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Aripiprazole, sold under the brand names Abilify and Aristada, among others, is an atypical antipsychotic. It is primarily used in the treatment of schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and bipolar disorder; other uses include as an add-on treatment in major depressive disorder, tic disorders, and irritability associated with autism. Aripiprazole is taken by mouth or via injection into a muscle. A Cochrane review found low-quality evidence of effectiveness in treating schizophrenia. In adults, side effects with greater than 10% incidence include weight gain, headache, akathisia, insomnia, and gastrointestinal effects like nausea and constipation, and lightheadedness and twitching which is common in antidepressants and antipsychotics. Side effects in children are similar, and include sleepiness, increased appetite, and stuffy nose. Common side effects include vomiting, constipation, sleepiness, dizziness, weight gain and movement disorders. Serious side effects may include neuroleptic malignant syndrome, tardive dyskinesia and anaphylaxis. It is not recommended for older people with dementia-related psychosis due to an increased risk of death. In pregnancy, there is evidence of possible harm to the baby. It is not recommended in women who are breastfeeding. It has not been very well studied in people less than 18 years old. Aripiprazole was approved for medical use in the United States in 2002. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 89th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 8million prescriptions. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Medical uses Aripiprazole is primarily used for the treatment of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia The 2016 NICE guidance for treating psychosis and schizophrenia in children and young people recommended aripiprazole as a second line treatment after risperidone for people between 15 and 17 who are having an acute exacerbation or recurrence of psychosis or schizophrenia. A 2014 NICE review of the depot formulation of the drug found that it might have a role in treatment as an alternative to other depot formulations of second generation antipsychotics for people who have trouble taking medication as directed or who prefer it. A 2014 Cochrane review comparing aripiprazole and other atypical antipsychotics found that it is difficult to determine differences as data quality is poor. A 2011 Cochrane review comparing aripiprazole with placebo concluded that high dropout rates in clinical trials, and a lack of outcome data regarding general functioning, behavior, mortality, economic outcomes, or cognitive functioning make it difficult to definitively conclude that aripiprazole is useful for the prevention of relapse. A Cochrane review found only low quality evidence of effectiveness in treating schizophrenia. Accordingly, part of its methodology on quality of evidence is based on quantity of qualified studies. A 2013 review found that it is in the middle range of 15 antipsychotics for effectiveness, approximately as effective as haloperidol and quetiapine and slightly more effective than ziprasidone, chlorpromazine, and asenapine, with better tolerability compared to the other antipsychotic drugs (4th best for reducing weight gain, 5th best for reducing extrapyramidal symptoms, best for reducing prolactin levels, 2nd best for prolongated QTc interval, and 5th best for sedative symptoms). The authors concluded that for acute psychotic episodes aripiprazole results in benefits in some aspects of the condition. In 2013 the World Federation of Societies for Biological Psychiatry recommended aripiprazole for the treatment of acute exacerbations of schizophrenia as a Grade 1 recommendation and evidence level A. The British Association for Psychopharmacology similarly recommends that all persons presenting with psychosis receive treatment with an antipsychotic, and that such treatment should continue for at least 1-2 years, as "There is no doubt that antipsychotic discontinuation is strongly associated with relapse during this period". The guideline further notes that "Established schizophrenia requires continued maintenance with doses of antipsychotic medication within the recommended range (Evidence level A)". The British Association for Psychopharmacology and the World Federation of Societies for Biological Psychiatry suggest that there is little difference in effectiveness between antipsychotics in prevention of relapse, and recommend that the specific choice of antipsychotic be chosen based on each person's preference and side effect profile. The latter group recommends switching to aripiprazole when excessive weight gain is encountered during treatment with other antipsychotics. Bipolar disorder Aripiprazole is effective for the treatment of acute manic episodes of bipolar disorder in adults, children, and adolescents. Used as maintenance therapy, it is useful for the prevention of manic episodes, but is not useful for bipolar depression. Thus, it is often used in combination with an additional mood stabilizer; however, co-administration with a mood stabilizer increases the risk of extrapyramidal side effects. In September 2014, aripiprazole had a United Kingdom marketing authorization for up to twelve weeks of treatment for moderate to severe manic episodes in bipolar I disorder in young people aged thirteen and older. Major depression Aripiprazole is an effective add-on treatment for major depressive disorder; however, there is a greater rate of side effects such as weight gain and movement disorders. The overall benefit is small to moderate and its use appears to neither improve quality of life nor functioning. Aripiprazole may interact with some antidepressants, especially selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that are metabolized by CYP2D6. There are known interactions with fluoxetine and paroxetine and it appears lesser interactions with sertraline, escitalopram, citalopram and fluvoxamine. CYP2D6 inhibitors increase aripiprazole concentrations to 2-3 times their normal level. When strong CYP2D6 SSRI inhibitors are co-administered (e.g., fluoxetine, paroxetine), FDA recommends dose monitoring, although it is not clear if SSRI dose should be lowered if paroxetine or fluoxetine and aripiprazole are co-administered. Autism Short-term data (8 weeks) shows reduced irritability, hyperactivity, inappropriate speech, and stereotypy, but no change in lethargic behaviours. Adverse effects include weight gain, sleepiness, drooling and tremors. It is suggested that children and adolescents need to be monitored regularly while taking this medication, to evaluate if this treatment option is still effective after long-term use and note if side effects are worsening. Further studies are needed to understand if this drug is helpful for children after long term use. Tic disorders Aripiprazole is approved for the treatment of Tourette's syndrome and tic disorders. It is effective, safe, and well-tolerated for this use per systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Obsessive-compulsive disorder A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that add-on therapy with low dose aripiprazole is an effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) that does not improve with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) alone. The conclusion was based on the results of two relatively small, short-term trials, each of which demonstrated improvements in symptoms. However, aripiprazole is cautiously recommended by a 2017 review on antipsychotics for OCD. Aripiprazole is not currently approved for the treatment of OCD and is instead used off-label for this indication. Depending on the dose, aripiprazole can increase impulse control issues in a small percentage of people. FDA Drug Safety Communication warned about this side effect. Otherwise, risperidone, in doses of about 2 to 3 milligrams per day, is the more prototypal augmenting drug used in cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder which do not respond sufficiently to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or clomipramine alone. Haloperidol (in doses approximating 5 m.g. per day) may also serve a similar purpose, but only in cases with a history of tics. Adverse effects In adults, side effects with greater than 10% incidence include weight gain, headache, akathisia, insomnia, and gastro-intestinal effects like nausea and constipation, and lightheadedness. Side effects in children are similar, and include sleepiness, increased appetite, and stuffy nose. A strong desire to gamble, binge eat, shop, and engage in sexual activity may also occur. Uncontrolled movement such as restlessness, tremors, and muscle stiffness may occur. Discontinuation The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time. There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis as a part of a withdrawal syndrome. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped. Overdose Children or adults who ingested acute overdoses have usually manifested central nervous system depression ranging from mild sedation to coma; serum concentrations of aripiprazole and dehydroaripiprazole in these people were elevated by up to 3-4 fold over normal therapeutic levels; as of 2008 no deaths had been recorded. Interactions Aripiprazole is a substrate of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Coadministration with medications that inhibit (e.g. paroxetine, fluoxetine) or induce (e.g. carbamazepine) these metabolic enzymes are known to increase and decrease, respectively, plasma levels of aripiprazole. Precautions should be taken in people with an established diagnosis of diabetes mellitus who are started on atypical antipsychotics along with other medications that affect blood sugar levels and should be monitored regularly for worsening of glucose control. The liquid form (oral solution) of this medication may contain up to 15 grams of sugar per dose. Antipsychotics like aripiprazole and stimulant medications, such as amphetamine, are traditionally thought to have opposing effects to their effects on dopamine receptors: stimulants are thought to increase dopamine in the synaptic cleft, whereas antipsychotics are thought to decrease dopamine. However, it is an oversimplification to state the interaction as such, due to the differing actions of antipsychotics and stimulants in different parts of the brain, as well as the effects of antipsychotics on non-dopaminergic receptors. This interaction frequently occurs in the setting of comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (for which stimulants are commonly prescribed) and off-label treatment of aggression with antipsychotics. Aripiprazole has been reported to provide some benefit in improving cognitive functioning in people with ADHD without other psychiatric comorbidities, though the results have been disputed. The combination of antipsychotics like aripiprazole with stimulants should not be considered an absolute contraindication. Chemistry Aripiprazole belongs to the chemical class of drugs called 2,3-dichlorophenylpiperazines and is chemically related to cariprazine, nefazodone, etoperidone, and trazodone. It is unusual in having twelve known crystalline polymorphs. Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics Aripiprazole was discovered in 1988 by scientists at the Japanese firm Otsuka Pharmaceutical. + Aripiprazole Site Ki (nM) Action Ref 98-1,080 Reuptake Inhibitor 2,090 Reuptake inbibitor 3,220 Reuptake inhibitor 5-HT1A 1.7-5.6 Partial agonist (IA 68%) 5-HT1B 830 5-HT1D 68 5-HT1E 8,000 5-HT2A 3.4-35 Antagonist (IA 12.7%) 5-HT2B 0.11-0.36 Inverse agonist 5-HT2C 15-180 Partial agonist (IA 82%) 5-HT3 628 5-HT5A 1,240 5-HT6 214-786 Antagonist 5-HT7 9.6-39 Antagonist α1A 25.9 α1B 34.4 α2A 74.3 α2B 102 α2C 37.9 β1 141 β2 163 D1 265-1,170 D2 3.3 Partial agonist (IA ~25%) D2L 0.74-1.2 Partial agonist D2S 1.2 Partial agonist D3 0.8-9.7 Partial agonist D4 44-514 Partial agonist D5 95-2,590 H1 27.9-61 H2 >10,000 H3 224 H4 >10,000 M1 6,780 M2 3,510 M3 4,680 M4 1,520 M5 2,330 () 4,001 Antagonist Values are Ki (nM). The smaller the value, the more strongly the drug binds to the site. All data are for human cloned proteins, except 5-HT3 (rat), D4 (human/rat), H3 (guinea pig), and NMDA/PCP (rat). Aripiprazole's mechanism of action is different from those of the other FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics (e.g., clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, ziprasidone, and risperidone). It shows differential engagement at the dopamine receptor (D2). Aripiprazole is a partial agonist at dopamine D2 receptors, partial agonist at 5-HT1A receptors and an antagonist at 5-HT2A, receptors. It appears to show predominantly antagonist activity on postsynaptic D2 receptors and partial agonist activity on presynaptic D2 receptors, D3, and partially D4 and is a partial activator of serotonin (5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7). It also shows lower and likely insignificant effect on histamine (H1), epinephrine/norepinephrine (α), and otherwise dopamine (D4), as well as the serotonin transporter. Aripiprazole acts by modulating neurotransmission overactivity of dopamine, which is thought to mitigate schizophrenia symptoms. There are no studies to date confirming if aripiprazole function as an agonist or antagonist at alpha-adrenergic receptors such as α1A, α2A and α2C, but the orthostatic hypotension observed with aripiprazole may be explained by its antagonist activity at adrenergic α1A receptors. As a pharmacologically unique antipsychotic with pronounced functional selectivity, characterization of this dopamine D2 partial agonist (with an intrinsic activity of ~25%) as being similar to a full agonist but at a reduced level of activity presents a misleading oversimplification of its actions; for example, among other effects, aripiprazole has been shown, in vitro, to bind to and/or induce receptor conformations (i.e. facilitate receptor shapes) in such a way as to not only prevent receptor internalization (and, thus, lower receptor density) but even to lower the rate of receptor internalization below that of neurons not in the presence of agonists (including dopamine) or antagonists. It is often the nature of partial agonists, including aripiprazole, to display a stabilizing effect (such as on mood in this case) with agonistic activity when there are low levels of endogenous neurotransmitters (such as dopamine) and antagonistic activity in the presence of high levels of agonists associated with events such as mania, psychosis, and drug use. In addition to aripiprazole's partial agonism and functional selectivity characteristics, its effectiveness may be mediated by its very high dopamine D2 receptor occupancy (approximately 32%, 53%, 72%, 80%, and 97% at daily dosages of 0.5 mg, 1 mg, 2 mg, 10 mg, and 40 mg respectively) as well as balanced selectivity for pre- and postsynaptic receptors (as suggested by its equal affinity for both D2S and D2L receptor forms). Aripiprazole has been characterized as possessing predominantly antagonistic activity on postsynaptic D2 receptors and partial agonist activity on presynaptic D2 receptors; however, while this explanation intuitively explains the drug's efficacy as an antipsychotic, as degree of agonism is a function of more than a drug's inherent properties as well as in vitro demonstration of aripiprazole's partial agonism in cells expressing postsynaptic (D2L) receptors, it was noted that "It is unlikely that the differential actions of aripiprazole as an agonist, antagonist, or partial agonist were entirely due to differences in relative D2 receptor expression since aripiprazole was an antagonist in cells with the highest level of expression (4.6 pmol/mg) and a partial agonist in cells with an intermediate level of expression (0.5-1 pmol/mg). Instead, the current data are most parsimoniously explained by the "functional selectivity" hypothesis of Lawler et al. (1999)". Aripiprazole is also a partial agonist of the D3 receptor. In healthy human volunteers, D2 and D3 receptor occupancy levels are high, with average levels ranging between approximately 71% at 2 mg/day to approximately 96% at 40 mg/day. Most atypical antipsychotics bind preferentially to extrastriatal receptors, but aripiprazole appears to be less preferential in this regard, as binding rates are high throughout the brain. Aripiprazole is also a partial agonist of the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor (intrinsic activity = 68%). Casting doubt on the significance of aripiprazole's agonism of 5-HT1A receptors, a PET scan study of 12 patients receiving doses ranging from 10 to 30 mg found 5-HT1A receptor occupancy to be only 16% compared to ~90% for D2. It is a very weak partial agonist of the 5-HT2A receptor (intrinsic activity = 12.7%), and like other atypical antipsychotics, displays a functional antagonist profile at this receptor. The drug differs from other atypical antipsychotics in having higher affinity for the D2 receptor than for the 5-HT2A receptor. At the 5-HT2B receptor, aripiprazole has both great binding affinity and acts as a potent inverse agonist, "Aripiprazole decreased PI hydrolysis from a basal level of 61% down to a low of 30% at 1000 nM, with an EC50 of 11 nM". Unlike other antipsychotics, aripiprazole is a high-efficacy partial agonist of the 5-HT2C receptor (intrinsic activity = 82%) and with relatively weak affinity; this property may underlie the minimal weight gain seen in the course of therapy. At the 5-HT7 receptor, aripiprazole is a very weak partial agonist with barely measurable intrinsic activity, and hence is a functional antagonist of this receptor. Aripiprazole also shows lower but likely clinically insignificant affinity for a number of other sites, such as the histamine H1, α-adrenergic, and dopamine D4 receptors as well as the serotonin transporter, while it has negligible affinity for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Since the actions of aripiprazole differ markedly across receptor systems aripiprazole was sometimes an antagonist (e.g. at 5-HT6 and D2L), sometimes an inverse agonist (e.g. 5-HT2B), sometimes a partial agonist (e.g. D2L), and sometimes a full agonist (D3, D4). Aripiprazole was frequently found to be a partial agonist, with an intrinsic activity that could be low (D2L, 5-HT2A, 5-HT7), intermediate (5-HT1A), or high (D4, 5-HT2C). This mixture of agonist actions at D2-dopamine receptors is consistent with the hypothesis that aripiprazole has "functionally selective" actions. The "functional-selectivity" hypothesis proposes that a mixture of agonist/partial agonist/antagonist actions are likely. According to this hypothesis, agonists may induce structural changes in receptor conformations that are differentially "sensed" by the local complement of G proteins to induce a variety of functional actions depending upon the precise cellular milieu. The diverse actions of aripiprazole at D2-dopamine receptors are clearly cell-type specific (e.g. agonism, antagonism, partial agonism), and are most parsimoniously explained by the "functional selectivity" hypothesis. Since 5-HT2C receptors have been implicated in the control of depression, OCD, and appetite, partial agonism at the 5-HT2C receptor might be associated with therapeutic potential in obsessive compulsive disorder, obesity, and depression. 5-HT2C agonism has been demonstrated to induce anorexia via enhancement of serotonergic neurotransmission via activation of 5-HT2C receptors; it is conceivable that the 5-HT2C partial agonist actions of aripiprazole may, thus, be partly responsible for the minimal weight gain associated with this compound in clinical trials. In terms of potential action as an antiobsessional agent, it is worthwhile noting that a variety of 5-HT2A/5-HT2C agonists have shown promise as antiobsessional agents, yet many of these compounds are hallucinogenic, presumably due to 5-HT2A activation. Aripiprazole has a favorable pharmacological profile in being a 5-HT2A antagonist and a 5-HT2C partial agonist. Based on this profile, one can predict that aripiprazole may have antiobsessional and anorectic actions in humans. Wood and Reavill's (2007) review of published and unpublished data proposed that, at therapeutically relevant doses, aripiprazole may act essentially as a selective partial agonist of the D2 receptor without significantly affecting the majority of serotonin receptors. A positron emission tomography imaging study found that 10 to 30 mg/day aripiprazole resulted in 85 to 95% occupancy of the D2 receptor in various brain areas (putamen, caudate, ventral striatum) versus 54 to 60% occupancy of the 5-HT2A receptor and only 16% occupancy of the 5-HT1A receptor. It has been suggested that the low occupancy of the 5-HT1A receptor by aripiprazole may have been an erroneous measurement however. Aripiprazole acts by modulating neurotransmission overactivity on the dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway, which is thought to be a cause of positive schizophrenia symptoms. Due to its agonist activity on D2 receptors, aripiprazole may also increase dopaminergic activity to optimal levels in the mesocortical pathways where it is reduced. Pharmacokinetics Aripiprazole displays linear kinetics and has an elimination half-life of approximately 75 hours. Steady-state plasma concentrations are achieved in about 14 days. Cmax (maximum plasma concentration) is achieved 3-5 hours after oral dosing. Bioavailability of the oral tablets is about 90% and the drug undergoes extensive hepatic metabolization (dehydrogenation, hydroxylation, and N-dealkylation), principally by the enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Its only known active metabolite is dehydro-aripiprazole, which typically accumulates to approximately 40% of the aripiprazole concentration. The parenteral drug is excreted only in traces, and its metabolites, active or not, are excreted via feces and urine. History thumb|Abilify (aripiprazole) 10 mg tablets (TR)|alt= Aripiprazole was discovered by scientists at Otsuka Pharmaceutical and was called OPC-14597. It was first published in 1995. Otsuka initially developed the drug, and partnered with Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS) in 1999 to complete development, obtain approvals, and market aripiprazole. It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for schizophrenia in November 2002, and the European Medicines Agency in June 2004; for acute manic and mixed episodes associated with bipolar disorder on 1 October 2004; as an adjunct for major depressive disorder on 20 November 2007; and to treat irritability in children with autism on 20 November 2009. Likewise it was approved for use as a treatment for schizophrenia by the TGA of Australia in May 2003. Aripiprazole has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of both acute manic and mixed episodes, in people older than ten years. In 2006, the FDA required manufacturers to add a black box warning to the label, warning that older people who were given the drug for dementia-related psychosis were at greater risk of death. In 2007, aripiprazole was approved by the FDA for the treatment of unipolar depression when used adjunctively with an antidepressant medication. That same year, BMS settled a case with the US government in which it paid $515 million; the case covered several drugs but the focus was on BMS's off-label marketing of aripiprazole for children and older people with dementia. In 2011 Otsuka and Lundbeck signed a collaboration to develop a depot formulation of aripiprazole. As of 2013, Abilify had annual sales of . In 2013 BMS returned marketing rights to Otsuka, but kept manufacturing the drug. Also in 2013, Otsuka and Lundbeck received US and European marketing approval for an injectable depot formulation of aripiprazole. Otsuka's US patent on aripiprazole expired on 20 October 2014, but due to a pediatric extension, a generic did not become available until 20 April 2015. Barr Laboratories (now Teva Pharmaceuticals) initiated a patent challenge under the Hatch-Waxman Act in March 2007. On 15 November 2010, this challenge was rejected by the U.S. District Court in New Jersey. Otsuka's European patent EP0367141 which would have expired on 26 October 2009, was extended by a Supplementary Protection Certificate (SPC) to 26 October 2014., The UK Intellectual Property Office decided on 4 March 2015 that the SPC could not be further extended by six months under Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006. Even if the decision is successfully appealed, protection in Europe will not extend beyond 26 April 2015. From April 2013 to March 2014, sales of Abilify amounted to almost $6.9 billion. In April 2015, the FDA announced the first generic versions. In October 2015, aripiprazole lauroxil, a prodrug of aripiprazole that is administered via intramuscular injection once every four to six weeks for the treatment of schizophrenia, was approved by the FDA. In 2016, BMS settled cases with 42 US states that had charged BMS with off-label marketing to older people with dementia; BMS agreed to pay $19.5 million. In November 2017, the FDA approved Abilify MyCite, a digital pill containing a sensor intended to record when its consumer takes their medication. Society and culture Legal status Regulatory administration (country)Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary (BNF) 79. Pharmaceutical Pr; 2020.Truven Health Analytics, Inc. DRUGDEX System (Internet) [cited 2013 Jun 25]. Greenwood Village, CO: Thomsen Healthcare; 2013. Schizophrenia Acute mania Bipolar maintenance Major depressive disorder (as an adjunct) Irritability in autism Food and Drug Administration (US) Yes Yes Yes (as an adjunct to lithium/valproate) Yes Yes (children and adolescents) Therapeutic Goods Administration (AU) Yes Yes (as an adjunct to lithium/valproate) Yes No No Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (UK) Yes Yes Yes (to prevent mania) No No Classification Aripiprazole has been described as the prototypical third-generation antipsychotic, as opposed to first-generation (typical) antipsychotics like haloperidol and second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics like clozapine. It has received this classification due to its partial agonism of dopamine receptors, and is the first of its kind in this regard among antipsychotics, which before aripiprazole acted only as dopamine receptor antagonists. The introduction of aripiprazole has led to a paradigm shift from a dopamine antagonist-based approach to a dopamine agonist-based approach for antipsychotic drug development. Brand names Abilify Aristada Arip MT Research Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Aripiprazole was under development for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but development for this indication was discontinued. A 2017 meta review found only preliminary evidence (studies with small sample sizes and methodological problems) for aripiprazole in the treatment of ADHD. A 2013 systematic review of aripiprazole for ADHD similarly reported that there is insufficient evidence of effectiveness to support aripiprazole as a treatment for the condition. Although all 6 non-controlled open-label studies in the review reported effectiveness, two small randomized controlled trials found that aripiprazole did not significantly decrease ADHD symptoms. A high rate of adverse effects with aripiprazole such as weight gain, sedation, and headache was noted. Most research on aripiprazole for ADHD is in children and adolescents. Evidence on aripiprazole specifically for adult ADHD appears to be limited to a single case report. Substance dependence Aripiprazole has been studied for the treatment of amphetamine dependence and other substance use disorders, but more research is needed to support aripiprazole for these potential uses. Available evidence of aripiprazole for amphetamine dependence is mixed. Some studies have reported attenuation of the effects of amphetamines by aripiprazole, whereas other studies have reported both enhancement of the effects of amphetamines and increased use of amphetamines by aripiprazole. As such, aripiprazole may not only be ineffective but potentially harmful for treatment of amphetamine dependence, and caution is warranted with regard to its use for such purposes. Other uses Aripiprazole is under development for the treatment of agitation and pervasive child development disorders. As of May 2021, it is in phase 3 clinical trials for these indications. References Further reading External links Category:2,3-Dichlorophenylpiperazines Category:5-HT2A antagonists Category:5-HT2B antagonists Category:5-HT2C agonists Category:5-HT7 antagonists Category:Alpha-1 blockers Category:Alpha-2 blockers Category:Atypical antipsychotics Category:Bristol Myers Squibb Category:D2 antagonists Category:D2-receptor agonists Category:D3 antagonists Category:D3 receptor agonists Category:Ethers Category:H1 receptor antagonists Category:Mood stabilizers Category:Otsuka Pharmaceutical Category:Serotonin-dopamine activity modulators Category:Tetrahydroquinolines Category:Treatment of autism Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

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George Charles Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, (16 April 1800 - 10 November 1888), styled Lord Bingham before 1839, was an Anglo-Irish aristocrat and British Army officer. He was one of three men, along with Captain Nolan and Lord Raglan, responsible for the fateful order during the Battle of Balaclava in October 1854 that led to the Light Brigade commander, The Earl of Cardigan, leading the Charge of the Light Brigade. He was subsequently promoted to field marshal. Lord Lucan was a ruthless landlord during the Great Famine in Ireland, evicting thousands of his Irish tenants and renting his land to wealthy ranchers. He also came up with a solution that allowed Jews to sit in Parliament. Life and military career thumb|upright|left|George, Lord Bingham, at age 14 Born the first son of Richard Bingham, 2nd Earl of Lucan, an Anglo-Irish peer, and Elizabeth Bingham (née Belasyse), Lord Bingham (as he was styled up until late June 1839) attended Westminster School but left formal education to be commissioned as an ensign in the 6th Regiment of Foot on 29 August 1816. He transferred to the 11th Light Dragoons on 24 December 1818. Lord Bingham became a lieutenant in the 8th Regiment of Foot on 20 January 1820, a captain in the 74th Regiment of Foot on 16 May 1822 and was promoted to major, unattached, on 23 June 1825.Heathcote, p. 41 He transferred to the 17th Lancers on 1 December 1825 and became commanding officer of the regiment with the rank of lieutenant colonel on 9 November 1826; he lavished such expense on his officers' uniforms and horses that the officers became known as "Bingham's Dandies". He was also elected as MP for County Mayo in 1826 and held that seat until 1830. During the Russo-Turkish War, which began in 1828, he acted observer with the Imperial Russian Army. 'The Exterminator' Lord Bingham succeeded his father as 3rd Earl of Lucan in the Peerage of Ireland on 30 June 1839 and, having become an Irish Representative Peer in June 1840 and having been promoted to colonel on 23 November 1841, he became Lord Lieutenant of Mayo in 1845. During the Great Famine in the late 1840s, he was ruthless and introduced mass evictions from villages such as Ballinrobe. Famously stating that he "would not breed paupers to pay priests," he demolished over 300 homes and evicted 2,000 people in Ballinrobe between 1846 and 1849. He even insisted on closing the workhouse in Castlebar at the height of the Famine. For this, Lord Bingham earned the hatred of many Irishmen and became known as "The Exterminator." He was promoted to major general on 11 November 1851. Crimean War thumb|The Charge of the Light Brigade: it was Lucan who gave the order to Cardigan to lead the charge. At the outbreak of the Crimean War, Lord Lucan applied for a post and was made commander of the Cavalry Division. His brother-in-law, the 7th Earl of Cardigan, was one of his subordinates, commanding the Light Brigade - an unfortunate choice as the two men heartily detested each other. Promoted to brevet lieutenant general on 18 August 1854, he was present at the Battle of Alma in September 1854 but, on the orders of the army commander, Lord Raglan, he held his division in reserve. This incident earned Lucan the undeserved, but persistent, nickname of "Lord Look-on".Heathcote, p. 42 At the Battle of Balaclava in October 1854, Lucan received an order from Raglan and in turn ordered Cardigan to lead the Charge of the Light Brigade, resulting in heavy British casualties without significant gains.Calthorpe, p. 132 As Lucan brought the Heavy Brigade forward in support, he was lightly wounded in the leg. Raglan blamed Lucan for the loss ("You have lost the light brigade"), and censured him in despatches. Although Lucan complained against this censure, as the relationship between the army commander and the cavalry commander had clearly broken down, he was recalled to England, where he returned at the beginning of March 1855. On his arrival, Lucan's demand for a court-martial was declined and instead he defended himself with a speech to the House of Lords on 19 March 1855, blaming Raglan and his deceased aide-de-camp, Captain Louis Nolan. This tactic appears to have been successful as he was subsequently appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 5 July 1855, and Colonel of the 8th Light Dragoons, who had charged with the Light Brigade, on 17 November 1855. Later life A significant contribution was made by Lucan to Parliament when he produced a solution to the problem of admitting Jews to Parliament. Prior to this, distinguished Jews had declined to take the oath "on the true faith of a Christian" and having not been sworn in as required by statute, were refused voting rights although having been elected an MP. Lucan proposed, by way of a compromise, that each House could decide and modify its own oath. The House of Lords, who had long opposed the admission of Jews, agreed to this. A prominent Jew, Lionel Nathan Rothschild, was thus allowed to enter the House of Commons and was sworn in on 26 July 1858. Although Lucan never again saw active duty, he was promoted to lieutenant general on 24 December 1858, and, having become colonel of the 1st Regiment of Life Guards on 27 February 1865, he was to promoted to general on 28 August 1865 and advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1869. He formally retired in October 1877, but after some lobbying he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June 1887. He died at 13 South Street, Park Lane, London, on 10 November 1888 and was buried at Laleham in Middlesex. Family In 1829, Bingham married Lady Anne Brudenell, seventh daughter of Robert Brudenell, 6th Earl of Cardigan; they had six children, two daughters being still born or dying soon after birth: Charles, 4th Earl of Lucan. He was married to Cecilia Catherine Gordon-Lennox the daughter of Charles Gordon-Lennox, 5th Duke of Richmond. They had issue. Augusta (7 February 1832 - 3 July 1888), married her cousin Henry Sturt, 1st Baron Alington on 10 September 1853, and had issue. Lavinia (circa 1836 - 15 September 1864), married Charles Hardinge, 2nd Viscount Hardinge MP for Downpatrick on 10 April 1856, and had issue. Rear-Admiral Richard (6 January 1847 - 12 November 1924), married Mary Elizabeth Cole the paternal great-granddaughter of Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby and maternal granddaughter of Henry Brooke Parnell, 1st Baron Congleton. Ancestry References Sources Further reading External links Category:1800 births Category:1888 deaths Category:17th Lancers officers Category:8th King's Royal Irish Hussars officers Category:British Army personnel of the Crimean War Category:British field marshals Category:British Life Guards officers Category:Irish representative peers Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Mayo Category:Politicians from County Mayo Bingham, George Bingham, Lord Category:Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers officers Bingham, George Bingham, Lord Category:UK MPs who inherited peerages Category:People educated at Westminster School, London Category:Burials in Surrey Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class George Category:Military personnel from London Category:Bingham Baronets, of Castlebar Category:19th-century Irish landowners Category:Military personnel from County Mayo

