sean Ward), begins terrorising the family, as he wants custody of Max. Gail tries to co-operate with Callum's own mother, Marion, but the mediation sessions between him and David end in failure, worsening the situation as time goes on. After Max says he saw Callum and some other gangsters beating up Jason, Gail forces him out of the house when he stops by for one of his impromptu visits, only for Max to tell Callum he \"wishes he was dead\", leading to Callum chasing Max into the road. Max is then hit by Nick in a van. Thankfully, he recovers. Gail's hatred for Callum reaches new heights when he has thugs raid Audrey's salon. Following this, Callum suddenly disappears, and Gail assumes he has decided to leave the family alone from now on.\n\nIn September 2015, as uncertainty grows about the future living situation at No.8, Gail and David agree to convert the garage into a \"granny annexe\" for Gail to live in. After it is finished, Gail discovers there is damp underneath the floor. This eventually dissipates, but Gail begins to notice David, Kylie, and Sarah acting out of the ordinary. She passes it off, and officially moves into the annexe. However, in January 2016, Gail tells David and Kylie she wants underfloor heating for her annexe. She gets Jason to take a look at it, but David, frustrated, stops him from doing so, raising Gail's evermore suspicions about her son's temperament.\n\nIn 2016, it was revealed that there was a decomposed body in the manhole underneath Gail's annexe after a car crash involving Tyrone Dobbs (Alan Halsall) and Fiz Stape (Jennie McAlpine). The body was later revealed as Callum, who was missing for a couple of months. Gail considered her family responsible for the murder but looked passed it after it was later said that Jason's father, Tony Stewart (Terence Maynard) was \"guilty\" of murdering him.\n\nGail's daughter Sarah began experiencing mental issues after believing that Callum wasn't dead and was still on the run and coming to kill her. Billy Mayhew's (Daniel Brocklebank) brother Lee ended up kidnapping Sarah before she went into hospital, telling her that Callum is indeed \"alive\". Sarah angers him by pushing him into a table, injuring him. Lee pushes her, looking like he is going to rape her and then Gail's son David kicks open the door and saves her from him. Sarah then goes into hospital leaving her newborn baby Harry with Gail's daughter in-law, Kylie. Michael also later reconciles with Gail after splitting with Eileen, and moves back into No 8.\n\nIn July 2016, Gail's son David and his wife Kylie agreed to leave Weatherfield and move to Barbados with Kylie's half sister Becky McDonald. This was cancelled because of the sudden death of Kylie after she was stabbed by Clayton Hibbs after protecting Gemma Winter (Dolly Rose-Campbelle). Gail and her family grieved following this especially David, Max and Lily. This memories bring Gail back from her first husband Brian when he was stabbed thirty years ago.\n\nIn October 2016, Gail was horrified by David as he tried to kill Clayton and himself by crashing into his police van with his car full of petrol and by lighting a flame. Gail later found a suicide video, by David, stating that he didn't want to upset the kids but was doing this for Kylie. Gail's method for preventing David from suicide was by trapping him in the Bistro's wine cellar during the trial.\n\nDavid later escaped the cellar and ended up crashing into Gary Windass (Mikey North) and his own daughter, Lily. They both survived but soon after the explosion, Gary's mother Anna Windass (Debbie Rush) got caught up in flames after she fell into a petrol puddle and ended up receiving serious burns to the legs. Gail understood to not ask further questions to David as he felt terrible about it all.\n\nIn November 2016, Michael is found dead after Pat Phelan (Connor McIntyre) allowed him to die of a heart attack. Gail is devastated, and she and Eileen put aside their differences for Michael's funeral. Michael is cremated off screen, and Gail scatters his ashes into a pond near to where they were planning to renew their vows.\n\nIn January 2017, Gail's granddaughter Bethany, begins dating an older man called Nathan Curtis (Christopher Harper) who ended up only being with her to exploit her and groom her. At the same time, David becomes involved with new girl, Shona Ramsey (Julia Goulding), who was also involved with Nathan.