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Jevons' coal question: Why the UK Coal Peak wasn't as bad as expected In his book The Coal Question from 1865 William Stanley Jevons examined for how long the United Kingdom could continue to fuel its economy based on cheap supplies of coal. At the time the UK consumed about 93 million tons of coal providing nearly all of its energy supply. His estimate was that within a maximum of a hundred years, or perhaps even within one or two generations, production would be in retreat due to an increase in the cost of mining which would, in Jevons' words, "Injure the commercial and manufacturing supremacy of England." In this post I’ll look back at history to show that Jevons correctly foresaw the fate of the British coal industry. In Britain a peak in production occurred around 1913 caused by increasing coal mining costs, lack of technological innovation, rising competition from abroad, a number of political decisions disadvantaging coal as a fuel source, declining profits, and a slump in British economic growth coinciding with World War I. Although geology had an important role to play in determining the cost of coal, it was not the overarching factor that led to the decline in British coal production. Fortunately for Britain, Jevons was too pessimistic about the economic consequences. He did not foresee both the adaptation of the British economy in reaching higher overall efficiency in a high energy price environment, and the eventual large scale introduction of petroleum. Jevons' analysis on British coal supplies The analysis carried out by Jevons hinged upon two thoughts. First, he assumed that the consumption of coal would continue at a pace of 3.5% per year extrapolated from previous decades. Second, he expected that prices would become too high as mining progressed beyond 2,000 feet towards 4,000 feet of depth. From his calculations he found that an average mining depth of 2,000 feet would more than double the price of coal and that a further doubling could not be borne by the industry. In his assessment he made the following astute observations that are qualitatively still valid for resource assessments today: • “And, of course, when Mr. Vivian asserts that South Wales can supply all England for 500 years, he means at the present rate of consumption, which is quite beside the question. The question [of resource depletion] is, how long will South Wales supply us at the present price with the present growing demand?” • “The higher the price rises, the more thoroughly will the coal-measures be worked, and the more coal becomes workable. As, however, the high price of coal constitutes the evil of exhaustion, the dreaded results are only somewhat mitigated, not prevented. And it would be wholly erroneous to suppose that when once the thicker seams of a coal district have been worked out, we can readily, at a future time, work out the thinner seams, when the increased price of coal warrants it” • “All then that we can hope from thin seams, or abandoned coal, is a retardation of the rise of price after a considerable rise has already taken place. This will hardly prevent the evils apprehended from exhaustion… If seams of 18 inches are now occasionally workable, the coal-cutting machine may reduce the limit a few inches; but it is evident that seams of less than 12 inches could never be worked while the price of coal remained at all tolerable.” • “When the general depth of coal workings has increased to 2,000 feet, little or no coal will be sold for less than 10s. per ton, and the choice large coal will have risen to a much higher price. Our iron and general manufacturing industries will have to contend with a nearly double cost of fuel. And when with the growth of our trade and the course of time our mines inevitably reach a depth of 3,000 or 4,000 feet, the increasing cost of fuel will be an incalculable obstacle to our further progress.” British coal production and consumption The development of British coal production, shown in figure 1 below, clearly shows production hit maximum in 1913 thereafter declining by around 2% per year on average until the late 1940s. The brief bump in production from 1947 until 1957 was caused by a nationalization of the coal industry. The government injected large sums of money into the sector in an attempt to revive it. The government's production targets were not reached however, and competition by the market made the effort unsuccessful. Subsequently most of the government’s subsidies were abandoned in the 1960s. Market forces resulted in a rapid rise of oil imports fuelling domestic consumption for both transport and electricity production. After the discovery of oil off the Scottish coast in the 1970s there was even less economic incentive for coal mining. There was and is still a lot of coal remaining in the United Kingdom, but it has at least until present been too costly to get it out off the ground. Figure 1 – British Coal Production 1830 - 1980. Source of data: Mitchell (1988) Figure 2 – British Coal and Oil Consumption and GDP 1830 - 1965. Source of data: Mitchell (1988), Ryland et al. (2010) Many authors have concluded that the fairly fuzzy peak in British coal production and other coal nations occurred for geological reasons, inferring that coal will behave the same as conventional oil does. Based on this expectation logistic or Hubbert type models are applied to model “peak coal” in other regions and the world. For example, in figure 3 below from Hook et al. (2010) a logistic fit is given to the coal production of three different countries. This approximation mainly based on geology appears to fit well but it is rough, and gives little insights in advance to what will happen, unless you know in advance how much coal will be extracted which is precisely what is unknown as for most countries data is quite poor. In other words, this curve fitting approach gives little information about how economic conditions will influence the amount of extractable coal, and, because of this, we are still in the dark about how production will really progress. Peak coal production forecasts based on present technology range from now until around mid century, depending on uncertain reserve and resource assumptions, as shown by Mohr and Evans (2009). Even more uncertainty is added when technology which is not yet commercial is included, such as underground coal gasification, and its use on offshore coal, as discussed in my previous post on underground coal gasification. These types of advances could lead to an expansion of the coal era. Figure 3 - Logistic fit to UK, Germany, and Japanese coal production. Source of figure: Hook et al. (2010). Looking at coal production from a productivity perspective In the absence of good data, it is helpful to utilize a range of methodologies, and that is where we can learn a great deal from Jevons. He did not care precisely when coal would hit its peak as his concern was that a point would come when Britain no longer could afford to increase its extraction rate. To ascertain this he looked at geological combined with economic data. The same approach is valid today. We could look at the costs of each coal producing region and look at what we can afford to get out of the ground. How many labour hours, energy, mineral resources, and machines do we need to obtain a lump of coal? Can we afford to utilize so many resources for those purposes? Only few analyses are available in this regard, one of which was made in 2009 for Gilette the largest coal field in the United States. To show that Jevons' methodology made a great deal of sense I compare a number of statistics. First, in figure 4 below the production and consumption of coal in the United Kingdom is shown, the difference being caused by exports to mainly the European mainland. The data shows that consumption of coal peaked a little bit later than production as the end of World War 1 neared. After the war the British economy declined for a number of years after which growth returned with occasional one to two year recessionary bumps until the second world war, which similar to the first coincided with a substantial economic decline. No increase in coal consumption fuelled the inter-war expansion, however, plausibly due to an earlier oversupply, the switch from coal to oil of the British navy after World War I, and an increase in efficiency of British manufacturing and household energy use. Singer (1941) states that: “We conclude that over the eleven years from 1924 to 1935 the increase in the efficiency of the use of coal- which must in these cases be attributed to direct economy - led to a fall in relative coal consumption by some 38 million tons or 28 per cent of what total industrial consumption would otherwise have been. This is equivalent to a fall, through direct economy and substitution, of 3.0 per cent per annum. It is clear that the 1924-35 period must have played a leading part in the relative fall in coal consumption which was at the rate of 33 per cent in the last twenty-five years (Singer 1941, p. 170).” Figure 4 – Production and Consumption of coal in the United Kingdom 1830 - 1980. Source of data: Mitchell (1988) The absence of a domestic need to substantially increase coal supplies coincided with reduced demand for coal exports, because of competition from other regions. One region that was especially important in the decline of British exports was the German Ruhr area, where there was an increase in coal production at lower cost due to greater productivity. In addition due to post World War I reparations under the Dawes Plan, Germany would export coal for free to France and Italy as a form of repayment of war damage, at a large disadvantage to Britain. As a result, by the late 1930s, Britain ceased to be a meaningful exporter of coal. Thus the decline in British coal production after 1913 reflected a combination of factors, including both reduced internal demand (from both recession following World War I and from increased efficiency) and reduced demand for exports. If circumstances had been different (for example, greater technological innovation in British coal mining), the peak in British coal production would probably have been postponed substantially. The increase in British coal production since the 1860s, the time of the Jevons coal question, was not caused by an increase in productivity but by employing more labour in the industry. From 1865 until 1913, the mumber of people working in coal mines rose by a factor of 3.5 from 315.000 to 1.13 million people, shown in figure 5. Roughly 2.5% of the population was employed in 1913 to haul coal out of the ground and cut it into usable pieces. In the same period productivity declined from around 0.14 to 0.11 tons of coal mined per hour of labour, shown in figure 6. The reason of the decline in amount of coal mined per hour can be explained from the absence of technological innovation combined with the need to mine increasingly deeper and thinner seams as foreseen by Jevons. About this issue Taylor (1961) remarks: “…by the 1880's in all but the smallest collieries the steam-engine was in use both above and below ground and its benefits were being felt throughout every coalfield. By comparison with this earlier period the years between 1880 and 1914 have less to show in terms of technological achievement. Improvements were constantly effected in shaft and underground haulage and steam-power gradually gave place to electricity, but none of these changes was by nature or consequence of a revolutionary character. Potentially the most far-reaching innovations of these years were those affecting work at and near the face - involving the introduction of the coal-cutter and the conveyor - but progress in these directions was very limited. As a workable mechanical novelty the coal-cutter was already in existence before 1880, yet as late as 1913 only 8.5% of British coal was mechanically cut and an even smaller proportion was mechanically conveyed (Taylor 1961, p. 59).” Figure 5 – Employment in the British Coal Industry from 1854 - 1960. Source of data: Mitchell (1988) Figure 6 – Labour Productivity in the British Coal Industry from 1854 - 1960. Data calculated based on: Mitchell (1988), Greasley (1990) The peak hence occurred because the number of employees could not rise sufficiently as productivity declined. This was aggravated by the temporary loss of employees which were drafted into the army during the first world war, as clearly shown in figure 5. The inability to attract new employees occurred because British mines could not afford to pay a competitive wage and, at the same time, keep the cost of the coal they sold competitive on the international market. British coal prices increased to unseen heights, as shown in figure 7, and the country could no longer compete with coal producers abroad. Data shows that after 1910 British productivity on average was overtaken by Germany, by 1925 it was 6.8% higher, and by 1935 Germany produced 23.6% more coal than Britain in terms of labour output per hour (Broadberry 1998). The coal in Britain became too expensive versus that in other markets and exports dropped. Figure 7 – The price of British coal from 1450 to 1988. Source: Hausman (1995) The lack of proper wages in the face of rising costs of living was so severe that most of the coal industry went on strike in 1921 and 1926, resulting in losses of output of respectively 30% and 50%. The economic situation is described well in Wynne (1913): “The consequence is that the proceeds of a given output of coal which before the war supported six men had in 1925 to provide a living for seven. The price of coal in the market had not meanwhile risen to the same extent as wage costs per unit of output, and in the period September, 1924, to March, 1925, over 41 per cent of the total output of the British mines was raised at a loss. By May, 1925, this figure had risen to nearly 67 per cent, and during the last quarter of 1925, to 73 per cent, the loss ranging in this latter period from an average of only 2 pennies a ton in the eastern division to 3 shillings and 2 pennies per ton in South Wales and Monmouth, with an average of is 5 pennies a ton for the country as a whole. (Wynne 1913, p. 356-366)” Earlier in 1919 the work day had already been reduced from 8 to 7 hours underground under increasing pressure by coal unions, further decreasing the amount of output the coal industry could potentially sustain. This caused a further decline in productivity versus other coal producers whose work day was slightly longer than the British. The only option left to solve the imminent situation was to close a large number of unproductive mining areas, rise the wages, and thereby further the decline in production during the 1920s . The move resulted in a rise in productivity, shown in figure 6, but it was too late. Britain as discussed by Taylor (1961) had already fallen behind other producers in implementing the technological innovations which further contributed to the downfall of the British coal industry. The reason was the conservative nature of the British industry: “Electricity was looked upon with mistrust by many mines-inspectors until the Home Office Departmental Committee of 1904 expressed opinions favourable alike to its efficiency and to its safety when properly employed; but stringent safety regulations, as well as the conservatism of British mine owners and engineers, retarded the employment of electricity in British mines when it was already widely used in the coalfields of Germany and Belgium. Moreover, as in the use of machinery, the explanation of the shortcomings of British mining lay outside the industry as well as within it. 'Manufacturing electrical firms', it was said, 'do not care for colliery work in this country. They are able to obtain plenty of work in other directions’ (Taylor 1961, p. 59)." Britain missed the boat and began innovating at too late a date. The rise in productivity since the 1920s, as depicted in figure 6, could do no more than keep production declines at bay. The absence of substantial technological achievements, the increasing cost of coal production, and the rising competition from abroad led to a substantial drop in coal production. The result of Jevons' publication Since history unfolded more or less as Jevons expected it, at least for coal, we now know his study had little effect on altering the UK's energy future. Interestingly the coal question was taken seriously quite soon after publication. As a result of Jevons' book, Gladstone, the chancellor of the Exchequer at the time and later prime minister of Britain, commanded a royal commission to examine the coal question in depth and rigour in 1866. The report of the commission took five years to complete and was presented as a three volume work to both houses of Parliament and the Queen of Britain. Its conclusion confirmed the analysis of Jevons, but disagreed with one important point, the extrapolation of past coal consumption: “The results as summed up in the report to the Queen strikingly confirm the soundness of most of the conclusions arrived at by Professor Jevons, except so far as regards his estimate of the duration of the coal supply. which, having in view the rapid increase of consumption which had continued up to that time, and the growth of consumption in relation to the increase of population, led him to believe that the total available supply of coal to a depth of 4,000 feet would be practically worked out in the short space of about one hundred and ten years. The author of this paper, however, when consulted by the omission, was of the opinion that the rapid and constant rate of increase assumed by Professor Jevons could not be maintained, " and that the very rapid increase in the annual production of coal which had hitherto occurred was merely a consequence of the equally rapid and abnormal development of our commercial activity which had followed the introduction of steam power in this country, and that the effect of this initial increase in the annual yield of coal is still perceptible, just as it is in a minor degree in the present rate of increase of our population. (Price-Williams 1889, p.2)” The remark of the commission has been proven correct afterwards. Coal consumption increase tapered off as of the 1880s, shown in figure 8, and coal consumption per unit of economic output increased more slowly as large efficiency improvements took place in the early 20th century as shown by Singer (1941). Figure 8 - Jevons extrapolation of UK coal consumption compared with actual consumption until 1911. Source of data: Jevons (1865), Mitchell (1988) Also Jevons was too pessimistic about the eventual development of petroleum which in 1865 was only at its infancy: “Petroleum has of late years become the matter of a most extensive trade, and has even been proposed by American inventors for use in marine steam-engine boilers. It is undoubtedly superior to coal for many purposes, and is capable of replacing it. But then, What is Petroleum but the Essence of Coal, distilled from it by terrestrial or artificial heat? Its natural supply is far more limited and uncertain than that of coal, its price is about 15l. per ton already, and an artificial supply can only be had by the distillation of some kind of coal at considerable cost. To extend the use of petroleum, then, is only a new way of pushing the consumption of coal. It is more likely to be an aggravation of the drain than a remedy (Jevon 1865, VIII.42).” Fortunately, for the United Kingdom Jevons proved to be wrong in the effect of the decline in coal production on the British economy. Although the country lost its role as an industrial center, Britain has generally remained prosperous. Jevons expected otherwise: “We cannot long maintain our present rate of increase of consumption…this only means that the check to our progress must become perceptible within a century from the present time (Jevons 1865, XII.29)." Thit doesn’t mean that he won’t be correct in the eventual outcome, however, as the oil and natural gas that replaced coal are both running in short supply with UK’s peak production past us. We can replace the word coal with fossil fuels, and Jevons words unfortunately could ring true today: “the absolute amount of [fossil fuels] in the country rather affects the height to which we shall rise than the time for which we shall enjoy the happy prosperity of progress (XII.29)”, unless we can find a new source of energy, or a way to transition to a happy life with far lower energy consumption and economic output. Broadberry, S.N., 1998. How did the United States and Germany Overtake Britain? A Sectoral Analysis of Comparative Productivity levels, 1870-1990. The Journal of Economic History. Vol. 58. No. 2. Pp. 375-407. Greasley, D., 1990. Fifty years of coal-mining productivity: The Record of the British Coal Industry before 1939. The Journal of Economic History. Vol. 50. No. 4. pp. 877-902. Hook et al. 2010. Global coal production outlooks based on a logistic model. Fuel. Vol 89. pp. 3546 - 3558. Jevons, W.S., 1865. The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning The Progress of Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal-Mines. London: Macmillan and Co. [online] Available at: http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Jevons/jvnCQCover.html. Accessed August 8, 2011. Hausman, W.J., 1995. Long-Term Trends in Energy Prices. Ch.3. pp 280-286, In eds. Simon, J., The State of Humanity. Wiley-Blackwell. Mitchell, B.R., 1988. British Historical Statistics. Cambridge University Press. Mohr, S.H., Evans, G.M., 2010. Forecasting Coal Production Until 2100. Fuel. Vol. 88. pp. 2059-2067. Price-Williams, R., 1889. The Coal Question. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Vol. 52. No. 1. pp. 1-46. Ryland et al. 2010. The UK recession in context - what do three centuries of data tell us?. Bank of England Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 50. No. 4. pp. 277-291. Singer, H.W., 1941. The Coal Question Reconsidered: Effects of Economy and Substitution. The Review of Economic Studies. Vol. 8. No. 3. pp. 166-177. Taylor, A.J., 1961. Labour Productivity and Technological Innovation in the British Coal Industry, 1850-1914. The Economist History Review, Vol. 14, No. 1. pp. 48-70. Wynne, W.H., 1913. The British Coal Strike and After. The Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 35. pp. 364-388. What do you think? Leave a comment below. Sign up for regular Resilience bulletins direct to your email. This is a community site and the discussion is moderated. The rules in brief: no personal abuse and no climate denial. Complete Guidelines.