{"Nickname(s)": "\"The Exterminator\"", "Born": "London, England, Great Britain", "Died": "London, England, United Kingdom", "Allegiance": "United Kingdom", "Commands held": "Cavalry Division", "Awards": "Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Order of St. Anna, 2nd Class (Russia) Order of the Medjidie, First Class (Ottoman Empire)22107 1251 2 March 1858 Commander of the Legion of Honour (France)21909 2699 4 August 1856"}

Ecclesia Gnostica (Latin: The Church of Gnosis) is an open sacramental neo-Gnostic church based in the United States. It has ordained clergy and conducts regular sacramental services, including two weekly Masses (Celebration of the Holy Eucharist), as well as monthly and seasonal services in accordance with the liturgical calendar. It has active parishes in Seattle, Portland, Austin, and Los Angeles. The church and its affiliate organisation, The Gnostic Society, attempt to "advance the study, understanding, and the individual experience of Gnosis." History The organisation now called the Ecclesia Gnostica was originally organised in England under the name the Pre-Nicene Gnostic Catholic Church in 1953, by the Most Rev. Richard Jean Chretien Duc de Palatine with the object of "restoring the Gnosis - Divine Wisdom to the Christian Church, and to teach the Path of Holiness which leads to God and the Inner Illumination and Interior Communion with the Soul through the mortal body of man." Born Ronald Powell, Richard Duc de Palatine had served in the Liberal Catholic Church in Australia, before moving to England. Bishop Duc de Palatine was consecrated by the Most Rev. Msg. Hugh George de Willmott Newman (Mar Georgius I), patriarch of the Catholic Apostolic Church (Catholicate of the West) who consolidated many lines of apostolic succession. Bishop Duc de Palatine also received a charter in 1953 to head an organisation first called "the Brotherhood of the Illuminati," renamed "the Order of the Pleroma" in 1960. He received other esoteric lines and charters such as: the Templar Order, Brotherhood of the Rosy Cross, Memphis and Mizraim Rites of Freemasonry, and the Martiniste Order, and termed the combination with the Ecumenical Apostolic Succession "the Wisdom Religion-Gnostic Mystic Tradition." In 1959 the organisation became active in the United States through the work of Stephan A. Hoeller, who served as a priest of the church in Los Angeles, and was subsequently consecrated as regionary bishop for the Americas in 1967. He became presiding bishop on the death of Bishop Duc de Palatine in 1977, although there was a falling out prior to that. The Ecumenical Apostolic Succession Most Rev. Msg. Hugh George de Willmott Newman (Mar Georgius I) felt that all proper and valid consecrations and ordinations are equally efficacious regardless of the particular line of apostolic succession, but also that some degree of irregularity would attach itself to acts lacking ecumenical sanction. And so, to rectify any irregularity, and to overcome any doubts about validity of any line of apostolic succession, he sought and received conditional consecration from every part of the One Holy Catholic (Universal) and Apostolic church, bringing into being the Ecumenical Apostolic Succession. This Ecumenical line incorporates Syrian-Antiochene, Syrian-Malabar, Syrian-Gallican, Syro-Chaldean, Chaldean-Uniate, Coptic-Orthodox, Armenian-Uniate, Greek-Melkite, Russian-Orthodox, Russo-Syriac, Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, Liberal Catholic, Order of Corporate Reunion, Mariavite; and additional (disputed) lines of Anglican, Nonjuring, Celtic, Welsh, and Restored Apostolic (Irvingite). All of these lines were passed to bishop Duc de Palatine at his consecration in 1953 and in a subsequent conditional consecration in 1955. They were then passed on to bishop Hoeller at his consecration in 1967. Organisation The presiding bishops of the church are: Most Rev. Stephan A. Hoeller, Regionary Bishop of the Americas; and Rt. Rev. Steven Marshall, auxiliary bishop. Bishop Hoeller is a leading exponent of Gnosticism as living religious practice, a professor of comparative religions, and scholar who has written and lectured extensively on Gnosticism, Jungian psychology, and esoteric subjects. The scope of the organisation is best described as a liturgical orthopraxy, the organisation being focused on correct practice of the liturgical services offered by the church. Participation Neither the Ecclesia Gnostica nor the Gnostic Society have a formal, dues-paying membership. The activities of both are open to all, regardless of creed. Clergy Holy orders are considered one of the seven sacraments practised by the church. Clergy are of both major and minor holy orders. The major orders are: subdeacon, deacon, priest, and bishop. The five minor orders are: cleric, doorkeeper, reader, Exorcist, and Acolyte. Clergy formation (training) is progressive, with individuals being ordained to and serving in each order in succession. Formation of priests is generally over seven or more years. All levels of holy orders are open to both male and female; married, divorced, and single; and both gay and straight candidates. Clergy are self-sustaining, not receiving a salary from the church. The Gnostic Society The Gnostic Society is an organisation dedicated to advancing the study, the understanding and the individual experience of Gnosis, founded in 1928 by James Morgan Pryse. As an educational organisation associated with the Ecclesia Gnostica, the Gnostic Society presents weekly and monthly public lecture programs at Besant Lodge in Hollywood. Teachings and doctrinal orientation While Christian based on Gnosis rather than creed or acceptance from mainstream Christian churches, the church considers itself part of the fellowship of Universal Christendom, that is part of the One Holy Catholic (Universal) and Apostolic Church. The Ecclesia Gnostica is a liturgical orthopraxy rather than an orthodoxy. Christian liturgy is central to the existence of the church, and in ritual and ornament the church is similar to Catholicism. The church does not proselytise. There is not an exclusive claim of salvation; salvation is not dependent on participation in the church. Salvation is also understood differently from salvation in mainstream Christianity: salvation is achieved through Gnosis, described as "an inner 'knowingness,' a change of consciousness." Gnosticism is grounded in the experience of Gnosis, which is the salvific and revelatory experience of transcendence. The experience of Gnosis receives expression in the Gnostic Mythology which allows the Gnostic to amplify and assimilate the experience of Gnosis and also makes further experience of Gnosis possible. The aim of instruction is not just one variety of the Gnostic Mythos, but the entire heritage of the Gnostic tradition, which includes: primary sources such as the Nag Hammadi Library and much of the canonical Bible, with consideration of the less reliable accounts and recensions of teachings found in heresiological texts, the Hermetic writings, and the teachings of the Prophet Mani. Understanding of the Gnostic tradition While recognising the very pluralistic and creative elements of ancient Gnostic teachings they are seen as embracing a set of common assumptions which form the core of the Gnostic tradition. The "brief and inadequate outline" of this core given by bishop Hoeller is further summarised below: The church does not require the acceptance of these teachings as a matter of belief. Although it states, "it is obvious that these teachings represent the distinctive contribution of the Gnostic tradition to religious thought and persons functioning within the tradition would find themselves in general agreement with them." Worship and spiritual practice thumb|right|Ecclesia Gnostica (Gnostic Church) chapel in Los Angeles. Altar set up for a vespers service. Ecclesia Gnostica services consist of different liturgical celebrations usually based on traditional Western forms of Christian liturgy. Like ancient Gnostic groups, the Ecclesia Gnostica blends several disparate traditions. The church performs its sacraments "in accordance with the tradition of the Ancient Mystery Schools" and attempts to present them "in their original meaning as archetypal acts of ceremonial communion with the timeless realities of the soul." The Gnostic Holy Eucharist The celebration of the Gnostic Holy Eucharist is offered every Sunday in Los Angeles (and most other parishes). The Eucharist is central to the practice of the church, and is celebrated with high formality as congregants prepare to commune with "the indwelling and cosmic Christ." The service resembles a Traditional Roman Catholic liturgy in style, complete with elaborate vestments, burning candles, incense, and bells. The service contains the Post-Eucharistic Benediction, "The peace of God which passeth all understanding, go with you. There is a power that makes all things new: It lives and moves in those who know the Self as one. May that peace brood over you, that Power uplift you into the Light, may It keep your hearts and minds in the knowledge and Love of God, and of His Son, our Lord the Christ." Other sacraments The Ecclesia Gnostica recognises five initiatory sacraments as listed in the Gospel of Philip: Baptism, Chrism or Confirmation, Eucharist, Redemption (Consolamentum) and Bride-Chamber, with the additional two sustaining sacraments of Holy Orders and Anointing of the Sick. (The sacraments of Penance and Matrimony are considered to be secondary sacraments having been substituted for those of Redemption and Bride-Chamber.) The initiatory sacraments of Baptism and Chrism or Confirmation and the two sustaining sacraments are offered by the church. thumb|right|Statue of the Most Holy Sophia (with enclosure) in the Ecclesia Gnostica (Gnostic Church) Chapel in Los Angeles. Devotional service to the Holy Sophia In addition to the forms of liturgical service in the tradition of the Christian church, there is also the devotional service to the Holy Sophia that is unique to the rite of the Ecclesia Gnostica. Liturgical calendar and lectionary The church follows the traditional Western liturgical calendar with additions and emendations. These changes include the addition of observances of Gnostic church fathers and martyrs of the Gnostic tradition, and the re-dedication of the Marian feasts of Assumption and Nativity to the Assumption and Descent of the Holy Sophia (without decrying traditional Marian devotion). The Lectionary, the book of collects, lessons (instead of epistles), and gospels, of the church was written, edited, and collected by bishop Stephan A. Hoeller and issued in 1974. Scriptures were collected from the Old and New Testament; the Pistis Sophia and other scriptures known before the Nag Hammadi find; the Nag Hammadi Library of the Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Truth, and Gospel of Phillip; Cathar, Hermetic, Manichean, and Mandaean sources; and the Chaldean Oracles. Both the calendar and the lectionary have been adopted for use by a number of other Gnostic church bodies. Active parishes Sophia Diocesan Center, Los Angeles, CA. Most Rev. Stephan Hoeller, Presiding Bishop. Gnostic Society Queen of Heaven Gnostic Church, Portland, OR. Most Rev. Stephen Marshall, Bishop. Hagia Sophia Church, Seattle, WA. Rev. Sam Osborne, Priest and Rector. Ecclesia Gnostica, Austin, Texas, TX. Rev. Peter Reardon, Priest and Rector. References External links The Ecclesia Gnostica Category:Gnosticism Category:1953 establishments in England Category:Christian organizations established in 1953 Category:LGBT churches

{"OS grid reference": "Ecclesia Gnostica", "Denomination": "Christian Neo-Gnosticism", "Founded": "1959", "Bishop(s)": "Stephan A. Hoeller", "Location": "Los Angeles", "Country": "United States", "Website": "Ecclesia Gnostica"}

Johnson is a surname of Anglo-Norman origin meaning "Son of John". It is the second most common in the United States.Wikisource:1990 Census Name Files dist.all.last (1-100) As a common family name in Scotland, Johnson is occasionally a variation of Johnston, a habitational name. Etymology The name itself is a patronym of the given name John, literally meaning "son of John". The name John derives from Latin Johannes, which is derived through Greek Iōannēs from Hebrew Yohanan, meaning "Yahweh has favoured". References Category:English-language surnames Category:Patronymic surnames Category:Surnames of English origin Category:Swedish-language surnames

{"Pronunciation": "En-au-johnson.ogg ˈ dʒ ɒ n s ən", "Language(s)": "Germanic", "Meaning": "son of John", "Region of origin": "England, Normandy"}

Noah Strausser Speer Wyle (; born June 4, 1971) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as John Carter in the television series ER (1994-2009), which earned him nominations for three Golden Globe Awards and five Primetime Emmy Awards. He is also known for his roles as Flynn Carsen in The Librarian franchise including three TV movies The Librarian: Quest for the Spear (2004), The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mine (2006), and The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice (2008) then returning for the television series (2013-2018) and Tom Mason in the television series Falling Skies (2011-2015). He has appeared in films such as A Few Good Men (1992), Pirates of Silicon Valley (1999), Donnie Darko (2001), and W. (2008). Wyle was nominated for a Critics' Choice Television Award for his role as Daniel Calder in the television miniseries The Red Line (2019). Early life Wyle, the middle of three children, was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Marjorie (née Speer), a registered orthopedic head nurse, and Stephen Wyle, an electrical engineer and entrepreneur. His father was Jewish (of Russian-Jewish descent), whereas his mother was Episcopalian, and he was raised "fairly nondenominationally", around both faiths. Wyle's parents divorced in the late 1970s, and his mother later married James C. Katz, a film restorationist with three children of his own from a previous marriage. Wyle's paternal grandparents, Edith and Frank Wyle, founded the Los Angeles Craft and Folk Art Museum, and his grandfather also founded Wyle Laboratories.Sharon K. Emanuelli, "Oral History Interview with Edith Wyle, 1993, March 9-September 7," Archives of American Art, Women in the Arts in Southern California Oral History Project. Edith R. Wyle was an expressionist painter who also created The Egg and The Eye, a café and shop in the Miracle Mile district of Los Angeles. Wyle was educated at The Thacher School in Ojai, California, and graduated with the class of 1989. Wyle participated in a Theatre Arts program at Northwestern University after his junior year of high school and appeared in high school plays, even winning an award for a play he wrote. After graduation, he studied with acting teacher Larry Moss while living in a small apartment on Hollywood Boulevard. Career thumb|upright|Wyle at the 1995 Emmy Awards ER Wyle's big break came when he was given the pilot script for ER and was cast as medical student John Carter. He was the youngest member when he joined the cast. Wyle was the only major cast member of ER to have been with the show since its inception (1994) when he left after its eleventh season (2005). His performances on the show earned him Emmy Award nominations in each of its first five seasons. As part of an ensemble he was nominated several times for the Screen Actors Guild Award, he was recognized with three Golden Globe nominations as Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television and won the 2001 TV Guide Award for Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Wyle left the series at the end of season 11, although he returned in guest appearances for a four-episode arc during season 12. He stated that he left because he wanted to spend more time with his family and friends and to make room for the upcoming generation. However, in 2009, Wyle returned to ER during its fifteenth and final season for five episodes, including the series finale. According to the Guinness World Records 2005 Special 50th Anniversary Edition, Wyle became the holder of a "Highest paid TV drama actor per episode" record during the 2003-2004 tenth season, earning approximately $400,000 per episode. While on ER, Wyle's estimated salary was $9 million a year. Wyle has also appeared in the most episodes of ER, 254, four more than Laura Innes. Film Wyle was first seen in the Paul Bartel 1985 film Lust in the Dust (a western exploitation/parody which starred Tab Hunter, Lainie Kazan, and Divine) as an extra in the local gang running the small town of Chili Verde. His later roles were a mini-series and featuring in the movie Crooked Hearts (1991) in 1990. In 1993 he appeared in another feature film, There Goes My Baby. After appearing in several local plays in Los Angeles, he was cast in the box-office hit A Few Good Men, in which he played a Marine jeep driver who testified in court. He also appeared in the feature Swing Kids as Emil Lutz, a leader in the Hitler Youth, and in the independent movie The Myth of Fingerprints with Roy Scheider, Blythe Danner, and Julianne Moore. Additionally, he starred as Lancelot opposite Sheryl Lee in the Television movie Guinevere. Wyle starred in the original film The Librarian: Quest for the Spear with Sonya Walger, in its sequel The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines opposite Gabrielle Anwar, and in the third part of the series The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice alongside Stana Katic. His latest work dealing with The Librarian is a series called The Librarians. It focuses on three additional new librarians who are brought into the library at a time of cataclysmic events. In the beginning of the series, Noah Wyle was more of a co-star, versus his original role of the main character. In the following seasons, he had more and more appearances. Until, with the latest season, he 'supposedly' quit the job of The Librarian. His other work has included a critically acclaimed turn as Steve Jobs in the Emmy-nominated Pirates of Silicon Valley (1999). Steve Jobs was so impressed with the performance that he invited Wyle to step on stage as him at the opening of his annual speech at the Apple convention. He has also appeared in several feature films, including White Oleander opposite Renée Zellweger, Enough opposite Jennifer Lopez, the independent feature Donnie Darko, as the President's interpreter in the 2000 live-television production of Fail Safe, and in the independent film The Californians. Stage thumb|Wyle in 2009 Along with his film and television career, Wyle is also Artistic Producer of The Blank Theatre Company located in Hollywood, California. With the company, he has appeared on stage in the 1995 production of The 24th Day with Peter Berg, The Why (as part of the company's Young Playwrights Festival), and Lobster Alice, opposite Nicholas Brendon, where he played the surrealist painter Salvador Dalí. For his work as one of the producers of 2005 Los Angeles Production of Michael John LaChiusa's The Wild Party, he won an NAACP Theatre Award. Falling Skies Wyle starred as the lead in TNT's sci-fi series Falling Skies. Wyle played Tom Mason, a former Boston University history professor who becomes the second-in-command of the 2nd Massachusetts Militia Regiment, a group of civilians and fighters fleeing post-apocalyptic Boston while fighting aliens who have wiped out 90% of humanity. The character was also the father of three boys, one of whom was captured by the aliens. Wyle's performance earned him BuddyTV's #91 position on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011". Post-Falling Skies In 2018, Wyle announced that he will portray Daniel Calder in the eight-part limited series The Red Line. On April 22, 2020, Wyle confirmed that he will join the revival of the series, Leverage, reuniting with John Rogers, Dean Devlin and Christian Kane who worked with him on The Librarians. He will also be directing two of the 13 episodes. Personal life Noah met his first wife, make-up artist Tracy Warbin, on the set of The Myth of Fingerprints. They married in 2000 and have a son, Owen Strausser Speer Wyle (born November 9, 2002), and a daughter, Auden Wyle (born October 15, 2005). Wyle and Warbin separated in 2009 and divorced in 2010. Wyle married Sara Wells in June 2014 in California. The couple met in 2011 during a production at The Blank Theatre Company. Their daughter Frances Harper Wyle was born on June 22, 2015. Wyle is a vegetarian and supports animal rights."5 Things to Know About Noah Wyle". hollywoodreporter.com. Retrieved 2 February 2023. Political advocacy and philanthropy Wyle opened the 1999 NY Macworld Expo keynote, initially posing as Apple Inc.'s Steve Jobs. It was a practical joke on the audience, engineered by Jobs and Wyle in light of the 1999 TNT film Pirates of Silicon Valley."Noah Wyle on playing Steve Jobs." Fortune Magazine, October 7, 2011. Wyle devotes much of his free time to the international non-profit organization Doctors of the World and to his work as a member of the Human Rights Watch Council. Wyle also serves as the voluntary artistic producer of the Blank Theatre Company in Hollywood, which stages an annual young playwrights festival and whose alumni include Ed Asner, Sarah Michelle Gellar, D. B. Sweeney, James Kerwin, Amber Benson, Megan Henning, Travis Schuldt, Warren Davis, Grant Show, and Nicholas Brendon. He also recently acquired Second Stage Theater (Los Angeles) in Hollywood, where the company has mounted numerous successful productions. Wyle was the spokesperson for the Cover the Uninsured campaign in 2004, which had as Honorary Co-Chairs former Presidents Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter. The Cover the Uninsured Week is annually held in the United States of America and focuses attention on the nearly 44 million Americans who go without health care coverage. The campaign includes several events among different communities, health and enrollment fairs, press conferences, and business seminars all over the U.S. Additionally, Wyle is a supporter of animal rights and a spokesman for the World Wildlife Fund, dedicated to protecting and conserving wildlife for future generations. In 2009, Wyle became a spokesperson for the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), claiming that polar bears are "hanging on by a thread" and "may be extinct in our children's lifetime, due to the effects of climate change." In 2012, Wyle supported the disability rights group ADAPT. On April 23, he was arrested during a protest on Capitol Hill to fight against Medicaid cuts for the elderly and people with disabilities. He was arrested. Filmography Film Year Title Role Notes 1985 Lust in the Dust Young Man Uncredited 1991 Crooked Hearts Ask 1992 A Few Good Men Cpl. Jeffrey Barnes 1993 Swing Kids Emil Lutz 1994 There Goes My Baby Michael Finnegan 1997 The Myth of Fingerprints Warren Also associate producer 1999 Can't Stop Dancing Poe 2001 Donnie Darko Prof. Kenneth Monnitoff 2001 Scenes of the Crime Seth 2002 Enough Robbie 2002 White Oleander Mark Richards 2005 The Californians Gavin Ransom 2008 Nothing But the Truth Avril Aaronson 2008 An American Affair Mike Stafford 2008 W. Donald Evans 2010 Below the Beltway Hunter Patrick 2010 Queen of the Lot Aaron Lambert 2013 Snake & Mongoose Arthur Spear 2015 The World Made Straight Leonard Shuler 2017 Mark Felt: The Man Who Brought Down the White House Stan Pottinger 2017 Shot Mark Newman Television Year Title Role Notes 1990 Blind Faith Eric Miniseries; 2 episodes 1994 Guinevere Lancelot Television film 1994-2009 ER Dr. John Carter Main role (seasons 1-11 and 15); guest star (season 12) 1995 Friends Dr. Jeffrey Rosen Episode: "The One with Two Parts: Part 2" 1995 The Larry Sanders Show Himself Episode: "Eight" 1996 Sesame Street Dr. Colburn 2 episodes "Maria Goes To The Hospital" 1999 Pirates of Silicon Valley Steve Jobs Television film 1999 Save Our History: America's Most Endangered 1999 Himself Host 2000 Fail Safe Buck Television film 2000 Beggars and Choosers Davis G. Green Episode: "The Naked Truth" 2004 The Librarian: Quest for the Spear Flynn Carsen Television film 2006 The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines Flynn Carsen Television film; also producer 2008 The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice Flynn Carsen Television film; also producer 2011-2015 Falling Skies Tom Mason Main role; also producer and director 2013 Lab Rats Dr. Evans Episode: "Twas the Mission Before Christmas" 2014 Phineas and Ferb Martin the news vendor (voice) Episode: "Night of the Living Pharmacists" 2014-2018 The Librarians Flynn Carsen Recurring role; also executive producer, writer and director 2015 Drunk History Thomas Nast Episode: "Journalism" 2016 Angie Tribeca Hospital administrator Episode: "Organ Trail" 2018 The Romanoffs Ivan Episode: "The Royal We" 2019 The Red Line Daniel Calder Main role 2021-present Leverage: Redemption Harry Wilson Main role; also director Awards and nominations Year Association Category Nominated work Result 1995 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ER Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Viewers for Quality Television Best Supporting Actor in a Quality Drama Series 1996 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series 1997 Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actor - Series, Miniseries or Television Film Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Viewers for Quality Television Best Supporting Actor in a Quality Drama Series 1998 Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actor - Series, Miniseries or Television Film Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Viewers for Quality Television Best Supporting Actor in a Quality Drama Series 1999 Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actor - Series, Miniseries or Television Film Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Teen Choice Awards Choice TV Actor 2000 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series 2001 2003 Prism Awards Performance in a Drama Series 2005 Saturn Awards Best Actor on Television The Librarian: Quest for the Spear 2007 The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines 2009 The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice 2011 Teen Choice Awards Choice Summer TV Star: Male Falling Skies 2012 Saturn Awards Best Actor on Television 2014 2015 2020 Critics' Choice Television Award Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Limited Series or Movie Made for Television The Red Line References External links Noah Wyle and Steve Jobs at 1999 Macworld NY (video clip) Category:1971 births Category:20th-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male actors Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:Living people Category:Northwestern University School of Communication alumni Category:People from Ojai, California Category:Male actors from Hollywood, Los Angeles Category:Jewish American male actors Category:The Thacher School alumni Category:21st-century American Jews

{"Name": "Noah Wyle", "Caption": "Wyle at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con", "Birth name": "Noah Strausser Speer Wyle", "Birth date": "1971 06 04", "Birth place": "Los Angeles, California, U.S.", "Education": "Northwestern University (BA)", "Occupation": "Actor", "Years active": "1984-present", "Spouse(s)": "Tracy Warbin 2000 2010 divorced\n Sara Wells 2014", "Children": "3", "Relatives": "James C. Katz (stepfather)Edith R. Wyle (paternal grandmother) Sonia Romero (cousin)"}