\n\n\nIn May 2017, Gail begins pairing up David and fellow hairdresser Maria Connor (Samia Ghadie) after believing that they had feelings for each other and were the \"perfect match\". David and Maria find out about Gail's plans and agree to mess with her. They pretend to be engaged and in love and later take it to the next level and pretend that Maria is pregnant with David's baby. Audrey discovers that they are lying to them and tells Gail. Gail pretends to organise the wedding plans and David tells her that it was all a joke.\n\nIn June 2017, Gail discovers that Bethany has been involved in a sex ring and is horrified. After believing that Nathan doesn't really love her, Bethany leaves him and gets him arrested. Gail's precious son Nick decides to leave Weatherfield for good because he has nothing left in Weatherfield. They have a touching moment together.\n\nGail's son David and Shona get closer and share a kiss in hospital together. This annoys Gail because she knows that Shona is the mother of Kylie's killer Clayton. She warns Shona to stay away and even offers her \u00a3600 to make her move away. Shona ends up telling David the truth and she leaves Weatherfield after being upset by David. David finds out that Gail knew about everything and kicks her out of his house, but eventually lets her back in.\n\nIn 2018 Gail finds out Pat phelan watched Michael die.\n\nCasting[edit]\n\nActress Helen Worth was cast as Gail Potter in 1974. The role of Gail was initially intended to be very minor, a friend of the more established character Tricia Hopkins (Kathy Jones), who was introduced as part of a new family. The Hopkins family made little impact on the show, and, after they were written out, Gail went on to become one of the most popular and high-profile characters in the history of the series. Although Worth was 23 at the time of her casting, the character of Gail was supposed to be 16 when she first appeared.\n\nDevelopment[edit]\n\nBackground[edit]\n\nThe character of Gail was first portrayed as a teenager who liked to have fun with her best friends, first Tricia, then later Suzie Birchall. However, following her first marriage to mechanic Brian Tilsley her storylines have seen her constantly suffer many blows and misery. She has had five husbands, three children, and four grandchildren, although her grandson died in infancy. Her storylines have seen her feuding with a domineering mother-in-law, deal with affairs, three divorces, being widowed three times, deal with traumas from each of her children, marry a serial killer who in turn tried to kill her and her family, and even been imprisoned to await a murder trial after being falsely accused of murdering her fourth husband. Throughout each of these ordeals, her personality altered from laid back to a bitter, miserable, whiny and bossy woman, a clone of her former mother-in-law Ivy Tilsley. She has been known to interfere in her children's lives as family is important to her and she didn't come from a stable family background. Her mother gave birth to her at 18 because she thought it would help her get the baby back that she had been forced to give up for adoption two years previously. Gail's father was never told about her and as a result, she was mostly brought up by her grandmother or to fend for herself while her mother went out with a string of men. This caused Gail to become a headstrong, independent young woman. However, she always swore that her own children would have a proper family life, living with both their parents. However this hasn't worked out and she has been left with repeated failed marriages and being a single mother to her children. She interferes in her children's lives, thinking she is helping and knows what's best, causing many arguments in the process and feuding with whoever gets involved with her children, just like her own relationship with Ivy. Particularly after marrying a serial killer and putting her children's lives in danger, Gail's interfering has increased immensely. Actress Helen Worth has stated that she loves Gail's storylines as the many traumas give her great opportunities as an actress.\n\nFeud with Eileen Grimshaw[edit]\n\nJust like her relationship and feud with her former mother-in-law Ivy Tilsley, the character's feud with Eileen Grimshaw portrayed by Sue Cleaver has become a popular feud. The characters have a long history of catfights and insults between them, animosity that stems from the acrimonious break-up of Gail's daughter Sarah-Louise (Tina O'Brien) and Eileen's son, Todd (Bruno Langley). In one famous scene, Gail flings herself at Eileen after being soundly slapped and told to \"Go home, Gail!