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All about normal hemoglobin level in the blood of men Receiving the results of blood tests, many of us have noticed the word "hemoglobin", through the figures, standing across the street, deep in thought: what is the meaning of the figures and how important are they?.. This question can be answered unequivocally: it is a protein without which our body would not live an hour. Hemoglobin is an extremely important element of the human body. It provides all the cells of the body, all tissues and organs with oxygen, carrying it on himself and being for him a kind of "transport". Therefore, there is no doubt that the level of hemoglobin in the blood affects the functioning of the organism, health and well-being. The meaning and function of Hemoglobin consists of an amino acid and part of iron, through which there is a "gripe" and oxygen transfer. The protein contained in red blood cells – erythrocytes. Due to the movement of these cells in body tissues receive the necessary oxygen, and instead of giving away what they no longer need – the carbon dioxide that is carried with the blood into the lungs and excreted in the air. Thus, hemoglobin performs the transport function. In addition, thanks to its participation in the body occur all the oxidation reactions, without which life would be impossible. It also helps in the body is synthesized, the energy required for the existence of all living organisms. There is a relationship between erythrocytes and amount of hemoglobin: if red blood cells are few, the level of protein will be low; if a lot of red blood cells, and hemoglobin will be enough. Iron, part of hemoglobin, the red blood cells and gives blood the red color. The amount of this protein affects the color of blood: if hemoglobin is low, the blood is red, liquid and light; if the hemoglobin level is high, the blood is more dense, and its color is deep red. Thus, the color of blood, you can judge the saturation of the body with oxygen. Reliably determine the content of hemoglobin in the blood allows laboratory analysis. In order to evaluate the saturation of blood hemoglobin, needed to know what his standard for men and women, as well as for representatives of different age. In males, the normal hemoglobin in the blood ranges from an average of 120 to 165 g/L. For comparison, this rate in women is approximately 112-157 g/l. Different the normal "oxygen" of protein in the blood in women and men is simple: men because of their gender metabolism more intense, and this means that oxygen their tissues consume more. Increased hemoglobin in men compared to women is also due to the physicalwork and exercise stress that men experience often. Table 1. Norma hemoglobin in the blood of men. |Age||Hemoglobin level (g/l)| |Over 65 years||125-165| Norma hemoglobin in the blood of men depends largely on their age, health, lifestyle and climatic conditions in which they live. With age the content of this protein in the blood in men is reduced, and it is regarded as a natural, normal phenomenon. A deviation from the norm in one direction or another for a few units is usually not considered a disease and a cause for concern. This may be the only individual feature of the body or temporary. Start to beat the alarm should be when the rate of hemoglobin deviates from the "healthy" limits on at least 5 units. Low level of protein Low hemoglobin in men occurs under the following circumstances: - Insufficient intake with food of animal protein, rich in iron. Most often this occurs when poor diet, switching to protein-free diet or vegetarian diet. - A deficiency of vitamins and microelements, which also occurs mainly in poor and monotonous food, and overworking yourself different diets. In addition, excess vitamin C may worsen the formation of vitamin B12. - Chronic inflammation of the intestine due to its disturbed structure of iron in the body is not absorbed. - Hemolytic anemia or infectious diseases, which are accompanied by disintegration of red blood cells. - Blood loss during surgery, in severe injuries or after blood donation. - Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages, which promote the destruction of blood cells. - The relative reduction of hemoglobin notice after intravenous injections of solutions with the help of dropper, but it is not a pathological symptom. The most common cause of low hemoglobin in men is becoming anemic. This disease is manifested by weakness, rapid fatigue, not related to physical effort, pale skin, dullness and hair loss, brittle nails. In addition to these signs, you may experience dizziness, shortness of breath, rapid pulse and instability to the cold. Symptoms of anemia indicate the presence of serious violations in the body and the need to begin immediate treatment. In men increased hemoglobin can occur for the following reasons: - Intense physical work or exercise. - Neoplastic processes inthe body. - Heart disease and blood vessels. - Failure lungs in hard-core smokers. - Excess b vitamins. - Mechanical bowel obstruction. - Climbing or living in high altitudes. High hemoglobin level in this case is associated with the body's attempt to compensate for the lack of oxygen. There is increased hemoglobin such signs as lethargy, poor appetite, impaired vision and often periodic inflammation of the urinary organs. High level of hemoglobin in the blood is considered less negative for the male body than low. However, despite this, when detecting the first signs of high hemoglobin should be lower, as it is a pathology and a markedly deteriorating health of men. Moreover, such a state is fraught with such dangerous consequences as blood clots and increased blood pressure. This is due to the increasing viscosity of the blood and difficulty moving through the vessels. It must be remembered that the high hemoglobin is not always clearly evident and can be reliably detected only by laboratory methods. How to solve the problem To improve the "oxygen" of the blood protein in the following way: - Change the diet, enriching it with products that contain a lot of animal protein. These foods include beef, pork, saltwater fish, eggs and offal. However, nutritionists do not recommend to stick only to animal proteins, we recommend to combine such products with a sufficient amount of vegetables. - The transition to a healthy lifestyle with sufficient physical activity, exposure to fresh air, the optimal mode of rest and work, a full bed. - The use of iron supplements. - Ingestion of infusions of the flowers of buckwheat, BlackBerry leaves, grass St. John's wort, nettle, yarrow. - Well proven mixture of ground walnuts, almonds and honey that should be consumed before meals within a month. Often, men see a high hemoglobin, trying to slow his folk remedies without medical consultation. However, it is fundamentally the wrong approach to their health. The correct solution would be to visit a competent doctor who will perform an accurate diagnosis, to find out why the hemoglobin is elevated, and only then will help to lower it by assigning complex treatment. High hemoglobin in men allow you to lower the following methods: - It is first necessary to eliminate from the diet red meat, offal and to limit the use of eggs. Instead, to increase the share of vegetables and chicken meat. Such foodsguaranteed to help lower the hemoglobin to normal values. - Drugs that expand blood vessels and make blood more liquid. - Hirudotherapy, or the use of leeches. This is a fairly unique and uncomfortable way of treatment, but it has its fans. - Ingestion Shilajit special course prescribed by a doctor. It is worth remembering that all known treatments are allowed to apply only after a complete examination, the doctor identify the exact cause of the problem. This will allow you to regain your health and avoid more serious complications.

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UNITED NATIONS, Feb 7 2019 (IPS) - Sustainable land management is becoming more important than ever as rates of emissions, deforestation, and water scarcity continue to increase. But what if you don’t have rights to the land? While the impact of agriculture on land is well known, the relationship between land degradation and land tenure seems to be less understood. IPS Daily Report - Russia and Syria in the Spotlight for Latest Idlib Medic Deaths August 16, 2019 James Reinl - A Key Role for 1.8 Billion Youth in UN’s 2030 Development Agenda August 16, 2019 Thalif Deen - Establishing a Science & Technology Park is No Walk in the Park August 16, 2019 Tengfei Wang - Forests, Food & Farming Next Frontier in Climate Emergency August 16, 2019 Ruth Richardson - Producing Energy from Pig and Poultry Waste in Brazil August 16, 2019 Mario Osava

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The birth of two adorable Sumatran tiger cubs earlier this month is good news for the San Diego Zoo Safari Park’s Tull Family Tiger Trail habitat, but it’s great news for the worldwide Sumatran tiger population. “We are elated about the birth of these tiger cubs,” Lisa Peterson, executive director at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, told TravelAwaits in a statement. “It has been years since we’ve had cubs at Tiger Trail, and we can’t wait to share them with the community.” Sumatran tigers are listed as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. Since there are only 400–600 Sumatran tigers on Earth, increasing their worldwide population is a vital step in their conservation, according to the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. “These births are so important to the conservation of this species,” Peterson said. “Our hope is these cubs will provide an opportunity for our guests to gain a greater appreciation for tigers and the important need to conserve them in their native habitats.” The cubs, a female and a male, were born on July 12 to first-time mother Diana. “Wildlife care specialists are closely monitoring Diana and her cubs, and they report that Diana is an extremely attentive and gentle mother,” the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance explains. “The cubs appear strong, and they are nursing frequently.” You can see Diana and her two cubs in this tiger den cam video from the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. What Are Sumatran Tigers? Sumatran tigers, a subspecies of tiger native to the Indonesian island of Sumatra, live for about 20 years in captivity, according to National Geographic. They typically live 15 years in the wild. The tigers, which can weigh about 250 pounds, can be up to 8 feet long. Although Sumatran tigers can run up to 40 miles per hour, they prefer to stalk their prey and then pounce on it quickly. In the wild, that prey includes monkeys, wild boar, deer, and even fish, National Geographic explains. The biggest threats to the Sumatran tiger population are continued habitat loss and poaching, according to the World Wildlife Fund. However, deforestation also leads to the loss of prey, which ultimately affects the tigers. Diana And Her Cubs Diana and her cubs are in an indoor den away from the public. This is an important time for them because it allows the cubs to bond with Diana and learn from her. When Diana is ready, she will eventually bring her cubs out of the den. Wildlife care specialists estimate this will happen when the cubs are between 8 and 10 weeks old.