Evan Hunter, born Salvatore Albert Lombino, (October 15, 1926 - July 6, 2005) was an American author and screenwriter best known for his 87th Precinct novels, written under his Ed McBain pen name, and the novel upon which the film Blackboard Jungle was based. Hunter, who legally adopted that name in 1952, also used the pen names John Abbott, Curt Cannon, Hunt Collins, Ezra Hannon, and Richard Marsten, among others. His 87th Precinct novels have become staples of the police procedural genre. Life Early life Salvatore Lombino was born and raised in New York City. He lived in East Harlem until age 12, when his family moved to the Bronx. He attended Olinville Junior High School (later Richard R. Green Middle School #113), then Evander Childs High School (now Evander Childs Educational Campus), before winning a New York Art Students League scholarship. Later, he was admitted as an art student at Cooper Union. Lombino served in the United States Navy during World War II and wrote several short stories while serving aboard a destroyer in the Pacific. However, none of these stories was published until after he had established himself as an author in the 1950s. After the war, Lombino returned to New York and attended Hunter College, where he majored in English and psychology, with minors in dramatics and education, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1950. He published a weekly column in the Hunter College newspaper as "S.A. Lombino". In 1981, Lombino was inducted into the Hunter College Hall of Fame, where he was honored for outstanding professional achievement. While looking to start a career as a writer, Lombino took a variety of jobs, including 17 days as a teacher at Bronx Vocational High School in September 1950. This experience would later form the basis for his novel The Blackboard Jungle (1954), written under the pen name Evan Hunter, which was adapted into the film Blackboard Jungle (1955). In 1951, Lombino took a job as an executive editor for the Scott Meredith Literary Agency, working with authors such as Poul Anderson, Arthur C. Clarke, Lester del Rey, Richard S. Prather, and P.G. Wodehouse. He made his first professional short story sale the same year, a science-fiction tale titled "Welcome, Martians!", credited to S. A. Lombino.McBain, Ed, Learning To Kill, Harvest Books, 2006, pg. xi-xii Name change and pen names Soon after his initial sale, Lombino sold stories under the pen names Evan Hunter and Hunt Collins. The name Evan Hunter is generally believed to have been derived from two schools he attended, Evander Childs High School and Hunter College, although the author himself would never confirm that. (He did confirm that Hunt Collins was derived from Hunter College.) Lombino legally changed his name to Evan Hunter in May 1952, after an editor told him that a novel he wrote would sell more copies if credited to Evan Hunter than to S. A. Lombino. Thereafter, he used the name Evan Hunter both personally and professionally. thumb|Evan Hunter c. 1953 As Evan Hunter, he gained notice with his novel The Blackboard Jungle (1954) dealing with juvenile crime and the New York City public school system. The film adaptation followed in 1955. During this era, Hunter also wrote a great deal of genre fiction. He was advised by his agents that publishing too much fiction under the Hunter byline, or publishing any crime fiction as Evan Hunter, might weaken his literary reputation. Consequently, during the 1950s Hunter used the pseudonyms Curt Cannon, Hunt Collins, and Richard Marsten for much of his crime fiction. A prolific author in several genres, Hunter also published approximately two dozen science fiction stories and four science-fiction novels between 1951 and 1956 under the names S. A. Lombino, Evan Hunter, Richard Marsten, D. A. Addams, and Ted Taine. Ed McBain, his best known pseudonym, was first used with Cop Hater (1956), the first novel in the 87th Precinct crime series. Hunter revealed that he was McBain in 1958 but continued to use the pseudonym for decades, notably for the 87th Precinct series and the Matthew Hope detective series. He retired the pen names Addams, Cannon, Collins, Marsten, and Taine around 1960. From then on crime novels were generally attributed to McBain and other sorts of fiction to Hunter. Reprints of crime-oriented stories and novels written in the 1950s previously attributed to other pseudonyms were reissued under the McBain byline. Hunter stated that the division of names allowed readers to know what to expect: McBain novels had a consistent writing style, while Hunter novels were more varied. Under the Hunter name, novels steadily appeared throughout the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s, including Come Winter (1973) and Lizzie (1984). Hunter was also successful as screenwriter for film and television. He wrote the screenplay for the Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds (1963), loosely adapted from Daphne du Maurier's eponymous 1952 novelette. Following The Birds, Hunter was again hired by Hitchcock to complete an in-progress script adapting Winston Graham's novel Marnie. However, Hunter and the director disagreed on how to treat the novel's rape scene, and the writer was sacked. Hunter's other screenplays included Strangers When We Meet (1960), based on his own 1958 novel; and Fuzz (1972), based on his eponymous 1968 87th Precinct novel, which he had written as Ed McBain. After having thirteen 87th Precinct novels published from 1956 to 1960, further 87th Precinct novels appeared at a rate of approximately one a year until his death. Additionally, NBC ran a police drama called 87th Precinct during the 1961-62 season, based on McBain's work. From 1978 to 1998, McBain published a series about lawyer Matthew Hope; books in this series appeared every year or two, and usually had titles derived from well-known children's stories. For about a decade, from 1984 to 1994, Hunter published no fiction under his own name. In 2000, a novel called Candyland appeared that was credited to both Hunter and McBain. The two-part novel opened in Hunter's psychologically based narrative voice before switching to McBain's customary police procedural style. Aside from McBain, Hunter used at least two other pseudonyms for his fiction after 1960: Doors (1975), which was originally attributed to Ezra Hannon before being reissued as a work by McBain, and Scimitar (1992), which was credited to John Abbott. Hunter gave advice to other authors in his article "Dig in and get it done: no-nonsense advice from a prolific author (aka Ed McBain) on starting and finishing your novel". In it, he advised authors to "find their voice for it is the most important thing in any novel"."Dig in and get it done"; Evan Hunter. The Writer. Boston: Jun 2005. Vol. 118, Issue 6 Dean Hudson controversy Hunter was long rumored to have written an unknown number of pornographic novels, as Dean Hudson, for William Hamling's publishing houses. Hunter adamantly and consistently denied writing any books as Hudson until he died. However, apparently his agent Scott Meredith sold books to Hamling's company as Hunter's work and received payments for these books in cash. While notable, it is not definitive proof: Meredith almost certainly forwarded novels to Hamling by any number of authors, claiming these novels were by Hunter simply to make a sale. Ninety-three novels were published under the Hudson name from 1961 to 1969, and the most avid proponents of the Hunter-as-Hudson theory do not believe Hunter is responsible for all 93. Personal life He had three sons: Richard Hunter, an author, speaker, advisor to chief information officers on business value and risk issues, and harmonica player; Mark Hunter, an academic, educator, investigative reporter, and author; and Ted Hunter, a painter, who died in 2006. Death A heavy smoker for many decades, Hunter had three heart attacks over a number of years (his first in 1987) and needed a heart surgery. A precancerous lesion was found on his larynx in 1992. This was removed however the cancer later returned. In 2005, Hunter died in Weston, Connecticut from laryngeal cancer. He was 78. Awards Edgar Award nomination for Best Short Story, "The Last Spin" (Manhunt, Sept. 1956) Edgar Award nomination for Best Motion Picture, The Birds (1964) Edgar Award nomination for Best Short Story, "Sardinian Incident" (Playboy, Oct. 1971) Grand Master, Mystery Writers of America (1986) Diamond Dagger, British Crime Writers Assn (first American recipient, 1998) Anthony Award nomination for Best Series of the Century (2000) Edgar Award nomination for Best Novel, Money, Money, Money (2002) Works thumb|right|Hunter's "Silent Partner" was the cover story on the August 1952 issue of Science Fiction Quarterly, credited to S. A. Lombino Novels Year Title Creditedauthor Series Notes1952 Find The Feathered Serpent Evan Hunter YA novel1952 The Evil Sleep! Evan Hunter Reprinted in 1956 as "So Nude, So Dead" under the name Richard Marsten1953 Don't Crowd Me Evan Hunter 1953 Danger: Dinosaurs! Richard Marsten YA novel1953 Rocket to Luna Richard Marsten YA novel1954 The Blackboard Jungle Evan Hunter 1954 Runaway Black Richard Marsten Later credited as Ed McBain1954 Cut Me In Hunt Collins Later republished as The Proposition1955 Murder in the Navy Richard Marsten Later republished as Death of a Nurse by Ed McBain1956 Second Ending Evan Hunter 1956 Cop Hater Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1956 The Mugger Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1956 The Pusher Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1960 film adaptation The Pusher 1956 Tomorrow's World Hunt Collins Later republished as Tomorrow And Tomorrow by Hunt Collins, and as Sphere by Ed McBain1957 The Con Man Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1957 Killer's Choice Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1957 Vanishing Ladies Richard Marsten Later republished as by Ed McBain1957 The Spiked Heel Richard Marsten 1958 Strangers When We Meet Evan Hunter 1958 The April Robin Murders Craig Rice and Ed McBain Hunter finished this novel started by Rice, using his McBain pen name.1958 Killer's Payoff Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1958 Lady Killer Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1958 Even The Wicked Richard Marsten Later republished as by Ed McBain1958 I'm Cannon—For Hire Curt Cannon Later revised and republished as The Gutter and the Grave by Ed McBain 1959 A Matter of Conviction Evan Hunter 1959 The Remarkable Harry Evan Hunter Children's book1959 Big Man Richard Marsten Later republished as by Ed McBain1959 Killer's Wedge Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1959 'til Death Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1959 King's Ransom Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1960 Give the Boys a Great Big Hand Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1960 The Heckler Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1960 See Them Die Ed McBain 87th Precinct 1961Lady, Lady I Did It!Ed McBain87th Precinct1961Mothers And DaughtersEvan Hunter1961The Wonderful ButtonEvan HunterChildren's book1962Like LoveEd McBain87th Precinct1963Ten Plus OneEd McBain87th Precinct1964BuddwingEvan Hunter1964AxEd McBain87th Precinct1964He Who HesitatesEd McBain87th Precinct1965DollEd McBain87th Precinct1965The SentriesEd McBain1965Me And Mr. StennerEvan HunterChildren's book1965Happy New Year, HerbieEvan Hunter1966The Paper DragonEvan Hunter196680 Million EyesEd McBain87th Precinct1967A Horse's HeadEvan Hunter1968Last SummerEvan Hunter1968FuzzEd McBain87th Precinct1969SonsEvan Hunter1969ShotgunEd McBain87th Precinct1970JigsawEd McBain87th PrecinctThis novel was adapted as the Columbo episode "Undercover" in 1994.1971Nobody Knew They Were ThereEvan Hunter1971Hail, Hail the Gang's All Here Ed McBain87th Precinct1972Every Little Crook And NannyEvan Hunter1972Let's Hear It for the Deaf Man Ed McBain87th Precinct1972SevenEvan Hunter1972Sadie When She Died Ed McBain87th Precinct1973Come WinterEvan Hunter1973Hail to the Chief Ed McBain87th Precinct1974Streets Of GoldEvan Hunter1974BreadEd McBain87th Precinct1975Where There's Smoke Ed McBain1975Blood RelativesEd McBain87th Precinct1975DoorsEzra HannonLater republished as by Ed McBain1976So Long as You Both Shall LiveEd McBain87th PrecinctThis novel was adapted as the Columbo episode "No Time to Die" in 1992.1976The ChisholmsEvan Hunter1976Guns Ed McBain1977Long Time No SeeEd McBain87th Precinct1978GoldilocksEd McBainMatthew Hope1979Walk ProudEvan Hunter1979CalypsoEd McBain87th Precinct1980GhostsEd McBain87th Precinct1981Love, DadEvan Hunter1981HeatEd McBain87th Precinct1981RumpelstiltskinEd McBainMatthew Hope1982Beauty & The BeastEd McBainMatthew Hope1983Far From The SeaEvan Hunter1983IceEd McBain87th Precinct1984LizzieEvan Hunter1984LightningEd McBain87th Precinct1984Jack & The BeanstalkEd McBainMatthew Hope1984And All Through the HouseEd McBain87th PrecinctShort-story length work, issued (with illustrations) as a limited-edition novel. Reissued in 1994.1985Eight Black HorsesEd McBain87th Precinct1985Snow White & Rose RedEd McBainMatthew Hope1986Another Part of the City Ed McBain1986CinderellaEd McBainMatthew Hope1987PoisonEd McBain87th Precinct1987TricksEd McBain87th Precinct1987Puss in BootsEd McBainMatthew Hope1988The House that Jack BuiltEd McBainMatthew Hope1989LullabyEd McBain87th Precinct1990VespersEd McBain87th Precinct1990Three Blind MiceEd McBainMatthew HopeAdapted as a TV Movie in 2001, starring Brian Dennehy1991DowntownEd McBain1991WidowsEd McBain87th Precinct1992KissEd McBain87th Precinct1992Mary, MaryEd McBainMatthew Hope1992ScimitarJohn Abbott1993MischiefEd McBain87th Precinct1994There Was A Little GirlEd McBainMatthew Hope1994Criminal ConversationEvan Hunter1995RomanceEd McBain87th Precinct1996Privileged ConversationEvan Hunter1996Gladly The Cross-Eyed BearEd McBainMatthew Hope1997NocturneEd McBain87th Precinct1998The Last Best HopeEd McBainMatthew Hope1999The Big Bad CityEd McBain87th Precinct2000CandylandEvan Hunter and Ed McBainTwo-part novel that was billed as a "collaboration" between Hunter and his pseudonym.2000Driving Lessons Ed McBain2000The Last DanceEd McBain87th Precinct2001Money, Money, MoneyEd McBain87th Precinct2002The Moment She Was GoneEvan Hunter2002Fat Ollie's BookEd McBain87th Precinct2003The Frumious Bandersnatch Ed McBain87th Precinct2004Hark! Ed McBain87th Precinct2005Alice in JeopardyEd McBain2005FiddlersEd McBain87th Precinct Collections 1956: The Jungle Kids (Short Stories) (short stories by Evan Hunter) 1957: The Merry, Merry Christmas 1957: On the Sidewalk Bleeding 1960: The Last Spin & Other Stories 1962: The Empty Hours (87th Precinct short stories by Ed McBain) 1965: Happy New Year, Herbie (short stories by Evan Hunter) 1972: The Easter Man (a Play) And Six Stories (by Evan Hunter) 1982: The McBain Brief (Short stories by Ed McBain) 1988: McBain's Ladies (87th Precinct short stories by Ed McBain) 1992: McBain's Ladies, Too (87th Precinct short stories by Ed McBain) 2000: Barking at Butterflies & Other Stories (by Evan Hunter) 2000: Running from Legs (by Evan Hunter) 2006: Learning to Kill (short story collection by Ed McBain, published posthumously, featuring works written 1952-57) Autobiographical 1998: Me & Hitch! (by Evan Hunter) 2005: Let's Talk (by Evan Hunter) Plays The Easter Man (1964) The Conjuror (1969) Screenplays Strangers When We Meet (1960) The Birds (1963) Fuzz (1972) Walk Proud (1979) Teleplays The Chisholms, CBS miniseries starring Robert Preston (1979) The Legend of Walks Far Woman (1980) Dream West (1986) As editor 2000: The Best American Mystery Stories (by Evan Hunter) 2005: Transgressions (collection of crime novellas by various authors edited by Ed McBain) Incomplete novels Becca in Jeopardy (Near completion at the time of Hunter's death. Apparently to remain unpublished.) Film adaptations Blackboard Jungle (1955) by Richard Brooks, from Blackboard Jungle High and Low (1963) by Akira Kurosawa, from King's Ransom Mister Buddwing (1966) by Delbert Mann, from Buddwing Last Summer (1969) by Frank Perry, from Last Summer Sans mobile apparent (1971) by Philippe Labro, from Ten Plus One Every Little Crook and Nanny (1972) by Cy Howard, from Every Little Crook and Nanny Blood Relatives (1978) by Claude Chabrol, from Blood Relatives Lonely Heart (1981) by Kon Ichikawa, from Lady, Lady, I Did It References External links Hunter/McBain bibliography at Hard-Boiled Official Evan Hunter and Ed McBain websites Evan Hunter and Ed McBain on Internet Book List 1993 interview, A Discussion with... National Authors on Tour TV Series 1995 interview, A Discussion with... National Authors on Tour TV Series 2001 interview with Leonard Lopate at WNYC (archived) 2005 interview with David Bianculli at NPR Category:1926 births Category:2005 deaths Category:20th-century American novelists Category:American male novelists Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:American male screenwriters Category:Hunter College alumni Category:Cooper Union alumni Category:American television writers Category:American children's writers Category:American mystery writers Category:20th-century American memoirists Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:People from East Harlem Category:Writers from the Bronx Category:Screenwriters from New York City Category:American writers of Italian descent Category:Deaths from laryngeal cancer Category:Cartier Diamond Dagger winners Category:Edgar Award winners Category:Deaths from cancer in Connecticut Category:American male short story writers Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:American male television writers Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American male writers Category:United States Navy personnel of World War II Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers Category:21st-century pseudonymous writers

{"Pen name": "John Abbott, Curt Cannon, Hunt Collins, Ezra Hannon, Ed McBain, Richard Marsten, others", "Born": "1926 10 15 y", "Died": "2005 7 6 1926 10 15", "Occupation": "Novelist\n short story writer\n screenwriter", "Period": "1951-2005", "Children": "3 sons; 1 stepdaughter"}

Eugenio Montale (; 12 October 1896 - 12 September 1981) was an Italian poet, prose writer, editor and translator, and recipient of the 1975 Nobel Prize in Literature. Life and works Early years Montale was born in Genoa. His family were chemical products traders (his father supplied Italo Svevo's firm). Montale was the youngest of six sons. Montale was largely self-taught. Growing up, his imagination was caught by several writers, including Dante Alighieri, and by the study of foreign languages (especially English), as well as the landscapes of the Levante ("Eastern") Liguria, where he spent holidays with his family. Poetic works Montale wrote more than ten anthologies of short lyrics, a journal of poetry translation, plus several books of prose translations, two books of literary criticism, and one of fantasy prose. Alongside his imaginative work he was a constant contributor to Italy's most important newspaper, the Corriere della Sera, for which he wrote a huge number of articles on literature, music, and art. He also wrote a foreword to Dante's "The Divine Comedy", in which he mentions the credibility of Dante, and his insight and unbiased imagination. In 1925 he was a signatory to the Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals. Montale's own politics inclined toward the liberalism of Piero Gobetti and Benedetto Croce. He contributed to Gobetti's literary magazine Il Baretti. Montale's work, especially his first poetry collection Ossi di seppia ("Cuttlefish Bones"), which appeared in 1925, shows him as an antifascist who felt detached from contemporary life and found solace and refuge in the solitude of nature. Anticonformism of the new poetry Montale moved to Florence in 1927 to work as editor for the publisher Bemporad. Florence was the cradle of Italian poetry of that age, with works like the Canti orfici by Dino Campana (1914) and the first lyrics by Ungaretti for the review Lacerba. Other poets like Umberto Saba and Vincenzo Cardarelli had been highly praised. In 1929 Montale was asked to be chairman of the Gabinetto Vieusseux Library, a post from which he was expelled in 1938 by the fascist government. By this time Montale's poetry was a reaction against the literary style of the fascist regime. He collaborated with the magazine Solaria, and (starting in 1927) frequented the literary café Le Giubbe Rosse ("Red Jackets") on the Piazza Vittoria (now Piazza della Repubblica). Visiting the café often several times a day, he became a central figure among a group of writers there, including Carlo Emilio Gadda, Arturo Loria and Elio Vittorini (all founders of the magazine).Eugenio Montale, Collected Poems 1920-1954, translated and edited by Jonathan Galassi, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998, He wrote for almost all the important literary magazines of the time. Though hindered by financial problems and the literary and social conformism imposed by the authorities, in Florence Montale published his finest anthology, Le occasioni ("Occasions", 1939). From 1933 to 1938 he had a love relationship with Irma Brandeis, a Jewish-American scholar of Dante who occasionally visited Italy for short periods. After falling in love with Brandeis, Montale represented her as a mediatrix figure like Dante's Beatrice. Le occasioni contains numerous allusions to Brandeis, here called Clizia (a senhal). Franco Fortini judged Montale's Ossi di seppia and Le occasioni the high-water mark of 20th century Italian poetry. T.S. Eliot, who shared Montale's admiration for Dante, was an important influence on his poetry at this time; in fact, the new poems of Eliot were shown to Montale by Mario Praz, then teaching in Manchester. The concept of the objective correlative used by Montale in his poetry, was probably influenced by T. S. Eliot. In 1948, for Eliot's sixtieth birthday, Montale contributed a celebratory essay entitled "Eliot and Ourselves" to a collection published to mark the occasion.Montale 1948, pp. 190-195. Disharmony with the world From 1948 to his death, Montale lived in Milan. After the war, he was a member of the liberal Partito d'Azione. As a contributor to the Corriere della Sera he was music editor and also reported from abroad, including Israel, where he went as a reporter to follow Pope Paul VI's visit there. His works as a journalist are collected in Fuori di casa ("Out of Home", 1969). La bufera e altro ("The Storm and Other Things") was published in 1956 and marks the end of Montale's most acclaimed poetry. Here his figure Clizia is joined by La Volpe ("the Fox"), based on the young poet Maria Luisa Spaziani with whom Montale had an affair during the 1950s. However, this volume also features Clizia, treated in a variety of poems as a kind of bird-goddess who defies Hitler. These are some of his greatest poems. His later works are Xenia (1966), Satura (1971) and Diario del '71 e del '72 (1973). Montale's later poetry is wry and ironic, musing on the critical reaction to his earlier work and on the constantly changing world around him. Satura contains a poignant elegy to his wife Drusilla Tanzi. He also wrote a series of poignant poems about Clizia shortly before his death. Montale's fame at that point had extended throughout the world. He had received honorary degrees from the Universities of Milan (1961), Cambridge (1967), Rome (1974), and had been named Senator-for-Life in the Italian Senate. In 1973 he was awarded the Golden Wreath of the Struga Poetry Evenings in Struga, SR Macedonia. In 1975 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. Montale died in Milan in 1981. In 1996, a work appeared called Posthumous Diary (Diario postumo) that purported to have been 'compiled' by Montale before his death, with the help of the young poet Annalisa Cima; the critic Dante Isella thinks that this work is not authentic.Article of G. Raboni on Corriere della Sera (archiviostorico.corriere.it) Joseph Brodsky dedicated his essay "In the Shadow of Dante" to Eugenio Montale's lyric poetry. List of works Each year links to its corresponding "[year] in literature" or "[year] in poetry" article: 1925: Ossi di seppia ("Cuttlefish Bones"), first edition; second edition, 1928, with six new poems and an introduction by Alfredo Gargiulo; third edition, 1931, Lanciano: Carabba 1932: La casa dei doganieri e altre poesie, a chapbook of five poems published in association with the award of the Premio del Antico Fattore to Montale; Florence: Vallecchi 1939: Le occasioni ("The Occasions"), Turin: Einaudi 1943: Finisterre, a chapbook of poetry, smuggled into Switzerland by Gianfranco Contini; Lugano: the Collana di Lugano (24 June); second edition, 1945, Florence: Barbèra 1948: Quaderno di traduzioni, translations, Milan: Edizioni della Meridiana 1948: La fiera letteraria poetry criticism 1956: La bufera e altro ("The Storm and Other Things"), a first edition of 1,000 copies, Venice: Neri Pozza; second, larger edition published in 1957, Milan: Arnaldo Mondadore Editore 1956: Farfalla di Dinard, stories, a private edition 1962: Satura, poetry, published in a private edition, Verona: Oficina Bodoni 1962: Accordi e pastelli ("Agreements and Pastels"), Milan: Scheiwiller (May) 1966: Il colpevole 1966: Auto da fé: Cronache in due tempi, cultural criticism, Milan: Il Saggiatore 1966: Xenia, poems in memory of Mosca, first published in a private edition of 50 1969: Fuori di casa, collected travel writing 1971: Satura (1962-1970) (January) 1971: La poesia non esiste, prose; Milan: Scheiwiller (February) 1973: Diario del '71 e del '72, Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore (a private edition of 100 copies was published in 1971) 1973: Trentadue variazioni, an edition of 250 copies, Milan: Giorgio Lucini 1977: Quaderno di quattro anni, Milan: Mondadori 1977: Tutte le poesie, Milan: Mondadori 1980: L'opera in versi, the Bettarini-Contini edition; published in 1981 as Altri verse e poesie disperse, publisher: Mondadori Translated in Montale's lifetime 1966: Ossi di seppia, Le occasioni, and La bufera e altro, translated by Patrice Angelini into French; Paris: Gallimard 1978: The Storm & Other Poems, translated by Charles Wright into English (Oberlin College Press), Posthumous 1981: Prime alla Scala, music criticism, edited by Gianfranca Lavezzi; Milan: Mondadori 1981: Lettere a Quasimodo, edited by Sebastiano Grasso; publisher: Bompiani 1982: The Second Life of Art: Selected Essays, trans. Jonathan Galassi (Ecco), 1983: Quaderno genovese, edited by Laura Barile; a journal from 1917, first published this year; Milan: Mondadori 1987: Trans. William Arrowsmith, The Occasions (Norton, New York & London). 1990: The Coastguard’s House / La casa dei doganieri : Selected Poems (Bloodaxe Books, Newcastle-upon-Tyne). 1991: Tutte le poesie, edited by Giorgio Zampa. Jonathan Galassi calls this book the "most comprehensive edition of Montale's poems". 1996: Diario postumo: 66 poesie e altre, edited by Annalisa Cima; Milan: Mondadori 1996: Il secondo mestiere: Arte, musica, società and Il secondo mestierre: Prose 1929-1979, a two-volume edition including all of Montale's published writings; edited by Giorgio Zampa; Milan: Mondadori 1998: Satura : 1962-1970 / trans. with notes, by William Arrowsmith (New York, Norton). 1999: Collected Poems, trans. Jonathan Galassi (Carcanet) (Oxford-Weidenfeld Translation Prize) 2004: Selected Poems, trans. Jonathan Galassi, Charles Wright, & David Young (Oberlin College Press), 2016: Xenia (Arc Publications). pbk: ; hbk: ; e-book: . Bilingual version, translated by Mario Petrucci, winner of 2016 PEN Translates Award, shortlisted for 2018 John Florio Prize. 2017: Montale's Essential: The Poems of Eugenio Montale in English, translated by Alessandro Baruffi (Literary Joint Press), Notes Further reading Montale, Eugenio. "Eliot and Ourselves." In T. S. Eliot: A Symposium, edited by Richard March and Tambimuttu, 190-195. London: Editions Poetry, 1948. Pietro Montorfani, "Il mio sogno di te non è finito": ipotesi di speranza nell'universo montaliano, in "Sacra doctrina", (55) 2010, pp. 185-196. External links including the Nobel Lecture December 12, 1975 Is Poetry Still Possible? Category:1896 births Category:1981 deaths Category:Writers from Genoa Category:Action Party (Italy) politicians Category:Italian Liberal Party politicians Category:Italian Republican Party politicians Category:Italian life senators Category:Politicians from Genoa Category:Italian male poets Category:English-Italian translators Category:Translators of John Steinbeck Category:Translators of T. S. Eliot Category:Chapbook writers Category:20th-century Italian poets Category:Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals Category:Italian anti-fascists Category:Italian military personnel of World War I Category:Italian Nobel laureates Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath laureates Category:20th-century Italian translators

{"Name": "Eugenio Montale", "Term start": "13 June 1967", "Term end": "12 September 1981", "Birth date": "y 1896 10 12", "Birth place": "Genoa, Kingdom of Italy", "Death date": "y 1981 9 12 1896 10 12", "Death place": "Milan, Italy", "Awards": "1975 Nobel Prize in Literature"}

Episiotomy, also known as perineotomy, is a surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall generally done by a midwife or obstetrician. This is usually performed during second stage of labor to quickly enlarge the aperture allowing the baby to pass through. The incision, which can be done from the posterior midline of the vulva straight toward the anus or at an angle to the right or left (medio-lateral episiotomy), is performed under local anesthetic (pudendal anesthesia), and is sutured after delivery. Its routine use is no longer recommended, as perineal massage, a form of the plastic surgeon's principle of 'skin tissue expansion' applied to the vaginal cavity, is an alternative painless method of enlarging the orifice for the baby. It is nonetheless one of the most common surgical procedures specific to women. In the United States, as of 2012, it was performed in 12% of vaginal births. It is still widely practiced in many parts of the world, including Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, and Spain. Uses Vaginal tears can occur during childbirth, most often at the introitus as the baby's head passes through, especially if the baby descends quickly. Episiotomies are used in an effort to prevent soft-tissue tearing (perineal tear) which may involve the anal sphincter and rectum. Tears can involve the perineal skin or extend to the muscles and the anal sphincter and anus. The midwife or obstetrician may decide to make a surgical cut to the perineum with scissors or a scalpel to make the baby's birth easier and prevent severe injuries that can be difficult to repair. The cut is repaired with stitches (sutures). Some childbirth facilities have a policy of routine episiotomy. Specific reasons to do an episiotomy are unclear. Though indications on the need for episiotomy vary and may even be controversial (see discussion below), where the technique is applied, there are two main variations. Both are depicted in the above image. In one variation, the midline episiotomy, the line of incision is central over the anus. This technique bifurcates the perineal body, which is essential for the integrity of the pelvic floor. Precipitous birth can also sever—and more severely sever—the perineal body, leading to long-term complications such as incontinence. Therefore, the oblique technique is often applied (also pictured above). In the oblique technique, the perineal body is avoided, cutting only the vagina epithelium, skin, and muscles (transversalius and bulbospongiosus). This technique aids in avoiding trauma to the perineal body by either surgical or traumatic means. In 2009, a Cochrane meta-analysis based on studies with over 5,000 women concluded that: "Restrictive episiotomy policies appear to have a number of benefits compared to policies based on routine episiotomy. There is less posterior perineal trauma, less suturing and fewer complications, no difference for most pain measures and severe vaginal or perineal trauma, but there was an increased risk of anterior perineal trauma with restrictive episiotomy". The authors were unable to find quality studies that compared mediolateral versus midline episiotomy. Types thumb|Illustration of midline and medio-lateral incision sites for possible episiotomy thumb|Illustration of infant crowning and midline and medio-lateral incision sites for possible episiotomy during delivery There are four main types of episiotomy: Medio-lateral: The incision is made downward and outward from the midpoint of the fourchette either to the right or left. It is directed diagonally in a straight line which runs about away from the anus (midpoint between the anus and the ischial tuberosity). Median: The incision commences from the centre of the fourchette and extends on the posterior side along the midline for . Lateral: The incision starts from about away from the centre of the fourchette and extends laterally. Drawbacks include the chance of injury to the Bartholin's duct, therefore some practitioners have strongly discouraged lateral incisions. J-shaped: The incision begins in the centre of the fourchette and is directed posteriorly along the midline for about and then directed downwards and outwards along the 5 or 7 o'clock position to avoid the internal and external anal sphincter. This procedure is also not widely practised. Controversy Traditionally, physicians have used episiotomies in an effort to deflect the cut in the perineal skin away from the anal sphincter muscle, as control over stool (faeces) is an important function of the anal sphincter, i.e. lessen perineal trauma, minimize postpartum pelvic floor dysfunction, and as muscles have a good blood supply, by avoiding damaging the anal sphincter muscle, reduce the loss of blood during delivery, and protect against neonatal trauma. While episiotomy is employed to obviate issues such as post-partum pain, incontinence, and sexual dysfunction, some studies suggest that episiotomy surgery itself can cause all of these problems. Research has shown that natural tears typically are less severe (although this is perhaps not surprising since an episiotomy is designed for when natural tearing will cause significant risks or trauma). Slow delivery of the head in between contractions will result in the least perineal damage. Studies in 2010 based on interviews with postpartum women have concluded that limiting perineal trauma during birth is conducive to continued sexual function after birth. At least one study has recommended that routine episiotomy be abandoned for this reason. In various countries, routine episiotomy has been accepted medical practice for many years. Since about the 1960s, routine episiotomies have been rapidly losing popularity among obstetricians and midwives in almost all countries in Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States. A nationwide U.S. population study suggested that 31% of women having babies in U.S. hospitals received episiotomies in 1997, compared with 56% in 1979. In Latin America it remains popular, and is performed in 90% of hospital births. Discussion Having an episiotomy may increase perineal pain during postpartum recovery, resulting in trouble defecating, particularly in midline episiotomies. In addition, it may complicate sexual intercourse by making it painful and replacing erectile tissues in the vulva with scar tissue. In cases where an episiotomy is indicated, a mediolateral incision may be preferable to a median (midline) incision, as the latter is associated with a higher risk of injury to the anal sphincter and the rectum. Abstract. Damage to the anal sphincter caused by episiotomy can result in fecal incontinence (loss of control over defecation). Conversely, one of the reasons episiotomy is performed is to prevent tearing of the anal sphincter, which is also associated with faecal incontinence. Impacts on sexual intercourse Some midwives compare routine episiotomy to female genital mutilation. One study found that women who underwent episiotomy reported more painful intercourse and insufficient lubrication 12-18 months after birth but did not find any problems with orgasm or arousal. Pain management Perineal pain after episiotomy has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Nonpharmacologic interventions can also be used: a warm salt bath increases blood flow to the area, decreases local discomfort, and promotes healing. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth. See also Husband stitch Perineal massage References External links Episiotomy, Merck Manual Professional Edition Stages of Labor, Merck Manual Professional Edition What I Don’t Tell My Students About ‘The Husband Stitch’, Electricliterature.com Episiotomy Animation, How That Might Be Used During Labor to Ease Delivery of the Baby? Category:Obstetrical procedures Category:Theriogenology

{"Pronunciation": "ə ˌ p iː z i ˈ ɒ t ə m i ,_ , ɛ p ə s aɪ ˈ -", "ICD-9-CM": "73.6", "MeSH": "D004841", "Other names": "Perineotomy"}