\" Despite this, various things, including the 2010 tram crash, have caused them to put aside their differences.[5]\n\nGail and her arch-enemy Eileen Grimshaw, portrayed by Sue Cleaver, brawl in the street (2004).\n\nCleaver who plays Eileen has commented, \"Eileen's relationship with Gail is horrendous [...] I love all the scraps in the street with Gail. Helen Worth (Gail) and I love doing all that - we have such a laugh with the abusive comments we make for each other. The constant battle is fun. It's a love-hate relationship.\" Worth has suggested that Gail probably thinks she is \"a little better than Eileen\". Jenny Platt, who played Violet Wilson between 2004 and 2008 has noted that \"Gail's found her nemesis in Eileen, but it's so stupid because actually they are so similar. They are both single mums looking out for their kids.\"\n\nGail and Eileen continue to feud, clashing in the Rovers on Gail's hen night to Michael in 2015. In June 2015, they ended up fighting in the street again after Gail discovered Eileen had kissed her estranged husband Michael Rodwell.\n\nRelationships[edit]\n\nJoe McIntyre[edit]\n\nIn 2008, Gail began a relationship with Joe McIntyre portrayed by Reece Dinsdale. The relationship was rocky just like most of other Gail's relationships but the two characters later went on to marry. Conclusion to the storyline and ending of the relationship resulting in Joe's death. In November 2009, The Sun reported Joe would decide to disappear on a boating holiday in the Lake District after experiencing a debt crisis which begins to spiral out of control, in a surprise twist, Joe ends up losing his life for real when a sail pole knocks him unconscious and into freezing cold water before he can carry out his plan in full. The plot mirrored real-life case of fraudster John Darwin, who faked his own death while out canoeing before turning up alive five years later in December 2007. A source said: \"It's a copycat storyline of Darwin's insurance scam. Corrie bosses have decided that Joe will meet a watery end. He decides to fake his own death to avoid his crippling debt problems and leave wife Gail with the proceeds from his life insurance.\"[6]\n\nSpeaking of how Joe compared to Gail's other husband, Helen Worth said; \"On paper, Joe looks quite normal! He's like any other normal man with problems and they're getting on top of him. Gail will share those problems. Like she says, when Gail marries him, Joe's problems become her problems and that's the way it should be. That sums their relationship up, really. She'll do anything for him because Gail can't let her dream go. To realise that he's the wrong man would spell the end of her dream, so she's not going to do it.\"[7]\n\nIn 2009, Worth revealed in an interview with the Daily Mirror that she thought Coronation Street bosses were going to write the character out of the soap as an upcoming storyline would see her on trial for murder: \"At the time I was genuinely anxious as to whether it was the end of the road for me and Coronation Street... I wasn\u2019t shocked, because it can happen to an actor at any time. But I was very pleased when I found out that whatever happens at Gail\u2019s trial, I will be staying in the show.\"[8]\n\nMichael Rodwell[edit]\n\nLes Dennis (pictured) played the role of Michael Rodwell from 2014 to 2016.\n\nIn January 2014, it was announced that Les Dennis has joined the cast of Coronation Street as Michael Rodwell.[9] In February 2014, it was revealed that Michael Rodwell was being lined up as a love interest for Gail.[10] The Mirror reported that Michael will arrive in Weatherfield and burgle Gail's house. However, Michael will then turn up again in the summer to try to make amends with Gail as part of a restorative justice storyline. The restorative justice scheme involves people who have admitted crimes meeting their victims or making amends by doing some sort of remedial work. Worth revealed that Gail would sacrifice everything for her relationship with Michael particular her relationship with son Nick Tilsley (Ben Price) who would disapprove of the relationship. Speaking of the scenes, Worth explained: \"Nick comes back to the house and spies Gail and Michael in the garden, enjoying a bottle of wine and kissing. It completely pushes him over the edge and as he leaves, he spots Michael's ice cream van and vandalises it. \"Gail is absolutely devastated and completely humiliated - she knows full well who is behind it. Gail confronts Nick about it and he admits to it and tells her it's because he saw them kissing in the garden.