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History 201: The History of Now (photo credit: Beacon Rock Golf Course, 2017) Professor: Patrick Iber (he/him) History is the study of change over time and requires hindsight to generate insight. Most history courses stop short of the present, and historians are frequently wary of applying historical analysis to our own times, before we have access to private sources and before we have the critical distance that helps us see what matters and what is ephemeral. But recent years have given many people the sense of living through historic times and clamoring for historical context that will help them to understand the momentous changes in politics, society, and culture that they observe around them. This course seeks to explore the recent past from a historical point of view, using the historian’s craft to gain perspective on the present. The course will consider major developments—primarily but not exclusively in U.S. history—of the last twenty years, including 9/11 and the War on Terror, the financial crisis of 2008 and its aftermath, social movements from the Tea Party to the Movement for Black Lives, Covid-19, and political, cultural, and the technological changes that have been created by and shaped by these events. These will be compared to other episodes in U.S. and world history, providing greater context and understanding. Some of the topics that we cover will be chosen by the class. This class is designed to be an introduction to historical reasoning, analysis, writing, and research. We will practice looking at current events and developing the research skills to place them in historical context. We will practice reading the world around us as a primary source. We will practice finding historical materials that can give us a deeper understanding of our times. We will explore the promise and limits of historical analogy. And we will work to understand how we too are shaped by our own historical context. The course will teach you how historians think and how to write a research paper using historical sources. We will work on finding good primary and secondary sources, asking historical questions, developing an argument, building a bibliography, and writing up your findings. The final product, which you will have chances to revise and improve, is an approximately 12-page original paper. Many weeks you will have a preparatory writing assignment that will help you build skills and think historically. There is no expectation that you have any particular views about politics or current events, and we will work to foster open conversation and communication. This course fulfills your General Education Communication B Requirement. Throughout this course, we will practice skills like critical thinking, evaluating evidence, constructing arguments, and engaging with opposing viewpoints in writing and in speech. By the end of the course, you will become proficient in asking scholarly questions, analyzing primary and secondary sources, and situating sources within their proper context. You will also learn to find answers to questions that you have about the world by growing accustomed to using search engines, finding sources, evaluating source limitations, and taking advantage of the resources available in the campus libraries and through interlibrary loan. Finally, you will grow adept at group work and at building knowledge in a collective fashion. Because this class is dedicated to pressing intellectual, historical, and moral issues, and because it focuses on building up the skills you already have, it does not ask you to memorize and regurgitate facts and dates. There is no exam for the class. This particular version of History 201 is organized to teach these skills through an analysis of the recent past: your own lifetime. Although the course is listed as a “lecture” course, there will only be some lecturing. We will be working on learning how to use university resources in activities as individuals and in groups. We will learn how to analyze primary sources and situate them within their historical context. We will read and critically engage with secondary sources. Throughout the semester, we will be building up to help you complete a final capstone paper. You will learn to formulate a viable and interesting research question, carry out original research, and build a persuasive argument that emerges out of the historical sources. The capstone paper will give you the opportunity to choose a topic that most interests you. You will learn to explore the historical origins of some feature of contemporary life. The research and writing skills that you practice in the final paper – and in this course more broadly – are not limited to the discipline of history; they will be useful to you regardless of where your lives take you. All Comm-B courses at UW-Madison are expected to help students develop advanced skills in: - Critical reading, logical thinking, and the use of evidence - The use of appropriate style and disciplinary conventions in writing and speaking - The productive use of core library resources specific to the discipline In this class, we will work on those skills by supporting students to: - Refine their skills in reading, analyzing, and critically engaging with primary and secondary sources. - Research and identify relevant primary and secondary sources, so as to best answer the questions they have about the past. - Craft sophisticated analytical arguments and practice communicating those arguments through speech and in writing. - Bring their knowledge of the past to bear on our historical present. What is the purpose of an education? What is the purpose of a grade? The purpose of an education, it seems to me, is to provide you with skills and perspectives that are useful to living. These skills may be job skills or life skills, or some combination, as well as a certain amount of wisdom that is hard to measure. A good education should help you to live a full life in ways that are both personally satisfying and help you contribute to your society and community. A grade is supposed to measure your performance in mastering the body of material presented in a class. It is not intended as a measure of your worth as a person, nor does it even capture the totality of the value of your education. It simply reduces your experience to a single letter. The biggest problem with this, it seems to me, is that an education is about growth and development. In theory, one could learn a lot and get a bad grade; another student could learn little and get a good one. Given the realities of various forms of social inequality in our society, something about this seems wrong. In addition, young adults are carrying heavy burdens these days. Grades have become another burden that you are asked to carry. If it were up to me, I would be inclined to abolish grading. But it isn’t up to me, and even I admit that they can serve certain functions. They do have some value as an accountability mechanism: something we all need. They can push us to do our best work, though there are plenty of times when a good grade is simply the byproduct of enthusiasm for learning, and not its cause. Because of this, I have worked to create a grading system that foregrounds educational progress for all, reduces student anxiety, while still rewarding commitment and hard work. It requires some new things from the student, and some new things from the instructor. Most of the points are simply earned on a credit/no credit basis. We will provide feedback on ongoing work without grading it per se, with the goal of helping you improve, no matter where you are. You will be given credit will be given for making requested improvements to your work. For the most part, you should know exactly what you need to do to earn your points. There are a few features to protect against abuse of this system. First, on small assignments, if your work doesn’t indicate mastery, you may be asked to make revisions in order to earn the assignment credit. Second, a few quizzes will check that you have been doing the outside work required during this class. Finally, a few points on the final paper will be held in reserve to evaluate the overall quality of your work. At the end of the semester, you will submit a portfolio of all the work that you have done, including reflections on your education. This portfolio will give you an opportunity to suggest amendments to points assigned. For example, if you miss a point because you miss a meeting of section, you can include the make-up work you did to meet that week’s learning goal. If special circumstances emerge during the semester that affect your participation in the class, you can address them in the portfolio. Beyond this, there is no absence or special late work policy. The way that points are awarded should make clear how important attendance and on-time work are to making the class function for everyone. Asking for permission in advance can be a good start towards demonstrating that you should earn missing points if you know you will be absent or need an extended deadline, but it isn’t the only thing you will have to do. So, though you don’t “pick” your own grade in your portfolio, but you can present evidence that the numbers don’t fully reflect your work. Therefore, throughout the semester, you should be able to calmly accumulate points by keeping up with the classwork, with the knowledge that the numbers provide a floor under your grade, but are not a ceiling. This policy, it seems to me, also reflects the way adults often work, at least in professional careers. Your job has expectations of you, and you can either meet them in a standard or a non-standard way if circumstances require it. But you are responsible for meeting goals and expectations. There will be a total of 100 points that you can earn during the semester, distributed as follows: Class participation, 50 total points 1 point each in weeks 1-14 Weekly preparatory writing 1 point each in weeks 1-12 From a mix of in-class activities and a few quizzes Sometimes in the form of an “exit ticket” from class In-class paper presentation 4 points [a rubric will be provided] Section participation, 20 total points 1 point each in weeks 2-13 7 points total 1 point for setting goals for your participation 5 points maximum for meeting those goals 1 point for reflecting on your participation Final paper, 25 points A more detailed rubric will be provided later in the semester, but your basic goals are these: Introduction explains the paper’s question and its approach, 2 points Paper makes a historical argument, 2 points Consults at least 5 primary documents from at least 3 different sources, 2 points Consults at least 3 historical secondary sources, 2 points The evidence presented appropriately supports the argument, 2 points The argument is based on an interpretation of primary sources, 2 points Conclusion summarizes and reflects on the findings, 2 points Bibliography and footnotes are properly formatted, 2 points Final paper makes improvements in areas that came up to target during peer and professor review, up to 4 points Overall paper quality, up to 5 points Final portfolio, 5 points Final portfolio containing all of the semester’s writing assignments is submitted, 1 point Portfolio contains statement of goals, 1 point Portfolio contains mid-term reflection, 1 point Portfolio contains final reflection, 2 points Week 1: Introduction Tuesday, January 24: - Introduction to the class - Before class, please read these two pieces, which present opposing viewpoints: - Moira Weigel, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/30/political-correctness-how-the-right-invented-phantom-enemy-donald-trump - After reading these two pieces, I want you to think about three rules or guidelines that you want us to use to guide the conversations and debates that we have with each other this semester. Write them down and bring them with you to class. - In class we will develop a framework for conversation. Week 2, January 31: What is history? This week, we are looking at what history is and how it gets produced. - This is a work by a historian, writing about the ways that the historical method is and is not like other ways of generating knowledge: - John Lewis Gaddis, Chapter 3, “Structure and Process,” from The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past, pp. 35-52. - To prepare for class, I also want you to read a journal article about a topic that you probably know almost nothing about. Annotate this article using the reading guide we will provide. What is the article’s argument? What kind of evidence does it use? - Stuart B. Schwartz, “Indian Labor and New World Plantations: European Demands and Indian Responses in Northeastern Brazil,” The American Historical Review 83, no. 1 (February 1978): 43-79. Week 3, February 7: 9/11 - This is a primary source, the “raw material” of historical analysis. It is a page from the community blog Metafilter that unfolded in real time on September 11, 2001. - This article briefly describes the context: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-internet-reacted-two-planes-crashing-wtc-91101-180952675/ - And this is the actual post, which is long: https://www.metafilter.com/10034/Plane-crashes-in-to-the-word-trade-center). - This article about what followed is by a journalist, not a historian. Journalists and historians have some overlapping skills and approaches, but their work is not identical. Both benefit from the work of the other. - Terry Anderson, “9/11: Bush’s response,” from Understanding the U.S. Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, edited by Beth Bailey and Richard Immerman, 54-74. - This chapter is by a historian of World War II and post-war Japan, writing to connect his knowledge with what he is observing in the present. - John Dower, Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor | Hiroshima | 9-11 | Iraq (New York: Norton, 2010), pp. 394-436. To prepare for class, read the metafilter forum and the two articles. Fill out a Venn Diagram comparing the three sources. What are the differences between the primary document and the two secondary sources? How do the secondary sources differ from each other? What sort of claims does each of them help you to make? Week 4, February 14: The Financial Crisis - This is journalism that helps you understand the Financial Crisis - Podcast: Giant Pool of Money, This American Life, https://www.thisamericanlife.org/355/the-giant-pool-of-money - From there, let’s go back to a historian providing context for the Financial Crisis through an analysis of what he describes as the transition from the “New Deal” order to the “Neoliberal” order. We can’t read the whole thing, but try to understand the transition from one way of organizing society to another. - Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order, Oxford University Press, 2022, Chapter 1 “Rise,” pp. 19-47, and Chapter 5, “Triumph”, pp. 141-188. - And then let’s go forward, with a historian writing about the consequences of the Financial Crisis: - Eric Rauchway, “Neither a Depression nor a New Deal: Bailout, Stimulus, and the Economy,” pp. 30-44 in The Presidency of Barack Obama: A First Historical Assessment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018). For today’s writing assignment, I want you to do a small oral history project. Talk to an older person about how the financial crisis affect their life and your life. The most obvious thing to do here would be to talk to a parent or guardian. What do they remember happening? What do they remember feeling? What changed for them as a result? Assuming that you were young in this period, did anything change for you that you may not have been aware of? If you didn’t grow up in the United States, what was your experience like of this period? To prepare for this interview, you should generate some questions in addition to those above after listening to and reading this week’s materials. To class, you should bring a document that describes the questions that you generated and at least three paragraphs describing and summarizing the most interesting answers that you got. You don’t have to have an exact transcript of the interview; a summary is fine. Week 5, February 21: The End of the Neoliberal Order? This week, we’re going to look at recent political changes from multiple perspectives. Everyone should read: Gary Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order, Chapter 7 “Coming Apart”, pp. 230-267. Then, I want you to choose whether you want to focus more on thinking through changes on the political left or the political right. Your choice doesn’t imply that you’re more politically sympathetic to one side or the other, it is simply the one that you are picking this week to study. If you choose the left, then read: - Eric Foner, “Why is there no socialism in the United States?” History Workshop no. 17 (Spring 1984): 57-80. And pick one of these two: - Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor, “From Color-Blind to Black Lives Matter,” 198-218 in Julian Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump: A First Historical Assessment, Princeton University Press, 2022. - Michael Kazin, “The Path of Most Resistance,” 335-350, in Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump. If you choose the right, then read: - Michelle Nickerson, Mothers of Conservatism: Women and the Postwar Right, Princeton University Press, Chapter 3 “Education or Indoctrination?”, pp. 69-102. And pick one of these three: - Julian Zelizer, “Reckoning with the Trumpian GOP,” 27-48, in Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump. - Kathleen Belew, “Militant Whiteness in the Age of Trump, 83-102, in Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump. - Geraldo Cadava, “Latinos for Trump,” 103-120, in Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump. For your writing assignment this week, I want you to work on outlining an argument. Imagine that you’re going to write a paper about how the U.S. left and right have changed since 2015. What features are new, and which are not? Pick an overall argument (what has caused changes), the sub-arguments (examples of changes and continuities), and list the evidence that supports your sub-arguments. If there are any arguments that you want to make but feel you lack evidence for, note that, and thus the provisional nature of the argument. Week 6, February 28: Pandemic - This is the work of a historian and classicist, taking a very long view: - Walter Scheidel, “The Black Death,” from The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century, Princeton University Press, 2018, pp. 291-313. - This is written by a historian but intended for a wide audience: - Steven Burg, Wisconsin and the Great Spanish Flu Epidemic of 1918, Wisconsin Magazine of History 84, no.1 (Autumn 2000), https://content.wisconsinhistory.org/digital/collection/wmh/id/43606 - This is written by a historian and Professor of Sociomedical Sciences about the recent past: - Merlin Chowkwanyun, “The 60/40 Problem,” pp. 315-334, in in Zelizer (ed.), The Presidency of Donald J. Trump. Your writing assignment this week is a brief autobiography. In about 750 words, explain your life. You may include whatever details and events that you wish to in your account and exclude what you wish to exclude. (But please note that your assignment will be read by your peers in class.) Please do think about the ways that your life has been shaped by forces and historical events that we have discussed in class. You can use first or third-person point of view in your writing. You may conduct a bit of research on yourself if you like, but it is not required or expected. Bring two copies to class: one with your name on it, and one with the name removed. Week 7, March 7: Global Perspectives For most of this class, we have been thinking about the recent past from the vantage point of the United States. But the U.S. is not the whole world, and as powerful and important as it is, it contains only a tiny fraction of the totality of human experiences around the globe. The “History of Now” for people living elsewhere (including members of our class, not all of whom grew up in the United States) would certainly highlight other qualities of the contemporary world. To prepare for our discussion, I want you to think about the many ways that someone could have experienced the recent past. To do that, please: - Watch the documentary: - American Factory [available on Netflix]. I strongly recommend making this a social event. Get together with your classmates some evening, and then talk about the movie once you’re done. - And read this essay by a novelist and journalist: - Valeria Luiselli, Tell me How it Ends, in Freeman’s (2016), pp. 141-183. - This essay eventually became the basis for the novel Lost Children Archive (which is not assigned), but which I do recommend very highly if you found yourself moved by the essay. Your writing assignment for this week is to generate a proposal for next week’s readings. There is so much that we haven’t been able to cover in the class so far and won’t be able to cover. I want you to practice identifying information about something that you think is worth further study. Choose an aspect of the present that you think is significant and locate a primary source and a secondary source (of chapter or article length) that you think would help the class better understand the phenomenon in historical perspective. To do this, I want you to read two primary sources and two secondary sources. Then write up a brief argument that explains why you preferred the ones that you did. What was more compelling about the primary and secondary documents that you chose? You can describe the contents of the primary documents and summarize the arguments and evidence of both secondary sources. Why will the ones you chose help the class more than the ones that you didn’t? In class, we may use your proposal to decide what to read for next week! March 14 is SPRING BREAK. Week 8, March 21: Student choice week Readings to be determined, by the class, in week 7. The instructor may add an additional reading. Your writing assignment this week is write a proposal for your final paper. The topic should be something that is relevant to the recent past that you will work to set in historical perspective. Remember that your job here is to be a historian of this topic, not a journalist about it. Your research should help us understand the event better through historical analysis; the purpose of your paper is not to provide a detailed explanation of the event itself. So, for example, if you chose the January 6 insurrection as a topic, you aren’t going to do a deep dive on the day itself. Instead, you might choose to consider other examples of political violence in U.S. history, or other examples of contested elections, or some historical angle that helps us to think about the present. That will be the purpose of your final research paper. Your proposal should describe the topic, state the question that you hope to answer, and suggest the scope of your research. Remember to keep the topic small: it’s better to go deep than to be shallow. It’s much better to say that you’ll study the Bretton Woods conference of 1944 than it is to say that you will study U.S. economic power in the 20th century, even if you are using the former to understand the latter. Week 9, March 28: How to work Reading: short selections from Anne Lamott, Bird by Bird Your work for the week is to come to class with a bibliography for your final paper. What sources are you going to use? You will want to use at least 5 primary and 3 secondary sources. Even if you haven’t read them completely yet, try to identify them by today. Make sure that they are entered into Zotero. Have Zotero generate a bibliography for you and bring that to class. Week 10, April 4: Paper preparations There are no readings this week. Your only job is to work on your final paper, and to come to class with an outline for it. An outline should describe the structure of the paper, which will help you find your argument. Briefly explain what will go in your introduction. What question do you seek to answer? How is it connected to the present, and how will you study it historically? Then lay out what will go in the body of the paper, including what sort of evidence will go where. Finally, explain what will go in the conclusion. Print four copies and bring them to class. Week 11, April 11: Paper preparations There is no reading this week. Your only responsibility is to work on your final paper. You should have a complete introduction, and a partial draft of the rest. They’ll be read by your peers, who will give you supportive feedback. Print four copies and bring them to class. Week 12, April 18: Paper preparations Come to class with a complete draft of the paper. Print one copy and bring it with you. In section this week, we will be having individual meetings with an instructor. Week 13, April 25: Paper presentations This week, we will be holding an in-class “conference” where you can present your work. You will need to prepare a “PowerPoint” to accompany your paper, which you will need to present in about 7-8 minutes. This means you won’t want more than a few slides to accompany the presentation. The most important thing is that you must practice your presentation, and you’ve got to fit it in the short time allotted! That means cutting it down to key points and evidence, and practicing to get the length right. Week 14, May 2: Final preparations This week, we will continue the in-class “conference.” Just keep working on your final paper, if it isn’t done. Exams are May 7 – May 12 Turn in portfolios on canvas on May 9th. For your information, the grading deadline for instructors is May 15th.

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This sticker can measure blood pressure and other body chemicals SAN DIEGO: Experts at the University of California San Diego have developed a sticker that measures various biomarkers in body fluids that can also measure blood pressure. This flexible patch can also be called a health monitor. University of California team experts have created the world’s first patch-sized patch that can simultaneously monitor heart and cardiovascular signals, blood pressure and other chemical fluctuations. Flexible electronics play a key role in this invention. In this invention, the team that developed the blood pressure sensor is completely different, while the system that tests the chemical cardiovascular and physical affairs has been developed by another team. The whole electronics is glued on a thin polymer. But this tiny patch has a blood pressure sensor, a chemical sensor, a system for measuring caffeine and alcohol in sweat, and a system for measuring glucose. Externally it is supplied with electricity and its readings can be seen in a machine placed on a counter.

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- Introduction to Python - Python: Choosing a Text Editor or IDE - Python: Hello World - Python: Variables, Strings and Numbers - Python: Variable Naming - Python: Math, Familiar - Python: Math, Less Familiar - Python: Mathematical Order of Operations - Python: Introducing PEP 8 - Python: Text Concatenation - Python: if Statements and Comparison Operators - Python: else and elif statements - Python: Testing Multiple Conditions - Python: Testing Sets of Conditions - Python: Nested if Statements - Python: Lists - Python: Adding To and Changing Lists - Python: Lists: Take a Slice, Delete Elements, Popping Elements - Python: Tuples - Python: for Loops - Python: Nested for Loops - Python: Capturing and Formatting User Input - Python: Dictionaries - Python: Functions - Python: While Loops - Python: Data Files - Python: Using Pexpect - Python : Using Pexpect : ftpTestOffload.sh - Python : Using Pexpect: ftpTest.py - Python: DCL Conversion to Python Go to Chapter 6 of A Smarter Way. A. Sometimes you need to find the remainder of a division operation. Really. It sounds crazy, but you’ll see why you’d want this later. That remainder is called the modulus. And the operator that you use to get it is the modulo operator. my_modulus = 10 % 3 B. The exponent operator is how you calculate powers of a number. my_number = 10 ** 3 C. Shorthand operators are quick ways to perform common math. You could, for instance, do this: my_number = my_number + 1 But you can do it more simply: my_number += 1 Both of these operations will add 1 to my_number. And you can do subtraction this way, too. my_number -= 1 Go to http://www.asmarterwaytolearn.com/python/6.html and review the exercises. - Return to your examples.py script. - Create a variable that contains the statement “First Edition: “. - Use a shorthand operator to add 1 to the variable my_year. - Print these two variables on one line.

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About the event Holocaust Memorial Day (HMD) is marked each year on 27th of January, the anniversary of the liberation of the Nazi extermination and concentration camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1945. HMD seeks to highlight the importance of understanding and combating the processes that led to the mass extermination of Jews during World War II, and to recognise that the type of behaviour demonstrated in Nazi Germany was not unique either to Germany or to a particular point in history. More recent events in Cambodia, Bosnia, Rwanda and Darfur amply demonstrate the propensity of human beings to engage in mass murder. How to approach it This is an extremely important day, and one that must obviously be approached with caution. Holocaust educators generally agree that eight is the minimum age you can begin teaching about this topic with some starting at KS3. With that said, if children ask about the Holocaust its more important to answer them and to ease their worries. Focus on less on details and more on the themes present during the Holocaust. For example it was a situation of mass discrimination in which minority groups such as Jewish people, Roma and LGBTQ+ people were singled out as different and unwanted members of society. Highlight the resistance against these oppressive practices and how large portions of the world came together to condemn them. The key of course is to highlight how we must recognise the roots of discrimination and political violence so that we can ensure such horrific genocides never happen again. The Holocaust Education Trust has an excellent indepth guide and resource hub for going into this day into more detail that you can explore below. During World War Two, Nazis killed millions of Jewish People, Roma Gypsies, gay people and disabled people. Today we remember all those that were lost and remind ourselves how it should never happen again.