The 87th Precinct is a series of police procedural novels and stories by American author Ed McBain (a writing pseudonym of Evan Hunter). McBain's 87th Precinct works have been adapted, sometimes loosely, into movies and television on several occasions. Setting The series is based on the work of the police detective squad of the 87th Precinct in the central district of Isola, a large fictional city obviously based on New York City. Isola is the name of the central district of the city (it fulfills the role of the borough of Manhattan within New York City). Other districts in McBain's fictionalized version of New York broadly correspond to NYC's other four boroughs, Calm's Point standing in for Brooklyn, Majesta representing Queens, Riverhead substituting for the Bronx, and Bethtown for Staten Island. Other recognizable locations that correspond to New York City landmarks are Grover Park (Central Park), Sand's Spit (Long Island), the rivers Harb (Hudson) and Dix (East River), neighborhoods such as The Quarter (The Village), Devil's Break (Spuyten Duyvil), Stewart City (Tudor City), and Diamondback (Harlem), and specific places such as Buena Vista Hospital (Bellevue), Hall Avenue (Fifth Avenue), Jefferson Avenue (Madison Avenue), and the Stem or Stemmler Avenue (Broadway). The 87th Precinct has 16 detectives on its regular roster and is said to have the highest crime rate in the city and the busiest Fire Department in the world. Every single 87th Precinct novel begins with a disclaimer: "The city in these pages is imaginary. The people, the places are all fictitious. Only the police routine is based on established investigatory technique." Main Characters The books feature a large ensemble cast, often but not always centered on about half a dozen police detectives and other supporting characters. Detective Steve Carella is a major character in the series, alongside officers Bert Kling, the ambitious youngster, the hot-tempered Roger Havilland, and comic relief from the unfortunately named Meyer Meyer. A mysterious antagonist known as The Deaf Man appears in several of the books over the years. Detective Stephen Louis "Steve" Carella Detective Meyer Meyer Detective Cotton Hawes Detective Bert Kling Detective Hal Willis Detective Arthur Brown Recurring Characters Detective Eileen Burke Detective Andy Parker Detective Dick Genero Detective Bob O'Brien Detective Tack Fujiwara Dave Murchison, Desk Sergeant Sergeant Alf Miscolo, Clerical Office Monoghan and Monroe, Homicide Detectives Oliver Wendell "Fat Ollie" Weeks (Detective from the 33rd Precinct) Fats Donner and Danny Gimp, stool pigeons Sam Grossman, Head of the Police Lab Paul Blaney, Medical Examiner Cliff Savage, newspaper reporter Teddy (Theodora) Carella née Franklin, Steve Carella's wife The Deaf Man The 87th Precinct Mysteries Cop Hater (1956) The Mugger (1956) The Pusher (1956) The Con Man (1957) Killer's Choice (1957) Killer's Payoff (1958) Lady Killer (1958) Killer's Wedge (1959) 'til Death (1959) King's Ransom (1959) Give the Boys a Great Big Hand (1960) The Heckler (1960) See Them Die (1960) Lady, Lady I Did It (1961) The Empty Hours (1962) - three novellas Like Love (1962) Ten Plus One (1963) Ax (1964) He Who Hesitates (1964) Doll (1965) 80 Million Eyes (1966) Fuzz (1968) Shotgun (1969) Jigsaw (1970) Hail, Hail the Gang's All Here (1971) Sadie When She Died (1972) Let's Hear It for the Deaf Man (1973) Hail to the Chief (1973) Bread (1974) Blood Relatives (1975) So Long as You Both Shall Live (1976) Long Time No See (1977) Calypso (1979) Ghosts (1980) Heat (1981) Ice (1983) Lightning (1984) Eight Black Horses (1985) Poison (1987) Tricks (1987) Lullaby (1989) Vespers (1990) Widows (1991) Kiss (1992) Mischief (1993) And All Through the House (Novella - 1994) Romance (1995) Nocturne (1997) The Big Bad City (1999) The Last Dance (2000) Money, Money, Money (2001) Fat Ollie's Book (2002) The Frumious Bandersnatch (2003) Hark! (2004) Fiddlers (2005) Short stories and novellas And All Through the House (1984), later published as a 40-page novella in 1994 Reruns (1987) Merely Hate (2005) a novella in the anthology titled Transgressions, edited by Ed McBain The following books excerpted chapters from 87th Precinct novels: McBain's Ladies (Short Stories) (1988) McBain's Ladies, Too (Short Stories) (1992) Novelette The Jesus Case (1974) - this is actually an excerpt from "Let's Hear It For The Deaf Man" Other media Theatrical films Cop Hater (1958) starring Robert Loggia and Gerald O'Loughlin The Mugger (1958) starring Kent Smith, Nan Martin and James Franciscus The Pusher (1960) starring Robert Lansing Tengoku to Jigoku (High and Low) (1963) Japanese film directed by Akira Kurosawa starring Toshiro Mifune, Tatsuya Nakadai and Kyōko Kagawa Sans Mobile Apparent (Without Apparent Motive) (1971) French/Italian film starring Jean-Louis Trintignant, Carla Gravina, Jean-Pierre Marielle and Dominique Sanda Fuzz (1972) starring Burt Reynolds, Raquel Welch, Yul Brynner, Tom Skerritt and Jack Weston Les Liens du Sang (Blood Relatives) (1978) French/Canadian film starring Donald Sutherland, Donald Pleasence and David Hemmings "Способ убийства" ("Killer's Wedge") (1993) Ukraine/Russia movie TV series and TV films 87th Precinct (1961-62 NBC) television series co-starring Robert Lansing, Gena Rowlands, Ron Harper, Gregory Walcott, and Norman Fell Columbo: No Time to Die (based on So Long as You Both Shall Live) (1992) (TV film) Columbo: Undercover (based on Jigsaw) (1994) (TV film) Ed McBain's 87th Precinct: Lightning (1995) (TV film) Aired on NBC starring Randy Quaid and Ving Rhames Ed McBain's 87th Precinct: Ice (1996) (TV film) Aired on NBC starring Dale Midkiff and Joe Pantoliano Ed McBain's 87th Precinct: Heatwave (1997) (TV film) Aired on NBC starring Dale Midkiff and Erika Eleniak Literature 87th Precinct (1962) (Comic Book series) Polishataren (Cop Hater) (1990), a Swedish graphic novel written by Claes Reimerthi and drawn by Martin Sauri The Stand: the Complete & Uncut Edition (1990) by Stephen King has a minor character, "Edward M. Norris, lieutenant of police, detective squad, in the Big Apple's 87th Precinct" (pg 71). Steve Carella is briefly mentioned. The Last Best Hope (1998), a novel in McBain's Matthew Hope series, features Steve Carella as a supporting character. Stephen King novella, "The Mist", one of the major characters is named Ollie Weeks, a detective from the neighboring 88th Precinct. Podcasts Hark! The 87th Precinct Podcast(2016 - ongoing) [Audio Podcast] A podcast dedicated to a book-by-book exploration of the 87th Precinct series, its adaptations and spin-offs. The podcast also explores some other works by Evan Hunter and has featured interviews with Otto Penzler (writer and proprietor of The Mysterious Bookshop in New York) and James Naughtie (British radio presenter and writer). Paperback Warrior (2019) [Audio Podcast] features a segment on Ed McBain's 87th Precinct. The episode delves into the author's bibliography and explores his police procedural series as well as the debut novel Cop Hater. Co-Hosts Tom Simon and Eric Compton both suggest that the 87th Precinct was influenced by the television show Dragnet.Compton, C.E., Simon, T.J.(Hosts).(2019, November 18).Paperback Warrior Podcast: Ed McBain [Audio podcast] References Prial, Frank J., "Why readers keep returning to the 87th Precinct", The New York Times, July 9, 2005. Retrieved April 12, 2011. 87th Precinct Tipping My Fedora / 87th Precinct, reviews of all 55 volumes in the series. Retrieved 8 December 2017 Ed McBain sings Hill Street Blues, Associated Press story, in TV Week, printed in Ocala Star-Banner, April 30, 1983. Retrieved April 12, 2011 Category:Crime novel series Category:Police procedurals Category:E. P. Dutton books Category:Book series introduced in 1956

{"Country": "United States", "Language": "English", "Publisher": "Original US editions:\n\n Permabooks\n Dell Publishing\n Doubleday (publisher)\n Random House\n Viking Press\n Arbor House\n William Morrow and Company\n Warner Books\n Simon and Schuster\n Harcourt Books", "Published": "1956-2005", "Media type": "Print (Hardcover)", "No. of books": "55"}

René Samuel Cassin (5 October 1887 – 20 February 1976) was a French jurist known for co-authoring the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and receiving the Nobel Peace Prize. Born in Bayonne, Cassin served as a soldier in the First World War during which he was seriously wounded. He was of Portuguese-Jewish descent. On 24 June 1940, during the Second World War, Cassin heeded General Charles de Gaulle's radio appeal and joined him in London. Cassin used his legal expertise to help de Gaulle's Free French. Between 1944 and 1959, Cassin was a member of the Council of State. Seconded to the UN Commission on Human Rights after the war, he was a major contributor to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. For that work, he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1968. The same year, he was awarded one of the UN General Assembly's Human Rights Prizes. Early life thumb|upright=0.7|Memorial to Cassin in Forbach, France Cassin was born in Bayonne on 5 October 1887, to a Sephardi Jewish family. He grew up in Nice, where he attended the , and graduated with a bachelor's degree at 17. At the University of Aix he studied political economics, constitutional history, and Roman law and was awarded distinctions in law, a university degree with distinction and the first prize in the competitive examinations in the faculty of law. He was an invited speaker at international peace conferences. In 1914 in Paris, he was awarded his doctorate in juridical science, economics and politics. First World War Cassin served in the First World War in 1916 at the Battle of the Meuse. In one operation, he led the attack on enemy positions and was gravely injured in the arm, side and stomach by machine gunfire. A medic saved his life, but he received surgical treatment only ten days later at Antibes. He was awarded the Croix de Guerre for his actions but was too seriously injured to return to active duty, and he was mustered out as a war invalid. Interwar period He helped to found the Union fédérale, a leftist pacifist organization for veterans. Cassin also headed many non-governmental organizations (NGO) and founded the French Federation of Disabled War Veterans in 1918 and served until 1940 as its president and then as its honorary president. As a French delegate to the League of Nations from 1924 to 1938, Cassin pressed for progress on disarmament and for developing institutions to aid the resolution of international conflicts. Second World War thumb|upright=1.1|René Cassin with the French National Committee in London. Refusing the armistice, Cassin embarked on a British ship, the SS Ettrick, in Saint-Jean-de-Luz on 24 June 1940, and joined General Charles de Gaulle in London to help him continue the war against Germany. Cassin was, therefore, one of the first to join de Gaulle. De Gaulle needed legal help to draft the statutes of Free France and so Cassin's arrival in London was very welcome. René Cassin did not speak English but already knew leading academics and political figures like British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden.René Cassin, l'inconnu du Panthéon In April 1941, Cassin made a radio broadcast from London by addressing himself especially to French Jews from a secular viewpoint and reminding them of the full and equal protection that France had always offered to Jews since the French Revolution. He exhorted them to help pay back that debt by joining the forces of Free France. In May, Vichy France stripped Cassin of his French citizenship and in 1942 sentenced him to death in absentia. Later life and career After the war, Cassin was assigned to the United Nations to help draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Working from a list of rights elaborated by the Canadian scholar and professor of law John Humphrey, Cassin produced a revised draft and expanded the text. He served on the UN Human Rights Commission and the Hague Court of Arbitration. He was also a member (1959-1965) and president (1965-1968) of the European Court of Human Rights. The court building is now on Allée René Cassin, in Strasbourg. In 1945, General de Gaulle suggested for Cassin, having done so much for the French people, to do something also to help the Jewish people. Cassin became the president of the French-Jewish Alliance Israelite Universelle (AIU) which had been dedicated primarily to educating Sephardi Jews living in the Ottoman Empire according to a modern French curriculum. As president of the AIU, Cassin worked with the American Jewish Committee and the Anglo-Jewish Association to found the Consultative Council of Jewish Organisations, a network dedicated to building support for Cassin's platform of human rights from a Jewish perspective while the UN human rights system was in its early stages of development. In 1947, Cassin created the French Institute of Administrative Sciences (IFSA). He was the first president of the association, which organized many conferences to help to develop the French doctrine in administrative law. On 10 November 1950, he was photographed at a UN radio, alongside Karim Azkoul, Georges Day and Herald CL Roy, participating in a roundtable discussion for the use of French-speaking countries. That is perhaps all the more interesting because Azkoul and Cassin differed so strongly in their perspectives concerning the politics of Zionism. Cassin died in Paris in 1976 and was initially interred at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris. In 1987, his remains were exhumed and enshrined in the crypt of the Pantheon in Paris. Legacy In 2001, the CCJO René Cassin was founded in Cassin's memory to promote universal human rights from a Jewish perspective. The René Cassin Medal is awarded by the CCJO to those who have made an outstanding global contribution to human rights. As the head of the Alliance Israélite in France, Cassin had pursued civil rights for the Jews and was an active Zionist. A high school in Jerusalem is named after him. In 2003, the Basque government created the René Cassin Award "with the goal of publicly acknowledging and rewarding individuals or collectives that, through their personal or professional path, showed a strong commitment to the promotion, defence and divulgation of Human Rights". The award is given on 10 December, which is International Human Rights Day. See also International Institute of Human Rights List of Jewish Nobel laureates List of peace activists References Works cited External links including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1968 The Charter of Human Rights CCJO.RenéCassin Human Rights Group Category:1887 births Category:1976 deaths Category:People from Bayonne Category:20th-century French Sephardi Jews Category:French people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Category:Radical Party (France) politicians Category:French Ministers of Justice Category:Members of the Provisional Consultative Assembly Category:Human Rights League (France) members Category:Presidents of the European Court of Human Rights Category:Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration Category:French judges of international courts and tribunals Category:French jurists Category:20th-century jurists Category:Aix-Marseille University alumni Category:Academic staff of the University of Lille Nord de France Category:Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Category:Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy Category:Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Category:Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Category:French military personnel of World War I Category:Companions of the Liberation Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914-1918 (France) Category:Recipients of the Médaille militaire (France) Category:Recipients of the Resistance Medal Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates Category:French Nobel laureates Category:Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery Category:Burials at the Panthéon, Paris

{"Name": "René Cassin", "Caption": "René Cassin's portrait from his Nobel Prize", "Birth name": "René Samuel Cassin", "Birth date": "1887 10 05 y", "Birth place": "Bayonne, Basque Country, France", "Death date": "yes 1976 2 20 1887 10 05", "Death place": "Paris, France", "Occupation": "French jurist, law professor and judge", "Known For": "Advocacy for Human Rights", "Notable works": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Awards": "Nobel Peace Prize (1968)"}