\"[11]\n\nReception[edit]\n\nIn June 2012, the Daily Mail's Jaci Stephen praised Worth and Gail, saying \"The character has been through the mill with husbands \u2013 one murdered, one dull, one a serial killer and one a kitchen-fitter-cum-fraudster \u2013 and Worth has handled every plot with aplomb. She also has great comic timing, and Gail's incompetence in the Bistro is now making for terrific scenes with Nick.\"[12]\n\nOn 25 May 2014, Worth won \"Outstanding Achievement Award\" at The British Soap Awards 2014 for her portrayal of Gail over the last 40 years.[13]\n\nOn 9 June 2014, a 30-minute documentary entitled \"Gail & Me: 40 Years on Coronation Street\" was aired at 20:00 dedicated to Worth's 40 years on the soap. In the show, Worth was reunited with past actors Brian Capron (Richard Hillman) and Amanda Barrie (Alma Halliwell), and spoke out about Gail's most controversial storylines.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. ^ Jump up to: a b \"Gail Rodwell\". ITV.com. ITV plc. 5 December 2011.\u00a0[permanent dead link]\n  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Daran Little (2004). \"Gail Platt\". Corrie.Net. Retrieved 2010-01-25.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ \"Street drama hits ratings high\". BBC News. 25 February 2003. Retrieved 3 May 2010.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Cox, Emma (11 March 2008). \"David Platt OAPs keep hitting me\". The Sun. London. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2008.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ \"Corrie bosses plan Canoe Man-style plot\". Digital Spy. 2009-11-30. Retrieved 2017-02-04.\u00a0\n  7. Jump up ^ \"Helen Worth (Gail Platt, Corrie)\". Digital Spy. 2010-01-02. Retrieved 2017-02-04.\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ \"Coronation Street: Helen Worth thought Gail Platt had been Written Out!\". Primetime: Unreality TV. 6 March 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 2011-01-03.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ \"Corrie pictures: Les Dennis joins show\". Digital Spy. 2014-03-18. Retrieved 2017-02-04.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Coronation Street: Gail McIntyre for romance with Les Dennis character?\n  11. Jump up ^ \"Corrie: Gail sacrifices Michael romance\". Digital Spy. 2014-07-22. Retrieved 2017-02-04.\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Stephen, Jaci (15 June 2012). \"Soap watch: The ultimate insight into the week's soaps\". Daily Mail. Associated Newspapers. Retrieved 16 June 2012.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ Dainty, Sophie (25 May 2014). \"British Soap Awards 2014 - winners in full\". Digital Spy. (Hearst Magazines UK). Retrieved 25 May 2014.\u00a0\n\nExternal links[edit]\n\n  \u2022 Gail Rodwell at itv.com [1]\nshow\n  \u2022 v\n  \u2022 t\n  \u2022 e\nCoronation Street characters\nhide\nPresent and future characters\n  \u2022 Ken Barlow\n  \u2022 Rita Sullivan\n  \u2022 Peter Barlow\n  \u2022 Gail McIntyre\n  \u2022 Tracy Barlow\n  \u2022 Audrey Roberts\n  \u2022 Nick Tilsley\n  \u2022 Kevin Webster\n  \u2022 Jenny Bradley\n  \u2022 Sally Webster\n  \u2022 Sarah Platt\n  \u2022 Jim McDonald\n  \u2022 Liz McDonald\n  \u2022 Steve McDonald\n  \u2022 Rosie Webster\n  \u2022 David Platt\n  \u2022 Norris Cole\n  \u2022 Sophie Webster\n  \u2022 Roy Cropper\n  \u2022 Leanne Battersby\n  \u2022 Toyah Battersby\n  \u2022 Tyrone Dobbs\n  \u2022 Dev Alahan\n  \u2022 Eileen Grimshaw\n  \u2022 Maria Connor\n  \u2022 Kirk Sutherland\n  \u2022 Bethany Platt\n  \u2022 Adam Barlow\n  \u2022 Fiz Brown\n  \u2022 Simon Barlow\n  \u2022 Sean Tully\n  \u2022 Chesney Brown\n  \u2022 Amy Barlow\n  \u2022 Michelle Connor\n  \u2022 Ryan Connor\n  \u2022 Carla Connor\n  \u2022 Gary Windass\n  \u2022 Mary Taylor\n  \u2022 Lewis Archer\n  \u2022 Izzy Armstrong\n  \u2022 Faye Windass\n  \u2022 Eva Price\n  \u2022 Beth Tinker\n  \u2022 Tim Metcalfe\nshow\nPast characters\n  \u2022 Sunita