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Achieving balance–in your workplace, at home, on your surfboard, or with your checkbook—makes life manageable. Natural environments depend upon balance as well. Invasive pests have been disturbing the natural balance of Hawaiian ecosystems for centuries, ever since the arrival of the rat with early Polynesian explorers. Bringing invasive species into better balance with the environment is nothing new here in Hawai‘i. An effective biological control, or natural predator, can transform a devastating invasive species into a mild pest. The vast majority of biological control efforts in Hawaii have been successful: pānini cactus that once choked pasture land is now checked by three predatory insects and a plant fungus; white loosestrife or pāmakani is continually attacked by two insects and another plant fungus; and recently, the Erythrina gall wasp, that wiped out ornamental coral trees and threatened the native wiliwili with extinction, was leveled by a parasitoid wasp. Yet, just as impulsive actions sabotage balance in our own lives—think diet fads and over-exercising–the same kind of recklessness results in greater instability in our environment. Such is the case with the small Indian mongoose, Herpestus javanicus. In 1872, a sugar planter released nine mongoose on Jamaica with the hope it would control rats in cane fields. The planter considered it successful and published a paper about it. Mongoose populations grew and offspring were sold to plantations throughout the Caribbean, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. In 1883, Hawai‘i plantation owners jumped on the mongoose bandwagon. With little regard for potential impacts, the now defunct Hilo Planters Association released seventy-two mongoose from Jamaica in Hilo. Another batch of mongoose from eastern India was brought to the Hāmākua coast in 1885. Subsequent offspring were released on Maui, O‘ahu, and Kaua‘i. For an unknown reason the crate delivered on Kaua‘i was kicked off the dock. To date mongoose have not established on Kaua‘i, though a single female was found killed by a car in 1972. Mongoose do eat rats, in Hawai‘i and elsewhere, but mongoose are opportunistic predators eating primarily insects, with birds, eggs, and a handful of plants mixed in. Additionally, mongooses are active during the day, rats at night. The introduction of the mongoose further tipped the balance of the environment in the wrong direction: now both mongoose and rats threaten populations of native birds, particularly ground-nesting species like nēnē and petrels. The mongoose introduction was not an example of classical biological control; it was an impulsive, untested whim. Today, when researchers look for biological controls for a particular pest, they survey the pest’s native habitat for species that counteract the pest’s invasive characteristics. Before any new organisms are introduced in Hawai‘i, they are subjected to intensive testing in quarantine to determine potential impacts on any other species. Successful candidates for biological control have evolved over millennia alongside their target; some are dependent solely on the target species for survival. For example, the Eurytoma wasp that saved the wiliwili will die without access to Erythina gall wasps. Consequently, Eurytoma populations will stop short of entirely eliminating the Erythrina gall wasp. Rather it will restore balance, keeping the pest wasp in check. When mongoose were brought to Hawai‘i, there were no restrictions on plant and animal imports. Impacts on other species were an afterthought, if considered at all. It wasn’t until King David Kalākaua enacted the “Laws of the Hawaiian Islands” that any regulation existed to limit the introduction of new species to Hawai‘i. Government-led pest management didn’t begin until ten years after sugar growers introduced the mongoose. The provisional government appointed Albert Koebele as the chief entomologist, the first of many tasked with preventing new and controlling existing pest populations Biological control has a long and successful history in Hawai‘i. In fact, California and Hawai‘i lead the world in successful releases of natural predators. Ever since testing of biological controls began, there have been no incidences of “host-jumping” or biological controls attacking other species. Yes, the infamous mongoose ran amok, but it arrived during an “anything goes” era in Hawaiian history. The mongoose–or any opportunistic predator–would never be considered suitable for introduction by today’s standards. Biological controls are an important tool—sometimes the only tool—that can restore balance in Hawaiian ecosystems. Originally published in the Maui News, April 8th, 2012 as part of the Kia‘i Moku Column. You can find all the articles in the Kia‘i Moku series http://www.hear.org/misc/mauinews/

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A cool, refreshing drink of water is something many people take for granted. Up until about 100 years ago we didn’t have access to safe drinking water. In fact, it was often dangerous. For thousands of years, people all over the world tried to filter and purify drinking water. It wasn’t until the 19th century that scientists discovered germs and learned that they could carry disease through water and other media. Filtering wasn’t enough. Waterborne illnesses such as cholera and typhoid once killed thousands of Americans each year. During the four years of the Civil War, for example, 75,000 people came down with typhoid, and more than 27,000 died from it. In 1900, typhoid claimed another 25,000 lives. In the early days of the 20th century, chemists found that adding small amounts of chlorine to drinking water destroys bacteria, viruses and other disease-causing microorganisms. In 1908, Jersey City and Chicago became the first U.S. cities to use chlorine to help provide safe drinking water. By 1941, chlorine disinfection was being used by 85 percent of U.S. water treatment systems, and typhoid was nearly eradicated. In a report called “The History of Drinking Water Treatment” (2000), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency states that “it was disinfectants like chlorine that played the largest role in reducing the number of waterborne disease outbreaks in the early 1900s.” Today, most water systems in our country rely on chlorine disinfectants to provide some of the safest water in the world. Not everyone is as fortunate as we are. Right now, 1.1 billion people worldwide still don’t have access to clean water. Every year, infectious diarrhea spread by contaminated water kills nearly 2 million people, mostly children under five years old. To get water every day, women and girls in the village of Garin Makaka, in Niger, Africa, must draw water by hand from hand-dug wells about 250 feet deep. Then they must carry it in clay pots that, when full, weigh more than 40 pounds. They make the nearly mile-long trip four to five times a day – all to get water that is unclean and can bring diarrheal illnesses to the village. That’s why the American Chemistry Council’s (ACC’s) Chlorine Chemistry Division is part of the West African Water Initiative (WAWI), a partnership of 14 organizations working to increase access to water supply and sanitation in Ghana, Mali and Niger. Along with the World Chlorine Council, ACC is providing funds and materials to help build permanent safe water systems for small communities in developing countries. ACC and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) have announced a two-year, $1.3 million partnership to implement household-based drinking water programs in communities facing some of the most severe poverty and health challenges in the world. The USAID-led programs use chlorine-based disinfection and safe water storage techniques to disinfect and store water in individual households. This can dramatically improve water quality and reduce diarrheal illnesses in vulnerable populations by 50 percent. Here are some ways individuals can help with the water problem. Click. Visit AmericanChemistry.com/100years and take the Clean Water Challenge Quiz. For each correct answer, ACC and its global industry partners will contribute the estimated cost of enough chlorine tablets to disinfect 100 liters of water. With a total commitment of $200,000, ACC’s goal is to help contribute enough tablets to disinfect 100 million liters of drinking water. USAID estimates the program will reach three million people during a two-year period. Gather. If you’re part of a book club, church or civic organization, PTA or other group, hold fund raisers to help support the clean water efforts of WAWI and World Vision. Donate the money to the Chlorine Chemistry Foundation fund (see: ChlorineFoundation.org), or use it to shop the World Vision gift catalog. It has a number of ways to help supply clean water – everything from buying a share of a local well to contributing to the general Clean Water Fund. Visit WorldVision.org to donate or see the online catalog. This is a great way to get children involved in their world, too. Host. Bring friends and family together for a Global Dinner. Prepare and share traditional foods from different countries while introducing others to the clean water needs around the world. World Vision has recipes and ideas to help you get started. Visit WorldVision.org for more. Whether you want to learn how to grow and raise your own food, build your own root cellar, or create a green dream home, come out and learn everything you need to know — and then some!LEARN MORE

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Human knowledge in all spheres and disciplines of knowledge is limited. Humans know some things and not others. Humans do not normally reach the full capacity of knowledge because of other limitations. One of these limitations is failure to exert themselves to the maximum in the search for knowledge. LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN SENSES senses can be easily deceived. Human vision is limited. Human senses of hearing, smelling, tasting are relatively insensitive and some animals have more acute senses. LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN INTELLECT intellect has limitations in interpreting correct sensory perceptions. There are basic limitations in the neurochemical functions in the brain. Humans also have a limited data-base of prior knowledge to be able to interpret all new knowledge correctly. LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE: THE TYPES OF THE UNSEEN: Humans cannot know the unseen. The unseen can be absolute or relative. The absolute, such as the day of death is known only by the Creator. Humans have no access to absolute unseen except through revelations. The relative unseen can be known by some people in favorable time and space circumstances and not others or can be known if special and appropriate instrumentation is used. The whole purpose of scientific research is to roll back the field of the relative seen. The relative unseen can be contemporaneous, ie things that exist at the moment but which are unknown. It may be in past or historical events. It can be in the future. THE PAST AND THE FUTURE: Humans can operate in limited time frames. The past and the future are unknowable with certainty. Both are part of the unseen. The only true and valid source of knowledge about the past is revelation. OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE: CHANGES & TRANSITIONS SPEED: Humans operate in a limited speed frame at both the conceptual and sensory levels. Ideas cannot be digested and processed if they are generated too slowly or too quickly. Humans cannot visually perceive very slow or very rapid events. Very slow events like the revolution of the earth or its rotation are perceived as if they are not happening. CHANGE OF MATTER-ENERGY: Modern physics has discovered that matter and energy are interchangeable. One form of matter can change into another form just as one form or energy can change into another. LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE OF KNOWLEDGE: Human memory is limited. Knowledge acquired decays or may be lost altogether. Humans would have been more knowledgeable if they had perfect memory. DISTORTION OF KNOWLEDGE: Knowledge may be distorted by the processes of its acquisition. Human senses and intellect are limited and may therefore lead to distorted knowledge. Knowledge may also be distorted by personal whims.

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Executive Functioning Tutoring — Learn With Us Executive functioning is a set of cognitive processes and mental skills that help us function throughout the day. These functions include everything from flexible thinking to sharp memory and other basic self-management skills. People struggling with executive function difficulties exhibit a variety of issues that have to do with areas such as decision making, staying focused, being organized, planning ahead, handling emotions, and more. Each child’s executive function development differs, however, some children never fully develop them and end up with specific weaknesses, which often lead to struggles when it comes to schoolwork and managing tasks. Fortunately, when paired with a skillful and patient teacher, an executive functioning coaching program can help any student successfully overcome difficulties. Executive functioning tutoring can prove to be extremely beneficial for students, as well as reassuring for parents that their children are in professional and patient hands. Teaching executive functioning skills goes beyond traditional education programs: our personalized tutoring sessions allow us to form authentic connections with our students and help them progress in areas they haven’t mastered yet. Da Vinci’s specialized coaching sessions aid children who struggle with executive functioning skills to better their flexible thinking capabilities, organizational and planning abilities, time- and task-management skills, as well as learning how to control their impulses and emotions. The best place to practice executive functioning skills is in a safe environment, with teachers who understand the struggles kids with underdeveloped executive functioning are going through. The most important factor for children battling executive function issues is to feel safe. School can often be overwhelming, but private tutoring can ease the learning process. We help children properly manage their tasks, whether academic or not, by using advanced techniques within our personalized sessions. We try to help our students think outside the box, and strive to make them understand how problem-solving thinking can improve their life. Executive functioning tutoring sessions ensure that students have someone who is 100% dedicated to their progress, and helps them learn how to stay focused during tasks. It’s easy to get distracted and not properly manage our time, but children with executive functioning disorders don’t realize how time management works, so we are here to help. Here at Da Vinci, we help children overcome difficulties by teaching them mindful ways to tackle inconveniences, such as intrusive thoughts and impulsive behavior. Teaching children with executive function challenges can prove to be difficult, but here at Da Vinci, we focus on creating personalized learning programs that help children overcome barriers. Our teachers are patient and emphatic, and know exactly how to handle even the most demanding situations. Not only do we help your child study for school, we also provide the necessary guidelines to help them focus, concentrate, and show them how to better organize their assignments. We also come up with intuitive ways to keep them motivated, as well as keep their impulsivity and emotions at bay. By being a part of a supportive learning environment, your child will overcome many executive functioning challenges and will feel more confident, both in school and life. What people have said about DaVinci:

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How to Speak to Your Child Effectively Updated: Jul 9, 2020 By: Melissa De Los Santos Open communication is key in your relationship with your children. Give them your full attention When your child is telling you something, pay attention. Make sure you are facing them and showing them that you are focused on what they are saying. Ask a few questions and encourage them to share more about their lives. When a child feels you are interested in what they have to say, they will be more comfortable to talk to you. Watch your tone Children (even adults!) start blocking you out when you say something in a tone they feel is demeaning. You don’t even need to be shouting — as long as they feel criticized and undermined, they stop listening. For example, elementary-aged children do not appreciate being talked to in the same way as you would to a primary-aged child. The older child may feel disrespected, and will start ignoring you. Be aware of how you say things and make sure you adjust your tone to ensure effective communication. Try not to talk to your children when you are extremely upset. You are more likely to say hurtful things when you are aggravated. Take a few minutes to calm down, and then explain why you are dismayed. When your child understands your feelings, they will be more open to sharing theirs. Try not to use too many words that young children will not understand, especially when you don’t explain what they mean. How can they have a conversation with you when they don’t understand half of the words you are saying? When you are talking to children, the simpler the better. Hold the advice When your child comes to you with something they want to talk about, make sure you listen intently and figure out what they need first before you start giving advice. It is possible that your child is sharing with you because they need help solving a problem, but sometimes, all they need is for someone to listen. Don’t impose your advice on them unless they specifically ask for it. Sometimes all children need is for their parents to listen to them.

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Answer: Chlorophytum comosum vittatum is the botanical name of your plant, which probably explains why most people call it simply Spider Plant. It has been grown as in indoor plant for over 200 years. The mother plant produces bably plantlets that can be allowed to remain, or removed and used to make new plants. Spider plant will grow in hot or cool rooms, in sun or shade, in dry or humid air. You can cut the baby plants away from the mother and root them in water, or peg them down in the potting soil, where they will root and can then be separated. I have a plant on a table top. Whenever the spider stems grow long enough to reach the top of the table, I prop the little spiders up on the surface of a pot filled with moistened potting soil. They root readily. Once new growth begins to appear from the center of the baby plant I know it has rooted and I cut the stem connecting it to the mother plant. Q&A Library Searching Tips