Albert John Luthuli ( - 21 July 1967) was a South African anti-apartheid activist, traditional leader, and politician who served as the President-General of the African National Congress from 1952 until his death in 1967. Luthuli was born to a Zulu family in 1898 at a Seventh-day Adventist mission in Bulawayo, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). He returned to his family's ancestral home of Groutville in 1908 to attend school under the care of his uncle. After graduating from high school with a teaching degree, Luthuli became principal of a small school in Natal where he was the sole teacher. Luthuli's teaching was recognised by the government, and he was offered a bursary to study for the Higher Teacher's Diploma at Adams College. After the completion of his studies in 1922, he accepted a teaching position at Adams College where he was one of the first African teachers. In 1928, he became the secretary of the Natal Native Teachers' Association, then its president in 1933. Luthuli's entry into South African politics and the anti-apartheid movement started in 1935 when he was elected chief of the Umvoti River Reserve in Groutville. As chief, he was exposed to the injustices facing many Africans due to the South African government's increasingly segregationist policies. This segregation would later evolve into apartheid, a form of institutionalized racial segregation following the National Party's election victory in 1948. Luthuli joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944 and was elected the provincial president of the Natal branch in 1951. A year later in 1952, Luthuli led the Defiance Campaign to protest the pass laws and other laws of apartheid. As a result, the government removed him from his chief position as he refused to choose between being a member of the ANC or a chief at Groutville. In the same year, he was elected President-General of the ANC. After the Sharpeville massacre, where sixty-nine Africans were killed, leaders within the ANC such as Nelson Mandela believed the organisation should take up armed resistance against the government. Luthuli was against the use of violence, but as time passed, he gradually accepted it; however, he stayed committed to nonviolence on a personal level. Following four banning orders, the imprisonment and exile of his political allies, and the banning of the ANC, Luthuli's power as President-General gradually waned. The subsequent creation of uMkhonto we Sizwe, the ANC's paramilitary wing, marked the anti-apartheid movement's shift from nonviolence to an armed struggle. Inspired by his Christian faith and the nonviolent methods used by Gandhi, Luthuli was praised for his dedication to nonviolent resistance against apartheid as well as his vision of a non-racial South African society. In 1961, Luthuli was awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in leading the nonviolent anti-apartheid movement. Luthuli's supporters brand him as a global icon of peace similar to Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr, the latter of whom claimed to be a follower and admirer of Luthuli. He formed multi-racial alliances with the South African Indian Congress and the white Congress of Democrats, frequently drawing a backlash from Africanists in the ANC. The Africanist bloc believed that Africans should not ally themselves with other races, since Africans were the most disadvantaged race under apartheid. This schism led to the creation of the Pan-Africanist Congress led by Robert Sobukwe. Early life thumb|upright=0.9|left|alt=Aerial photograph of a university in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe surrounded by many trees.|The former site of Solusi Mission Station, which is now Solusi University. Albert John Luthuli was born at the Solusi Mission Station, a Seventh-day Adventist missionary station, in 1898 to John and Mtonya Luthuli (née Gumede) who had settled in the Bulawayo area of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). He was the youngest of three children and had two brothers, Alfred Nsusana and Mpangwa, who died at birth. Luthuli's father died when he was about six months old, and Luthuli had no recollection of him. His father's death led to him being mainly raised by his mother Mtonya, who had spent her childhood in the royal household of King Cetshwayo in Zululand. Mtonya converted to Christianity and lived with the American Board Mission prior to her marriage to John Luthuli. During her stay, she learned how to read and became a dedicated reader of the Bible until her death. Despite being able to read, Mtonya never learned how to write. After their marriage, Luthuli's father left Natal and went to Rhodesia during the Second Matabele War to serve with the Rhodesian forces. When the war ended, John stayed in Rhodesia with a Seventh-day Adventist mission near Bulawayo and worked as an interpreter and evangelist. Mtonya and Alfred then travelled to Rhodesia to reunite with John, where Luthuli was born soon after. Luthuli's paternal grandparents, Ntaba ka Madunjini and Titsi Mthethwa, were born in the early nineteenth century and had fought against potential annexation from Shaka's Zulu Kingdom. They were also among the first converts of Aldin Grout, a missionary from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABM), which was based near the Umvoti River north of Durban. The abasemakholweni, a converted Christian community within the Umvoti Mission Station, elected Ntaba as their chief in 1860. This marked the start of a family tradition, as Ntaba's brother, son Martin, and grandson Albert were also subsequently elected as chiefs. Youth thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A black and white photo of 13 Christian Zulu men seated outside of a church.|Pastor and Deacons at a Groutville Church in 1900. Around 1908 or 1909, the Seventh-day Adventists expressed their interest in beginning missionary work in Natal and requested the services of Luthuli's brother, Alfred, to work as an interpreter. Luthuli and his mother followed, and departed Rhodesia to return to South Africa. Luthuli's family settled in the Vryheid district of Northern Natal, and resided on the farm of a Seventh-day Adventist. During this time, Luthuli was responsible for tending to the missionary's mules as educational opportunities were not available. Luthuli's mother recognised his need for a formal education and sent him to live in Groutville under the care of his uncle. Groutville was a small village inhabited predominantly by poor Christian farmers who were affiliated with the nearby mission station run by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABM). The ABM, which commenced operations in Southern Africa in 1834, was a Congregationalist organisation responsible for setting up the Umvoti Mission Station. After the death of ABM missionary Aldin Grout in 1894, the town surrounding the mission station was renamed Groutville. Luthuli resided in the home of his uncle, Chief Martin Luthuli, and his family. Martin was the first democratically elected chief of Groutville. Outside of his chieftaincy, Martin founded the Natal Native Congress in 1901, which would later become the Natal branch of the African National Congress. Luthuli had a pleasant childhood as his uncle Martin was guardian over many children in Groutville. This led to Luthuli having many friends his age. In Martin's traditional Zulu household, Luthuli completed chores expected of a Zulu boy his age such as fetching water, herding, and building fires. Additionally, he attended school for the first time. Under Martin's care, Luthuli was also provided with an early knowledge of traditional African politics and affairs, which aided him in his future career as a traditional chief. Education thumb|upright=1.2|right|alt=A photograph taken in 2014 of a large memorial within a school surrounded by trees.|John Dube's memorial outside of the Ohlange Institute. Luthuli's mother, Mtonya, returned to Groutville and Luthuli returned to her care. They lived in a brand-new house built by his brother, Alfred, on the site where their grandfather, Ntaba, had once lived. In order to be able to send her son to boarding school, Mtonya worked long hours in the fields of the land she owned. She would also take in laundry from European families in the township of Stanger to earn the necessary money for school. Luthuli was educated at a local ABM mission school until 1914, where he then transferred to the Ohlange Institute. Ohlange was founded by John Dube, who was the school principal at the time Luthuli attended. Dube was educated in America but returned to South Africa to open the Ohlange Institute to provide an education to black children. He was the first President-General of the South African Native National Congress and founded the first Zulu-language newspaper Ilanga lase Natal. Luthuli joined the ANC in 1944, partially out of respect to his former school principal. Luthuli describes his experience at the Ohlange Institute as "rough-and-tumble." The outbreak of World War I led to rationing and a scarcity of food among the African population. After attending Ohlange for only two terms, Luthuli was then transferred to Edendale, a Methodist school near Pietermaritzburg, the capital of Natal. It was at Edendale where Luthuli participated in his first act of civil disobedience. He joined a protest against a punishment which made boys carry large stones long distances, which damaged their uniforms that many couldn't afford. The demonstration failed and Luthuli along with the rest of the strikers were punished by the school. At Edendale, Luthuli developed a passion for teaching and went on to graduate with a teaching degree in 1917. Teaching thumb|upright=0.6|left|alt=Black and white photo from the late 1920s featuring Albert Luthuli, elegantly dressed in a suit.|Albert Luthuli in the late 1920s. Around the age of nineteen years old, Luthuli's first job after graduation came as a principal at a rural intermediate school in Blaauwbosch, located in the Natal midlands. The school was small, and Luthuli was the sole teacher working there. While teaching at Blaauwbosch, Luthuli lived with a Methodist's family. As there were no Congregational churches around him, he became the student of a local Methodist minister, the Reverend Mthembu. He was confirmed in the Methodist church and later became a lay preacher. Luthuli proved himself to be a good teacher and the Natal Department of Education offered him a bursary in 1920 to study for a Higher Teacher's Diploma at Adams College. Following the completion of his two years of study, he was offered another bursary, this time to study at the University of Fort Hare in the Eastern Cape. He refused, as he wanted to earn a salary to take care of his ageing mother. This led him to accept a teaching position at Adams College, where he and Z. K. Matthews were one of the first African teachers at the school. Luthuli taught Zulu history, music, and literature, and during his time as a teacher, he met his future wife, Nokukhanya Bhengu. She was also a teacher at Adams and the granddaughter of a Zulu chief. Luthuli was committed to providing quality education to African children and led the Teachers' College at Adams where he trained aspiring teachers and travelled to different institutions to teach students. Early political activity Natal Native Teachers' Association thumb|upright|left|alt=Black and white photo from the late 1920s featuring ZK Matthews, elegantly dressed in a suit.|Z. K. Matthews served as president of the Natal Native Teachers' Association prior to Luthuli. Luthuli was elected as the secretary of the Natal Native Teachers' Association in 1928 and served under Z. K. Matthews' presidency. He later became the president of the association in 1933. The association had three goals: improving the working conditions for African teachers, motivating members to expand their skills, and encouraging members to participate in leisure activities such as sports, music and social gatherings. Despite making little progress in achieving their stated goals, the association is remembered for their opposition to the Chief Inspector for Native Education in Natal, Charles Loram, and his proposal that Africans be educated in "practical functions" and left to "develop along their own lines". Loram's position would serve as the ideological basis for the National Party's Bantu Education policy. The Zulu Language and Cultural Society thumb|upright=0.6|right|alt=Black and white photograph of John Dube taken in the early 1890s.|John Dube served as the Zulu Language and Cultural Society's first president. After becoming disappointed with the Natal Native Teachers' Association's slow progress, Luthuli shifted his attention to establishing a new branch of the Teachers' Association called the Zulu Language and Cultural Society in 1935. Dinizulu, the Zulu king, served as one of the society's patrons, and John Dube served as its inaugural president. Luthuli described the purpose of the society as the preservation of what is valuable to Zulu culture while removing the inappropriate practices and beliefs. Luthuli's involvement with the society was brief, as he assumed the role of chief in Groutville and could not remain actively involved. As a result, the society's goals changed from its original purpose. According to historian Shula Marks, the primary goal of the Zulu Language and Cultural Society was to secure government recognition of the Zulu royal family as the official leaders of the Zulu people. The preservation of Zulu tradition and custom was a secondary goal. Grants and gifts from the South African Native Affairs Department as well as the society's involvement with the Zulu royal house led to its demise as it collapsed in 1946. Seeing no real progress being made by the Teachers' Association and Zulu Society, Luthuli felt compelled to reject the government as a potential collaborator. Cane Growers' Association The 1936 Sugar Act limited production of sugar in order to keep the price from falling. A quota system was implemented, and, for African cane growers, it was severely limiting. As a response Luthuli decided to revive the Groutville Cane Growers' Association of which he became chairman. The association was used to make collective bargaining and advocacy more effective. The association achieved a significant victory: an amendment was made to the Sugar Act that allowed African cane growers to have a comprehensive quota. This meant if some farmers were unable to meet their individual quotas, others could make up the difference and ensure that all cane is sold and not wasted in the farms. Luthuli then founded the Natal and Zululand Bantu Cane Growers' Association, where he served as chairman. The association brought almost all African cane growers into a single union. The association had very few achievements, but one of them was securing indirect representation on the central board through a non-white advisory board that was concerned with the production, processing, and marketing of sugar. The structural inequalities and discrimination present in South African society hindered the association's efforts to promote the interests of non-white canegrowers, and they proved to be little match for the white canegrowers' associations. As with the Teachers' Association, Luthuli was disappointed with the Growers' Association's few successes. He believed that whatever political role he took part in, the stubbornness and hostility of the government would prevent any significant progress from being made. By 1951, Luthuli continued to support the interests of black cane growers, and was the only black representative on the central board until 1953. Chief of Groutville thumb|upright|alt=Black and white photograph of a man with a prominent mustache sporting a suit and glasses.|Prime Minister Hertzog passed a set of bills that negatively affected and restricted the African population. In 1933, Luthuli was asked to succeed his uncle, Martin, as chief of the Umvoti River Reserve. He took two years to make his decision. His salary as a teacher was enough for him to send money home to support his family, but if he accepted the chieftainship he would earn less than one-fifth of his current salary. Furthermore, leaving a job at Adams College, where he worked with people of different ethnicities from all over South Africa, to become a Zulu chief appeared to be a move towards a more insular way of life. Luthuli opted for the role of chief and stated that his motivations were not driven by a desire for wealth, fame, or power. At the end of 1935, he was elected as chief and relocated to Groutville. He commenced his duties on January 1936 and would continue until he was deposed by the South African government in 1952. Some chiefs abused their power and used their close relationship with the government to act as dictators. They would increase their wealth by claiming ownership of land that was not rightfully theirs, charge excessive fees for services, and accept bribes to resolve disputes. Despite earning less money as a chief, Luthuli rejected corrupt practices. He embraced the concept of Ubuntu, which emphasized the humanity of all people, and governed with an inclusive and democratic approach. He believed that traditional Zulu governance was inherently democratic, with chiefs obligated to respond to the needs of their people. Luthuli was seen as a chief of his people: one community member remembered Luthuli as a "man of the people who had a very strong influence over the community. He was a people's chief." Luthuli involved women, who were considered socially inferior, in the decision-making process of his leadership. He also improved their economic status by allowing them to engage in activities such as beer brewing and running unlicensed bars, despite the government prohibiting these practices. The position of Africans in the reserves continued to regress as a result of the laws passed that controlled their social mobility. The Hertzog Bills were introduced a year after Luthuli was elected chief and were instrumental in the restriction and control of Africans. The first bill, the Native Representation Bill, removed Africans from the voters' roll in the Cape and created the Natives' Representation Council (NRC). The second bill, the Natives Land and Trust Bill, restricted the land available to the African population of 12 million to less than 13 per cent. The remaining 87 per cent of land in South Africa was primarily reserved for the white population of approximately 3 million in 1936. Limited access to land and poor agricultural technology negatively affected the people of Groutville, and the government's policies led to a shortage of land, education, and job opportunities, which limited the potential achievements of the population. Luthuli viewed the conditions of Groutville as a microcosm that affected all black people in South Africa. Natives Representative Council The Natives Representative Council (NRC), an advisory body to the government, was established in 1936 with the purpose of compensating and appeasing the African population, who had lost their limited voting rights in the Cape Province due to the enactment of the Hertzog Bills. In 1946, after John Dube's death, Luthuli became a member of the Natives Representative Council through a by-election. He brought his long-standing grievances about insufficient land for African people to the NRC meetings. In August 1946, Luthuli, along with other councilors, objected to the government's use of force to quell a large strike by African mineworkers. Luthuli accused the government of disregarding African complaints against their segregationist policies, and African councilors adjourned in protest. He would later describe the NRC as a "toy telephone" requiring him to "shout a little louder" even though no one was listening. The NRC reconvened but again adjourned indefinitely. Its members refused to co-operate with the government, which caused it to become ineffective. The NRC never met after that point and it was disbanded by the government in 1952. Luthuli frequently addressed the criticism from his fellow black South Africans who believed that serving in the Native Representative Council would lead to nothing but talk, and that the NRC was a form of deceit served by the South African government. He often agreed with these sentiments, but he and other contemporary African leaders believed that Africans should represent themselves in all structures created by the government, even if only to change them. He was determined to take the demands and grievances of his people to the government. However, like others before him, Luthuli realized that his efforts proved futile in the end. In an interview with Drum Magazine in May 1953, Luthuli said that joining the NRC gave White South Africans "a last chance to prove their good faith" but they "had not done so". President of the Natal ANC After John Dube suffered a stroke in 1945, Allison Champion succeeded him as Natal president in 1945 after defeating conservative leader Reverend A. Mtimkulu. During the election meeting, Luthuli was unexpectedly appointed as acting chair. Serving on Champion's executive, Luthuli remained politically active. However, the Youth League's adoption of a more confrontational Programme of Action in 1949 led to growing dissatisfaction with Champion's leadership, as he prioritised Natal's separateness over the new strategy. Champion would frequently fail to implement strategies and programmes set forth by the national ANC or Youth League, which made the Natal ANC lag behind. Members of the Youth League in Natal nominated Luthuli for Natal president in 1951 as they viewed him as a new brand of leadership. Luthuli and Champion were the two nominees for the election; Luthuli was elected president of the Natal ANC by a small majority. In Luthuli's first appearance as Natal ANC president at the ANC's national conference, he pleaded for more time to be given to the Natal ANC in preparation for the planned Defiance Campaign, a large act of civil disobedience by non-white South Africans. Some members of the ANC did not support his request, and he was jeered at and labelled a coward. However, Luthuli had no prior knowledge of this planned campaign and only found out about it as he was travelling to Bloemfontein, where the ANC's national conference was held. Many of the details about the campaign were given to his predecessor, A.W.G Champion. The Natal ANC agreed to prepare for the Defiance Campaign, which was slated for the latter half of 1952, and participate as soon as they were ready. Defiance Campaign thumb|upright=1.0|left|alt=Studio photograph of Mahatma Gandhi, London, 1931.|The nonviolent tactics used during the Defiance Campaign were inspired by Gandhi. The preparations for the Defiance Campaign began on 6 April 1952, its original start date before being postponed. The day was used as a warm-up for the actual campaign, which was rescheduled to be held on 26 June 1952. Large demonstrations, reaching up to ten thousand people, came together in support of the upcoming Defiance Campaign in cities such as Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Pretoria, and Durban. At the same time, many White South Africans were observing the three-hundredth anniversary of Jan van Riebeeck's landing at the Cape. Beginning in June, around 8500 volunteers of the ANC and South African Indian Congress, who were carefully selected to follow the method of nonviolent resistance, deliberately set out to break the laws of apartheid. Using strategies inspired by Gandhi, the Defiance Campaign required a strict adherence to a policy of nonviolence. Africans, Indians, and Coloureds used amenities marked "Europeans Only"; they sat on benches and used reserved station platforms, carriages in trains, and post office counters. Until the end of October, the Defiance Campaign remained nonviolent and disciplined. As the movement gained momentum, violence suddenly flared. The outbreaks were not a planned part of the campaign, and many, including Luthuli, believe it to be the work of provocateur agents. The police, frustrated by the passive resistors, responded harshly when outbreaks of violence occurred, resulting in a chain reactions that caused dozens of Africans to be shot. Despite the efforts of the Defiance Campaign, the government's attitude remained unchanged, and they viewed the event as "communist-inspired" and a threat to law and order. This perception led to increased security measures and tighter controls. The Criminal Law Amendment Act allowed for individuals to be banned without trial, and the Public Safety Act allowed the government to suspend rule of law. With more restrictions put in place, the ANC leaders decided to end the campaign in January 1953. Prior to the campaign, the ANC's membership numbered 25,000 in 1951. After the conclusion of the Campaign in 1953, it had increased to 100,000. For the first time African, Indian, and Coloured communities across the country cooperated on a national scale. The Defiance Campaign would lead to the formation of the Congress Alliance in 1954, a group of multiracial organisations that aimed to end apartheid. The Defiance Campaign was also praised for its absence of violence. Despite the extent of the protest and the frustration felt by the protestors, the lack of violence throughout the demonstration was a notable accomplishment. Due to Luthuli's role in the Defiance Campaign, he was given an ultimatum by the government to choose between his work as a chief at Umvoti or his affiliation with the ANC. He refused to choose, and the government deposed him as chief in November 1952. President-General of the ANC In December 1952, Albert Luthuli was elected president general of the ANC with the support of the ANC Youth League and African communists. Nelson Mandela was elected as his deputy. The ANCYL's support for Luthuli reflected its desire for a leader who would enact its programmes and goals, and marked a pattern of younger, more militant members within the ANC ousting presidents they deemed inflexible. The ANCYL had previously removed Xuma, Moroka, and Champion when they no longer met their expectations. Luthuli led the ANC in its most difficult years; many of his executive members, such as Secretary-General Walter Sisulu, Moses Kotane, JB Marks, and David Bopape were either to be banned or imprisoned. The 1950s witnessed the erosion of black civil liberties, through the Treason Trial and the passage of the Suppression of Communism Act, which gave the police excessive power to suppress government critics. First ban On 30 May 1953, the government banned Luthuli for a year, prohibiting him from attending any political or public gatherings and from entering major cities. He was restricted to small towns and private meetings for the rest of 1953. The Riotous Assemblies Act and the Criminal Law Amendment Act provided the legal framework for the issuing of banning orders. It was the first of four banning orders that Luthuli would receive as President-General of the ANC. Following the expiration of his ban, Luthuli continued to attend and speak at anti-apartheid conferences. Second ban In mid-1954, following the expiration of his ban, Luthuli was due to lead a protest in the Transvaal against the Western Areas Removals, a government scheme where close to 75,000 Africans were forced to move from Sophiatown and other townships. As he stepped off of his plane in Johannesburg, the Special Branch handed him new banning orders, not only prohibiting the attendance of meetings but confining him to the Groutville area for two years until July 1956. Congress of the People and Freedom Charter thumb|upright=1.2|alt=The preamble and 10 principles of the Freedom Charter written on the walls of the Pretoria's Palace of Justice in 2013.|The contents of the Freedom Charter written on the walls of the Palace of Justice in Pretoria. Proposed by Z. K. Matthews in 1953, The Congress of the People was envisioned as a large democratic convention where all South Africans would be invited to create a Freedom Charter. Despite complaints within the ANC by Africanists who believed the ANC should not work with other races, Luthuli contributed to the creation of the Congress Alliance. Led by the ANC, the alliance included the South African Indian Congress, Coloured Peoples Conference, Federation of South African Women, Congress of Trade Unions, and the Congress of Democrats. Luthuli viewed the multiracial organisation as a way to bring freedom to South Africa. After convening a secret meeting due to Luthuli's ban, the Congress of the People took place in Kliptown, Johannesburg, in June 1955. Inspired by the values held in the United States Declaration of Independence and the UN Declaration of Human Rights, the Congress of the People developed the Freedom Charter, a list of demands for a democratic, multi-racial, and free South Africa. While well-received by the attendants of the Congress of the People, the Africanist bloc of the ANC rejected it. They opposed the multiracial nature of the charter and what they perceived as communist principles. Although Luthuli recognised the socialist clauses in the Freedom Charter, he rejected any comparison to the communist ideology of the Soviet Union. The ANC would ratify the Charter at a conference one year after it was ratified by the Congress of the People. Luthuli was not able to attend the Congress of the People or the framing of the Freedom Charter due to a stroke and heart attack as well as the banning order that confined him to Groutville. In his absence, he was bestowed the honour of the Isitwalandwe, which is awarded to individuals who have made significant contributions in the fight for freedom in South Africa. Treason Trial thumb|upright|left|alt=A photograph of the 1933 Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Norman Angell.|Luthuli's name was suggested for the Nobel Peace Prize following the start of the Treason Trial. After his second banning order expired in July 1956, he was arrested on 5 December and detained during the preliminary Treason Trial hearings in 1957. Luthuli was one of 156 leaders who were arrested on charges of high treason due to their opposition to apartheid and the Nationalist Party government. High treason carried the death penalty. One of the main charges against the African National Congress leaders were that they were involved in a communist conspiracy to overthrow the government. Anti-apartheid activists were often accused of being communists, and Luthuli was accustomed to such accusations and frequently dismissed them. The charges brought against the accused covered the period from 1 October 1952 to 13 December 1956, which included events such as the Defiance Campaign, Sophiatown removals protest, and the Congress of the People. Following the preparatory examination period that began on 19 December 1956, all defendants were released on bail. The pre-trial examination concluded in December 1957, resulting in charges being dropped against 65 of the accused, including Luthuli who was acquitted. The trial for the remaining 91 accused individuals began in August 1958 as the Treason Trial commenced. By 1959, only thirty of the accused remained. The trial concluded on 29 March 1961 as all of the remaining defendants were found not guilty. Many of the lawyers who defended the accused were drawn by Luthuli and Z. K. Matthews being on trial. Their involvement contributed to raising global awareness and support for the accused. The impression that Luthuli made on the foreigners who came to observe the trial led him to be suggested for the Nobel Peace Prize. Third ban and banning of the ANC thumb|upright=1.2|right|alt=An apartheid-era passbook of an African female displayed in a museum|A passbook displayed in a museum. On 25 May 1959, the government served Luthuli his third banning order, which lasted for five years. This ban prevented Luthuli from attending any meeting held within South Africa and confined him to his home district. Luthuli's democratic values had been recognised by many white South Africans, and he had gained a minor celebrity status among certain sects of white people, which caused the government to view him with more contempt. When news of his ban spread, supporters of all races gathered to bid farewell to Luthuli. While still under a banning order, the ANC, led by Luthuli, announced an anti-pass campaign beginning at the end of March. The recently created Pan-Africanist Congress, who split away from the ANC due to their multi-racial alliances and led by Robert Sobukwe, decided to jump ahead of the ANC's planned protest by ten days. On 21 March the PAC called for all African men to go to police stations and hand over their passbooks. The peaceful march in Sharpeville resulted in sixty-nine people killed by police fire. Additionally, three people were also killed in Langa. Luthuli and several other ANC leaders ceremonially burned their passbooks in protest against the Sharpeville massacre. Following a state of emergency and the passing of the Unlawful Organisations Act, the government banned the PAC and the ANC. Luthuli and other political leaders were arrested and found guilty of burning their passbooks. He received a fine of 100 pounds and a sentence of six months in jail, which was suspended for three years under the condition that he was not found guilty of a similar offense during that time. Following his return from prison back to Groutville, Luthuli's power began to wane due to the banning of the ANC and the banning and imprisonment of supporting leaders, his health beginning to decline after a previous stroke and heart attack, and the rise of members in the ANC advocating for an armed struggle. Duma Nokwe, Walter Sisulu, and Nelson Mandela, who had provided leadership for the ANC during South Africa's state of emergency, were determined to steer the ANC in a new direction. In May 1961, following a strike, they believed that "traditional weapons of protest… were no longer appropriate." They constantly evaluated whether the conditions were favourable to launch an armed resistance. uMkhonto we Sizwe thumb|upright|alt=Photograph of Nelson Mandela smiling. Taken in the year 2008.|uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK) was formally launched by Nelson Mandela on 16 December 1961. In June 1961, during a National Executive Committee Working Group session, Mandela proposed that the ANC adopt a self-defense platform. With the government's bans on the ANC and nonviolent protests, Mandela believed waiting for Leninist conditions to arise, which was favoured by communist members, was not an option. Instead, the ANC had to adapt to their new underground conditions and draw inspiration from successful uprisings in Cuba, Algeria, and Vietnam. Mandela argued that the ANC was the only anti-apartheid organisation that had the capacity to adopt an armed struggle and if they didn't take the lead, they would fall behind in their own movement. In July 1961, the ANC and Congress Alliance met to hold debates during an ANC NEC meeting surrounding the feasibility of Nelson Mandela's proposal of armed self-defence. Luthuli did not support an armed struggle as he believed the ANC members were ill-prepared without modern firearms and battlefield experience. In a following meeting a day later, a contentious back-and-forth arose. Supporters of armed defence believed the ANC was afraid and running from a physical fight while others believed counter-violence would provoke the government into arresting and killing them. While Luthuli did not support an armed struggle, he also did not oppose it. According to Mandela, Luthuli suggested "two separate streams of the struggle": the ANC, which would remain nonviolent, and a "military movement [that] should be a separate and independent organ, linked to the ANC and under the overall control of the ANC, but fundamentally autonomous". The formation of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK) was part of a larger shift towards armed resistance in Southern Africa. Other militant organisations were created in South West Africa, Mozambique, and Southern Rhodesia in the early 1960s. The stated goal of uMkhonto we Sizwe was to cripple South Africa's economy without bloodshed and force the government into negotiating. Mandela explained to Luthuli that only attacks against military installations, transportation links, and power plants would be carried out, which eased Luthuli's fears of the potential of loss of life. Nobel Peace Prize thumb|upright|alt=Black and white photo of Albert Luthuli giving a speech.|Albert Luthuli in Oslo receiving the Nobel Peace Prize. In October 1961, during his most severe ban yet, Luthuli received the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first African to win the award. He was awarded the prize for his use of nonviolent methods in his fight against racial discrimination. According to the New York Times, his nomination was put forward by Andrew Vance McCracken, the editor of Advance, a Congregational Church magazine. His name was supported by Norwegian Socialist MPs who nominated him in February 1961. The Nobel Prize transformed Luthuli from being relatively unknown to a global celebrity. He received congratulatory letters from leaders of 25 countries, including U.S. President John F. Kennedy. In Groutville, journalists lined up to interview Luthuli who dedicated the award to the ANC and expressed gratitude to his wife Nokukhanya. He also used his newfound status as a global podium, and he pleaded to the UN and South Africa's trading partners to impose sanctions on Verwoerd's government. His comments to the press made the world focus on apartheid and its effects on Africans. During Luthuli's Nobel Peace Prize speech he spoke about the contribution of people among all races to find a peaceful solution to South Africa's race problem. He went on to speak of how the "true patriots" of South Africa would not be satisfied until there were full democratic rights for everyone, equal opportunity, and the abolition of racial barriers. Norwegian newspaper Arbeiderbladet described the effect of Luthuli's visit claiming: "We have suddenly begun to feel Africa's nearness and greatness." The Times highlighted the strong impression that Luthuli made on the global stage following his appeal to end racial discrimination and establish an equal South Africa. The day after Luthuli returned to South Africa from the award ceremony, uMkhonto we Sizwe launched their first operations on 16 December 1961. The reaction from South Africa's government, as well as many White South Africans, was hostile. Luthuli still had to apply for permission to receive the prize in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1961. Minister of the Interior, Jan de Klerk initially refused to issue Luthuli a passport but after intense domestic and international pressure, the government finally issued him one. After he was granted permission and received his award, Eric Louw, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, rejected Luthuli's demands for universal suffrage and claimed that Luthuli's speech justified the government restricting his travel within South Africa. The government-operated South African Broadcasting Corporation aired a defamatory broadcast about Luthuli. Volksblad argued the way Luthuli had "grasped every opportunity to besmirch South Africa was shocking". The Star stated: "Mr. Luthuli demands a universal franchise, which is just as silly as restricting the vote to people of one colour and he asks the world to apply sanctions to his own country, which is as reckless and damaging as has been another leader's (HF Verwoerd) impetuous withdrawal from the commonwealth. Neither speaks for the authentic South African". The belief that qualified franchise could be extended to Africans without accepting a democracy based on "one person, one vote" was the view of a majority of White South Africans. Luthuli received congratulations from some White South Africans, such as parliamentarian Jan Steytler and the Pietermaritzburg City Council. The Natal Daily News, a white-owned newspaper, described him as "a man with moral and intellectual qualities that have earned him the respect of the world and a position of leadership". They also urged the government to "listen to the voice of responsible African opinion". South African author and Liberal Party leader Alan Paton concluded that Luthuli was "the only man in South Africa who could lead both the left and the right... both Africans and non-Africans". International popularity Following his Nobel Peace Prize win, Luthuli was in a position of international renown for his nonviolence despite the concurrent sabotage operations of uMkhonto we Sizwe. On 22 October 1962, University of Glasgow students elected Luthuli as Lord Rector in recognition of his "dignity and restraint". The rectorship position was honorary. Luthuli's role would have been chair of the university court, the university's executive body, which met every month. Students elected Luthuli knowing he would serve in absentia. Although ceremonial, Luthuli's election was significant as he was the first African and first non-white person to be nominated as Rector. After receiving a phone call from a student representative shortly after his election, Luthuli did not carry out any duties as rector. According to media reports from the time, the University did not correspond with him beyond an initial notification of his election. The South African government allegedly intercepted all mail from the University to Luthuli, an allegation the government denied. thumb|upright|alt=Portrait of Martin Luther King Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr increased solidarity between the civil rights and anti-apartheid movements and urged Americans to boycott South Africa. Luthuli's adherence to nonviolence also had support from his friend and civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., who commended Luthuli's reputation and spoke of his admiration for Luthuli's "dedication to the cause of freedom and dignity". In September 1962, King and Luthuli had issued the Appeal For Action Against Apartheid organised by the American Committee on Africa, which boosted solidarity between the anti-apartheid and civil rights movements and urged Americans to protest apartheid through nonviolent measures such as boycotts. In 1964, King became the youngest Nobel Peace Prize winner receiving the award for his nonviolent activism against racial discrimination, similar to Luthuli. While travelling to Oslo to receive his Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, King stopped in London to give an "Address on South African Independence." The audience included Luthuli's exiled compatriots, citizens of different African countries, and human rights advocates from India, Pakistan, the West Indies, and the United States. King compared the racism in America to South Africa stating: "clearly there is much in Mississippi and Alabama to remind South Africans of their own country." He praised Luthuli for his leadership and identified "with those in a far more deadly struggle for freedom in South Africa." King anticipated that the withdrawal of all economic investments and trade from South Africa by the United States and Britain would end apartheid and enable people of all races to build the society they want. During King's Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech on 10 December 1964, Luthuli received a special mention. King called Luthuli a "pilot" of the freedom movement and claimed South Africa was the "most brutal expression of man's inhumanity to man". Artist Ronald Harrison, 22 years old at the time, unveiled his painting, The Black Christ, in 1962. Harrison portrayed Luthuli as Christ crucified on a cross. The painting was unveiled in St. Luke's Anglican Church in Salt River with the permission of Archbishop de Blank. The painting garnered controversy across South Africa. Along with Christ being depicted as Black, the two Roman soldiers resembled Prime Minister H. F. Verwoerd and Minister of Justice John Vorster. Minister of the Interior, Jan de Klerk, ordered the painting to be taken down and Harrison to appear before the Censorship Board. The Censorship Board banned the painting, deeming it disrespectful to religious sentiments. Following a CBS television documentary on the artwork, the government mandated its destruction. Danish and Swedish supporters of the anti-apartheid movement smuggled the painting to Britain where, under Anglican priest John Collins' supervision, its display raised money for the International Defence and Aid Fund, a fund created to defend political prisoners. Harrison was arrested and tortured by the Special Branch who intended on discovering who Harrison collaborated with to paint and display The Black Christ. He would later serve eight years of house arrest on charges related to his painting. Luthuli desired to meet Harrison after learning of his painting and its significance, and the Norwegian Embassy arranged a visit for Harrison to Luthuli. Norwegians took Harrison from Cape Town to Durban. Under clandestine circumstances, Harrison met Luthuli in Groutville. Fourth ban Effective 31 May 1964, John Vorster, the Minister of Justice, issued Luthuli a more severe banning order than the one he received in 1959. Unlike the previous ban, the new ban prevented Luthuli from travelling to the closest town of Stanger until 31 May 1969, had he not died before then. Vorster believed that Luthuli's activism advanced communism, and he cautioned him against publishing any statements, making contact with banned individuals, or addressing gatherings. NUSAS, the Liberal Party, and the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions publicly protested this banning order. Due to his ban, Luthuli's isolation from the ANC grew, but he continued to share his message with the world through visitors such as United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy. During Kennedy's 1966 tour of South Africa, he criticiqued white South Africa's racism and labelled apartheid as an abandonment of all that western civilization holds sacred. He later flew by helicopter to Groutville to visit Luthuli where they discussed the anti-apartheid and civil rights movements. Kennedy would later give a press conference where he would describe Luthuli as one of the most impressive men he ever met. Evidence indicates that Luthuli's political and physical activity declined significantly in the period leading up to his death. During the 33 months from October 1964 until his passing in July 1967, there are only a few archival records produced by Luthuli's hand, which consist of sermon notes and medical reminders scribbled on scraps of paper. These notes suggest that the last six months of his life were insular and focused primarily on religious matters, including dates of service and scripture readings. Although it is not certain, it appears that Luthuli's mental state may have been declining, as his handwriting became increasingly difficult to decipher. There are no archival records from his last two years of life, casting doubt on his ability to function as the President-General of the ANC or pose a political threat to the government. Newspaper articles reported that Luthuli's ability to read and write had significantly declined, and he devoted most of his time listening to radio broadcasts. The scraps of paper written by Luthuli before his death would confirm this. According to The Sunday Times, Luthuli underwent a delicate surgery on his left eye at McCord Zulu Hospital, and as a result, he was granted a suspension of his banning orders. The eye had been causing him constant pain and was considered 'virtually useless' ever since he had a stroke in 1955. The pain caused by the eye had been a long-standing issue, and doctors had even discussed with Luthuli the option of removing it. According to other newspaper articles, it is suggested that Luthuli was facing more health issues than just his eye problem. He stayed in the hospital for up to four weeks, and other health concerns, including high blood pressure, may have extended his stay. The fact that he drafted and signed his will immediately before his hospitalization raise doubts about the common belief that Luthuli was in good health leading up to his death. Death On Friday 21 July 1967, Luthuli left his house at 08:30 and informed his wife that he would be walking to his store near Gledhow train station. Luthuli would travel from his house to his store and vice-versa daily. An hour later at 09:30, he arrived at his store where he delivered a package to his employee. Luthuli grew sugar cane half a mile away from the Umvoti River railway bridge, and since 06:30, two men and a woman were working in his field. Around 10:00, Luthuli left his store and told his store employee that he was going to his field, and would return later. Forty minutes later Luthuli crossed the river again to return to his store without having met with any of his field workers. On his way back to his store, Luthuli was struck by a goods train. At 10:29, a goods train pulled by a locomotive left Stanger for Durban. Aboard the train were the driver, conductor, and fireman. At 10:36 the train passed Gledhow station without stopping. Two minutes later at 10:38, the train began to cross the Umvoti River railway bridge. Someone entering the bridge would have passed a sign that read, "Cross This Bridge At Their Own Risk" in English and Afrikaans. The driver indicated in his testimony that he blew the whistle from the time he saw Luthuli walking towards the train until the train hit him. The driver informed the fireman that the train had hit someone, and the driver testified that he immediately applied the brakes and brought the train to a halt. The driver and the fireman left the train and attended to Luthuli, who was still alive and breathing despite having received head injuries. Luthuli was brought to Stanger Hospital at approximately 11:50, where the Senior Medical Superintendent described his condition as "semi-conscious" and "bleeding freely" due to injuries sustained to his head. For two and a half hours, from 11:50 to 14:20, the doctors treated Luthuli's wounds by giving a blood transfusion and providing heart stimulant medication. Around 13:00, Luthuli's son, Christian, arrived at the hospital to see Luthuli who was still conscious. Christian informed Nokukhanya about Luthuli's potential relocation to King Edward VIII Hospital in Durban, prompting her to search for him there. At Stanger Hospital, Luthuli's condition started to deteriorate despite treatment. It was then decided to not transfer Luthuli to a different hospital due to his worsening condition. Instead, a neurosurgeon from Durban would come to Stanger Hospital. Upon hearing the news, Nokukhanya travelled to Stanger. At 14:20, neurosurgeon Mauritius Joubert arrived at Stanger Hospital. He found Luthuli in a coma not responding to stimulation. Five minutes after his examination, at 14:25, Luthuli died. Nokukhanya arrived at the hospital five minutes after his death without having said goodbye to him. Reaction After learning of Luthuli's death, people around the world immediately suspected foul play from the South African government. Despite a formal inquest concluding he was killed by a train, speculation remained rampant and still carries on years after his death. As soon as they learned about Luthuli's death, the ANC and its allies suspected that the South African government was responsible for it. The Zimbabwe African People's Union repeated the same claims in Sechaba, the official organ of the ANC. The Tanganyika African National Union described Luthuli's death as "dubious". In a letter to the ANC, vice-president of FRELIMO, Uria Simango, claimed Luthuli's death was premeditated. Many of Luthuli's family members believe that he was deliberately killed. Daughters Thandeka and Albertinah both maintained that he was murdered in the decades following his death. Albert Luthuli biographer, Scott Everett Couper, states that the myth of Luthuli being killed leads to an inaccurate portrayal of Luthuli, stating: "To say that Luthuli was mysteriously killed is to understand that he still had a vital role in the struggle for liberation at the time of his death, that he was a threat to the apartheid regime. Sadly, Luthuli had long since been considered obsolete by leaders of his own movement and he had little contact with those imprisoned, banned or exiled. Since Sharpeville... Luthuli served only as the honorary, emeritus, titular leader of the ANC". See also International Fellowship of Reconciliation List of black Nobel laureates List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid Notes Citations References Category:1898 births Category:1967 deaths Category:Anti-apartheid activists Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates Category:Nonviolence advocates Category:People acquitted of treason Category:Presidents of the African National Congress Category:Railway accident deaths in South Africa Category:Rectors of the University of Glasgow Category:South African autobiographers Category:South African Christians Category:South African Congregationalists Category:South African Nobel laureates Category:Zulu people

{"Name": "Albert Luthuli", "Alternative text": "Photograph of Luthuli", "Term start": "December 1952", "Term end": "21 July 1967", "Office 2": "Rector of the University of Glasgow", "Predecessor 2": "Quintin Hogg", "Successor 2": "The Lord Reith", "Birth date": "1898", "Birth place": "Bulawayo, Rhodesia", "Death date": "yes 1967 7 21 1898 1967 7 21 no", "Death place": "Stanger, Natal, South Africa", "Nationality": "South African", "Other political party": "Congress Alliance", "Spouse(s)": "Nokukhanya Bhengu 1927", "Alma mater": "Adams College", "Awards": "Nobel Peace Prize United Nations Prize in the Field of Human RightsJain Chelsi United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Events/HRPrizepreviouswinners.pdf United Nations Human Rights Prize 13 February 2023 11 April 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230411025025/https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Events/HRPrizepreviouswinners.pdf live"}

Andrew Eldritch (born Andrew William Harvey Taylor, 15 May 1959) is an English singer, songwriter and musician. He is the lead vocalist and only remaining original member of the Sisters of Mercy, a band that emerged from the British post-punk scene, transformed into a gothic rock band, and, in later years, flirted with hard rock. Formerly a drummer, Eldritch also programs the tracks for the Sisters of Mercy's drum machine (known as "Doktor Avalanche") and plays guitars and keyboards in its studio recordings but uses live shows to focus solely on his vocal performance. Eldritch is well known for his deep and melancholic bass-baritone singing voice as well as his poetic (and sometimes politically charged) lyrics. The Sisters of Mercy is regarded as a major influence on gothic rock, and Eldritch, with his (former) shock of black hair, bass-baritone vocal style and pale and thin look (with prominent cheekbones), was described in the media as a poster boy for the genre, earning him the label "the Godfather of Goth", which he frequently rejects. He also established the record label Merciful Release. In addition to the Sisters of Mercy, in 1986 Andrew Eldritch established a side-project, the Sisterhood, which was quickly abandoned in favour of continuing working under the Sisters of Mercy. Early life and education Andrew Eldritch was born on 15 May 1959 in the small cathedral city Ely. He later wrote a piano song named "1959", referring to the year of his birth and starting with the line "Living as an angel in the place that I was born". Eldritch studied French and German literature at the University of Oxford before moving to Leeds around 1978 to study Mandarin Chinese at the University of Leeds: he left both courses before graduating. He speaks fluent French and German and has some knowledge of Dutch, Italian, Russian, Serbian, Croatian, and Latin, but stated he had forgotten the Chinese he learned. During this period, Eldritch was a freelance drummer in the local Leeds punk scene. Musical career The Sisters of Mercy In 1980, Eldritch and Gary Marx formed the Sisters of Mercy. On the first single, "Damage Done/Watch/Home of the Hit-men", Eldritch played the drums, a task he was later relieved of by a series of drum machines referred to as Doktor Avalanche, allowing him instead to focus on his vocal performance. Over the years, nine members have left the group, several of them citing conflicts with the frontman as a reason for their departure. These former members include Patricia Morrison, who claimed she had been paid an average of £300 per month; and Wayne Hussey, with whom Eldritch had a personal feud which contributed to heavy criticism of both by the music press during the 1980s. Hussey formed a breakaway band called the Mission as a result of this conflict. Following the release of the band's last studio album to date, Vision Thing (1990), Eldritch initiated a 1991 US tour of the Sisters of Mercy in a triple bill with Gang of Four and American hip hop group Public Enemy. The tour was cancelled midway and the band relocated to Europe. In 1995 Eldritch interviewed David Bowie and Leonard Cohen for the German edition of Rolling Stone magazine. He also contributed articles on computers to German magazines. That year, he briefly rejuvenated his working relationship with erstwhile Sisters of Mercy guitarist Gary Marx. Marx wrote an album's worth of backing tracks, to which Eldritch could contribute lyrics for release as a new studio album. Eldritch eventually backed out of the project and Marx released the tracks over a decade later as a solo album. Prevented by contractual obligations from appearing under his own name, he is also rumoured to have produced a couple of techno albums under various pseudonyms during the 1990s, a rumour he would not deny when asked about it in an interview by Alexa Williamson in May 1997. Two musical projects Eldritch set up with his label, Merciful Release, have later been confirmed as Paris Riots (a collaboration with James Ray) and Leeds Underground. Both projects were abandoned before any tracks were released to the public. In 1997 Eldritch produced the SSV studio album Go Figure, featuring his vocals over drumless electronic music. The album finally freed him from his contractual obligations, as East West Records agreed to waive their claims for two more Sisters of Mercy albums in exchange for the recordings. The SSV tracks were, however, never officially released. The full name of the band is SSV-NSMABAAOTWMODAACOTIATW, said to be an acronym for "Screw Shareholder Value - Not So Much a Band as Another Opportunity to Waste Money on Drugs and Ammunition Courtesy of the Idiots at Time Warner". The Sisters of Mercy tour every year, but no new recorded material has been released for sale since 1993. In 2009 Eldritch gave his first interview in 12 years to Classic Rock writer Joel McIver, in which he rejected the need for any new recorded material from the Sisters and talked at length about the band's career. Speculation about a new Sisters of Mercy studio album release was renewed in November 2016 when Eldritch was quoted by TeamRock website: "I can tell you one thing: If Donald Trump actually does become President, that will be reason enough for me to release another album. I don't think I could keep quiet if that happened." As of August 2023, no new album has been released. Songwriting and philosophy The devices in Eldritch's lyrics include literary allusions (notably to the works of T. S. Eliot, Leonard Cohen and Shakespeare), erotic imagery, and drug culture metaphors. He has made pointed criticism of the Republican Party of the United States, a group with which Eldritch claims to have a "hate-hate" relationship,. Politically, he has claimed to be "traditionally a Labour supporter" despite his "anarcho-syndicalist tendencies". Gothic associations Though Andrew Eldritch has been called the "Godfather of Goth", for inspiring and defining the gothic scene musically and aesthetically, the Sisters of Mercy, despite being formed in 1980, were originally not very popular in the early-1980s post-punk subgenre of bands and music fans which the British press had labelled goth. The Sisters of Mercy were, however, accused by the press of plagiarising Joy Division, who were marketed by their management as "gothic" in the late 1970s. Since the early 1990s, Eldritch has publicly rejected associations with the goth subculture. He describes the Sisters of Mercy as humanist, modernist, and implies he wants nothing to do with goth, stating: "it's disappointing that so many people have in all seriousness adopted just one of our many one-week-of-stupid-clothes benders." He also notes: "I'm constantly confronted by representatives of popular culture who are far more goth than we, yet I have only to wear black socks to be stigmatised as the demon overlord." Guest appearances Gary Moore - After the War (1989) - Backing vocals on "After the War", "Speak for Yourself" and "Blood of Emeralds" Kastrierte Philosophen - Toilet Queen (1989) - Remix of "Toilet Queen" Die Krupps - III - Odyssey of the Mind (1995) - Remix of "Odyssey of the Mind" Die Krupps - Rings of Steel (1995) - Remix of "Fatherland" (with Rodney Orpheus from the Cassandra Complex) Sarah Brightman - Fly (1995) - German interlude on "How Can Heaven Love Me" and backing vocals on "A Question of Honour" SSV - Go Figure (1997) - Sampled vocals on all songs Cultural references Eldritch is the subject of the song "Prince of Darkness" by fellow-Leeds band the Mekons and is also mentioned in the song "Charlie Cake Park", both of which appeared on their 1987 studio album Honky Tonkin';The Mekons’ Jon Langford on His Brief Sisters of Mercy Stint Jon Langford of The Mekons interviewed by Zach Lipez, 14 November 2016 he is also the subject of "Andrew Eldritch is Moving Back to Leeds" on the studio album Goths by the Mountain Goats, released 19 May 2017. References External links Category:1959 births Category:English bass-baritones Category:English male singers Category:English male singer-songwriters Category:English singer-songwriters Category:English male songwriters Category:British post-punk musicians Category:Gothic rock musicians Category:Living people Category:People from Ely, Cambridgeshire Category:English rock singers Category:The Sisters of Mercy members Category:Musicians from Cambridgeshire