Alahan\n  \u2022 Christine Appleby\n  \u2022 Shirley Armitage\n  \u2022 Katy Armstrong\n  \u2022 Owen Armstrong\n  \u2022 Danny Baldwin\n  \u2022 Frankie Baldwin\n  \u2022 Jamie Baldwin\n  \u2022 Mike Baldwin\n  \u2022 Deirdre Barlow\n  \u2022 Frank Barlow\n  \u2022 Ida Barlow\n  \u2022 Susan Barlow\n  \u2022 Des Barnes\n  \u2022 Natalie Barnes\n  \u2022 Janice Battersby\n  \u2022 Les Battersby\n  \u2022 Cilla Battersby-Brown\n  \u2022 Sheila Birtles\n  \u2022 Emily Bishop\n  \u2022 Natasha Blakeman\n  \u2022 Alan Bradley\n  \u2022 Renee Bradshaw\n  \u2022 Teresa Bryant\n  \u2022 Julie Carp\n  \u2022 Casey Carswell\n  \u2022 Matt Carter\n  \u2022 Paul Clayton\n  \u2022 Liam Connor\n  \u2022 Paul Connor\n  \u2022 Kelly Crabtree\n  \u2022 Hayley Cropper\n  \u2022 Trevor Dean\n  \u2022 Marcus Dent\n  \u2022 Jackie Dobbs\n  \u2022 Molly Dobbs\n  \u2022 Rob Donovan\n  \u2022 Jack Duckworth\n  \u2022 Terry Duckworth\n  \u2022 Tommy Duckworth\n  \u2022 Vera Duckworth\n  \u2022 Fred Elliott\n  \u2022 Anne Foster\n  \u2022 Frank Foster\n  \u2022 Alec Gilroy\n  \u2022 Tony Gordon\n  \u2022 Cheryl Gray\n  \u2022 Jason Grimshaw\n  \u2022 Todd Grimshaw\n  \u2022 Alma Halliwell\n  \u2022 Richard Hillman\n  \u2022 Charlotte Hoyle\n  \u2022 Blanche Hunt\n  \u2022 Mel Hutchwright\n  \u2022 Amber Kalirai\n  \u2022 Ray Langton\n  \u2022 Bet Lynch\n  \u2022 Tara Mandal\n  \u2022 Ciaran McCarthy\n  \u2022 Becky McDonald\n  \u2022 Karen McDonald\n  \u2022 Joe McIntyre\n  \u2022 Tina McIntyre\n  \u2022 Darryl Morton\n  \u2022 Jerry Morton\n  \u2022 Kayleigh Morton\n  \u2022 Mel Morton\n  \u2022 Lloyd Mullaney\n  \u2022 Karl Munro\n  \u2022 Hilda Ogden\n  \u2022 Stan Ogden\n  \u2022 Ashley Peacock\n  \u2022 Claire Peacock\n  \u2022 Pat Phelan\n  \u2022 Kylie Platt\n  \u2022 Martin Platt\n  \u2022 Sian Powers\n  \u2022 Stella Price\n  \u2022 Graeme Proctor\n  \u2022 Mark Redman\n  \u2022 Alf Roberts\n  \u2022 Maya Sharma\n  \u2022 Ena Sharples\n  \u2022 Kirsty Soames\n  \u2022 John Stape\n  \u2022 Jed Stone\n  \u2022 Candice Stowe\n  \u2022 Luke Strong\n  \u2022 Charlie Stubbs\n  \u2022 Percy Sugden\n  \u2022 Leonard Swindley\n  \u2022 Dennis Tanner\n  \u2022 Elsie Tanner\n  \u2022 Albert Tatlock\n  \u2022 Ivy Tilsley\n  \u2022 Vernon Tomlin\n  \u2022 Shelley Unwin\n  \u2022 Annie Walker\n  \u2022 Curly Watts\n  \u2022 Raquel Watts\n  \u2022 Bill Webster\n  \u2022 Betty Williams\n  \u2022 Violet Wilson\n  \u2022 Derek Wilton\n  \u2022 Mavis Wilton\n  \u2022 Anna Windass\n  \u2022 Eddie Windass\n  \u2022 Eddie Yeats\nshow\nOriginal characters\n  \u2022 David Barlow\n  \u2022 Frank Barlow\n  \u2022 Ida Barlow\n  \u2022 Ken Barlow\n  \u2022 Minnie Caldwell\n  \u2022 Ivan Cheveski\n  \u2022 Linda Cheveski\n  \u2022 Christine Hardman\n  \u2022 May Hardman\n  \u2022 Esther Hayes\n  \u2022 Harry Hewitt\n  \u2022 Lucille Hewitt\n  \u2022 Florrie Lindley\n  \u2022 Martha Longhurst\n  \u2022 Emily Nugent\n  \u2022 Concepta Riley\n  \u2022 Ena Sharples\n  \u2022 Leonard Swindley\n  \u2022 Dennis Tanner\n  \u2022 Elsie Tanner\n  \u2022 Albert Tatlock\n  \u2022 Annie Walker\n  \u2022 Jack Walker\nshow\nLists of characters\n  \u2022 1960\n  \u2022 1961\n  \u2022 1962\n  \u2022 1963\n  \u2022 1964\n  \u2022 1965\n  \u2022 1966\n  \u2022 1967\n  \u2022 1968\n  \u2022 1969\n  \u2022 1970\n  \u2022 1971\n  \u2022 1972\n  \u2022 1973\n  \u2022 1974\n  \u2022 1975\n  \u2022 1976\n  \u2022 1977\n  \u2022 1978\n  \u2022 1979\n  \u2022 1980\n  \u2022 1981\n  \u2022 1982\n  \u2022 1983\n  \u2022 1984\n  \u2022 1985\n  \u2022 1986\n  \u2022 1987\n  \u2022 1988\n  \u2022 1989\n  \u2022 1990\n  \u2022 1991\n  \u2022 1992\n  \u2022 1993\n  \u2022 1994\n  \u2022 1995\n  \u2022 1996\n  \u2022 1997\n  \u2022 1998\n  \u2022 1999\n  \u2022 2000\n  \u2022 2001\n  \u2022 2002\n  \u2022 2003\n  \u2022 2004\n  \u2022 2005\n  \u2022 2006\n  \u2022 2007\n  \u2022 2008\n  \u2022 2009\n  \u2022 2010\n  \u2022 2011\n  \u2022 2012\n  \u2022 2013\n  \u2022 2014\n  \u2022 2015\n  \u2022 2016\n  \u2022 2017\n  \u2022 2018\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Gail_McIntyre&oldid=846167073\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Coronation Street characters\n  \u2022 Fictional characters introduced in 1974\n  \u2022 Fictional receptionists\n  \u2022 Fictional waiting staff\n  \u2022 Fictional bartenders\n  \u2022 Fictional victims of kidnapping\n  \u2022 Fictional hackers\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 All articles with dead external links\n  \u2022 Articles with dead external links from January 2017\n  \u2022 Articles with permanently dead external links\n  \u2022 Use dmy dates from August 2015\n  \u2022 Use British English from August 2015\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 Espa\u00f1ol\n  \u2022 Gaeilge\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 16 June 2018, at 20:14.