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2 Answers | Add Yours The process of aerobic respiration is the series of catabolic chemical reactions that occurs in cells that use oxygen, to produce the high energy compound ATP. This compound provides the energy for cell's to carry out life process. Glucose is broken down in a series of chemical steps, into smaller molecules, releasing the energy that was stored in its chemical bonds. Glucose is combined with oxygen to produce 36 ATP, plus the wastes carbon dioxide and water. First glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cells. It is anaerobic, and one glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate and 2 ATP molecules are generated. Aerobic respiration occurs in two steps--the Krebs cycle and Electron Transport Chain. Before the Krebs cycle, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is converted to acetyl-CoA and CO2 with the help of an enzyme called coenzyme A. During this step, one molecule of NADH and one CO2 is produced and this is the transition step. Next, comes the Krebs or Citric Acid cycle. In this step, mitochondria in the cell will undergo aerobic respiration. Acetyl CoA enters and gets oxidized to CO2, and NAD is reduced to NADH. Also produced are FADH, and ATP. These are used by the electron transport chain occurring in the cristae or inner membrane of the mitochondrion, to make more ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. Two acetyl-CoA are metabolized by the Krebs cycle to produce at net yield of approximately 34 ATP. Enzymes and coenzymes are needed for one molecule of glucose to be fully oxidized into carbon dioxde. A total of 36 ATP are produced from one molecule of glucose undergoing aerobic respiraiton. Aerobic respiration: Aerobic respiration is process of cellular respiration that uses oxygen. It is a biological process that takes energy from glucose other organic molecules like ATP Adenosine tri phosphate. Here are the four steps of Aerobic Respiration: 1. Glycolysis: It is the starting point of aerobic respiration. The process of glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. During glycolysis, a six-carbon molecule is converted into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate. In this process two molecules of ATP is consumed. 2. Formation of Acetyl Co enzyme A: In this step there is the formation of Acetyl Co enzyme A.. Pyruvate is brought into the mitochondria to be oxidized, creating a 2-carbonacetyl group. 3. Citric acid cycle: This is the third step of aerobic respiration. In this step oxaloacetate combines with the acetyl coenzyme A, creating citric acid. Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle create one molecules of ATP as well as six NADH and two FADH. 4. Electron transport chain: This is the final step of Aerobic respiration. In this step NADH and FADH donate their electrons to produce large amount of ATP. In aerobic respiration one molecules of glucose creates a total of 34 ATP molecules. We’ve answered 318,908 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Optical trapping has become an optimal choice for biological research at the microscale due to its non-invasive performance and accessibility for quantitative studies, especially on the forces involved in biological processes. However, reliable force measurements depend on the calibration of the optical traps, which is different for each experiment and hence requires high control of the local variables, especially of the trapped object geometry. Many biological samples have an elongated, rod-like shape, such as chromosomes, intracellular organelles (e.g., peroxisomes), membrane tubules, certain microalgae, and a wide variety of bacteria and parasites. This type of samples often requires several optical traps to stabilize and orient them in the correct spatial direction, making it more difficult to determine the total force applied. Here, we manipulate glass microcylinders with holographic optical tweezers and show the accurate measurement of drag forces by calibration-free direct detection of beam momentum. The agreement between our results and slender-body hydrodynamic theoretical calculations indicates potential for this force-sensing method in studying protracted, rod-shaped specimens. Trap calibration has become routine in force measurement studies involving spherical objects, for which the optical restoring force is well understood1. This method can also be applied to non-spherical specimens, with synthetic microbeads bound to the sample of interest used as force probes. This has enabled numerous investigations, such as those into biopolymer stretching2, the assembly dynamics of microtubules3, cell membrane mechanics4 and parasite flagellar forces5. However, when it comes to the direct trapping of the sample non-invasively, light momentum transfer gives rise to trapping forces that are difficult to quantify. This, together with complicated hydrodynamic theorizing, makes force calibration for non-spherical samples a complex challenge. Many microobjects found in nature display cylindrical symmetry, such as rod-shaped Bacillus bacteria, Synedra and Nitzschia diatoms, and eukaryotic nuclear chromosomes. Often, the rod-like shape confers a biological advantage over the spherical form. For example, the larger area to volume ratio of non-spherical mitochondria favors diffusion and makes aerobic respiration more efficient6. Likewise, light absorption is maximized in chloroplasts, favoring photosynthesis in plant palisade cells7. Direct trapping and measurement of optical forces on rod-shaped specimens is, thus, an important area of interest in several scientific fields. One solution that is widely applied in bacterial swimming studies consists of monitoring the trapping laser light with a photodiode and inferring information after complex processing of the electric signals obtained. Although not strictly measuring forces, this strategy has successfully shed light on several motility parameters, such as body and flagellar rotation frequencies, velocity variations and direction reversals, cell viability, bacterial swimming patterns and bacterial chemotaxis8,9,10,11. For quantitatively measuring trapping forces on microrods and biological rod-shaped samples, several calibration strategies have been developed, whereby force values are obtained from primary variables such as the sample escape velocity or position12. Escape velocity measurement, together with the trap power recording, has enabled the assessment of, for instance, trypanosome swimming forces5 and chromosome motility13. Meanwhile, the force-position relationship, i.e. the trap stiffness k, has been measured for Escherichia coli using Stokes’ drag force calibration14 and equipartition theorem15. Rod-shaped samples, even if stably trapped in a single Gaussian focus, tend to align their longest dimension with the optical axis due to the gradient force16, thus remaining in a position that is not always helpful. To manipulate, rotate and orient them in a specific direction, several coordinating optical traps are necessary. Such multi-trap configurations have been modelled by a stiffness matrix whose calibration permit 3D force and torque measurements17,18. Experimentally, the trap stiffness matrix of an elongated diatom trapped with two optical tweezers has been obtained from thermal motion analysis for force probing purposes19. Likewise, synthetic microrods20 and microdevices inducing complex force fields21 in a double-trap configuration have been calibrated against Stokes drag. Another technique for stable trapping and orientation of anisotropic samples is the creation of object-adapted optical potentials22,23, which can be calibrated for force sensing through back-focal-plane interferometry24. In all these cases, precise measurements of the primary variable –escape velocity, trap power or sample position– is of the utmost importance, which, together with the accurate modeling of the sample hydrodynamics25,26, is very challenging even for regular microrods. Any deviation from the actual sample shape with respect to the geometry conceptualized, as well as uncertainties regarding model approximations or linear assumptions, will produce large inaccuracies in force measurements. Direct detection of beam momentum enables force measurements without the need for specific trap calibration, as the force is determined directly from the light momentum exchange between the trapping beam and the sample27,28,29,30,31. Therefore, direct measurement of momentum in non-spherical samples can be performed without complex theoretical calculations. Furthermore, the individual changes in momentum exerted on several optical traps by a sample are added up automatically in the detector, thus directly providing the collective force applied to the trapped object. These advantages come at the cost of complex technical implementation, since all the light creating high-NA optical traps, and therefore contributing to the total momentum exchanged with the sample, must be captured and conveyed to the detector32. This is feasible with microbeads and single tweezers, as we showed in refs 28 and 29, but this certainly cannot be taken for granted for rod-like samples or multiple light foci. In the present study, we measured the total drag force exerted on an arbitrary multiple-bead system trapped by several holographic optical tweezers (HOTs). We then focused on optical manipulation of synthetic microcylinders in a double-trap arrangement and ensured that all the light interacting with the sample was captured. Finally, we compared the drag force measurements with theoretical predictions and discussed the trapping force profiles of dielectric microcylinders. Direct detection of beam momentum The optical force exerted on a trapped sample can be determined from the global change in the linear momentum of the trapping beam, which can be precisely measured at the BFP of a lens entirely capturing the light emerging from the traps. In our set-up, this principle was applied to measure lateral trapping forces, using a position-sensitive detector (PSD) that integrates the overall transverse component of the light beam’s linear momentum. Under specific conditions, discussed in detail in refs 28 and 29, the positional signals of the sensor, Sx and Sy, are directly related to the trapping forces, as Fx,y = −α · Sx,y (see Fig. 1). The volt-to-piconewton equivalence factor α is only determined from the geometrical parameters of the set-up – the system focal length f’ and the sensor radius RD – and the sensor sensitivity ψ. As a result, force measurement based on beam momentum detection is independent of any local parameter present in the experiments, e.g., the laser power, beam structure, objective numerical aperture (NA), and sample geometry and refractive indices. A detailed protocol for the design of a light momentum force sensor can be found in ref. 32. Correct implementation of this method requires the collection of all the light interacting with the sample. Briefly, this is achieved using a lens of NA higher than the medium refractive index, NA > nmedium, which enables all the forward scattering 2π square radians of light to enter the lens and reach the PSD, as shown in Fig. 1. We previously showed that the percentage of light backscattered from the sample, which is disregarded by the detection system, was below 3% for common dielectric microspheres in a Gaussian optical trap, producing errors of a similar size in the force readings28. However, for more complex objects or sample configurations, it is not clear if backscattered light represents a small fraction of the total light detected or whether it contributes to discrepancies in beam momentum measurements. In the present study, beam momentum detection was able to measure the collective force generated by multiple-trap systems, which are of interest, for example, in the stable trapping of cylindrical samples. We measured the drag force exerted on multiple microbeads (for which backscattered light was controlled) trapped in an array of holographic optical tweezers (see Methods). The flow oscillation induced by a piezo electric actuator generates drag forces that are compensated by the optical traps, producing beam momentum changes visible at the BFP. It is worth noting that light emerging from each of the optical traps interferes and yields global momentum variation (see Fig. 1), meaning that single bead-trap contributions cannot be extracted. Furthermore, the total force cannot be indirectly inferred from individual bead-trap stiffness calibrations, especially when trapping microspheres of diverse sizes and refractive indices, as each one experiences different drag forces and degrees of optical trap stiffness. Total integration of the transverse linear momentum of the trapping beam is derived from the SX and SY channels of the PSD, while the SUM signal yields a direct reading of the beam intensity. Using the latter signal, we recorded the power of an empty trap steered holographically along X and Y (Fig. 2a) to show that there was no loss of light resulting from the position of the optical trap in the trapping plane. That is, we found decreased intensity for off-center traps merely due to diffraction of the pixilated SLM. The same decrease was observed when determining trap stiffness through power spectrum calibration33 (data not shown). We additionally applied a 60-μm/s flow to induce a drag force of 1.6 pN on a 3.00-μm polystyrene bead trapped at various sites, confirming that the measured force could be reproduced independently of the trap position (Fig. 2b). Furthermore, light loss in this system was calculated to be less than 1% using a ray optics simulation of the detection set-up (Fig. 2c). Thus, beam momentum detection was robust against a transverse displacement of the trap from the optical axis. The use of microspheres allows the comparison of our direct force measurements with theoretical values derived from adding all the individual Stokes’ forces together as follows: where Ri are the different radii of the microbeads, v is the flow velocity, η the fluid viscosity whose dependence on temperature is taken into account34, and h the distance to the upper surface to include Faxén’s effect1. In this equation, inter-particle hydrodynamic interactions are not considered and the total drag force on a set of several samples is simply the total sum of single-bead drag forces. To determine to what extent this was valid in our experiments, we trapped two identical 3.00-μm microbeads and recorded the total force as a function of the distance between them (Fig. 2d). At infinity, the total drag force is twice that for a single microbead, decreasing considerably as the microbeads approach each other. Our measurements matched the theoretical curves inferred from ref. 35, allowing for correction due to the presence of a secondary bead. In the six-trap array we subsequently used (Fig. 1), drag force reduction due to interactions was less than 5% for 3.00-μm beads and negligible for smaller microbeads (a detailed explanation of the HOTs array layout is in the Methods section). We next measured the drag force on a system consisting of identical polystyrene microbeads, either 1.16 or 3.00 μm in diameter, at a flow velocity of 60 μm/s. The force values increased sequentially with the trapping of an additional bead in the array, in accordance with the assumption that the total force is proportional to the number of beads (Fig. 2e). For both bead diameters, results were indeed arranged along a straight line whose slope represents the force per single bead. We performed a similar experiment using the same array of six optical traps, but with microbeads of different sizes and materials. The theoretical drag forces were calculated from the direct addition of individual forces, which were now different for each type of microbead. The measurements, represented against the theoretical values for twenty-four different combinations of microbeads, settled along a straight line with a slope of one (Fig. 2f, see Supplementary Information for details). These results demonstrated that the light emanating from a set of optical traps can be completely captured and analyzed to determine the total momentum change giving rise to trapping forces. The measurement of momentum was not subject to the specific characteristics of the sample under study – bead sizes and refractive indices – but was defined by a persistent macroscopic calibration, represented by the equivalence factor α. It should be noted that a global optical potential describing each of these situations, from which position measurements could hypothetically lead to indirect force calculations, is non-existent if based on the detection of the trapping laser light. The trapping stiffness corresponding to every bead-trap pair should be calibrated separately, for example, by fitting the power spectrum obtained from high-rate video tracking36. Under a certain interpretation, a system of multiple microspheres handled as a whole can also be considered an early irregular object. Light arrives at the detector scattered from different particles at different spatial locations to generate a complicated pattern at the BPF (Fig. 1). Moreover, the holographically modulated laser beam focusing at six different positions at the sample plane stops being purely Gaussian, but can still be collected in its entirety and the overall interchange in momentum measured. Force measurements on glass microcylinders Beam momentum detection can be applied to measure forces on optically trapped cylinders, without the need for previous trap calibration or complete understanding of the trapping dynamics. As already mentioned, once the light collecting system has been set up, accurate measurement depends on the capture of all the light interacting with the specimen. In our drag experiments, two traps were required to hold the cylinders on a plane perpendicular to the optical axis (see Supplementary Movie 1). Therefore, we first studied if nearly all the light creating the two traps would leave the sample and penetrate the collecting lens. Positioning the traps far from the optical axis did not produce significant light loss per se (Fig. 2a and c), leading to the question of whether the particular cylindrical shape contributed to a substantial drop in the captured light due to unfavorable backscattering. Since the microcylinders were far larger than the laser wavelength (20 to 50 μm in length and 5 μm in width), ray optics was used to describe their interaction with the trapping beam (Fig. 3a). We used the Optical Tweezers in Geometrical Optics (OTGO) package in Matlab37, which computes optical trapping forces and torques from a ray-optics perspective. Interestingly, the user can split the beam resulting from the interaction with the sample into rays travelling forwards and backwards, hence providing an immediate means for determining the amount of light captured by our beam momentum detection instrument (see Methods). For an objective numerical aperture NA = 1.2, more than 97.5% of light propagated towards the positive axial direction, slightly decreasing to 96.4% for NA = 1.3. These results were consistent with our subsequent measurements. We performed a Stokes’ drag force experiment for a cylinder trapped in a two-tweezer set-up with a water immersion objective of NA = 1.2, and then with an oil immersion objective of NA = 1.3. Different flow rates were applied until the cylinder escaped from the traps, both along the transverse and longitudinal directions. Experiments were also carried out for both p and s polarizations. We determined for each applied flow the amount of light collected in sync with the optical force experienced by the cylinder so as to counteract the drag force (Fig. 3b and c). Backscattering was observed to account for, at most, 3% of the trapping beam intensity, which was measured by removing the cylinder from the traps to avoid obstruction of the laser beam. Since the light interacting with the cylinders was almost entirely captured, we expected the beam momentum measurements to accurately correspond to the lateral trapping forces. In Fig. 3c, we compare the measured forces with the drag forces applied, which were calculated from slender-body theory25: Here, γ⊥ and γ|| are the transverse and longitudinal drag coefficients of the cylinder, such that, at flow velocity v, F⊥,|| = γ⊥,||v. The parameter η is the liquid viscosity, h the distance to the upper surface, a = 2.5 μm is the cylinder radius and L its length, which were determined by analyzing bright-field images (see Methods). Meanwhile, parameters C1 and C2 for slender cylinders are defined as: C1 = ln2 − 1/2 and C2 = C1− 1. During the course of these studies, we observed greater variation in the values compared to similar experiments with microspheres (see refs 28 and 29), which might be attributable to a number of issues. First, most of the cylinders we used had coarse and sharp borders, thus affecting the viscous force. Second, the hydrodynamic model considered assumed high slenderness of the objects under study, which might not be true for the shorter cylinders. Finally, although the cylinders were stably trapped with two optical tweezers, vibration could still occur, thus producing some noise. We further determined the transverse and longitudinal drag coefficients for a variety of cylinders of different lengths, dividing the force values measured by the applied flow velocity that was now constant for all the samples (Fig. 3d). For both directions, our results and theoretical curves overlapped, with a maximum deviation of ±10%. It should be noted that, again, the same macroscopically determined conversion factor α yielded accurate force values from the signals provided by the PSD. Force measurements enabled the assessment of the trapping force profiles (i.e., versus lateral displacement) of the cylinders we manipulated. We determined the longitudinal force profile by combining force detection with position measurements based on video tracking (see Methods). Analogous to the experiments described above, we dragged a given cylinder (L = 32.7 μm) by applying a triangular flow oscillation along its longitudinal axis, using four different distances between the two traps, D. Consistent with the fact that the optical trap only exerts significant longitudinal forces when interacting with the cylinder ends (see Fig. 4a), we recorded a zero-force plateau for displacements smaller than Δx0 = (L–D)/2 (Fig. 4b). The force rapidly increases when the first trap reaches the end of the cylinder (the other trap does not interact with the corresponding end as L > D). The force profile against the trap position with respect to the cylinder edge, xtrap, indicates that the optical force profile is independent of D. The time force signals are shown in Fig. 4c. The top and bottom plateaus correspond to the force exerted by one of the traps on their respective cylinder end, whereas the central plateau (when reducing the distance between the traps) corresponds to the time during which the cylinder slides before its rear edge reaches the trap. The central plateau coincides with the initial momentum of the beam, confirming that the cylinder is experiencing no trapping force during this time (see Methods). Regardless of the D value, neither the measured back-and-forth forces nor the initial momentum – corresponding to null force – changed (Fig. 4b and c). Therefore, the measured force only depended on the external drag force applied, which was optically counterbalanced regardless of the trapping beam structure. This reinforces the idea that the direct detection of beam momentum facilitates the optimal choice of the trapping beam or multiple-trap arrangement to manipulate a given sample, providing accurate force measurements without the need for previous in-situ trap calibration. In addition, the non-linear response of the force profile did not impede the measurement of optical forces, as they were obtained directly from the detection of changes in the beam momentum. Direct detection of beam momentum differs from other force-sensing methods in optical micromanipulation, in that force measurements can be obtained directly instead of being inferred from an intricate relationship with the position and orientation of the trapped specimen. Thus, this enables accurate force measurements without the need for specific trap calibration or linearity between the position and orientation of the trapped sample and the optical force. Accurate measurement requires the capture of all the light interacting with the sample; a condition which is fulfilled as long as light losses are negligible. This has been previously demonstrated for micro-spheres trapped on-axis28, as well as in the present study for multiple holographic traps spread over the sample field of view and optical manipulation of cylindrical objects. In the multiple-bead experiment, we demonstrated that the high-NA collecting lens captured all the light from off-axis traps, and that the force was independent of the trap position. Backscattered light for cylinders was assessed to be 3% of the incoming light, despite their particular symmetry. The macroscopic calibration of the set-up, represented by the volt-to-picoNewton parameter α, is not affected by local variables necessary to calibrate traps in-situ, such as temperature, viscosity and trapped object geometry. Likewise, it does not depend on other key parameters determining optical trapping dynamics: laser power, trapping beam NA and structure, and medium and sample refractive indices, among others. Furthermore, force measurements can be undertaken on non-spherical samples17,18 and non-viscous media38, for which calibration is considerably complex. In this paper, we have shown that the measurement of the total drag force exerted on a multiple-bead system can be addressed by analyzing the total momentum exchanged between the multiple-spot trapping beam and the several trapped beads. An indirect calibration-based method is not applicable here, as individual bead-trap calibration is inaccessible at the BFP. The system collects all the light creating the different optical traps and measures the change in the transverse component of the beam momentum, which is equivalent to the entire lateral drag force applied. Multiple-spot optical tweezers have been widely used for stable trapping of extended objects and calibrated for force measurements17,18,19,20,21,39. However, the independence of the in-situ experimental conditions permits the creation of arbitrary trap patterns adapted to a particular situation without the need of a new calibration. The same principle can be applied for the determination of axial momentum changes from beam power concentration measurements, which can be carried out either with photo-detectors with specific radially-dependent transmission profiles40 or a high-speed camera tracking the trapping beam intensity distribution at the BFP31. We have demonstrated the accurate measurement of hydrodynamic forces on glass microcylinders trapped with pairs of optical tweezers and shown that most light was eventually forward-scattered, which permitted beam momentum measurements. For micro-rods in the same order of magnitude of biological specimens, i.e. in the micron range, we measured 2.1 ± 0.6% backscattering (data not shown). For microorganisms trapped in watery solutions, the relative refractive index is nrel = 1.04 (e.g. E. coli refractive index nEC = 1.38841), hence, there will be negligible backscattering and the light-momentum detection principle can be applied. Therefore, the results here are applicable to precise measurements on rod-shaped organisms in microbiological studies, which constitutes a primary concern in microbiology as they are widely found in nature. For example, in experiments analyzing hydrodynamic properties of biological swimmers, a given microorganism can be trapped with pairs of optical tweezers that can be used for controlled alignment and orientation. In addition to rod-shaped samples, the method described here can be undertaken in non-viscous media, such as the interior of a cell. Biological cargoes driven by molecular motors can be directly trapped without the aid of spherical probes, and the pulling forces measured under strict physiological conditions. Importantly, many of these cargoes have an elongated, rod-like shape (e.g., chromosomes, mitochondria, peroxisome peroxules, etc.). Even vesicles that are frequently targeted in cellular experiments for their appropriate characteristics, such as lipid droplets, can change from their rigid homogeneous sphere when they increase in size, posing difficulties for the calibration even in controlled conditions ex vivo42. The necessity for capturing a significant fraction of the scattered light is not more limiting in biological studies than in the experiments we carried out here. For example, inside a cell, backscattering is reduced as the relative refractive index of intracellular organelles (i.e., with respect to that of the cytoplasm) barely reaches nrel = 1.1 (e.g., lipid droplet refractive index nLD = 1.48 − 1.5343, cytoplasm refractive index nc = 1.36 − 1.37544), whereas for glass microcylinders in water, nrel = 1.17. Angular light-scattering studies show that even in organelles with complex internal structure, such as mitochondria, scattering predominantly occurs in the forward direction45. Direct detection of beam momentum can also be used for synthetic objects with interesting trapping properties. As an example, elaborate microprobes exhibiting specifically engineered force fields can be manipulated and quantitatively analyzed, with possible applications for photonic force microscopy. As previously mentioned, the tendency for elongated objects to align parallel to the optical axis, as observed both in biological and synthetic samples, can be easily resolved by using pairs of optical traps without impeding the measurement of global optical forces. Moreover, the arbitrariness of the HOTs array used in the multiple-bead experiment strongly suggests that direct detection of beam momentum is suitable for quantitative experiments with complex, non-Gaussian trapping beams creating adapted optical potentials. Optical tweezers set-up The laser beam (λ = 1064 nm TEM00, IPG YLM-5-1064-LP) was expanded through a telescope to fit the active area of a reflective SLM (Hamamatsu X10468-03: 800 × 600 pixels) and subsequently readjusted to the objective entrance pupil through another telescope. The beam enters an inverted microscope (Nikon Eclipse TE2000-E) through a rear port and a dichroic mirror reflects it up towards the microscope objective (either water immersion Nikon Plan Apo, 60x, NA = 1.2 or oil immersion Nikon CFI Plan Fluor, 100x, NA = 1.3), creating the optical traps at its focal plane. Microchambers were placed onto a piezo electric stage (Piezosystem Jena, TRITOR 102 SG). Lateral optical trapping forces, as well as optical trap intensity, were measured by a direct force-detection instrument (Impetux Optics, LUNAM T-40i). This instrument enables the simultaneous collection of the laser light emerging from the optical traps as well as bright-field illumination, hence allowing sample imaging, which was performed at a different rear port with a CCD camera (QImaging, QICAM). Sample preparation and manipulation Microchambers, approximately 90 μm high, were made by gluing together a microscope slide (1 mm thick) and a coverslip (150 μm thick) with double-sided tape in which a 1 × 1 cm cavity was created. In all the experiments, we diluted the samples in water to a considerably low density so as to avoid unexpected trapping. Collective force measurements in multiple-particle experiments were carried out on the following set of synthetic microspheres: 0.61-, 1.16-, and 3.00-μm polystyrene microbeads; 2.19-μm melamine resin microbeads and 2.32-μm silica microbeads (see Supplementary Table 1). For the experiments on cylinders, we used glass microrods (Nippon Electric Glass, PF-50) with a diameter of 5 μm and lengths between 20 and 50 μm. Due to the considerable weight of such samples (a 20-μm cylinder weighs 10 pN), the power at both the two optical traps holding the cylinder needed to be above a threshold of about 10 mW. All measurements were performed at h = 20 μm from the upper microscope slide. Piezo stage oscillation The piezo stage was controlled by a LabView software through a NI-DAQ close-loop interface. For the drag force to be constant, the piezo stage produced a triangular oscillation (see Fig. 1). Once the flow velocities to be applied were calculated, the frequency of the oscillation was chosen to be as low as possible, bearing in mind the highest amplitude available was ±40 μm. This way, the constant force timeframe was as long as possible. However, actual velocities differed from the desired ones by an amount dependent on the oscillation parameters, amplitude and frequency. This was up to 5%, especially for higher oscillation frequencies. In any case, for the theoretical Stokes’ calculations, we took the actual velocity from the direct reading of the piezo stage monitor output. Drag force measurements Force measurements are affected by Gaussian noise that is averaged out by calculating the mean force value throughout the constant force plateau. The initial momentum of the beam, i.e., the reading of the PSD when no external force was applied, was subtracted by calculating half the difference between the back and forth half-period plateaus of the force square signal. This measurement was repeated twenty times in all the experiments to obtain an accurate average force value and an error bar from its standard deviation. Error bars ranged from 20 fN to 50 fN (from 2% to 5% uncertainty for 1 pN force measurement), which correspond to the measurement repeatability and, thereby, to the force limit detection. This uncertainty was affected by several experimental features, such as laser power and stability, sample steadiness (especially in the cylinder trapping case), among others. The array of six holographic optical tweezers, generated by Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm, was spread over the available field of view (see Supplementary Figure 1). To minimize hydrodynamic interactions so that the direct addition of all the individual forces would be correct, two aspects were taken into consideration. First, separation perpendicular to the flow oscillation was set to 22.5 μm, at which hydrodynamic interactions yielded less than a 5% decrease in drag force for the larger beads used (3.00 μm in diameter). Second, since longitudinal interaction is considerably higher, separation parallel to the flow was set to 50 μm and shifted 11.25 μm perpendicularly, resulting in a similar force reduction (see Fig. 2d). For all the other beads used, hydrodynamic interaction was smaller or unnoticeable. An in-house cross-correlation algorithm in Matlab was implemented to track the trapped cylinder position with one-pixel accuracy, corresponding to 0.08 μm at the sample plane. Cylinder lengths were measured from their bright field images, within an accuracy of 0.4 μm, corresponding to ± 5 pixel variability when determining the cylinder edge. In Fig. 4b, Δx was calculated as half the difference between the two extreme cylinder positions when being dragged back and forth, in a way analogous to force measurements with respect to the initial beam momentum. These two positions were determined by averaging the corresponding half oscillation period. We then duplicated and used the force measurements to plot the restoring optical force for both positive and negative Δx values. In the inset, the position of the left trap with respect to the left cylinder edge was calculated as xtrap = (L − D)/2 − Δx. As shown, the four curves – corresponding to different D values – overlapped after this transformation. Ray optics force simulation Optical trapping of dielectric cylinders was simulated by a ray-optics approach, using the Matlab toolbox Optical Tweezers in Geometrical Optics (OTGO)37. Briefly, the trapping beam was modeled as a set of focusing rays, which interacted with the sample in terms of geometrical optics – Fresnel’s and Snell’s laws. Optical forces were calculated by carefully extracting the beam momentum balance of a number of scattering iterations. For comparison with Fig. 4b, in which longitudinal optical force arises from the trap interacting with the cylinder end, we simulated a single optical trap. The beam specifications were set as NA = 1.2 and f’ = 3.33 mm for the water immersion objective, and P = 25 mW was taken as the trap power at the sample (the trap intensity measurement through the PSD sum channel was 50 mW as there were two traps). The beam waist was used as a free parameter for the best fit, which was obtained for ω0 = 1.58 mm. Light loss was estimated by splitting the rays exiting the trapped sample into those with a negative and positive z-component. The latter were captured by the collecting lens since its NA was higher than the medium refractive index (see Results). How to cite this article: Català, F. et al. Extending calibration-free force measurements to optically-trapped rod-shaped samples. Sci. Rep. 7, 42960; doi: 10.1038/srep42960 (2017). Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This work was funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain, under grants FIS2010-16104 and FIS2014-60052-R. F. C. acknowledges a grant from the Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Spain (Subprograma de Formación de Profesorado Universitario). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Many people don’t realize that when you have bad breath tonsils may have something to do with it. Your tonsils, located in the back of the mouth at the top of the throat, are not only a frequent site of infection, they can also accumulate debris and harbor bacteria. Tonsils and tonsillar crypts provide a moist sheltered airless environment where many species of bacteria do well. Although most of the bacteria that live in the mouth and throat are harmless, and many are even beneficial, invasion by the wrong kind of bacteria can cause problems. A first step in bad breath prevention is to keep the tissues in your mouth and throat healthy, including your tonsils. Seek medical attention immediately if you suspect you have tonsillitis and have sinus problems assessed as well. See your dentist at least once a year and practice good dental hygiene between dental cleanings. Regular medical checkups are a good way to keep a close eye on your general health and avoid bad breath tonsils and other health problems as you get older. To deal with bad breath tonsils, first rule out bacterial infection. The organism to worry about is streptococcus, the cause of strept throat. This is an acute infection that usually clears up fairly quickly and is routinely treated with antibiotics. Because there is destruction of healthy tissue in the throat, strept throat often results in a foul odor on the breath. The odor problem resolves with the infection, fortunately, so if this is what’s causing your halitosis, treatment for the strept will also be effective bad breath prevention. If the breath problem is more of a chronic issue, bad breath prevention may be more difficult. The odor may be coming from tonsiloliths, small accumulations of dead cells and other debris that lodge and grow around the tonsils. Tonsiloliths are often associated with sinusitis or post nasal drip, where there is a constant flow of sinus drainage down the back of the throat. Dead cells and other tiny particles get caught up in the tonsil area forming tiny aggregates like stones – the aggregates grow larger as they catch more and more debris. Your tonsils become bad breath tonsils when oral bacteria start proliferating in and on the tonsiloliths, deriving nutrients from the proteins and other molecules there. When it comes to bad breath prevention, tonsiloliths can be difficult to get rid of. Each individual tonsilolith is eventually dislodged and swallowed, carrying away its load of odor producing bacteria – but another tonsilolith soon takes its place. The best approach to bad breath tonsils caused by tonsiloliths is to gargle regularly with a good breath freshening product designed to reduce bacterial growth in the mouth.