{"Born": "Ely, Cambridgeshire, England", "Genres": "Gothic rock post-punk darkwave hard rock", "Member of": "The Sisters of Mercy", "Formerly of": "The Sisterhood SSV", "Labels": "Merciful Release"}

Prince of Darkness is a 1987 American supernatural horror film, written and directed by John Carpenter, and starring Donald Pleasence, Victor Wong, Jameson Parker, and Lisa Blount. The second installment in what Carpenter calls his "Apocalypse Trilogy"—which began with The Thing (1982) and concludes with In the Mouth of Madness (1994)—the film follows a group of quantum physics students in Los Angeles who are asked to assist a Catholic priest in investigating an ancient cylinder of liquid discovered in a monastery, which they come to find is a sentient, liquid embodiment of Satan. Plot A Catholic priest invites quantum physicist Professor Howard Birack and his students to join him in the basement of a Los Angeles monastery belonging to "The Brotherhood of Sleep", an old order who communicate through dreams. The priest requires their assistance in investigating a mysterious cylinder containing a swirling green liquid. Among the thirteen academics present are wise-cracking Walter, demure Kelly, the highly-strung Susan, and lovers Brian and Catherine. They decipher an ancient text found next to the cylinder which describes the liquid as the corporeal embodiment of Satan. The team also learns Jesus Christ was an extra-terrestrial who was executed for heresy after trying to warn the people of Earth about the vessel in which Satan was trapped. The liquid is then discovered to be sentient. The academics use a computer to analyze the books surrounding it, and find that they included differential equations. Over a period of two days, small jets of liquid escape from the cylinder. Members of the group exposed to the liquid become possessed by the entity and attack the others. The first victim is Susan, who begins killing off the others one by one, after which they too become possessed. Anyone who attempts to flee the monastery is killed by the growing mass of enthralled homeless people who have surrounded the building. Professor Birack and the priest theorize that Satan is actually the offspring of the "Anti-God", an even more powerful force of evil bound to the realm of anti-matter. The survivors find themselves sharing a recurring dream (a tachyon transmission sent as a warning from the future, "year one-nine-nine-nine") showing a shadowy figure emerging from the front of the church. The hazy transmission changes slightly with each occurrence of the dream, revealing progressively more detail. The narration of the transmission each time instructs the dreamer that they are witnessing an actual broadcast from the future. Walter, trapped in a closet, witnesses the possessed bringing the cylinder to a sleeping Kelly. It opens itself and the remaining liquid transfuses into Kelly’s body, causing her to become the physical vessel of Satan: a gruesomely disfigured being, with powers of telekinesis and regeneration. Kelly attempts to summon the Anti-God through a dimensional portal using a mirror, but the mirror is too small and the effort fails. While the rest of the team is occupied fighting the possessed, Kelly finds a larger wall mirror and draws the Anti-God's hand through it. Catherine, the only one free to act, tackles Kelly, causing both of them to fall through the portal. The priest then shatters the mirror with an axe, trapping Kelly, the Anti-God, and Catherine in the other realm. Catherine is seen briefly on the other side of the mirror reaching out to the portal before it closes. Immediately, the possessed die, the street people wander away, and the survivors (Brian, Walter, Professor Birack, and the priest) are rescued. Brian has the recurring dream again, and now sees that Catherine (apparently possessed) is the figure emerging from the church. Brian awakens and finds Kelly, seemingly Satan's vessel, lying in bed with him. This is shown to be another dream, and he awakens screaming. Rising, he approaches his bedroom mirror, hand outstretched, the screen going black just before he touches the mirror. Cast Analysis Film critic John Kenneth Muir suggests that Prince of Darkness serves as a parable for the AIDS epidemic that was at its peak during the time the film was made. Throughout the film, demonic possession is depicted as something that is transmitted like a communicable disease, via fluid passed between people. Muir goes on to note a number of references to homosexuality in the film, namely regarding the character of Walter, who makes several statements implying that he is gay (although he briefly flirted with Lisa, one of the female characters). In particular, Muir notes a sequence in which Walter, attacked by a number of possessed women while trapped inside a closet, emerges and flees. In addition to this, Muir writes that the film "pointedly asks some rather big questions about human nature, our existence, and the universe at large." Production Prince of Darkness was shot in Los Angeles, California in 30 days. Carpenter became inspired while researching theoretical physics and atomic theory. He recalled, "I thought it would be interesting to create some sort of ultimate evil and combine it with the notion of matter and anti-matter." This idea, which would eventually develop into the screenplay for Prince of Darkness, was to be the first of a multi-picture deal with Alive Pictures, where Carpenter was allocated $3 million per picture and complete creative control.Boulenger, pp. 201 Executive producer Shep Gordon was also manager to singer Alice Cooper, and suggested Cooper record a song for the film. Carpenter also cast Cooper as one of the homeless zombies. Cooper allowed the "impaling device" from his stage show to be used in the film in the scene where Cooper's character kills Etchinson.Boulenger, pp. 204 The song Cooper wrote for the film, also titled "Prince of Darkness", can be heard briefly in the same scene playing through Etchinson's headphones. Carpenter cast people that he had worked with previously, including Victor Wong, Dennis Dun and Donald Pleasence. It was Peter Jason's first film for Carpenter, and he would afterward become a Carpenter regular. The film was shot with wide-angle lenses, which combined with anamorphic format to create a lot of distortion. Carpenter wrote the screenplay but was credited as "Martin Quatermass," which, along with the name of Professor Birack's institution (Kneale University), was an homage to British film and television writer Nigel Kneale and his best-known character, Bernard Quatermass. The story features elements associated with Kneale, including a confrontation with ancient evil (Quatermass and the Pit and The Quatermass Conclusion), messages from the future (The Road), and the scientific investigation of the paranormal (The Stone Tape). Kneale was displeased with the homage, fearing that viewers might believe that he had something to do with the film. The poster for Prince of Darkness was created and designed by Henry Rosenthal, who worked for print production vendor Rod Dyer. According to Carpenter in the DVD audio commentary, the post-production was done at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. In an interview with Michael Doyle in the November 2012 issue of Rue Morgue, John Carpenter revealed how he created the eerie dream sequences in Prince of Darkness that feature a shadowy figure emerging from a church doorway. Carpenter first shot the action of the figure (played by actor Jessie Ferguson) with a video camera and then "re-photographed it on a television set" in order to give the image a peculiar, dislocated feeling that also appeared as if it was being filmed live. Doyle also reminded Carpenter that the director himself provided the disembodied voice that narrates each dream. Soundtrack Release Critical reception On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Prince of Darkness holds an approval rating of 61%, based on 38 reviews, and an average rating of 6.2/10. Its consensus reads, "Prince of Darkness has a handful of chillingly clever ideas, but they aren't enough to put John Carpenter's return to horror at the same level as his classic earlier outings." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". In his review for the Washington Post, Richard Harrington wrote, “At one point Pleasence vows that 'it's a secret that can no longer be kept.' Here's another: The Prince of Darkness stinks.' It too deserves to be shut up in a canister for 7 million years". Liam Lacey, in his review for The Globe and Mail, wrote, “There is no character really worth caring about, no sympathy to any of these characters. The principal romantic couple, Jameson Parker and Lisa Blount, are unpleasant enough to create an unfortunate ambivalence about their eternal destinies”. In his review for the New York Times, Vincent Canby called the film a "surprisingly cheesy horror film to come from Mr. Carpenter, a director whose work is usually far more efficient and inventive." Nigel Floyd in Time Out gave a positive review of the film, calling Prince of Darkness "engrossing" and adding "the claustrophobic terror generated by fluid camerawork and striking angles" leads "to a heart-racing climax".Nigel Floyd, "Prince of Darkness" in John Pym, Time Out Film Guide 2011. London, Time Out Guides Limited, 2010. (p. 848) In 2004, Jim Emerson wrote that Prince of Darkness was an undervalued horror film: "What makes me goose-pimply about Prince of Darkness is its goofy-but-ingenious central conceit and its truly surrealistic imagery, some of which could have sprouted out of Buñuel and Dali's Un Chien Andalou." Like most of Carpenter's films, Prince of Darkness went on to have a cult following. The dream sequence narrations have been sampled by a variety of musicians and producers over the years, including DJ Shadow on his debut Endtroducing..... LP. Accolades In 1988, the film was nominated for a Saturn Award for best music, and won the Critics Award at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival. Home media On September 24, 2013, the film was released by Scream Factory on Blu-ray and DVD. On February 18, 2019 the film was released on 4K by StudioCanal. In January 2021, Scream Factory issued their own 4K release of the film, which includes both a 4K UHD disc and a Blu-ray disc. References Bibliography Boulenger, Gilles. John Carpenter Prince of Darkness. Los Angeles: Silman-James Press (2003). . Doyle, Michael. "The Essence of Evil", Rue Morgue #128 (November 2012), p. 16-22. External links Prince of Darkness at theofficialjohncarpenter.com Prince of Darkness at Trailers from Hell Category:1980s English-language films Category:1980s American films Category:1987 films Category:1987 horror films Category:American supernatural horror films Category:Latin-language films Category:Films directed by John Carpenter Category:Films with screenplays by John Carpenter Category:Apocalyptic films Category:Films scored by John Carpenter Category:Films scored by Alan Howarth (composer) Category:Films set in the future Category:Films set in Los Angeles Category:Films shot in Los Angeles Category:Religious horror films Category:Films about dreams Category:Films about spirit possession Category:The Devil in film Category:American zombie films Category:1980s supernatural horror films Category:Films set in 1999 Category:Films about quantum mechanics

{"Directed by": "John Carpenter", "Produced by": "Larry J. Franco", "Written by": "John Carpenter(as Martin Quatermass)", "Starring": "Donald Pleasence\n Lisa Blount\n Victor Wong\n Jameson Parker", "Music by": "John CarpenterAlan Howarth", "Cinematography": "Gary B. Kibbe", "Edited by": "Steve Mirkovich", "Distributed by": "Universal Pictures", "Budget": "$3 million", "Box office": "$14.2 million"}