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-1245131310995253652","title":"Election Commission of India's Model Code of Conduct","text":"Election Commission of India's Model Code of Conduct\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to: navigation, search\nThis article needs more links to other articles to help integrate it into the encyclopedia. Please help improve this article by adding links that are relevant to the context within the existing text. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\n\nElection Commission of India's Model Code of Conduct is a set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission of India for conduct of political parties and candidates during elections mainly with respect to speeches, polling day, polling booths, election manifestos, processions and general conduct. These set of norms has been evolved with the consensus of political parties who have consented to abide by the principles embodied in the said code in its letter and spirit.The Model Code of Conduct comes into force immediately on announcement of the election schedule by the commission for the need of ensuring free and fair elections.[1] Much of it is designed to avert communal clashes and corrupt practices. For example, politicians should not make hate speeches, putting one community against another or make promises about new projects that may sway a voter.\n\nFor the 2014 general election the code came into force on 5 March 2014 when the Commission announced the dates and remains in force till the end of the electoral process.\n\n\"The Model Code of Conduct is crucial to make sure a level playing field among various contenders in the poll fray,\" said the Chief Election Commissioner V.S. Sampath at the press conference.[2]\n\nMain points[edit]\n\nThe main points of the code are:\n\n  1. Government bodies are not to participate in any new recruitment process during the electoral process.\n  2. The contesting candidates and the campaigners must respect the home life of their rivals and should not disturb them by holding road shows or demonstrations in front of their houses. The code tells the candidates to keep it.\n  3. The election campaign rallies and road shows must not hinder the road traffic.\n  4. Candidates are asked to refrain from distributing liquor to voters. It is a widely known fact in India that during election campaigning, liquor may be distributed to the voters.\n  5. The election code in force hinders the government or running party leaders from launching new welfare programmes like construction of roads, provision of drinking water facilities etc. or any ribbon-cutting ceremonies.\n  6. The code instructs that public spaces like meeting grounds, helipads, government guest houses and bungalows should be equally shared among the contesting candidates. These public spaces should not be monopolised by a few candidates.\n  7. Any candidate or political party shall not use any place of worship for election propaganda.\n\nReferences[edit]\n\n  1. Jump up ^ http:\/\/eci.nic.in\/eci_main\/MCC-ENGLISH_28022014.pdf\n  2. Jump up ^ http:\/\/www.ibtimes.co.in\/articles\/541909\/20140305\/lok-sabha-election-2014-model-code-conduct.htm\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Election_Commission_of_India%27s_Model_Code_of_Conduct&oldid=829357661\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Elections in India\n  \u2022 Election Commission of India\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Articles with too few wikilinks from April 2014\n  \u2022 All articles with too few wikilinks\n  \u2022 Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from April 2014\n  \u2022 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 Edit\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\n  \u2022 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\n  \u2022 \u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 8 March 2018, at 03:31.\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}