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Sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks petrology: the study of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks loren a raymond no preview available - 1995. When tectonic forces thrust sedimentary and metamorphic rocks into the hot rock mechanics the study of deformation resulting from the strain of rocks in response. 14062018 why study rocks -many, many uses how rocks form: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks you are here: home sedimentary rocks:. Download and read sedimentary and metamorphic rocks study guide answers sedimentary and metamorphic rocks study guide answers excellent book is. Any rock (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) can become a metamorphic rock if rocks are buried deep in the earth at high temperatures and pressures, they form new. Manual of sedimentary petrology petrology and geochemistry of the igneous and sedimentary rocks exposed study of rocks (“petros”) igneous & metamorphic. Sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks petrology: the study of igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks, parts 1-2 loren a raymond snippet view - 1995. Title: free petrology the study of igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (pdf, epub, mobi) author: nyrb classics subject: petrology the study of igneous. 07082017 discover how igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are created and how they can be recycled as part of the rock cycle in the earth's crust. Geol 1031 online lab assignment igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks instructions: where i can find study resources for nearly all my courses,. Metamorphic rock questions including what is the difference between sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and what kind of rock is marble. Start studying sedimentary and metamorphic rocks learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.Read and download sedimentary and metamorphic rocks study guide answers free ebooks in pdf format sedimentology and sedimentary basins origin of carbonate sedimentary. Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different temperature and pressure. Rocks are formed on earth as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks quartzite and marble are two examples of non-foliates that we are going to study. Metamorphic rocks are igneous, sedimentary, or preexisting metamorphic rocks that have been changed by great pressures and temperatures within the crust and. Metamorphic rocks are one of the three types of rock classifications, the other two being igneous and sedimentary rocks are classified by the processes under which. Read and download sedimentary and metamorphic rocks study guide answer free ebooks in pdf format - advanced maths for aqa mechanics m1 alaskan malamutes a complete pet. [d964b1] - petrology the study of igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks there are three important rock types igneous sedimentary and metamorphic. How do you tell apart igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks who study the earth and its rocks, kinds of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. 29071995 physical geology sedimentary rocks sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks the grand canyon is a classic locality to study. Metamorphism and metamorphic rocks appendix 2 answers for study questions chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are classified based on the.Download 2018. Education database.

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By John B. Thomas Managing our waste streams in ways that don’t pollute the planet is a fundamental challenge for New York City and the Coop. New York City sends 4 million tons of waste to landfills every year, a third of which is food waste. This food waste decomposes in landfills to produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas that has nearly 80 times the potential to carbon dioxide to contribute to climate change. Methane is also the primary component of natural gas, which still makes up about a third of total U.S. energy consumption. So not only is the methane from food waste bad for our climate, it’s also a wasted resource we could be using to create energy. Efforts to limit food waste are critical both to reduce waste and by proxy all of the wasted water, energy and labor that went into the production of unused food; but also a key component in the fight against climate change. Enter the biodigester Biodigesters—systems that turn organic waste like food scraps and wastewater into energy and fertilizer—are a technology that may help address the city’s food waste problem. Typically composed of a large covered pit buried in the ground, biodigesters use a process called anaerobic digestion to consume organic matter like food waste, producing methane and manure as byproducts. Smaller ones are about the size of a septic tank, typically buried in the ground. Larger industrial-scale biodigesters can take up a similar footprint to a small power plant. But most have large tanks where the process of anaerobic digestions (bio-digestion) takes place. Biodigesters harness the methane that would be lost by food rotting in landfills and offset the need for industrial fertilizers. Biodigesters are also a passion of Coop member Matthew Landfield, who recently took a course in ecological design after moving to the Hudson Valley during the pandemic and developing a curiosity about how to reduce his home’s environmental impact. “In a future where we continue to burn fossil fuels and our waste streams are a net loss, we need to better manage these waste streams and the organic matter they produce as they decompose,” he said. “It would be interesting to explore if something like this might be useful to help manage the Coop’s waste streams.” Biodigesters are not a new technology. “They are well dialed-in as a technology all over China and Northern Europe,” says New York-based biodigester expert Andrew Faust. Faust teaches a course on urban permaculture online (learn more at www.permaculturenewyork.com; [email protected]). Biodigesters have been in use since at least the early 1900s, when Germany built the first biogas-producing wastewater treatment plant. They have since spread to India, China and parts of Asia as cheap sources of cleaner energy and an alternative to wood-burning stoves for cooking, especially in rural areas. To this day, Germany is still the world’s largest producer of biogas with an estimated 9,706 biogas plants operating as of 2018—the highest number of biogas plants in any country in the world. Yet smaller scale biodigesters are gaining ground in Asia, where the number of household level units likely vastly exceed Germany’s number, with some estimates suggesting 50 million or more household units in China alone. Efforts to limit food waste are a critical component in the fight against climate change. Biodigesters vary significantly in scale, from home-level units that rely on the input of a single or multiple families, to industrial facilities like those at Newtown Creek, with its gleaming silver eggs that have been icons on the East River for decades. They can also operate at an intermediate scale, like the biodigester developed by Magic Hat brewery, where the onsite set-up produces nearly all of the Vermont brewery’s daily energy needs. What does this mean for The Coop? Could biodigesters be a good solution to help the Coop reuse its food waste to create energy and fertilizer? The short answer is: potentially, but likely only in partnership with our broader community. When it comes to food waste, the Coop—like most grocery stores in New York City—produces not an insignificant amount of waste. The Coop doesn’t have precise data on our food waste. General Coordinator Elinoar Astrinsky estimates that we fill a 65-gallon drum with discards almost daily during the summer months, and a bit less during the cooler months. Using a very rough estimate, that means the Coop likely produces around 66 tons of food waste annually. What do we do with that waste? It is hard to imagine a more thoughtful approach more in the cooperative spirit than what we already do. The first thing the Coop does is prevention. With our air conditioning and refrigeration, the cool temperatures at the Coop help to extend the shelf life of our produce. The second is diversion: the Soup Kitchen Committee oversees a daily delivery of food that is slightly bruised but still good to the C.H.I.P.S. food kitchen on 4th Avenue. When it comes to the unavoidable waste of the Coop, we do three key things. The first is led by the Compost Committee. For more than 20 years, the Coop’s Compost Committee comes in daily to collect food waste and then processes it in local community garden compost facilities. This food waste then gets turned into compost that becomes fertilizer for the gardens. “In a future where we continue to burn fossil fuels and our waste streams are a net loss, we need to better manage these waste streams and the organic matter they produce as they decompose.” If there is too much food waste for the Compost Committee, the remainder is picked up by a group called BK ROT, New York City’s first community-supported, bike-powered, fossil fuel-free food waste hauling and composting service. The organization provides young people of color who are interested in getting a foothold in the environmental space with jobs hauling residential and commercial organic waste and transforming it into high quality compost. The Coop then sells this compost to members, creating a closed loop of our food waste. Finally, in the summer months when there is that excess compost due to warmer temperatures, the Coop contracts with a compost hauling service called Mr. T Carting. They take the remaining compost to an industrial composting facility upstate. This remaining portion of our compost—which is not insignificant during summer months—could be converted to a biodigester to keep all of our food loss and waste local, and to maximize the recovery of methane. When it comes to energy, the Coop has already done quite a bit to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with our energy use. Currently, the Coop gets its energy from a provider called Constellation Energy. Constellation sells energy to the local utility, Con Edison, and we direct Constellation on what kind of energy to procure. For several years, now the Coop has purchased exclusively wind energy through Constellation to meet our electricity needs. Beyond wind energy, the Coop has aggressively pursued efforts to improve energy efficiency such as completing an LED retrofit of all our lighting. This last action alone reduced our annual electricity bill by $40,000 at zero cost to the Coop, as we took advantage of a retrofit program offered by Con Edison. We still use some amount of natural gas to power our ammonia absorption chillers for air-conditioning, and this alone may be reason to explore biodigesters as a way of capturing methane that might otherwise be released to the atmosphere from food waste. “We are always looking for opportunities to reduce our energy usage,” said Astrinsky. Where do we go from here? While the Coop has a sophisticated approach to reducing our greenhouse gas emissions and utilizing our food waste in ways that are good for our community and the planet, biodigesters could play a role to help fully wean the Coop off of fossil fuels. But likely not without cooperation beyond our membership, as a biodigester is a significant undertaking. Says Faust, “Biodigesters might be something to explore as a community initiative. Could the Coop create a collaborative project in your neighborhood where you work with restaurants and other grocery stores to create community-generated power?” Working at this scale could offer two solutions: the need to reduce food waste in our city, and the need to reduce our reliance on natural gas. Individual homeowners may also want to consider home-scale biodigesters as a way of reducing their impacts. With a regulatory gray area due to unclear permitting requirements, home biodigesters are technically feasible and in widespread use as a retrofit to septic systems, for example. Landfield has witnessed one of these home biodigesters in action. “They are remarkable to see because all of the things about the processes make absolute logical sense. Human waste produces methane, and methane is a component of the natural gas we get from National Grid.” He continues, “We desperately need ways to better manage these resources, or it will just be one crisis after another.” John B. Thomas works on the sustainability and social impact team for a purpose-driven apparel company. Food scraps, solid and liquid fats weigh 412 lbs. in a 55 gallon drum, or 487 lbs. in a 65 gallon drum. Assuming we gather 1 65 gallon drum per day for 6 months of the year, and half of that for the other 6 months, the annual tally comes out to approximately 132,952 lbs. or 66 tons, of food waste per year.