thumb|270px|Coat of arms of the British monarch as sovereign of the Order of the Bath.|alt= The Most Honourable Order of the BathThe word 'Military' was removed from the name by Queen Victoria in 1847. Letters Patent dated 14 April 1847, quoted in Statutes 1847. is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I on 18 May 1725.Statutes 1725, although Risk says 11 May The name derives from the elaborate medieval ceremony for appointing a knight, of which bathing (as a symbol of purification) was an element. Knights so created were known as 'Knights of the Bath'.Anstis, Observations, p. 4. George I constituted the Knights of the Bath a regular 'Military Order'.Letters patent dated 18 May 1725, quoted in Statutes 1725. He did not revive the Order of the Bath,The purely legendary pre-history was associated with Henry IV. which had not previously existed as an Order, in the sense of a body of knights governed by a set of statutes and whose numbers were replenished when vacancies occurred.Wagner, Heralds of England, p 357, referring to John Anstis, who proposed the Order, says: "He had the happy inspiration of reviving this ancient name and chivalric associations, but attaching it, as it never had been before, to an Order or company of knights."Perkins, The Most Honourable Order of the Bath, p. 1: "It can scarcely be claimed that a properly constituted Order existed at any time during the preceding centuries [prior to the reign of Charles II]". The Order consists of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom (currently King Charles III), the Great Master (currently vacant), and three Classes of members:Statutes 1925, article 2. Knight Grand Cross (GCB) or Dame Grand Cross (GCB) Knight Commander (KCB) or Dame Commander (DCB) Companion (CB) Members belong to either the Civil Division or the Military Division.Statutes 1925, article 5. Knight Companion (KB), the order's only class prior to 1815, is no longer an option. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior military officers or senior civil servants.Statutes 1925, articles 8-12. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the British monarch and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members. The Order of the Bath is the fourth-most senior of the British Orders of Chivalry, after the Most Noble Order of the Garter, the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, and the Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick (dormant).See, for example, the order of wear for orders and decorations , the Royal Warrant defining precedence in Scotland (), or the discussion of precedence at http://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/order_precedence.htm History Knights of the Bath thumb|Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, KB, with sash, In the Middle Ages, a knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the knight-to-be taking a bath (possibly symbolic of spiritual purification),Risk, History of the Order of the Bath, p. 6. during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry. Clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn, he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight. He was then brought before the King, who after instructing two senior knights to buckle the spurs to the knight-elect's heels, fastened a belt around his waist, then struck him on the neck (with either a hand or a sword), thus making him a knight.The Manner of making Knights after the custom of England in time of peace and at the Coronation, that is Knights of the Bath, quoted in Perkins, pp. 5-14. It was this accolade which was the essential act in creating a knight, and a simpler ceremony developed, conferring knighthood merely by striking or touching the knight-to-be on the shoulder with a sword,According to Anstis (Observations, p. 73) such knights were sometimes known as Knights of the Sword or Knights of the Carpet or 'dubbing' him, as is still done today. In the early medieval period, the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. From the coronation of Henry IV in 1399, the full ceremonies were restricted to major royal occasions, such as coronations, investitures of the Prince of Wales or royal dukes, and royal weddings,Anstis, p. 66. and the knights so created became known as Knights of the Bath. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the simpler form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625,Risk, p. 114. and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria juncta in uno (Latin for 'Three joined in one'), and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval.Nicolas, History of the orders of knighthood of the British empire, p. 38-39. These were both subsequently adopted by the Order of the Bath; a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear. The 'three joined in one' may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and either France or Ireland, which were held (or claimed in the case of France) by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge.The later usage by the Order of the Bath does not make things any clearer. The presence of the rose, thistle, and shamrock (symbols of England, Scotland, and Ireland, respectively) in the Collar supports the above claim. The shamrocks however were not added until the 19th century, probably as a result of a suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks, who in his proposal observed that the presence of the shamrock would "greatly augment the meaning of the motto" (Risk, p 115). A further explanation for the crowns is provided in the 1725 statutes of the Order. The coat of arms which was to appear on the Order's seal (Azure three imperial crowns Or, that is, three gold imperial crowns on a blue background) was described as being anciently attributed to King Arthur. Another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. Nicolas quotes a source (although he is sceptical of it) who claims that prior to James I the motto was Tria numina juncta in uno (three powers/gods joined in one), but from the reign of James I, the word numina was dropped, and the motto understood to mean Tria [regna] juncta in uno (three kingdoms joined in one).Nicolas, p 38, quoting Bishop Kennet Register and Chronicle Ecclesiastical and Civil from the Restoration of King Charles II faithfully taken from the manuscripts of the Lord Bishop of Peterborough, (1728) p. 410. Foundation of the order thumb|Sir Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister, who used the Order of the Bath as a source of political patronage.|alt= The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, England's highest heraldic officer. Sir Anthony Wagner, a recent holder of the office of Garter King of Arms, wrote of Anstis's motivations: It was Martin Leake'sGarter King of Arms from 1754 to 1773, and an officer of arms for some 25 years before that opinion that the trouble and opposition Anstis met with in establishing himself as Garter so embittered him against the heralds that when at last in 1718 he succeeded, he made it his prime object to aggrandise himself and his office at their expense. It is clear at least that he set out to make himself indispensable to the Earl Marshal, which was not hard, their political principles being congruous and their friendship already established, but also to Sir Robert Walpole and the Whig ministry, which can by no means have been easy, considering his known attachment to the Pretender and the circumstances under which he came into office. ... The main object of Anstis's next move, the revival or institution of the Order of the Bath was probably that which it in fact secured, of ingratiating him with the all-powerful Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole.Wagner, pp. 348, 357. The use of honours in the early eighteenth century differed considerably from the modern honours system, in which hundreds, if not thousands, of people each year receive honours on the basis of deserving accomplishments. The only honours available at that time were hereditary (not life) peerages and baronetcies, knighthoods, and the Order of the Garter (or the Order of the Thistle for Scots), none of which were awarded in large numbers (the Garter and the Thistle are limited to twenty-four and sixteen living members respectively). The political environment was also significantly different from today: The Sovereign still exercised a power to be reckoned with in the eighteenth century. The Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, but the choice remained his. The leader of an administration still had to command the King's personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, and other marks of Royal favour to the government's supporters.Risk, p. 2. thumb|Admiral Lord Rodney (appointed a Knight Companion in 1780) wearing the riband and star of the Order.|alt= The attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position. He made sure that most of the 36 new honorees were peers and MPs who would provide him with useful connections.In the words of his son, Horace Walpole, "The Revival of the Order of the Bath was a measure of Sir Robert Walpole, and was an artful bank of favours in lieu of places. He meant to stave off the demand for Garters, and intended that the Red [i.e. the Order of the Bath] should be a step to the Blue [the Order of the Garter]; and accordingly took one of the former for himself." Horace Walpole, Reminiscences (1788) George I having agreed to Walpole's proposal, Anstis was commissioned to draft statutes for the Order of the Bath. As noted above, he adopted the motto and badge used by the Knights of the Bath, as well as the colour of the riband and mantle, and the ceremony for creating a knight. The rest of the statutes were mostly based on those of the Order of the Garter, of which he was an officer (as Garter King of Arms).Nicolas, p. 237-238, footnote. The Order was founded by letters patent under the Great Seal dated , and the statutes issued the following week.Risk, p. 4.Statutes 1725. The Order initially consisted of the Sovereign, a Prince of the blood Royal as Principal Knight, a Great Master, and thirty-five Knights Companion.Statutes 1725, article 2. Seven officers (see below) were attached to the Order. These provided yet another opportunity for political patronage, as they were to be sinecures at the disposal of the Great Master, supported by fees from the knights. Despite the fact that the Bath was represented as a military Order, only a few military officers were among the initial appointments (see List of Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath). They may be broken down into categories as follows (some are classified in more than one category):Risk, p. 15, 16. Members of the House of Commons: 14 The Royal Household or sinecures: 11 Diplomats: 4 The Walpole family, including the Prime Minister: 3 Naval and Army officers: 3 Irish peers: 2 Country gentlemen with Court appointments: 2 thumb|Admiral of the Fleet Sir George Callaghan wearing the insignia of a military Companion of the Order.|alt= The majority of the new Knights Companions were knighted by the King, and invested with their ribands and badges on 27 May 1725.Risk, p. 16. Although the statutes set out the full medieval ceremony which was to be used for creating knights, this was not performed, and indeed, was possibly never intended to be, as the original statutes contained a provisionStatutes 1725, article 6, the same article which state "[the Great Master shall] take especial care that ... the antient Rituals belonging to this Knighthood be observed with the greatest Exactness" allowing the Great Master to dispense Knights Companion from these requirements. The original knights were dispensed from all the medieval ceremonies with the exception of the Installation, which was performed in the Order's Chapel, the Henry VII Chapel in Westminster Abbey, on 17 June. This precedent was followed until 1812, after which the Installation was also dispensed with, until its revival in the twentieth century.No Installation had been held between 1812 and the coronation of George IV in 1821, by which time the number of knights exceeded the number of stalls in the chapel. To allow the knights to wear their collars at the coronation (which they could not do until installed), they were dispensed from the Installation, and this precedent was subsequently followed. (Risk, p. 43). The ceremonies however remained part of the Statutes until 1847.Risk, p. 10. Although the initial appointments to the Order were largely political, from the 1770s, appointments to the Order were increasingly made for naval, military, or diplomatic achievements. This is partly due to the conflicts Britain was engaged in over this period.Risk, p. 20. The Peninsular War resulted in so many deserving candidates for the Bath, that a statute was issued allowing the appointment of Extra Knights in time of war, who were to be additional to the numerical limits imposed by the statutes, and whose number was not subject to any restrictions.Statute dated 8 May 1812, quoted in Statutes 1847. Another statute, this one issued some 80 years earlier, had also added a military note to the Order. Each knight was required, under certain circumstances, to supply and support four men-at-arms for a period not exceeding 42 days in any year, to serve in any part of Great Britain.Statute dated 20 April 1727, quoted in Statutes 1847. This company was to be captained by the Great Master, who had to supply four trumpeters, and was also to appoint eight officers for this body. However, the statute was never invoked. Restructuring in 1815 In January 1815, after the end of the Peninsular War, the Prince Regent (later George IV) expanded the Order of the Bathto the end that those Officers who have had the opportunities of signalising themselves by eminent services during the late war may share in the honours of the said Order, and that their names may be delivered down to remote posterity, accompanied by the marks of distinction which they have so nobly earned. The Order was now to consist of three classes: Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commander, and Companions. The existing Knights Companion (of which there were 60)The Times, 10 January 1815, p. 3. became Knight Grand Cross; this class was limited to 72 members, of which twelve could be appointed for civil or diplomatic services. The military members had to be of the rank of at least major-general or rear admiral. The Knights Commander were limited to 180, exclusive of foreign nationals holding British commissions, up to ten of whom could be appointed as honorary Knights Commander. They had to be of the rank of lieutenant-colonel or post-captain. The number of Companions was not specified, but they had to have received a medal or been mentioned in despatches since the start of the war in 1803. A list of about 500 names was subsequently published. Two further officers were appointed, an 'Officer of arms attendant on the Knights Commanders and Companions', and a 'Secretary appertaining to the Knights Commanders and Companions'. The large increase in numbers caused some complaints that such an expansion would reduce the prestige of the Order. Victorian era thumb|Sir Alexander Milne (1808-1896) was concurrently KCB (civil division) and GCB (military division); he is pictured wearing both sets of insignia.|alt= In 1847, Queen Victoria issued new statutes eliminating all references to an exclusively military Order. As well as removing the word 'Military' from the full name of the Order, this opened up the grades of Knight Commander and Companion to civil appointments, and the Military and Civil Divisions of the Order were established. New numerical limits were imposed, and the opportunity also taken to regularise the 1815 expansion of the Order.Letters Patent dated 14 April 1847.The document by which the Prince Regent modified the structure of the Order in 1815 was a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual. This is of lesser authority than Letters Patent under the Great Seal, by which the Order and its Statutes were originally established. It had been questioned on a number of occasions whether the Statutes of the Order could be modified by anything less than such Letters Patent. The 1847 Letters Patent retroactively confirmed the validity of the 1815 document and the subsequent appointments to the Order The 1847 statutes also abolished all the medieval ritual, but they did introduce a formal Investiture ceremony, conducted by the Sovereign wearing the Mantle and insignia of the Order, attended by the Officers and as many GCBs as possible, in their Mantles.Risk, p. 61. In 1850, a special statute authorised appointments of Knight Commander and Companion, in the Military Division, to Commissariat and Medical officers serving with the Army and Navy, including those serving with the East India Company.Special statute 1850. In 1859, a further edition of the Statutes was issued; the changes related mainly to the costs associated with the Order. Prior to this date, it had been the policy that the insignia (which were provided by the Crown) were to be returned on the death of the holder; the exception had been foreigners who had been awarded honorary membership. In addition, foreigners had usually been provided with stars made of silver and diamonds, whereas ordinary members had only embroidered stars. The decision was made to award silver stars to all members, and only require the return of the Collar. The Crown had also been paying the fees due to the officers of the Order for members who had been appointed for the services in the recent war. The fees were abolished, and replaced with a salary of approximately the same average value. The offices of Genealogist and Messenger were abolished, and those of Registrar and Secretary combined.Risk, p. 70. Contemporary era upright|thumb|Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Johns in his service dress uniform, wearing the star, ribbon, and badge of a military Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath.|alt= In 1910, after his accession to the throne, George V ordered the revival of the Installation ceremony, perhaps prompted by the first Installation ceremony of the more junior Order of St Michael and St George, held a few years earlier,Risk, p. 89. and the building of a new chapel for the Order of the Thistle in 1911.Perkins, p. 122. The Installation ceremony took place on 22 July 1913 in the Henry VII Chapel,Risk, p. 92.Perkins, pp. 124-131. and Installations have been held at regular intervals since. Prior to the 1913 Installation, it was necessary to adapt the chapel to accommodate the larger number of members. An appeal was made to the members of the Order, and following the Installation a surplus remained. A Committee was formed from the Officers to administer the 'Bath Chapel Fund', and over time this committee has come to consider other matters than purely financial ones.Risk, pp. 95-96. Another revision of the statutes of the Order was undertaken in 1925, to consolidate the 41 additional statutes which had been issued since the 1859 revision.16 in Queen Victoria's reign, 6 in Edward VII's and 19 in George V's. (Risk, p. 97) Women were admitted to the Order in 1971. In the 1971 New Year Honours, Jean Nunn became the first woman admitted to the order. In 1975, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, an aunt of Elizabeth II, became the first woman to reach the highest rank, Dame Grand Cross. Princess Alice (née Douglas-Montagu-Scott) was a direct descendant of the Order's first Great Master,Risk, p. 102. and her husband, who had died the previous year, had also held that office. The second Dame Grand Cross, Sally Davies, was appointed in the 2020 New Year Honours. Composition Sovereign The British Sovereign is the Sovereign of the Order of the Bath. As with all honours, except those in the Sovereign's personal gift,The Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Order of Merit and the Royal Victorian Order the Sovereign makes all appointments to the Order on the advice of the Government. Great Master thumb|Prince Albert, the Prince Consort, Great Master 1843-1861. During the 19th century, Knights Grand Cross wore their mantles over imitations of 17th-century dress. They now wear them over contemporary attire.|alt= The next-most senior member of the Order is the Great Master, of which there have been nine: 1725-1749 — John Montagu, 2nd Duke of MontaguNicolas, Appendix p. lxx gives the first four Great Masters, although he considers the latter three to have only been acting Great Masters 1749-1767 — vacant 1767-1827 — Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany 1827-1830 — Prince William, Duke of Clarence and St Andrews (later King William IV) 1830-1837 — vacant 1837-1843 — Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex 1843-1861 — Albert, Prince ConsortPrince Albert was appointed acting Great Master sometime in 1843, and the appointment was made substantive by the 1847 Statutes, article 4. Risk says that he was appointed acting Great Master on 31 March 1843, however The Times, reporting the death of the Duke of Sussex (22 April 1843, pp. 4-5) says that the office of acting Great Master became vacant on his death. At any rate, when the executors of the Duke of Sussex delivered his insignia together with the seal and statutes to the Queen on 20 June (The Times, 21 June 1843, p. 6) Prince Albert was then acting Great Master. 1861-1897 — vacant 1897-1901 — Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII)The Times, 22 June 1897, p. 10. 1901-1942 — Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1942-1974 — Prince Henry, Duke of GloucesterThe Times, 25 February 1942, p. 7. 1974-2022 — Charles, Prince of Wales (later King Charles III) 2023-present — vacant Originally a Prince of the Blood Royal, as the Principal Knight Companion, ranked next after the sovereign.Statutes 1725, article 4. This position was joined to that of the Great Master in the statutes of 1847.Letters Patent dated 14 April 1847, quoted in Statutes 1847. The Great Master and Principal Knight is now either a descendant of George I or 'some other exalted personage'; the holder of the office has custody of the seal of the order and is responsible for enforcing the statutes. Members thumb|upright=0.6|Sash and star of Grand Cross, civil division.|alt= The statutes also provide for the following: 120 Knights or Dames Grand Cross (GCB) (of whom the Great Master is the First and Principal) 355 Knights Commander (KCB) or Dames Commander (DCB) 1,925 Companions (CB) Regular membership is limited to citizens of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries of which the British monarch is Sovereign. Appointees are usually officers of the armed forces or senior civil servants, such as permanent secretaries. Members appointed to the Civil Division must "by their personal services to [the] crown or by the performance of public duties have merited ... royal favour."Statutes 1925, article 9. Appointments to the Military Division are restricted by the minimum rank of the individual. GCBs hold the rank of admiral in the Royal Navy, general in the British Army or Royal Marines, or air chief marshal in the Royal Air Force.Statutes 1925, article 8. KCBs must at least hold the rank of vice admiral, lieutenant general in the Army or Marines, or air marshal.Statutes 1925, article 10. CBs tend be of the rank of rear admiral, major general in the Army, Royal Navy or Royal Marines, or air vice marshal in the Royal Air Force, and in addition must have been Mentioned in Despatches for distinction in a command position in a combat situation, although the latter is no longer a requirement. Non-line officers (e.g. engineers, medics) may be appointed only for meritorious service in wartime.Statutes 1925, article 12. thumb|150px|Admiral Sir George Zambellas KCB (military division).|alt= Commonwealth citizens not subjects of the British monarch and foreigners may be made Honorary Members.Statutes 1925, article 15. Queen Elizabeth II established the custom of awarding an honorary GCB to visiting (republican) heads of state, for example Gustav Heinemann and Josip Broz Tito (in 1972),The Times, 25 October 1972, p. 21. Ronald Reagan (in 1989), Lech Wałęsa (in 1991), Censu Tabone (in 1992), Fernando Henrique Cardoso, George H. W. Bush (in 1993),The Times, 1 December 1993, p. 24. Nicolas Sarkozy (in 2008), and Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (in 2012), as well as Turkish President Abdullah Gül, Slovenian President Danilo Türk, Mexican President Felipe Calderón, and South African President Jacob Zuma (Royal Heads of State are instead usually made Stranger Companions of the Order of the Garter). Foreign generals are also often given honorary appointments to the Order, for example: Marshal Ferdinand Foch and Marshal Joseph Joffre during the First World War; Marshal Georgy Zhukov,The Times, Issue 50193; 13 July 1945; p. 4; col A. King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, General George C. Marshall, General Douglas MacArthur, and General George S. Patton Jr. during the Second World War;The Times, 27 May 1943, p. 4. and General Norman Schwarzkopf and General Colin Powell after the Gulf War.The Times, 21 May 1991. A more controversial member of the Order was Robert Mugabe, whose honour was stripped by the Queen, on the advice of the Foreign Secretary, David Miliband, on 25 June 2008 "as a mark of revulsion at the abuse of human rights and abject disregard for the democratic process in Zimbabwe over which President Mugabe has presided." Honorary members do not count towards the numerical limits in each class.Statutes 1925, article 18. In addition, the statutes allow the Sovereign to exceed the limits in time of war or other exceptional circumstances."In the event of any future wars or of any action or services civil or military meriting peculiar honour and reward ... to increase the numbers in any of the said classes and in any of the said divisions". Statutes 1925, article 17. Officers The Order of the Bath now has six officers:Court Circular, 17 May 2006. Dean: Dean of Westminster (ex officio), the Very Rev. David Hoyle King of Arms: Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton Registrar and Secretary: Rear Admiral Iain Henderson Court Circular, 13 June 2006. Deputy Secretary: Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Segrave Genealogist: David White, Esq. Gentleman Usher of the Scarlet Rod: Major General James Gordon There were originally seven officers, each of whom was to receive fees from the Knights Companion both on appointment, and annually thereafter. The office of Messenger was abolished in 1859. The office of Genealogist was abolished at the same time, but revived in 1913.Risk, p. 93. The offices of Registrar and Secretary were formally merged in 1859, although the two positions had been held concurrently for the previous century.Risk, pp. 13, 70. An Officer of Arms and a Secretary for the Knights Commander and Companions were established in 1815, but abolished in 1847.Statutes 1847, article 15. The office of Deputy Secretary was created in 1925. Under the Hanoverian kings, certain of the officers also held heraldic office. The office of Blanc Coursier Herald of Arms was attached to that of the Genealogist, Brunswick Herald of Arms to the Gentleman Usher, and Bath King of Arms was also made Gloucester King of Arms with heraldic jurisdiction over Wales.Statute dated 17 January 1726 (according to Risk, p. 14). Both the 1812 and 1847 editions of the Statutes give the date as 17 January 1725, but this is most probably a misprint since the Order was not founded until May 1725, and the additional statute also specified the office holders by name. This was the result of a move by Anstis to give the holders of these sinecures greater security; the offices of the Order of the Bath were held at the pleasure of the Great Master, while appointments to the heraldic offices were made by the King under the Great Seal and were for life.Risk, p. 14. Habit and insignia thumb|An embroidered representation, or 'chaton', of the star of the civil division of the Order.|alt= thumb|The insignia of a Knight Grand Cross of the civil division of the order.|alt= thumb|upright=0.5|Mantle of the Order.|alt= thumb|upright=0.5|The insignia of a Knight Grand Cross of the military division of the order.|alt= thumb|upright=0.5|Star and neck badge of a Knight Commander of the civil division of the order.|alt= Members of the Order wear elaborate costumes on important occasions (such as its quadrennial installation ceremonies and coronations), which vary by rank: The mantle, worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of crimson satin lined with white taffeta. On the left side is a representation of the star (see below). The mantle is bound with two large tassels.Statutes 1925, article 23. The hat, worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander, is made of black velvet; it includes an upright plume of feathers.The hat was made of white satin (Statutes 1725, article 8), but was changed to black velvet at the command of George IV for his coronation (Nicolas, p. 198). The hat is not explicitly specified in the 1847 or 1925 statutes The collar, worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold and weighs . It consists of depictions of nine imperial crowns and eight sets of flowers (roses for England, thistles for Scotland, and shamrocks for Ireland), connected by seventeen silver knots. On lesser occasions, simpler insignia are used: The star is used only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander. Its style varies by rank and division; it is worn pinned to the left breast: The star for military Knights and Dames Grand Cross consists of a Maltese Cross on top of an eight-pointed silver star; the star for military Knights and Dames Commander is an eight-pointed silver cross pattée. Each bears in the centre three crowns surrounded by a red ring bearing the motto of the Order in gold letters. The circle is flanked by two laurel branches, and is above a scroll bearing the words Ich dien (older German for 'I serve') in gold letters. Stylised versions of this are known as Bath stars, and are used as epaulette pips to indicate British Army officer ranks and for police ranks. The star for civil Knights and Dames Grand Cross consists of an eight-pointed silver star, without the Maltese cross; the star for civil Knights and Dames Commander is an eight-pointed silver cross pattée. The design of each is the same as the design of the military stars, except that the laurel branches and the words Ich dien are excluded. The badge varies in design, size, and manner of wearing by rank and division. The Knight and Dame Grand Cross' badge is larger than the Knight and Dame Commander's badge, which is in turn larger than the Companion's badge;Statutes 1925, articles 23, 24, 25. however, these are all suspended on a crimson ribbon. Knights and Dames Grand Cross wear the badge on a riband or sash, passing from the right shoulder to the left hip. Knights Commander and male Companions wear the badge from a ribbon worn around the neck. Dames Commander and female Companions wear the badge from a bow on the left side: The military badge is a gold Maltese Cross of eight points, enamelled in white. Each point of the cross is decorated by a small gold ball; each angle has a small figure of a lion. The centre of the cross bears three crowns on the obverse side, and a rose, a thistle and a shamrock, emanating from a sceptre on the reverse side. Both emblems are surrounded by a red circular ring bearing the motto of the Order, which are in turn flanked by two laurel branches, above a scroll bearing the words Ich dien in gold letters. The civil badge is a plain gold oval, bearing three crowns on the obverse side, and a rose, a thistle and a shamrock, emanating from a sceptre on the reverse side; both emblems are surrounded by a ring bearing the motto of the Order. On certain 'collar days' designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events may wear the Order's collar over their military uniform or evening wear. When collars are worn (either on collar days or on formal occasions such as coronations), the badge is suspended from the collar. The collars and badges of Knights and Dames Grand Cross are returned to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood upon the decease of their owners. All other insignia may be retained by their owners. Chapel thumb|Westminster Abbey with a procession of Knights of the Bath, by Canaletto, 1749.|alt= thumb|Banners of the senior Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey.|alt= The Chapel of the Order is the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey.Statutes 1925, article 21. The Sovereign, Great Master, and the Knights and Dames Grand Cross are allotted stalls in the choir of the chapel, above which their heraldic devices are displayed. Every four years, an installation ceremony, presided over by the Great Master, and a religious service are held in the chapel. The last such service was on Tuesday 24 May 2022, and was presided over by the Prince of Wales. The Sovereign and each knight who has been installed is allotted a stall in the choir of the chapel. As there are a limited number of stalls in the chapel, only the most senior Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed. A stall made vacant by the death of a military Knight Grand Cross is offered to the next most senior uninstalled military GCB, and similarly for vacancies among civil GCBs. Waits between admission to the Order and installation may be very long; for instance, Marshal of the Air Force Lord Craig of Radley was created a Knight Grand Cross in 1984, but was not installed until 2006. Above each stall, the occupant's heraldic devices are displayed. Perched on the pinnacle of a knight's stall is his helm, decorated with a mantling and topped by his crest. Under English heraldic law, women other than monarchs do not bear helms or crests; instead, the coronet appropriate to the dame's rank (if she is a peer or member of the Royal family) is used. Above the crest or coronet, the knight's or dame's heraldic banner is hung, emblazoned with his or her coat of arms. At a considerably smaller scale, to the back of the stall is affixed a piece of brass (a 'stall plate') displaying its occupant's name, arms, and date of admission into the Order. Upon the death of a Knight, the banner, helm, mantling, and crest (or coronet or crown) are taken down. The stall plates, however, are not removed; rather, they remain permanently affixed somewhere about the stall, so that the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the Order's Knights (and now Dames) throughout history. When the grade of Knight Commander was established in 1815, the regulations specified that they too should have a banner and stall plate affixed in the chapel. This was never implemented (despite some of the KCBs paying the appropriate fees) primarily due to lack of space,Risk, p. 40. although the 1847 statutes allow all three classes to request the erection of a plate in the chapel bearing the member's name, date of nomination, and (for the two higher classes) optionally the coat of arms.Statutes 1847, article 18. Precedence and privileges thumb|280px|Coat of arms of the Marquess of Carisbrooke (1886-1960) with the circlet and collar as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath.|alt= thumb|280px|Coat of arms of the Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Squire, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath.|alt= Members of the Order of the Bath are assigned positions in the order of precedence.Statutes 1925, article 22. Wives of male members also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters, and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of female members, however, are not assigned any special precedence. Generally, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives. (See order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions.) Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix 'Sir', and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix 'Dame', to their forenames.Statutes 1925, article 20. Wives of Knights may prefix 'Lady' to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Furthermore, honorary foreign members and clergymen do not receive the accolade of knighthood, and so are not entitled to the prefix 'Sir', unless the former subsequently become Commonwealth citizens. Knights and Dames Grand Cross use the post-nominal GCB; Knights Commander use KCB; Dames Commander use DCB; Companions use CB. The post-nominal letters are not mentioned in the Statutes of the Order. Knights and Dames Grand Cross are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters.Statutes 1925, article 28. Furthermore, they may encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a red circle bearing the motto) with the badge pendant thereto and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Knights and Dames Commander and Companions may display the circlet, but not the collar, around their arms. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar or circlet. Members of the Military division may encompass the circlet with 'two laurel branches issuant from an escrol azure inscribed Ich dien', as appears on the badge. Members of the Order of the Bath and their children are able to be married in Westminster Abbey in London. Revocation It is possible for membership in the Order to be revoked. Under the 1725 statutes, the grounds for this were heresy, high treason, or fleeing from battle out of cowardice. Knights Companion could in such cases be degraded at the next Chapter meeting. It was then the duty of the Gentleman Usher to 'pluck down the escocheon [i.e. stallplate] of such knight and spurn it out of the chapel' with 'all the usual marks of infamy'.Statutes 1725, article 3. Only two people were ever degraded: Lord Cochrane in 1813, and General Sir Eyre Coote in 1816, both for political reasons, rather than any of the grounds given in the statute. Lord Cochrane was subsequently reinstated, but Coote died a few years after his degradation.Risk, p. 30. Under Queen Victoria's 1847 statutes, a member 'convicted of treason, cowardice, felony, or any infamous crime derogatory to his honour as a knight or gentleman, or accused and does not submit to trial in a reasonable time, shall be degraded from the Order by a special ordinance signed by the sovereign.' The Sovereign was to be the sole judge, and also had the power to restore such members.Statutes 1847, article 26. The situation today is that membership may be cancelled or annulled, and the entry in the register erased, by an ordinance signed by the Sovereign and sealed with the seal of the Order, on the recommendation of the appropriate Minister. Such cancellations may be subsequently reversed.Statutes 1925, article 30. In 1923, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was made an honorary Knight Grand Cross, by King George V. Mussolini was stripped of his GCB in 1940, after he had declared war on the UK. George Pottinger, a senior civil servant, lost both his status of CB and Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) in 1975 when he was jailed for corruptly receiving gifts from the architect John Poulson. Romanian president Nicolae Ceauşescu was stripped of his honorary GCB status by Queen Elizabeth II on 24 December 1989, the day before his execution. Robert Mugabe, the President of Zimbabwe, was stripped of his honorary GCB status by the Queen, on the advice of the Foreign Secretary, David Miliband, on 25 June 2008, 'as a mark of revulsion at the abuse of human rights and abject disregard for the democratic process in Zimbabwe over which President Mugabe has presided.' Vicky Pryce, former wife of Chris Huhne, was stripped of her CB by Queen Elizabeth II on 30 July 2013, following her conviction for perverting the course of justice. Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross Sovereign: King Charles III Great Master: VacantPrevious held by King Charles III, he has become the Sovereign of the order Knights and Dames Grand Cross Service branch (if any)Military rank (if any)NamePost-nominalsYear appointedRoyal Air ForceMarshal of the Royal Air ForceThe Lord Craig of Radley1984Sir Clive Whitmore1988Sir Peter Middleton1989Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Patrick Hine1989Sir William Heseltine1990Royal NavyAdmiral of the FleetSir Benjamin Bathurst1991Sir Terence Heiser1992Royal NavyAdmiralSir Jock Slater1992The Lord Butler of Brockwell1992Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Michael Graydon1993British ArmyField MarshalThe Lord Guthrie of Craigiebank1994British ArmyGeneralSir John Waters1994Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Michael Alcock1995The Lord Burns1995Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Richard Johns1997British ArmyGeneralSir Roger Wheeler1997Sir Anthony Battishill1997The Lord Fellowes1998British ArmyField MarshalThe Lord Walker of Aldringham1999British ArmyGeneralSir Jeremy Mackenzie1999Sir Nigel Wicks1999The Lord Wilson of Dinton2001Royal NavyAdmiralSir Nigel Essenhigh2002Sir Hayden Phillips2002Sir David Omand2004Royal NavyAdmiralThe Lord West of Spithead2004British ArmyGeneralSir Michael Jackson2004Royal Air ForceMarshal of the Royal Air ForceThe Lord Stirrup2005Sir Richard Mottram2006The Lord Janvrin2007British ArmyGeneralThe Lord Dannatt2008Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Glenn Torpy2008Royal NavyAdmiralSir Jonathon Band2008Royal NavyAdmiralSir Mark Stanhope2010British ArmyGeneralThe Lord Houghton of Richmond2011Sir David Normington2011British ArmyGeneralThe Lord Richards of Herstmonceux2011The Lord O'Donnell2011Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Stephen Dalton2012British ArmyGeneralSir Peter Wall2013The Lord Macpherson of Earl's Court2015Royal NavyAdmiralSir George Zambellas2016Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Andrew Pulford2016The Lord Geidt2018British ArmyGeneralSir Nicholas Carter2019Dame Sally Davies2019Royal NavyAdmiralSir Philip Jones2019Royal Air ForceAir Chief MarshalSir Stephen Hillier2020Sir Tom Scholar2023The Lord Young of Old Windsor2023British ArmyGeneralSir Mark Carleton-Smith2023 Honorary Knights and Dames Grand Cross CountryNamePost-nominalsYear appointedOffice when appointed António Ramalho Eanes197816th President of Portugal Ibrahim Babangida19898th President of Nigeria Vigdís Finnbogadóttir19904th President of Iceland Lech Wałęsa19912nd President of Poland Hassanal Bolkiah199229th Sultan of Brunei Martti Ahtisaari199510th President of Finland Aleksander Kwaśniewski19963rd President of Poland Fernando Henrique Cardoso199734th President of Brazil Abdullah II of Jordan2001King of Jordan Thabo Mbeki20012nd President of South Africa Olusegun Obasanjo200312th President of Nigeria Horst Köhler20049th President of Germany Eddie Fenech Adami20057th President of Malta Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva200635th President of Brazil Valdas Adamkus20069th President of Lithuania Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga20066th President of Latvia Toomas Hendrik Ilves20064th President of Estonia John Kufuor20072nd President of Ghana Abdullah Gül200811th President of Turkey Nicolas Sarkozy200823rd President of France Danilo Türk20084th President of Slovenia Felipe Calderón200956th President of Mexico Jacob Zuma20104th President of South AfricaHamad bin Khalifa Al Thani2010Emir of Qatar23px Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono20126th President of Indonesia Park Geun-hye201318th President of South Korea François Hollande201424th President of France Tony Tan20147th President of Singapore Enrique Peña Nieto201557th President of Mexico Joachim Gauck201511th President of Germany Juan Manuel Santos201632nd President of Colombia Cyril Ramaphosa20225th President of South Africa Frank-Walter Steinmeier202312th President of Germany See also For people who have been appointed to the Order of the Bath, see the following categories: :Category: Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath :Category: Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath :Category: Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath :Category: Dames Commander of the Order of the Bath :Category: Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath List of Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath List of Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath :Category: Knights of the Bath :Category: Companions of the Order of the Bath List of honorary British knights and dames List of people who have declined a British honour List of revocations of appointments to orders and awarded decorations and medals of the United Kingdom Notes References External links Search recommendations for the Order of the Bath on the UK's National Archives' website Brennan, I. G. (2004). "The Most Honourable Order of the Bath". Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society. (2002, 2020). "The Most Honourable Order of the Bath". Velde, F. R. (2003). "Order of Precedence in England and Wales". Category:1725 establishments in Great Britain Category:Awards established in 1725 Bath, Order of the Bath

{"Type": "Order of chivalry", "Country": "United Kingdom", "Motto": "Tria juncta in uno ('Three joined in one') (Civil Division)Ich dien (Military Division)", "Status": "currently constituted", "Former grades": "Knight Companion (KB)", "Next (higher)": "Order of St Patrick", "Next (lower)": "Order of the Star of India"}

Tinsley Viaduct is a two-tier road bridge in Sheffield, England; it was the first of its kind in the United Kingdom. It carries the M1 and the A631 for a distance of over the Don Valley, from Tinsley to Wincobank, also crossing the Sheffield Canal, the Midland Main Line and the former South Yorkshire Railway line from Tinsley Junction to Rotherham Central. The Supertram route to Meadowhall runs below part of the viaduct on the trackbed of the South Yorkshire Railway line to Barnsley. History left|thumb|Tinsley Viaduct lower deck The lower deck of the viaduct was opened in March 1968 and the upper deck, carrying the M1, on 19 October 1968. The build cost was £6 million. The structure is unusual in that it is built as steel box girders, at a time when most long span bridges were being built of post-tensioned concrete deck design. The use of steel allowed a significant cost saving over alternative methods, but became controversial following two disasters involving steel bridges in 1970 (the West Gate Bridge in Australia and the Cleddau Bridge in Wales) and another in 1971 (the in Germany). Fifty-one people were killed in these failures, leading in the UK to the formation of the Merrison Committee. The report of the Merrison committee resulted in the temporary closure of two of the carriageways on the lower deck and two on the upper deck, the installation of extra steel strengthening bands around the bridge's support columns and other works which were completed in 1983. A further programme of strengthening was completed in 2006. The recent work to strengthen the bridge was a very complex operation, with a lot of the work happening inside the box beam spine. The works took over 3 years and cost £82 million (nearly 9 times the original bridge building cost, adjusting for inflation). The strengthening project won the British construction industry's Major Project Award in 2005. Although originally designed to carry a dual 3-lane motorway on the top deck, during and subsequent to the strengthening work the M1 was reduced to 2 lanes following an EU directive on load bearing capacity to allow for the introduction of 40-tonne trucks in the UK. This arrangement allowed the third lane in each direction to join from Junction 34 to make the busy junction safer. Since the opening of the M1 junction 32 to 35a smart motorway scheme in January 2017, the viaduct once again carries 3 lanes of traffic plus hard shoulders in each direction. The viaduct is balanced on rollers to allow for thermal expansion and contraction, and the route weaves slightly in order to make its way past obstacles. The viaduct, due to its construction, is very flexible. Movement may be felt on the lower deck as the traffic passes overhead. The Meadowhall Shopping Centre lies in the valley to the west; to the east is the Blackburn Meadows sewage works and new biomass power station. Tinsley cooling towers thumb|left|Demolition of Tinsley cooling towers on 24 August 2008. The viaduct is one of Sheffield's most prominent landmarks, and was once made all the more so by the adjacent pair of cooling towers that were left standing for safety reasons after the demolition of the Blackburn Meadows Power Station. The cooling towers were a major point of contention over the years and were once saved from destruction only after being chosen as a nesting site by a rare bird. More recently, plans were made to turn them into a piece of public art. Other plans for the towers included concert halls, skate parks and a theme park. Their iconic status, and the possibly prohibitive costs of demolishing the towers safely, looked to have cemented their status in Sheffield's future as much as they were a part of its history, until the owner of the towers (and the now-demolished power station), E.ON UK, stated its intention to demolish them once the strengthening of the viaduct made it feasible. The towers were demolished at 03:00 BST on 24 August 2008, though a significant portion of the north tower remained standing for a short while. The demolition attracted widespread attention. A viewing platform was set up so the public could watch the demolition. Part of the site has been converted for use as a biomass power station by the owners E.ON UK. In popular culture The Tinsley Viaduct is featured among several other locations as the site of "ground zero" for a fictional Soviet Union nuclear strike on Sheffield depicted in Threads (1984), a depiction of what might have happened had NATO and the Soviet Union entered conflict over hypothetical instability in Iran that escalated into full nuclear war. In the ensuing nuclear exchange, a one-megaton nuclear missile explodes above the Tinsley Viaduct, devastating most of surrounding Sheffield. See also List of bridges in the United Kingdom References External links Go sheffo: Cooling the Towers Cooling towers public art competition held in 2005. Standing on the Shoulders of Giants Blackburn Meadows cooling tower climb Category:Bridges completed in 1968 Category:Bridges in Sheffield Category:Bridges over the River Don, South Yorkshire Category:Motorway bridges in England Category:Road transport in Sheffield Category:Steel bridges in the United Kingdom Category:Viaducts in England Category:M1 motorway Category:Double-decker bridges Category:1968 establishments in England

{"Carries": "M1\n A631", "Crosses": "River Don\n Sheffield Canal\n Midland Main Line\n South Yorkshire Railway\n Sheffield Supertram (partially)", "Locale": "Tinsley/Wincobank", "Maintained by": "National Highways", "Design": "twin deck box girder bridgehttp://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/6028.aspx Tinsley Viaduct Highways Agency 17 April 2007", "Longest span": "50 m ft on (20 spans)", "Total length": "1033 m ft on", "Width": "6 lanes", "Height": "20 m ft on (to upper level)", "Clearance below": "10 m ft onhttp://www.safespanplatforms.com/news.html Safespan's Latest News Safespan Inc. 28 December 2007", "Daily traffic": "100,000 vehicles/dayhttp://www.betterpublicbuildings.gov.uk/finalists/2005/tinsley/ Tinsley viaduct strengthening project, Sheffield Prime Minister's Award https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020117/http://www.betterpublicbuildings.gov.uk/finalists/2005/tinsley/ 5 December 2008 17 April 2007", "Construction start": "Spring 1965http://www.iht.org/motorway/m1bridges.htm M1 Aston-Sheffield-Leeds The Motorway Archive Trust 19 April 2007 https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182307/http://www.iht.org/motorway/m1bridges.htm 27 September 2007", "Construction end": "1968", "Coordinates": "53 25 03 N 1 24 21 W region:GB_type:landmark inline,title", "OS grid reference": "SK394913"}

TAXAN wasArchived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: a brand of Kaga Electronics Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan. It was founded in July 1981. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the US division published several video games on the NES and Game Boy. The company shut down in 1991 according to former employee Ken Lobb.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Taxan (UK) Ltd and Taxan (Europe) Ltd On 12 December 1985, Kaga Electronic Company Ltd opened a UK office in Bracknell, Berkshire. Taxan (UK) Ltd initially sold a range of monochrome and colour monitors for IBM, IBM compatible and Apple personal computers as well the highly successful KP810 and KP910 dot matrix printers with NLQ printing technology. The company appointed Northamber plc and P&P Micro Distributors followed by Bytech Peripherals Ltd to sell Taxan products to computer resellers. In addition, Taxan appointed approximately 50 leading resellers who purchased directly from Taxan and were chosen specifically to build the brand in the UK. Taxan also supplied a number of system integrators and OEM customers either under the Taxan brand or original brand. This included Dell Computer Corporation who set up their first UK office in the building next door to Taxan. Despite considerable success in the dot matrix printer market, Taxan (UK) Ltd made a decision in 1987 to focus on monitors and thus the KP815 and KP915 were the last printers sold in the UK. By 1987, Taxan became the market leader in the UK and as a result of this position Kaga Electronics decided to transfer all activities for Europe to the UK office, renaming the Company Taxan (Europe) Ltd. Taxan (Europe) Ltd expanded operations in Europe rapidly, which included opening subsidiary companies and offices in Germany, France, and Sweden. Distributors were appointed throughout Europe and the company enjoyed considerable growth. In addition to selling computer monitors, the company also sold a range of graphics cards under Taxan brand. This included products designed and manufactured in Japan as well as a highly successful relationship with Paradise System Inc. In 1987, Taxan added the ATI EGA Wonder Graphics adaptor (under the ATI brand) to its product range establishing a strong relationship with the founder of ATI Technologies in Toronto, Canada. This led to Taxan eventually working with ATI on an exclusive basis selling graphics adapters under the Taxan brand and eventually under the ATI brand only. At its peak, Taxan (Europe) Ltd revenues exceeded $80 million per year. Product list to 1985 KX-12G (Monochrome with either P31 or P39 Green Phosphor) KX-12A (Monochrome with Amber Phosphor) 12" Vision I (0.63mm Dot Pitch Colour Monitor) 12" Vision II (0.51mm Dot Pitch Colour Monitor) 12" Vision III (0.38mm Dot Pitch Colour Monitor) Supervision II (Colour Monitor) Supervision III (Colour Monitor) Supervision IVM (Colour Monitor) Supervision IV (Colour Monitor) KP810, KP815 80 Col Dot Matrix Printer KP910, KP915 156 Col Dot Matrix Printer List of games Title Date PlatformStar Soldier January 1989 NESFist of the North Star April 1989 NESMappy-Land April 1989 NESMystery Quest April 1989 NES8 Eyes January 1990 NESBurai Fighter March 1990 NESMagician March 1990 NESLow G Man: The Low Gravity Man September 1990 NESSerpent November 1990 Game BoyBurai Fighter Deluxe January 1991 Game BoyG.I. Joe January 1991 NESPutt Master NR NES References External links Taxan USA / Kaga Electronics (USA) Inc. page TAXAN projector page Category:Companies established in 1981 Category:Video game companies established in 1981 Category:Video game companies disestablished in 1991 Category:Defunct video game companies of the United Kingdom Category:Video game publishers