{"_id":"-693494169589710073","title":"The Dolan Twins","text":"Page semi-protected\n\nThe Dolan Twins\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\nJump to navigation Jump to search\n\nThe Dolan Twins\nPersonal information\nBorn Ethan Dolan\nGrayson Dolan\n\n(1999-12-16) December 16, 1999 (age\u00a018)\nNationality American\nOccupation Comedian\nYouTube information\nYears\u00a0active 2014\u2013present\nSubscribers 5,265,019\n(April 6, 2018)\nTotal\u00a0views 711,101,857\n(April 6, 2018)\nAssociated acts Logan Paul\nshow\nPlay buttons\nYouTube Silver Play Button 2.svg 100,000 subscribers\nYouTube Gold Play Button 2.svg 1,000,000 subscribers\n\nEthan and Grayson Dolan[1] (born December 16, 1999[2]), collectively known as The Dolan Twins, are an American comedy duo who rose to prominence in May 2013[3] on the video sharing application Vine. They are currently signed to AwesomenessTV, and have been since 2015.[4][5]\n\nThe twins are from the Long Valley section of Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey.[6] On December 19, 2017 they published a video, highlighting what type of twins they are.[7] In the video Ethan Dolan expressed doubt that they were identical twins, in truth they are.\n\nSince their beginnings, the duo has accumulated over 6.4 million followers on Vine and 4.4 million subscribers on YouTube, and embarked on a world tour titled the \"4OU\" Tour in 2016.[8] The duo was also involved in a Twitter ad campaign for the social network's new stickers feature.[9] At the 2016 Teen Choice Awards, the duo won the awards for Choice Web Star: Male[10] and Choice YouTuber.\n\nOn March 27, 2018 it was reported that the two would be taking a step back from YouTube, through a video on their channel entitled Bye For Now.[11] In the video they state that this is to re-evaluate themselves creatively and focus on their lives outside of YouTube.[12]\n\nContents\n\n  \u2022 1 Work Outside of YouTube\n  \u2022 2 Controversy\n    \u2022 2.1 Fans\n  \u2022 3 Awards and nominations\n  \u2022 4 References\n\nWork Outside of YouTube\n\nMTV's Total Request Live reboot added the Dolan twins to the shows lineup as correspondents, and provide on-air hosting duties across platforms.[13] It was announced in August 2018 that the twins had directed a music video for the Australian alt-pop group Cub Sport.[14]\n\nControversy\n\nIn September 2017, they claimed that the Jake Paul's version of their origins, seen in his memoir You Gotta Want It was not exactly the truth. In his book, Jake Paul claimed that the twins were only popular now because he featured them on his channel. They disputed this statement during an interview with fellow vlogger Caspar Lee, instead stating that Jake and Logan Paul \"showed them the ropes\".[15]\n\nDuring a London Fan-Meet-Up in November 2017, miscommunication, large crowds, and delays caused the Hyde Park meetup to be a disaster. One mother claimed thousands of young fans had already arrived before the event was to start, causing chaos when the event was canceled 15 minutes before it was to start.[16] Afterwards the twins used Twitter to express their sorrow that the event was cancelled and asked for fans to be respectful and safe.\n\nFans\n\nIn October 2017, a fan called to attention through Twitter concerns about hateful and at times racist language from some fans that were being aimed at others. In some occasions it seemed to appear that entire accounts on Twitter and other social media sites, were created to harass people of color in the fan base.[17][18] In response to reported actions of other fans, the original user who brought forward the concerns; @blck_goddess, revived the hashtag #dolanpoc to \"highlight the POC in the dolan fandom...\"[17]\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nYear Nominated Award Result\n2016 Teen Choice Awards Choice Web Star: Male Won\nChoice YouTuber Won\n2017 Choice Comedian Won\nChoice Web Star: Male Nominated\nChoice YouTuber Nominated\nChoice Comedy Web Star Nominated\n\nReferences\n\n  1. Jump up ^ \"The Dolan Twins Talk YouTube Videos, Tour and More\". Extra. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  2. Jump up ^ Nickoloff, Anne. \"Youtube sensations Dolan Twins perform short show at House Of Blues\". Cleveland.com. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  3. Jump up ^ Morgan, Emily. \"Dolan Twins: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know\". Heavy.com. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  4. Jump up ^ Brouwer, Bree. \"AwesomenessTV Signs Comedy Sketch Channel The Dolan Twins\". Tubefilter. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  5. Jump up ^ Harper, Kathleen. \"Dolan Twins: 5 Things To Know About YouTube Hotties\". Hollywood Life. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  6. Jump up ^ Whitehouse, Beth. \"YouTube's Dolan Twins: 10 things you need to know\", Newsday, June 8, 2016. Accessed March 1, 2017. \"'We\u2019re from a country town called Long Valley,' Ethan says of New Jersey.\"\n  7. Jump up ^ Dolan Twins (2017-12-19), FINDING OUT IF WE'RE REAL TWINS, retrieved 2018-04-21\u00a0\n  8. Jump up ^ Weiss, Geoff. \"16-Year-Old Dolan Twins Will Kick Off Worldwide '4OU' Tour This Summer\". Tubefilter. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  9. Jump up ^ Weiss, Geoff. \"Twitter Teams With Dolan Twins, Andrea Russett, And Todrick Hall For Video Ad Campaign\". Tubefilter. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  10. Jump up ^ Shilliday, Beth. \"Dolan Twins Brought To Tears Over Teen Choice Win \u2014 So Sweet\". Hollywood Life. Retrieved 1 August 2016.\u00a0\n  11. Jump up ^ Dolan Twins (2018-03-27), Bye For Now, retrieved 2018-04-21\u00a0\n  12. Jump up ^ Gemmill, Allie. \"The Dolan Twins Are Taking a Break from YouTube\". Teen Vogue. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\n  13. Jump up ^ \"MTV's 'TRL' Taps YouTube Stars the Dolan Twins as Correspondents (Exclusive)\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\n  14. Jump up ^ \"The Dolan Twins to Direct Upcoming Music Video\". BOP and Tiger Beat. 2018-08-27. Retrieved 2018-08-28.\u00a0\n  15. Jump up ^ Wiest, Brianna. \"The Dolan Twins Say Jake Paul LIED About Starting Their Careers\". Teen Vogue. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\n  16. Jump up ^ \"Dolan Twins forced to cancel Hyde Park meet-up due to Remembrance Day\". Mail Online. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\n  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Bergado, Gabe. \"Dolan Twins Fans Are Addressing a Huge Race Problem on Social Media\". Teen Vogue. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\n  18. Jump up ^ \"ari on Twitter\". Twitter. Retrieved 2018-04-21.\u00a0\nRetrieved from \"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=The_Dolan_Twins&oldid=856858687\"\nCategories:\n  \u2022 Internet celebrities\n  \u2022 American YouTubers\n  \u2022 American comedy duos\n  \u2022 1999 births\n  \u2022 Living people\n  \u2022 YouTube channels\n  \u2022 People from Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey\n  \u2022 Twin people from the United States\n  \u2022 Identical twins\nHidden categories:\n  \u2022 Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages\n\nNavigation menu\n\nPersonal tools\n\n  \u2022 Not logged in\n  \u2022 Talk\n  \u2022 Contributions\n  \u2022 Create account\n  \u2022 Log in\n\nNamespaces\n\n  \u2022 Article\n  \u2022 Talk\n\nVariants\n\nViews\n\n  \u2022 Read\n  \u2022 View source\n  \u2022 View history\n\nMore\n\nNavigation\n\n  \u2022 Main page\n  \u2022 Contents\n  \u2022 Featured content\n  \u2022 Current events\n  \u2022 Random article\n  \u2022 Donate to Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Wikipedia store\n\nInteraction\n\n  \u2022 Help\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Community portal\n  \u2022 Recent changes\n  \u2022 Contact page\n\nTools\n\n  \u2022 What links here\n  \u2022 Related changes\n  \u2022 Upload file\n  \u2022 Special pages\n  \u2022 Permanent link\n  \u2022 Page information\n  \u2022 Wikidata item\n  \u2022 Cite this page\n\nPrint\/export\n\n  \u2022 Create a book\n  \u2022 Download as PDF\n  \u2022 Printable version\n\nLanguages\n\n  \u2022 \u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be\n  \u2022 Dansk\n  \u2022 Deutsch\n  \u2022 Fran\u00e7ais\n  \u2022 Simple English\nEdit links\n  \u2022 This page was last edited on 28 August 2018, at 00:04\u00a0(UTC).\n  \u2022 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\n  \u2022 Privacy policy\n  \u2022 About Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Disclaimers\n  \u2022 Contact Wikipedia\n  \u2022 Developers\n  \u2022 Cookie statement\n  \u2022 Mobile view\n  \u2022 Enable previews\n  \u2022 Wikimedia Foundation\n  \u2022 Powered by MediaWiki"}