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Answer the following questions: 1. Write a short note on anamolous properties of the first element of p-block. 2. Describe briefly allotropism in p- block elements with specific reference to carbon. 3. Boron does not react directly with hydrogen. Suggest one method to prepare diborane from BF3. 4. Give the uses of Borax. 5. What is catenation ? describe briefly the catenation property of carbon. 6. Write a note on Fisher tropsch synthesis. 7. Give the structure of CO and CO2. 8. Give the uses of silicones. 9. AlCl3 behaves like a lewis acid. Substantiate this statement. 10. Describe the structure of diborane. 11. Write a short note on hydroboration. 12. Give one example for each of the following (i) icosogens (ii) tetragen (iii) prictogen (iv) chalcogen 13. Write a note on metallic nature of p-block elements. 14. Complete the following reactions a. B ( OH)3 +NH3 → b. Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + H2O → c. B2H6 + 2NaOH + 2H2O → d. B2H6 + CH3OH → e. BF3 + 9 H2O → f . HCOOH + H2SO4 → g . SiCl4 + NH3 → h. SiCl4 + C2H5OH → i. B + NaOH → j. H2B4O7 Red hot→ 15. How will you identify borate radical? 16. Write a note on zeolites. 17. How will you convert boric acid to boron nitride? 18. A hydride of 2nd period alkali metal (A) on reaction with compound of Boron (B) to give a reducing agent (C). identify A , B and C. 19. A double salt which contains fourth period alkali metal (A) on heating at 500K gives (B). aqueous solution of (B) gives white precipitate with BaCl2 and gives a red colour compound with alizarin. Identify A and B. 20. CO is a reducing agent . justify with an example. Copyright © 2018-2021 BrainKart.com; All Rights Reserved. (BS) Developed by Therithal info, Chennai.

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|Most recent IBA monitoring assessment| |Year of assessment||Threat score (pressure)||Condition score (state)||Action score (response)| |2014||very high||near favourable||medium| |For more information about IBA monitoring please click here| Loktak Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake in Northeast India and plays an important role in the ecological and economic security of the region. This oval lake with a maximum length of 26 km and width of 13 km has an average depth of 2.7 m. There are 14 hills varying in size and elevation, appearing as islands, in the southern part of the lake. Prominent among them are Sendra, Ithing and Thanga islands. The site also includes Phumlen, Kharung and Ikop wetlands. The Loktak Lake basin has a direct catchment area of 98,000 ha and an indirect catchment of 715,700 ha. Of the direct catchment area 43,000 ha is under paddy cultivation, 15,000 ha under human habitation, and 40,000 ha under forests. The Loktak and other lakes in Manipur valley dominate its economy to a great extent. About three-fourth of the total population of the State lives around these lakes (Choudhury 2002). The Keibul-Lamjao National Park (4,000 ha) is home to the highly endangered Manipur Brow-antlered Deer Cervus eldi eldi, one of the three subspecies of Thamin Deer Cervus eldi. The other two subspecies are found in Myanmar and Indo-China. Keibul-Lamjao NP was created to protect this deer, locally known as Sangai. It was reported to be extinct in 1951, but a survey conducted by IUCN revealed that a few animals existed in the Park. Sangai are specially adapted to this floating habitat, with their characteristic hooves, which unlike other deer species, help the animal to walk conveniently over the floating islands. The lake is designated as a wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 1990. Keibul-Lamjao National Park, which forms the southern portion of Loktak Lake, is a large continuous mass of swamp with floating mats of vegetation, locally known as phumdis, covering much of its surface. Phumdis are composed of decaying vegetation, up to 1.6 m thick and 80% submerged, and can support the weight of large mammals. The vegetation comprises of Zizania latifolia, Leersia hexandra, Phragmites karka, Cepithipedium spp., Carex spp., Saccharum munja, Coix lachryma-jobi, Narenga porphyrochroma, and Polygonum perfoliatum. Within Indian limits, Zizania latifolia is found only in Loktak Lake (Choudhury 2002). There are small hillocks within Keibul-Lamjao, namely Chingjao, Pabotching and Toyaching, which provide a refuge for large mammals during wetter periods (Yadava and Varshney 1981, Scott 1989). AVIFAUNA: Loktak Lake provides refuge to thousands of birds of at least 116 species, including 21 species of waterfowl. Their numbers would easily exceed 20,000 (A4iii criteria: The site is known or thought to hold, on a regular basis, equal to or more than 20,000 waterbirds or >10,000 pairs of seabirds of one or more species). It also has records of Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis and Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, both globally threatened species. The Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus is regularly seen. So the site also qualifies A1 criteria. As detailed studies on avifauna have not been conducted, it cannot be said whether Loktak Lake fits A4i criteria (i.e. the site is known or thought to hold, on a regular basis, >1% of the biogeographic population of a congregatory water species). However, the numbers of some waterfowls run into thousands. According to Tombi Singh and Singh (1994), Loktak Lake provides refuge to thousands of birds. Due to intense hunting pressure and general disturbance, the waterfowl number has declined in recent years. Hume (1888) had recorded 57 species of birds in Loktak Lake alone. There are many old reports of Eastern Sarus Crane Grus antigone sharpii. Higgins (1934) mentions that the species is “not uncommon, residing and breeding in the swamps in the south of the valley: but it is not shot.’’ The birds were mainly found in pairs, and once a large flock of 20 to 30 individuals was seen. The Hooded Crane Grus monachus was also found in Manipur, nearly 100 years ago, but none have been seen in recent decades. OTHER KEY FAUNA: Altogether 425 species of animals (249 vertebrates and 176 invertebrates) have been identified in the lake, which is used as a breeding ground for several fish species. The total faunal diversity is likely to be higher, as many species have not been properly identified or surveyed. Besides the famous Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai, Hog Deer Axis porcinus is also found in Loktak Lake but in low numbers due to hunting pressure. Choudhury (1992) estimates a population of about 200 individuals. Other fauna of the site includes the Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica and Common Otter Lutra lutra. A good population of Wild Boar Sus scrofa resides in this IBA, as it has no natural predator and is also safe from hunting (Choudhury 1992). Key contributors: R. K. Ranjan Singh, C. L. Trisal and H. Tombi Singh. BirdLife International (2022) Important Bird Areas factsheet: Loktak Lake and Keibul Lamjao National Park. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 25/06/2022.

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There are many different ways to say carpet in Spanish, depending on the region you are in. Some common phrases include: alfombra, tapete, estera, and moqueta. When shopping for a carpet, it is important to specify the size, shape, and color that you are looking for. You may also want to ask about the quality of the carpet and if it is stain resistant. 2 Steps to Say Carpet In Spanish Carpet is a word that can be used in several ways. It can either be a noun or a verb. When used as a noun, it refers to a thick, soft, and often colorful fabric that is used to cover floors. Carpets are often made of wool, cotton, or synthetic fibers. Carpets can also be used to decorate walls and ceilings. When used as a verb, carpet means to cover something with a thick, soft, and often colorful fabric. Carpets are often used to cover floors, walls, and ceilings. In today’s increasingly interconnected world, it is important for everyone to learn how to say common words and phrases in other languages. Carpet is one such word. While it may not be used in everyday conversation, knowing how to say it in Spanish can be helpful when traveling to Spanish-speaking countries or when dealing with Spanish-speaking customers or clients. Carpet is a relatively simple word to pronounce in Spanish. It is pronounced “car-PETH.” However, there are a few things to keep in mind when using this word. First, the “c” is always pronounced as a “k” sound. Second, the “p” is always pronounced as a “p” sound, not a “b” sound Step 1: To Say “Carpet” In Spanish, Say “Alfombra.” To say “carpet” in Spanish, you would say “alfombra.” This word comes from the Arabic word for “covering,” and it is used to refer to a floor covering that is typically made of woven fabric. Carpets are often used in homes and businesses to add comfort and style, and they come in a variety of colors and patterns. Step 2: Alfombra Can Also Refer To A Rug In Spanish, the word for carpet is “Alfombra”. This word can also refer to a rug’s step or pad. To say “carpet” in Spanish, you would say “Alfombra de piso”. Frequently Asked Questions ¿Cómo Se Escribe Alfombra In English? How do you spell “alfombra” in English? ¿Cómo Se Escribe Carpet? Carpet is written as ‘carpet’. Taking Everything Into Account There are a few different ways to say “carpet” in Spanish, depending on the region. “Tapete” is the most common word for “carpet” in Spain, while “alfombra” is more common in Latin America.

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Exciting as they sound, meter readings are nonetheless essential to ensuring you pay the right amount for your energy. In this article we’ll explain what meter readings are, why you need to give them and how to read your meter! What are meter readings? Meter readings are simply a snapshot of the numbers that are shown on your electricity and gas meter. The number on the meter will move slowly upwards as you use more electricity or gas. Suppliers ask for these numbers so they can make sure you’re being billed correctly. Your meter readings enable your supplier to accurately cost how much energy you’re using. This prevents you from underpaying or overpaying for your energy. How do suppliers use these readings? Suppliers bill you based on the amount of electricity and gas you use in kWh (Kilowatt hours). For electricity, your meter will also read in kWh. Each time your meter goes up by one unit, you will be charged the price for one unit of kWh of electricity by your supplier. Gas is a little more complicated. Your gas meter will read in either metric cubic metres (m3) or in imperial hundreds of cubic feet (ft3). Suppliers will convert the readings you give them into kWh and then bill you. The calculation your supplier uses to do this conversion of gas to kWh will be on your bill, as it depends where you live in the country. You can use our energy partner Energylinx’s Converter to help you work it out. Why is it important to give meter readings? Usually, when you agree to switch your energy, you’ll be providing an estimate of your usage rather than accurate figures. Giving meter readings ensures you’re paying for the energy you’re actually using rather than too much or too little. If you’re using more than your supplier thinks you are and you pay by Direct Debit, they’ll probably up the Direct Debit slightly to cover the extra amount. This is to make sure you don’t fall into debt or don’t get hit with a massive bill when you leave. And if you’re using less than your supplier thinks you are and you’re building lots of credit you should ask them to lower your Direct Debit. You don’t want them keeping all your money – you could spend that on other things! Giving suppliers regular meter readings is important, we recommend sending readings at least once every couple of months just to make sure everything’s right! And remember, in a fixed tariff it is not the amount you pay per month that is fixed but the rate you per unit of gas and electricity. So if you use more or less, you’ll pay more or less. Don’t suppliers have to come and read my meter? The short answer is no. Some of the larger suppliers will employ meter readers to come to your home and read your meters, but many of the smaller suppliers do not. They rely on their customers to read the meters for them – some are helpful and regularly ask for readings, whereas others do not. Suppliers are obliged to come and check the meter for faults, but these visits can be years apart. Won’t smart meters mean no more meter readings? In theory, yes. The whole of idea of smart meters is to stop suppliers using estimated readings as they’ll get regular readings sent automatically from the customers home. It’s a great idea. However, in practice, it’s not working 100% correctly yet. First, if you switch suppliers, usually the smart meter and the new supplier will not be able to communicate. So you may have to go back to sending meter readings yourself – more on this later. Once the central database (The DCC) is online, smart meters should work no matter which supplier you’re with, but it’s years behind schedule. Ofgem, the energy regulator, has stated that by 2020 everyone will have a smart meter compatible with all energy suppliers. Second, not all homes can have a smart meter fitted – for example, my Grandma was told she couldn’t have smart meters because of where the meters are in her house. Ok, ok, I get it, meter readings are important. How do I read my meter? Well, this is the easy part. How to give digital meter readings - These meters are one of the easiest to read. - This type of meter has several black numbers, which show the amount of electricity or gas you’ve used. - To read the meter simply read the numbers and round down any numbers that are not whole, ignore any red numbers or numbers after a decimal point. - The meter in the image above reads 01967. - Sometimes these meters have an LCD display, again the principle is the same, read any numbers in black and ignore any numbers in red or after a decimal point. How to give dial (analogue) meter readings - These are slightly older meters and are a little trickier to read, but hopefully, we should be able to help. - A dial meter has four or five black dials, which show the amount of electricity or gas you’ve used. Each dial moves the opposite way, for example, in the image above, the first dial moves clockwise, the second anticlockwise and so on. - To read this meter look at the numbers the arrows point to on each black dial, round down any arrows that are not pointing at a number, ignore any red dials. The meter in the image above reads 60169 I have a smart meter - If you’re still with the same supplier that installed your smart meter it will automatically update your supplier with your meter readings. - If you’re not with the same supplier then not to worry, you can still manually read your smart reader. How to give smart meter readings - To read a smart meter start by pressing the number “9” on the keypad on the meter itself. This will mean the meter run through options which will include a meter reading. - For electricity meters, you will see ‘IMP kWh’ and a reading with ‘kWh’ on the side. For gas meters, you will see ‘VOLUME’ and a reading with ‘m3’ on the side. How do I read my smart meter with economy 7? - For economy 7 electricity meters, press 6 on the keypad until you see ‘IMP R01’ followed by 8 digits. Press 6 again until you see ‘IMP R02’ followed by 8 digits. Some meters only display day readings during the day, and night readings during the night period. - The readings can be listed as Rate 1 and 2, or Rate 1 and Rate 4. Which rate day or night is classed as varies from meter to meter. But it may say ‘low’ for night and ‘normal’ for day. Also, it’s worth checking the meter itself as it may be written on the outside. It can be confusing something, but we want you to know if you ever need help reading your meter, you can call us on 020 3950 1166 or email a picture of your meter to [email protected] We don’t just offer advice We are energy experts and we offer a lot of advice on gas and electricity matters, but that’s not all we do! We’re actually a free auto-switching service! We switch you to the best energy deal every year so you’re never overpaying for your energy. We’ve even saved some people £400! What to find out more? Check out our ‘what is auto-switching?’ blog. Do you want to find a better energy deal but without all the effort? Let us do the legwork for you and make sure you’re always on the best deal!

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“If you don’t know how to tie knots, then tie a lot.” You have most likely heard that before, or may have even said it yourself. We are here to fix that. Rather than just 10 knots, we assembled five knots and five hitches that are all easy to learn and tie. But before diving into them, it’s important to understand a few knot-tying terms so you can get the most from our suggestions. - Working End (aka the Running End): The end of the rope that is used to tie the knot. The rest of the rope is referred to as the standing part. - Loop: When you place the working end of the rope over or under the standing part of the rope you form a loop. - Bight: When you double back part of the rope against itself without crossing over it’s called a bight. - Knot: A knot is used to join two ropes together or a rope to itself. - Hitch: A hitch is used to fix a rope to another object. Some sources suggest a hitch is a type of knot, but a distinction is warranted for many. - Bend: A type of knot used to join two lengths of cordage. Here are 10 useful outdoor knots and hitches that almost anyone could tie blindfolded. Please also note that these knots and hitches are not intended for use in climbing or rappelling unless specifically mentioned to do so. 5 Basic Knots to Use in the Outdoors 1. The Bowline Knot The bowline is often referred to as the “king of knots” and for a good reason. It is an incredibly useful knot that has been around for a very long time. (One was found on the rigging of an excavated Pharaoh’s ship dating to 2500 BCE.) It is also one of the coolest mnemonics ever put together to help everyone learn how to tie it. How to tie a bowline knot: - Form a loop made near the working end of the rope. Consider that loop a “rabbit hole.” Now take hold of your working end, “the rabbit.” - Push the “rabbit” up through it’s “hole.” - The rabbit comes out of the hole and around a “tree” (the standing part of the rope). After rounding the tree, the rabbit goes back down the hole. You can tighten up the bowline knot by grasping the working end and the side of the loop and remove any slack. The greatest thing about this knot is you can put it under lots of pressure and it will still untie rather easily. As mentioned, the bowline is an excellent choice for sailors to tie down a boat, including your favorite canoe or kayak. You can also use it to hang your hammock for quick and easy setup, and takedown. It gets a lot of use as a rescue knot to tie around a person very securely without squeezing and hurting them. In short, anytime you need a secure loop in a rope, that is easy to untie after use, the bowline is the one to know. 2. The Heaving Line knot The heaving line knot is simple and is put together to add bulk and weight to the end of a rope so it can be thrown more easily. It’s great for throwing cordage up to a person in a deer stand, throwing rope from your boat to a dock, or throwing a rope over a branch to hang a bear bag in a tree. How to tie a heaving line knot: - Make two bights and put them next to one another. - Pass the working end through the top bight and wrap it around both strands of cordage, ensuring the line does not cross on the way down. - Push the working end through the opening of the bottom bight to finish the knot. - Tighten up any slack by first pulling the top loop, then down on the remaining cordage. 3. The Prusik Knot This is a great knot to impress friends and influence people with. It is a knot that slides when you want it to slide and grabs when you want it to grab. This a great knot to tie along another rope (second rope must be bigger in diameter for it to be effective), or along a cylindrical pipe or tube. How to tie a Prusik knot: - Form a loop that you lay upon the rope, pipe, etc. you are tying to. - Wrap the cordage three times, inside the loop. - Ensure that the turns lie next to one another and do not cross. - Pull the knot tight. When you need it to slide, grasp it at the turns and slide it along. When you need it to bind, pull from the extended, looped end. This serves as a great backup for climbers and those who rappel. It also serves as a great way to tie off ends of a tarp on a ridgeline, or to help secure gear or a person on a steep incline. 4. The Fisherman’s Knot This is most commonly known as a knot. Technically though, anytime you tie two pieces of cordage together it is a bend, so you will hear it called both names. As you would guess, this is used to join two pieces of cordage that are similar in size, together. How to tie a Fisherman’s Knot: - Bring the working ends of two ropes together. The working ends should be pointing in opposite directions of one another. - Use one working end to tie an overhand knot around the other rope’s working end. Then repeat those steps with the second piece of cordage. - Tighten each individual knot, then slide the two knots together by pulling on each rope. Each knot serves as a stopper for the other. As a safety measure, you can tie off the “tail” left behind along the rope as well. The best thing about this knot is that even after it is put under lots of pressure, it unties rather easily. It’s a great basic knot to use any time you need to join ropes. 5. The Square Knot (Also Known as The Reef Knot) This is arguably the best-known knot but not the safest by a long shot. This knot is used to tie two ends or two different pieces of cordage together. It will get the job done but be forewarned that it should not be used when a lot of pressure is expected (because it is nearly impossible to untie) or when its use is critical (because it is also known to fail). It is a very quick and dirty knot that gets the job done. This is usually the first knot we all learn because it is the underlying knot when we tie our shoes. We just add some bights to make it easy to untie. This knot is also commonly used to tie a bandana around your neck so that it hangs symmetrically. There are many variations to this simple knot but here is one set of steps for tying two ropes together. How to tie a square knot: - Tie two overhand knots, with the left over the right, then the right over left. - Ensure that each working end exit exits with the standing end of its own rope. 5 Basic Hitches to Use in the Outdoors 1. The Trucker’s Hitch The funny thing about a trucker’s hitch is that is also called a paddler’s hitch, power cinch knot, and even a farmer’s hitch. It seems everyone wants to claim it, and for a good reason. This hitch is a great set up to help pull a rope tight and keep it under pressure, then untie it easily for another day. As you can expect this hitch is used to secure loads down to anything. You can secure a deer to an ATV, a canoe to a truck, create a ridgeline for shelter, and so much more. How to tie a trucker’s hitch: - Form a bight in the cordage and use it to make a “pulley” in the rope. The “pulley” can be a simple overhand loop, figure-8, or alpine butterfly. - Wrap the tail of the rope around a secure point, then back through the loop you created in step 1. - Finish securing the knot with two half hitches (see below) that are below the loop. - Use a half hitch knot with a bight for a quick release adaptation. Read Next: How to Tie The Strongest Fishing Knots 2. Two Half Hitches Tying two half hitch knots (never just one) is a great way to secure a rope to a post, tree, ATV, truck, tractor, or basically anything. It is often used to tie off a canoe to a bank, hang deer for processing, secure tarps to stakes, or to secure more gear to your pack. It works well, especially in concert with other hitches or connection points in which you can pull it tightly to hold a load. How to tie two half hitches: - Take the working end of your cordage and pass it around your connection point (pole, tree, etc) then around itself. - Then pass the working end between the ropes to make one half-hitch. Remember, only one is very insecure. - Pass the working end around the rope again to make the second half hitch knot. - Dress up the half-hitches to remove any slack and push them together for something more secure. 3. The Clove Hitch The clove hitch knot is tied two different ways depending upon how it is being used. Method number one involves tying it to a post or tree that you cannot reach the top of. How to tie a clove hitch (method one): - Make a turn with your working end around the tree. - Cross over the standing part of the cordage. - Tuck the working end under the standing end of step 2 and pull tight. Another use for this hitch is when you can reach over the top of a post. You can also use this to secure a small object that acts as a holding piece when using it to secure part of a tarp. If a loop or grommet on a tarp is torn out, you can use this to secure cordage to it instead. How to tie a clove hitch (method two): - With two pieces of the same rope in hand, place the one in your right hand on top of the one on the left. - Hold that with your left hand, as you do it again with a second loop. - Place the second loop behind the first loop. Now slip both of the loops over an attachment point. It could be a fence post, cut off tree, or around an acorn wrapped in a tarp. Keep in mind that this hitch is effective when the load is pulled at a right angle to the attachment point. Anything else, and it starts to loosen. Read Next: How to Be a Knot Geek 4. The Pile Hitch When you want a hitch that is simple, look no further than a pile hitch. Sometimes referred to as post, or stake hitch. It works great when you are attaching to anything that is upright that you can reach over the top of. How to tie a pile hitch: - Take a bight in the rope and wrap it around your point of anchor. - Ensure the loop goes under the standing part of the cordage. - Now place the loop over the top of the post, stake, etc. You can alternatively use this hitch to secure cordage to a handle and turn the handle to pull slack and tighten the standing part to anything needed. You will want to secure the handle once you finish tightening, so it does not loosen. 5. The Killick Hitch The killick hitch is also known as a timber hitch. Historically it was used to haul or pick up logs and trees. It can also be used as a self-tightening lock on piles of sticks, pipes, or other lengthy objects. This hitch can also be used as a quick-release method of attaching to a tree or post. How to tie a killick hitch: - Wrap the working end of your rope around your anchor points and then wrap several wraps around the standing part. - Tighten and cinch the result down to your anchor. - If you use this for dragging then repeat some half-hitches along the length for straighter dragging. That about sums it up for some really simple, easy-to-tie knots and hitches. We have offered some uses here, but those uses are only limited only by your creativity. Use them in any way that you see fit, and please get some practice before you need them in the field.

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Ultraviolet Solar Radiation UV Solar Radiation UV rays make up part of the photonic spectrum of light. The ultraviolet region ranges from 10nm to 400nm (nanometer) and can be further divided into UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. UV-A rays range from 320nm to 400nm, UV-B rays range from 280nm to 320nm, and UV-C radiation has wavelengths less than 280nm. is linked to sunburn, accelerated skin aging, and damage to DNA. UV-B also causes sunburn and is related to snow blindness, skin cancer, and immune system suppression. UV-C is extremely dangerous to plants, animals, and human. Although it is largely absorbed by the ozone layer and does not reach the ground, it increasingly becomes an issue as the ozone layer is getting thinner and even destroyed in certain areas in the world due to various environmental issues. The Ultraviolet (UV) Index National Weather Service (NWS) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed the UV Index to help in planning outdoor activities. It can be found on almost every UV index numbers developed by NWS and EPA indicating the intensity of the sun are shown below. Exposure levels are given on a scale of 0 to 10+, with 0 indicating minimal exposure and 10+ indicating very high and dangerous UV levels. 3 - 44 - 7 7 - 910+ Reducing the risks of overexposure to ultraviolet rays to the EPA, and other government agencies and private organizations, there are ways to reduce the risk of short and long term damage to your skin and eyes. Osun's SunMate to alert you when the intensity of UV rays exceeds dangerous limits so you can apply the proper steps to protect you and your - apply sunscreen - wear proper clothing - wear sunglasses - avoid midday sun - wear a hat - remain inside when UVI is high

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Fascinating. It’s crazy to think that with just the laws of gravity and some mathematical arranging, a series of pendulums could behave like this. The longest pendulum pendulates 51 times every 60 seconds. Each progressively shorter pendulum is made just shorter enough to complete 1 additional pendulation, meaning that the 15th (i.e. final) pendulum pendulates 65 times in 60 seconds. This specific pendulum design was created in 1867 by the mathematician Ernst Mach. For further reading about this pendulum setup and its history see here.

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Using the feedback provided as evidence critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of your presentation and reflect on how you can improve t... 781 Words4 Pages Feedback is defined as “information in response to an inquiry, experiment, etc,” (Houghton, A. 2009). This means to be given information regarding the matter of what you are testing. Our experiment was how to present a presentation and using the feedback given to analyse where the strengths and weaknesses were. The feedback was made up of different categories and focused on how the group presented the presentation. On the feedback slip there were boxes and each box was given a subheading and a blank space for the mark, 1 being the lowest to 5 being the highest, and a comment box for the audience to comment on what was good and what could be improved. With the feedback provided from the class, this essay will look at strengths and weaknesses of the presentation as well as how to develop these weaknesses so that they become strengths in future presentations. Preparing the presentation, the group met to discuss ideas on how the presentation could be divided into research parts, see reflective log. The group also found out that although the actual purpose of this essay was to convey how the group executed the PowerPoint, the purpose of what was in the presentation was to give information ( Payne, E and Whittaker L 2006: 193). Starting with the introduction, the group scored 71% out of 100% from the two highest rating scores of 4s and 5s, refer to appendices 1 and 10a. One of the comments that kept standing out was to make the aims clearer. Next time the group should have a specific page just for aims as not only will it make it clearer to the audience of what we aim to achieve in the presentation. The conclusion scored 71%, refer to appendix 3 and 10c. The scores were varied on this subject. A few comments picked out were that th... ... middle of paper ... ... be significantly improved if the group rehearsed through the presentation more. Also if the group performed the presentation in front of a small group of people. Being able to do this would allow the group to become less stressed at performing to a larger group and become more relaxed at talking to people. If these weaknesses are worked on, then they shall become strengths in future presentations. In conclusion, while the group managed to perform to a high level, there are still certain aspects to improve on. These improvements need to be worked on so each subsection can gain higher marks next time. Houghton, A. (2009). Feedback. [Online] Available: Last accessed 6th February 2014. Payne, E and Whittaker L (2006). Developing Essential Study Skills. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. pg291-319.

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International Space Station (ISS) has changed its appearance yet again. Last month the Space Shuttle Atlantis visited the ISS and installed the third of eleven pieces that will compose the Integrated Truss Structure. The new S-1 Truss is visible on the right, below the extended solar panels across the top. The world's foremost space outpost can be seen developing over the past few years by comparing the above image to past images. Also visible above are many different types of modules, a robotic arm, several wing-like solar panels, and a supply ship. Construction began on the ISS in 1998 and the core structure should be in place before 2005. Yesterday, the ISS celebrated its second anniversary of continuous human habitation. NASA Web Site Statements, Warnings, and Disclaimers NASA Official: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA / GSFC & Michigan Tech. U. Based on Astronomy Picture Of the Day Publications with keywords: ISS - space shuttle Publications with words: ISS - space shuttle

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Zero Discrimination Day History Zero Discrimination Day aims to celebrate individuality, inclusion and human rights while promoting tolerance, compassion and peace. Discrimination refers to the selective practice of unfairly treating a person or a group of people differently than others due multiple factors such as religion, gender, race, sexuality, age and disability amongst others. Despite laws and education, discrimination continues to be a wide-spread problem throughout the world. Zero Discrimination Day Facts & Quotes Zero Discrimination Day Top Events and Things to Do

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This can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religionreplacing laws based on scripture such as HalakhaDominionismand Sharia law with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities. This assumption was likely reinforced by the early concentration on patterns of religious behavior in predominantly European and North American countries with large Christian populations. Gradually, however, as studies paid increasing attention to other faiths and countries, different patterns of gender differences were detected. Researchers began to find that while women generally were more religious than men, this was not always the case. More than three decades of research have yielded a large quantity of data and a greater appreciation for the complexities of the relationship between gender and religion — complexities reflected in the data presented in this report. But a definitive, empirically based explanation of why women generally tend to be more religious than men remains elusive. The explanations generally fall into three broad categories: By inference, women are more religious because they have less risk-promoting testosterone. They noted that men appear to have a greater innate tendency to take risks, and therefore are more willing than women to gamble that they will not face punishment in the afterlife. As a result, men are less religious. Since women are generally more risk-averse, this theory posits, they turn to religion to avoid eternal punishment or to secure a place in heaven. Ellison of the University of Texas at San Antonio argue for more exploration of genetic factors. Montgomery of the University of Wisconsin postulate that psychological differences could throw light on gender differences in religiosity. They advocate for more research into which psychological aspects are most influential on religious devotion and how differences are shaped by genes and social environments. As women become more like men in activities outside the home, they theorize, women also may become more similar in levels of religiousness. Indeed, the authors speculate that the religious gender gap may eventually disappear entirely, as gender roles become more alike and gender equality becomes more commonplace: Indeed, they find that full-time female workers are not only less religious than women who do not work, but also display a religious orientation similar to men. He suggests that women in the labor force, particularly those in high-paying, full-time jobs, are less religious because they receive less social validation and affirmation from religious congregations compared with women who follow more gender-typical roles and expectations. Social scientists David Voas, Siobhan McAndrew and Ingrid Storm, who are at the University College London and the Universities of Bristol and Manchester, respectively, argue that in Europe, the gender gap decreases but does not disappear with modernization. But they contend that the narrowing gap is due more to rising national income per capita than to secularization or growing gender equality. Despite the vast social changes and gender role transformations of recent decades, the religious gender gap persists in many societies. As a result, contemporary scholars of religion seem increasingly to be converging on a consensus that the religious gender gap most likely arises from a complicated mix of multiple factors. One theory discussed in Chapter 7 on why women generally tend to be more religious than men is that, in many societies, women are less likely than men to work in the labor force, a social role that some studies find is associated with lower levels of religious commitment. Scholars note that a focus solely on home management, which involves more attention and time spent raising children and caring for sick or elderly relatives, appears to encourage stronger religious commitment and more frequent religious activity. Work also offers alternatives around which to construct personal and community identities. In addition, it can broaden horizons beyond the family, exposing people to new ideas and ways of life that can challenge traditional religious dogma. Some experts also hypothesize that women in the labor force seek to conform to a prevailing male ethos that may not affirm religious commitment. Testing the labor force theory The labor force theory of the religious gender gap leads to two hypotheses. First, women working in the labor force should be less religious than women outside the labor force and therefore more similar to men in their levels of religious commitment. Second, in the aggregate, countries with larger shares of women working in the labor force should have smaller gender gaps overall, compared with countries where few women are in the labor force. The first hypothesis is supported by a Pew Research Center analysis of data from 47 countries with measures of employment status and religious commitment. As a result, the religious gender gaps between women working in the labor force and men are much smaller than the gaps between women not working for pay and men. Meanwhile, labor force participation also appears to be less of a factor in many Muslim-majority countries, where there are smaller gender gaps in religious commitment to begin with, as well as in other non-Christian countries such as India and China. Despite these variations, the analysis finds that labor force participation is associated with lower levels of religious commitment for women, on average, leading to a smaller gender gap with men than the gender gap between women outside the labor force and men.Secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification and affiliation with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions. The secularization thesis refers to the belief that as societies progress, particularly through modernization and rationalization, religion loses its authority in all aspects of social life. Some of the exceptions to secularisation (even in the developed world) are pronounced enough to count as evidence against Secularisation Theory. Sociologist of religion Rodney Stark condemns secularisation theory "to the graveyard of failed theories" Secularism, as defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is the "indifference to, or rejection or exclusion of, religion and religious considerations." As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life on principles taken solely from the material world, without recourse to religion. In political terms, secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons. Secularisation theorists, however, generally assume that religion refers to religious institutions, such as churches, and to sets of beliefs. Building on Max Weber's concepts of enchantment and mystery, a key assumption of this theory is that religion is often irrational, based on superstition and illogical beliefs. Linda Woodhead: Actually, the origins of secularisation theory are coterminous with the origins of sociology itself. It’s absolutely fundamental to the whole discipline and all the great fathers of sociology – Weber, Durkheim and Marx – believed and expounded some version of secularisation theory. Academy of Social Sciences ASS The United Kingdom Association of Learned Societies in the Social Sciences formed in gave rise to the Academy of Learned Societies for the Social Sciences incorporated , which became the Academy of Social Sciences on ASS Commission on the Social Sciences Notes from the meeting on by Ron Johnston.

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Hepatitis is an inflammatory condition that affects the liver. There are several types of hepatitis (five main types) all of which are caused by a virus. However, only two types (Hepatitis A & B) are preventable using vaccines. Hepatitis A is caused by consuming contaminated water or food. Hepatitis B is sexually transmitted. The latest statistics indicate that approximately 300 million people globally are carriers of the hepatitis B virus. As mentioned above the leading cause of hepatitis A is consuming water or food containing the HAV or Hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis A can also be caused by oral or anal contact during sex. HAV is among the hepatitis viruses responsible for causing liver inflammation. Although the virus is highly contagious, it doesn’t cause chronic disease. Nearly everyone suffering from hepatitis A makes a full recovery. Practicing proper hygiene standards i.e. proper and frequent hand washing is a great way to prevent hepatitis A. Hit READ MORE to continue article

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