{"Type": "Brand", "Industry": "Computer hardware, video games", "Founded": "1981United Kingdom", "Defunct": "yes 1991", "Headquarters": "Bracknell, United Kingdom", "Parent": "Kaga Electronics Co. Ltd", "Products": "Product list to 1985List of games"}

thumb|Map from Soviet book "Archeology of the Ukrainian SSR in 3 volumes", Kiev, 1986, showing place of the Asparuh's burial near the modern city of Zaporizhzhia.Asparuh (also Ispor; or (rarely) ) was а ruler of Bulgars in the second half of the 7th century and is credited with the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire in 681.De administrando imperio Retrieved August 09, 2012. Early life The Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans states that Asparuh belonged to the Dulo clan and reigned for 61 years. This long period cannot be accepted as accurate due to chronological constraints, and may indicate the length of Asparuh's life. According to the chronology developed by Moskov, Asparuh would have reigned 668–695. Other chronologies frequently end his reign in 700 or 701 but cannot be reconciled with the testimony of the Namelist. According to the Byzantine sources, Asparuh was a younger son of Kubrat, who had established a spacious state ("Great Bulgaria") in the steppes of modern Ukraine. Asparuh may have gained experience in politics and statesmanship during the long reign of his father, who probably died in 665 (apud Moskov). According to Djagfar Tarikhy (a work of disputed authenticity) Asparuh was made the leader of the Onogur tribe by his father. After his father's death, Asparuh would have acknowledged the rule of his older brother Bat Bayan, but the state disintegrated under Khazar attack in 668, and he and his brothers parted ways, leading their people to seek a more secure home in other lands. left|thumb|200px|The foundation of the First Bulgarian Empire Establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire Asparuh was followed by 30,000 to 50,000 Bulgars. Васил Н. Златарски. История на Първото българско Царство. Епоха на хуно-българското надмощие с. 188.Ал. Бурмов, Създаване на Българската дъжава с. 132. Образуване на българската народност. Димитър Ангелов (Издателство Наука и изкуство, “Векове”, София 1971)с. 203—204. He reached the Danube and while the Byzantine capital Constantinople was besieged by Muawiyah I, Caliph of the Arabs (674–678), he and his people settled in the Danube delta, probably on the now-disappeared Peuce Island. After the Arab siege of Constantinople ended, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV marched against the Bulgars and their Slav allies in 680 and forced his opponents to seek shelter in a fortified encampment. Compelled to abandon the leadership of his army in order to seek medical treatment for his ailments in Anchialo (today's Pomorie), Constantine IV inadvertently demoralized his troops, who gave in to rumours that their emperor had fled. With segments of the Byzantine army starting to desert, the Bulgars and their allies broke through the blockade and routed their enemy at the Battle of Ongala in 680. Asparuh then swiftly moved from the Danubian delta down to the Balkan range. Reign 150px|thumb|right|Monogram of Asparuh Asparuh's victory led to the Bulgarian conquest of Moesia and the establishment of some sort of alliance between the Bulgars and the local Slavic groups (described as the Severi and Seven Slavic tribes). As Asparuh commenced to raid across the mountains into Byzantine Thrace in 681, Constantine IV decided to cut his losses and conclude a treaty, whereby the Byzantine Empire paid the Bulgars an annual tribute. These events are seen in retrospect as the establishment of the Bulgarian state and its recognition by the Byzantine Empire. In later tradition Asparuh is credited with building the major centers of Pliska and Drăstăr, as well as at least one of the Bulgarian limes walls from the Danube to the Black Sea. While the multi-tribal and hegemonic character of the Bulgarian state in the first century or two after its establishment is readily apparent, Bulgarian historians have stressed the establishment of a capital and of a state tradition that could be viewed retrospectively as national. According to a late tradition, Asparuh died fighting the Khazars on the Danube. According to one theory, advanced by the Bulgarian historian Vaklinov, his grave is located near Voznesenka ("Ascension") on the Dnieper in Ukraine. The town of Isperikh, several villages and Asparuh Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica are named after Asparuh of Bulgaria. See also Asparukh (name) Aszparuh - 1981 epic film Bulgars History of Bulgaria List of Bulgarian monarchs. References Bibliography Mosko Moskov, Imennik na bălgarskite hanove (novo tălkuvane), Sofia 1988. Jordan Andreev, Ivan Lazarov, Plamen Pavlov, Koj koj e v srednovekovna Bălgarija, Sofia 1999. (primary source), Bahši Iman, Džagfar Tarihy, vol. III, Orenburg 1997. (primary source), Nikephoros Patriarch of Constantinople, Short History, C. Mango, ed., Dumbarton Oaks Texts 10, 1990. (primary source), The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, C. Mango and R. Scott, trans., Oxford University Press, 1997. Васил Н. Златарски, История на българската държава през средните векове, Част I, II изд., Наука и изкуство, София 1970, pp. 176-209. External links Rulers of Bulgaria - Asparuh De administrando imperio Category:7th-century births Category:700 deaths Category:Monarchs of the Bulgars Category:7th-century Bulgarian monarchs Category:Bulgarian people of the Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars Category:Dulo clan Category:Founding monarchs

{"Name": "AsparuhАспарух", "Succession": "Khan of Bulgaria", "Religion": "Tengrism", "Title": "Khan of Bulgaria", "Image": "KanasJubigiAsparukh2.JPG", "Caption": "Monument in Strelcha, Bulgaria", "Reign": "681-701", "Predecessor": "Kubrat", "Successor": "Tervel", "Issue": "Tervel Ajjar", "Father": "Kubrat", "Birth date": "around 640", "Death date": "701", "Death place": "Dnieper River"}

Nicolas Charles Oudinot, comte d'Oudinot, duc de Reggio (25 April 1767 in Bar-le-Duc - 13 September 1847 in Paris), was a Marshal of the Empire. He is known to have been wounded 34 times in battle, being hit by artillery shells, sabers, and at least twelve bullets over the course of his military career. Oudinot is one of the Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, Eastern pillar Columns 13, 14. Early life Nicolas Charles Oudinot was the son of Nicolas Oudinot and Marie Anne Adam, the only one of their nine children to live to adulthood. His father was a brewer, farmer and distiller of brandy in Bar-le-Duc, Lorraine. He decided upon a military career, and served in the regiment of Medoc from 1784 to 1787, when, having no hope of promotion on account of his non-noble birth, he retired with the rank of sergeant. French Revolutionary Wars thumb|left|Oudinot as a lieutenant colonel of the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Meuse, 1792 The French Revolution changed his fortunes, and in 1792, on the outbreak of war, he was elected lieutenant-colonel of the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Meuse. His gallant defense of the little fort of Bitsch in the Vosges in 1792 drew attention to him; he was transferred to the regular army in November 1793, and after serving in numerous actions on the Belgian frontier he was promoted general of brigade, in June 1794 for his conduct at the Battle of Kaiserslautern. He continued to serve with distinction on the German frontier under Louis Lazare Hoche, Charles Pichegru and Jean Victor Marie Moreau, was repeatedly wounded and once (in 1795) taken prisoner after having been wounded again. He was André Masséna's right hand all through the Swiss campaign of 1799, first as a general of division, then as chief of staff, and won extraordinary distinction at the Second Battle of Zurich. He was present under Massena at the Siege of Genoa, and so distinguished himself at the Battle of Monzambano that Napoleon presented him with a sword of honour (an especially uncommon award replaced later by the Légion d'Honneur). He was made inspector-general of infantry, and, on the establishment of the empire, given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, but was not included in the first creation of marshals. Napoleonic Wars Oudinot was elected a member of the chamber of deputies, but had little time to devote to politics. He took a leading role in the war of 1805, commanding the famous division of "grenadiers Oudinot," made up of hand-picked troops and organized by him, with which he seized the Vienna bridges, received a wound at the Battle of Schöngrabern in Lower Austria against the Russians. In 1807, he participated in Joachim Murat's victory in the Battle of Ostrolenka in Poland and fought with resolution and success at the Battle of Friedland. In 1808 he was made governor of Erfurt and Count of the French Empire, and in 1809, after the Battle of Wagram, he was promoted to the rank of Marshal of France. He was made a titular duke in chief of the duché-grand fief of Reggio in the satellite Kingdom of Naples, and received a large money grant in April 1810. From 1810 to 1812 Oudinot administered the government of the former Kingdom of Holland, and commanded the II Corps of La Grande Armée in the Russian campaign. His corps was instrumental in building the bridge over the Berezina that allowed the evacuation of troops after the defeat at the Battle of Berezina. During this period he suffered another wounding in battle. He was present at the Battle of Lützen and the Battle of Bautzen, and when holding the independent command of the corps directed to take Berlin was defeated at the Battle of Grossbeeren. He was then superseded by Marshal Ney, but the latter was defeated at the Battle of Dennewitz. Oudinot was not disgraced. He held important commands at the Battle of Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. On Napoleon's abdication, he rallied to the new government, and was made a Peer of France by the Bourbon Restoration King Louis XVIII. Unlike many of his old comrades, he did not desert to his former master during Bonaparte's 1815 return. Later life His last active service was in the French invasion of Spain in 1823, in which he commanded a corps and was for a time governor of Madrid. He died as Governor of the Parisian veterans institution Les Invalides. Honours 1849 : Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Pope Pius IX.Handelsblad (Het) 14-08-1849 Personal life He married first, in September 1789, Charlotte Derlin (1768-1810) and had 7 children: Marie-Louise (1790-1832): wife (1808) of general Pierre Claude Pajol (1772-1844) Charles (1791-1863) Nicolette (1795-1865): wife (1811) of general (1772-1855) Emilie (1796-1805) Auguste (1799-1835) Elise (1801-1882) Stephanie (1808-1893) He married secondly, in January 1812, Eugenie de Coucy (1791-1868) and had 4 children: Louise-Marie (1816-1909) Caroline (1817-1896) Charles-Joseph (1819-1858) Henri (1822-1891) See also Charles Oudinot, the marshal's eldest son References Attribution Chandler, David (editor). Napoleon's Marshals. London: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987. External links Category:1767 births Category:1847 deaths Category:People from Bar-le-Duc Nicolas Nicolas Category:Politicians from Grand Est Category:Members of the Corps législatif Category:Members of the Chamber of Peers of the Bourbon Restoration Category:Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy Category:Marshals of France Category:French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Marshals of the First French Empire Category:Knights Commander of the Military Order of William Category:Grand Chancellors of the Legion of Honour Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe

{"Born": "Bar-le-Duc, France", "Died": "Paris, France", "Allegiance": "Kingdom of FranceKingdom of the FrenchFirst French RepublicFirst French EmpireBourbon RestorationJuly Monarchy", "Awards": "Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour", "Other work": "Governor of Les Invalides (1842-1847)"}

Hovertank 3D, also known under a variety of other names (Hovertank or Hovertank One), is a vehicular combat game developed by id Software and published by Softdisk in April 1991. Plot Hovertank 3D is set during a nuclear war. In Hovertank 3D, the player controls Brick Sledge, a mercenary hired by an unknown organization (referred to by the game as the "UFA") to rescue people from cities under the threat of nuclear attack (largely political activists or scientists), both by the government and by large corporations. However, the cities are also full of mutated humans, strange creatures and enemy hovertanks. Gameplay thumb|Hovertank 3D gameplay The player must drive a hovertank through the levels and try to find the people Brick is supposed to rescue. There are many enemies in the levels, who are hunting down the people as well as the player. The player can keep track of both people and enemies in the radar box at the bottom of the screen. There is a timer that counts how long until the nuke is dropped. Once all the living people are collected a yellow teleporter appears somewhere in the level, and the player must find it to win. The player receives their fee, based on the number of people safely rescued, and how fast the operation was completed. All damage to the hovertank is repaired at the end of the level. Development John Carmack's research in the game's engine took six weeks, two weeks longer than any id engine before it. The engine written for this game was expanded upon with texture mapping to make Catacomb 3-D, and then later still with raycasting for Wolfenstein 3D. Following the engine's completion, the id staff decided on the nuclear war theme and developed the game. Adrian Carmack enjoyed drawing the monsters and other ghoulish touches. The credits are John Carmack and John Romero as programmers, Tom Hall as game designer and Adrian Carmack as video game artist. The source code to the game, owned by Flat Rock Software, was released in June 2014 under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later in a manner similar those done by id and partners. Reception Hovertank 3D is a landmark 3D game. Other 3D titles at the time, such as flight simulators and other games (such as Alpha Waves) that had more detailed environments, were noticeably slower. A similar engine was used by MIDI Maze for the Atari ST in 1987 and Wayout for the Atari 8-bit family from 1982. Notes References External links id's look back at Hovertank 3D Category:1991 video games Category:DOS games Category:DOS-only games Category:Vehicular combat games Category:First-person shooters Category:North America-exclusive video games Category:Science fiction video games Category:Wolfenstein 3D engine games Category:Id Software games Category:Apocalyptic video games Category:Video games about nuclear war and weapons Category:Commercial video games with freely available source code Category:Tank simulation video games Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games with 2.5D graphics Category:Sprite-based first-person shooters

{"Title": "Hovertank 3D", "Caption": "Hovertank 3D title screen", "Developer": "id Software", "Director": "Tom Hall", "Designer": "Tom Hall", "Programmer": "John Carmack, John Romero", "Artist": "Adrian Carmack", "Publisher": "Softdisk", "Engine": "Prototype of Wolfenstein 3D engine", "Released": "NA \"idlookback\">http://www.idsoftware.com/games/vintage/hovertank/ https://web.archive.org/web/20070321071759/http://www.idsoftware.com/games/vintage/hovertank/ id Software: Hovertank 3D id Software March 21, 2007https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/344672/How_id_built_Wolfenstein_3D_using_Commander_Keen_tech.php How id built Wolfenstein 3D using Commander Keen tech Gamasutra 24 June 2019", "Genre": "Vehicular combat game, first-person shooterKushner David Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created An Empire And Transformed Pop Culture Random House 83 2003 \"Hovertank was the first fast-action, first-person shooter for the computer. Id had invented a genre.\" 0-375-50524-5", "Modes": "Single-player", "Platforms": "DOS"}

Catacomb 3-D (also known as Catacomb 3-D: A New Dimension, Catacomb 3-D: The Descent, and Catacombs 3) is a first-person shooter video game, the third in the Catacomb series, the first of which to feature 3D computer graphics. It was developed by id Software and originally published by Softdisk under the Gamer's Edge label, released in November 1991. The player takes control of the high wizard Petton Everhail, descending into the catacombs of the Towne Cemetery to defeat the evil lich Nemesis and rescue his friend Grelminar. Catacomb 3-D is a landmark title in terms of first-person graphics. It is the first example of the modern, character-based first-person shooter genre, or at least it was a direct ancestor to the games that popularized the genre. It was released for MS-DOS with EGA graphics. The game introduced the concept of showing the player's hand in the three-dimensional viewpoint, and an enhanced version of its technology was later used for the more successful Wolfenstein 3D. The game's more primitive technological predecessor was Hovertank 3D. Production The origin of the games is Catacomb by John Carmack for the PC and Apple II. This was a two-dimensional game utilizing a third-person view from above, released in 1989-1990. It was followed up with Catacomb II, which used the same game engine with new levels. The first release of Catacomb 3-D was called Catacomb 3-D: A New Dimension, but it was later re-released as Catacomb 3-D: The Descent, as well as Catacombs 3 for a re-release as commercially packaged software (the earlier versions had been released by other means such as disk magazines and downloads). The game creators were John Carmack, John Romero, Jason Blochowiak (programmers), Tom Hall (creative director), Adrian Carmack (artist), and Robert Prince (musician). The game was programmed using the Borland C++ programming language. right|thumb|Catacomb 3-D screenshot id Software's use of texture mapping in Catacomb 3-D was influenced by Ultima Underworld (still in development at Catacomb 3-Ds release). Conflicting accounts exist regarding the extent of this influence, however. In the book Masters of Doom, author David Kushner asserts that the concept was discussed only briefly during a 1991 telephone conversation between Underworld developer Paul Neurath and John Romero. However, Paul Neurath has stated multiple times that John Carmack and John Romero had seen the game's 1990 CES demo, and recalled a comment from Carmack that he could write a faster texture mapper. Catacomb Adventure Series Catacomb 3-D was followed by three games, in the so-called Catacomb Adventure Series. They were not developed by id Software but internally by Softdisk with a new staff for Gamer's Edge, who also made the later Dangerous Dave sequels. All of the games, including the original Catacomb titles, are now distributed legally by Flat Rock Software through their own web store and via GOG.com. Flat Rock have also released the source code for the games under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later in June 2014 in a manner similar those done by id and partners. This has led to the creation of the source port Reflection Catacomb, also called Reflection Keen due to shared support for Keen Dreams, and ports all of the 3D Catacomb games to modern systems. Another project, CatacombGL, is an enhanced OpenGL port for Microsoft Windows and Linux. The credits for the series are Mike Maynard, James Row, Nolan Martin (programming), Steven Maines (art direction), Carol Ludden, Jerry Jones, Adrian Carmack (art production), James Weiler, Judi Mangham (quality assurance), and id Software (3D imaging effects). The series' development head, Greg Malone, later became creative director for Duke Nukem 3D and also worked on Shadow Warrior for 3D Realms. Department heads Mike Maynard and Jim Row, meanwhile, would co-found JAM Productions (soon joined by Jerry Jones), the creators of Blake Stone using an enhanced Wolfenstein 3D engine. The series also introduced an item called crystal hourglasses, which would temporarily freeze time and allow the player to stage shots to destroy enemies upon the resumption of normal time, pre-dating later bullet time features in games such as Requiem: Avenging Angel and Max Payne. Catacomb Abyss Catacomb Abyss is the sequel to Catacomb 3-D, and featured the same main character in a new adventure: since his defeat, some of Nemesis' minions have built a mausoleum in his honour. Fearful of the dark mage's return, the townspeople hire Everhail to descend below and end the evil. The environments are more varied than in Catacomb 3D, featuring crypts, gardens, mines, aqueducts, volcanic regions and various other locales. It was the only game in the series that was distributed as shareware, released by Softdisk in 1992. Catacomb Armageddon right|thumb|Catacomb Armageddon screenshot Catacomb Armageddon is the sequel to Catacomb Abyss, only now set in the present day. The levels featured, among others, towns, forests, temples, torture chambers, an ant colony, and a crystal maze. It was developed by Softdisk and was later republished by Froggman under the title Curse of the Catacombs. Catacomb Apocalypse Catacomb Apocalypse is the final game in the Catacomb Adventure Series. It was set in the distant future, accessible via time portals, and mixed fantasy and science fiction elements, pitting players against robotic necromancers and the like. It is also the only game in the trilogy to have a hub system, though it was present in the original Catacomb 3D. It was developed by Softdisk and later republished by Froggman under the title Terror of the Catacombs. Reception According to John Romero, the team felt it lacked the coolness and fun of Commander Keen, although the 3D technology was interesting to work with. Computer Gaming World in May 1993 called The Catacomb Abyss "very enjoyable" despite the "minimal" EGA graphics and sound. The magazine stated in February 1994 that Terror of the Catacombss "Playability is good, almost addictive, and offers bang for the buck in spite of its lackluster" EGA graphics. Transend Services Ltd. sold over 1,000 copies of the game in the first month of its release. References External links id's look back at Catacomb 3D Category:1991 video games Category:DOS games Category:Amiga games Category:Amiga CD32 games Category:First-person shooters Category:Sprite-based first-person shooters Category:Video games with 2.5D graphics Category:Wolfenstein 3D engine games Category:Id Software games Category:Commercial video games with freely available source code Category:Games commercially released with DOSBox Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games scored by Bobby Prince Category:Video games set in cemeteries Category:Softdisk Category:Single-player video games

{"Title": "Catacomb 3-D", "Caption": "Title screen", "Developer": "id Software", "Publisher": "Softdisk", "Director": "Tom Hall", "Engine": "Prototype of Wolfenstein 3D engine", "Released": "NA \"GU-id-CK-Wolf3d\"/>", "Genre": "First-person shooter", "Modes": "Single-player", "Platforms": "DOS"}

Peter Struck (24 January 1943 - 19 December 2012) was the German Minister of Defence under chancellor Gerhard Schröder from 2002 to 2005. A lawyer, Struck was a member of the Social Democratic Party. Education 1962: Abitur 1964: Member of the SPD Struck studied law at the universities of Göttingen and Hamburg. In 1971 he graduated to Dr. iur. (Doctor of Laws). Political career Peter Struck was a member of the Bundestag from 1980 until 2009. He first became a member of the Bundestag in the 1980 West German elections, via the party list, for the constituency of Celle-Uelzen. Due to his growing popularity, in the years 1998, 2002 and 2005, Struck was directly elected.David Childs (2 January 2013), Peter Struck: Politician who lost faith in the Afghan campaign The Independent. From 1990 to 1998 he was whip (Parlamentarischer Geschäftsführer) of the SPD parliamentary group. From 1998 to 2002 he was chairman of the SPD parliamentary group. Federal Minister of Defence, 2002-2005 In 2002 Struck succeeded Rudolf Scharping as Federal Minister of Defence, and served in that position until 2005. During Struck's tenure, Germany was trying to revamp its military into a nimbler fighting force capable of responding to smaller, regional conflicts.Craig S. Smith (14 January 2004), Germany to Overhaul Military And Reduce Defense Spending New York Times. While being a strong supporter of conscription,New German Defence Chief Faces Uphill Task Deutsche Welle, 23 July 2002. Struck announced in 2003 that Germany would reduce its military by more than 10 percent by 2010, leaving 250,000 troops. Also, he ordered a reduction in Germany's inventory of heavy Leopard 2 tanks from almost 2,000 to 350.Konstantin von Hammerstein and Alexander Szandar (6 September 2006), Too Many Missions, Too Little Money: Germany's Army Feels the Pinch Spiegel Online. At the time, he said the cuts were necessary because of strained finances and a need to adapt to new security needs;Germany: Military Cutbacks New York Times, 3 October 2003. in 2003, he had to work with a defence budget of a mere 1.48 percent of Germany's gross domestic product, compared with the 2 percent average of his European Union counterparts.New German Defence Chief Faces Uphill Task Deutsche Welle, 23 July 2002. Under Struck's plan, the military's civilian work force was to be reduced by 45,000, to 75,000, and as many as 100 military bases closed.Germany: Military Cutbacks New York Times, 3 October 2003.Craig S. Smith (14 January 2004), Germany to Overhaul Military And Reduce Defense Spending New York Times. During his time at the Defence Ministry, Struck oversaw the early years of Germany's engagement in Afghanistan, famously coining the phrase that "German security is being defended in the Hindu Kush".David Childs (2 January 2013), Peter Struck: Politician who lost faith in the Afghan campaign The Independent. In 2004, he said “there will be a clear no from the German side” to any request to place the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force and Operation Enduring Freedom under a unified command, expressing fears a unified command could be a step towards merging the two forces and that political opposition and military dangers could increase if their soldiers were identified with the US-led coalition.Daniel Dombey, Rainer Koch and Victoria Burnett (14 October 2004), Differences over Afghan roles cloud Nato talks Financial Times. After Germany joined with France in April 2003 to announce the creation of a European Union defense group with a military planning unit separate from NATO, Struck later held that no separate headquarters was necessary and that a planning staff for eventual operations under solely European auspices should be attached to NATO.John Vinocur (28 October 2003), Germany moves to allay U.S. fears on EU defense International Herald Tribune. In 2003, Struck dismissed General Reinhard Günzel, the commander of a German special forces army unit, after he praised Martin Hohmann, a conservative member of Parliament, for a speech that had been widely criticized as anti-Semitic; Struck called Günzel a "lone, confused general who agreed with an even more confused statement."Richard Bernstein (5 November 2003), German General Fired for Backing Slur on Jews New York Times. After accusations began appearing in the German press that conscripts in the German Army had been physically abused by trainers at some of the country's army bases, Struck announced in December 2004 that 30 or 40 trainers were being investigated.Richard Bernstein (2 December 2004), Charges of Mistreatment of German Draftees Are Investigated New York Times. Following a 2004 trip to the Middle East and the Horn of Africa, Struck was hospitalized with a mild stroke.Victor Homola (11 June 2004), Germany: Defense Minister Hospitalized New York Times.Mark Landler (18 August 2004), Schröder's Bond With Russia: A Little Girl, Now His Own New York Times. Chairman of the SPD Parliamentary Group, 2005-2009 After the 2005 elections, Struck became Fraktionschef (chairman) of the SPD parliamentary group once again, until his retirement in 2009. Between 2007 and 2009, Struck served as co-chair (alongside Günther Oettinger) of the Second Commission on the modernization of the federal state (Föderalismuskommission II), which had been established to reform the division of powers between federal and state authorities in Germany. After retiring from active politics following the 2009 elections, Struck served as chairman of the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, a political think tank with connections to the SPD. Death Struck suffered from poor health in the last several years of his career and died of a heart attack in the Charité hospital in Berlin on 19 December 2012.David Childs (2 January 2013), Peter Struck: Politician who lost faith in the Afghan campaign The Independent. Funeral guests included the President of the Bundestag, Norbert Lammert, former chancellors Helmut Schmidt and Gerhard Schröder, the Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia Hannelore Kraft, SPD chairman Sigmar Gabriel, former Finance Minister Peer Steinbrück, and the chairman of the CDU/CSU parliamentary group in the Bundestag, Volker Kauder. Thomas de Maizière, Frank-Walter Steinmeier and General Wolfgang Schneiderhan gave eulogies.Frank-Walter Steinmeier: „Peter, wir werden Dich vermissen“ Focus, 3 January 2013. Controversies When an elderly man was severely beaten up in Munich by two immigrant youths, Struck claimed that his political opponent, Roland Koch, was probably happy for the beating because now Koch could start a supposedly polemic discussion about problems with young violent immigrants. When Koch demanded an apology, Struck replied "Bite me!". In a Parliament debate some days later, Jürgen Gehb, CDU Speaker for law politics, said that "we will try to continue working with you, but with minimal contact to your backside". At a 2002 meeting of NATO defense ministers in Warsaw, United States Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld refused to meet Struck after Chancellor Gerhard Schröder had won narrow re-election in part by opposing the American-led Iraq War.Steven Erlanger (24 September 2002), President Rebuffs Moves by Germany to Mend Relations New York Times. Quotes Peter Struck is famous for two quotes: "The security of the Federal Republic of Germany is being defended in the Hindu Kush too".In German: "Die Sicherheit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland wird auch am Hindukusch verteidigt". as Minister of Defence, reconciling the traditional view of the Bundeswehr as defence-only army with the problems of asymmetric war. "Legislation always obeys the First Struckian Law: No bill comes out of Parliament in the form it came into Parliament." as SPD whip, rather humorously describing the legislative process. See also Politics of Germany References External links Biography at Bundestag.de Category:1943 births Category:2012 deaths Category:Politicians from Göttingen Category:Defence ministers of Germany Category:Members of the Bundestag for Lower Saxony Category:Jurists from Lower Saxony Category:University of Göttingen alumni Category:University of Hamburg alumni Category:Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Members of the Bundestag 2005-2009 Category:Members of the Bundestag 2002-2005 Category:Members of the Bundestag 1994-1998 Category:Members of the Bundestag for the Social Democratic Party of Germany

{"Name": "Peter Struck", "Image caption": "Struck in 2010", "Term start": "22 November 2005", "Term end": "27 September 2009", "Office 2": "Federal Minister of Defence", "Chancellor 2": "Gerhard Schröder", "Predecessor 2": "Rudolf Scharping", "Successor 2": "Franz-Josef Jung", "Birth date": "1943 01 24 y", "Birth place": "Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany", "Death date": "2012 12 19 1943 01 24 y", "Death place": "Berlin, Germany", "Alma mater": "University of GöttingenUniversity of Hamburg"}

Acclaim Entertainment, Inc. was an American video game publisher based in Glen Cove, New York. Originally formed by Greg Fischbach, Robert Holmes and Jim Scoroposki out of an Oyster Bay storefront in 1987, the company established a worldwide development team through a series of acquisitions in the late 1990s and early 2000s. After poor financial returns in their 2003 fiscal year, Acclaim filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in September 2004. Properties owned by Acclaim were subsequently auctioned off to various parties. History 1987-1990: Founding In the early 1980s, Greg Fischbach was employed by American video game company Activision, where he worked together with Robert Holmes and Jim Scoroposki. He left Activision to join RCA Records, which was subsequently acquired by Bertelsmann and Fischbach found himself unemployed. In 1987, he met with Scoroposki in Oyster Bay, where Scoroposki owned a sales rep company, to discuss a possible shared venture. After Scoroposki suggested that the two should re-enter the video game business, they contacted Holmes to join them, and the three jointly founded Acclaim Entertainment. In its initial years, Acclaim was exclusively a video game publisher, either farming out the creation of its video games to external developers or localizing existing video games from overseas. But as it grew, it purchased some independent studios, including Iguana Entertainment of Austin, Texas; Probe Entertainment of London, England; and Sculptured Software of Salt Lake City, Utah. The name of the company was picked because it had to be alphabetically above the co-founder's former place of employment, Activision, and also had to be alphabetically above Accolade (another company formed by ex-Activision employees). This was a common formula for picking names of new companies that were founded by ex-Activision employees (the founders of Activision used this formula when they left Atari). Many of Acclaim's products used licenses from popular comics, television series and movies. In its earlier years, the company entered into an agreement with Interactive VCR Games Inc., whose best sellers include NFL Quarterback, to produce interactive VCR games, as well as its handheld game market. They were also responsible for the ports of many of Midway's arcade games in the early to mid-1990s, including the Mortal Kombat series. They also published some games from other companies that at the time of publication did not have an American branch, such as Technōs Japan's Double Dragon II: The Revenge and Taito's Bust-a-Move series. 1990-2004: Success In 1990, Acclaim partnered with TV producer Saban Entertainment and distributor Bohbot Entertainment to launch Video Power, which subsequently went on air in the fall of 1990. In May 1994, former Sega Enterprises USA president Tom Petit, who had worked at Sega for nine years, became the president of Acclaim's coin-op division. Through much of the 1990s Acclaim were one of the most successful publishers of console video games in the world. In the financial year ending August 1994 they saw a profit of $481 million, and this figure rose to $585 million the following year. In 1995, the company acquired Sculptured Software, Iguana Entertainment and Probe Entertainment and the companies switched to the first-party development studio, known as Acclaim Studios from 1999 to 2004. Acclaim's gaming business was further expanded with the purchase of exclusive rights to publish Taito's games in the Western Hemisphere. The company also had a motion capture studio built into their headquarters, making them the first video game company to have an in-house motion capture studio. A less significant aspect of Acclaim's business was the development and publication of strategy guides relating to their software products and the issuance of "special edition" comic magazines, via Acclaim Comics, to support the more lucrative brand names. Lastly, they created the ASF/AMC motion capture format which is still in use in the industry today. Acclaim enjoyed a long relationship with the World Wrestling Federation (now known as WWE) dating back to 1988's WWF WrestleMania. However, after failing to match the success of World Championship Wrestling's THQ/AKI games amidst the Monday Night Wars, the WWF unexpectedly defected to THQ in 1999. Acclaim then picked up the license to Extreme Championship Wrestling and released two games for the company. ECW declared bankruptcy in 2001 while still owing Acclaim money. The game publisher would release three wrestling titles under the Legends of Wrestling banner in the throes of its final years.McLaughlin, Rus IGN Presents the History of Wrestling Games IGN (November 12, 2008). Retrieved on 2-03-11. 2004: Decline and bankruptcy Acclaim suffered financial problems in 2004, the result of poor sales of its video game titles. This resulted in the closure of Acclaim Studios Cheltenham and Acclaim Studios Manchester in England and other places and their filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, leaving many employees unpaid. Amongst the titles under development at the UK studios were Emergency Mayhem, ATV Quad Power Racing 3, The Last Job, Interview with a Made Man and Kung Faux.Acclaim Games include Kung Faux by Paul Loughrey, GameIndustry.biz, April 26, 2006.Acclaim Game Properties For Sale by Simon Carless, Gamasutra, September 9, 2005. When Acclaim's agreement with GMAC Commercial Finance, their primary lender, expired on August 20, 2004, the company closed all of its facilities on August 27, of which the Austin and New York studios saw all employees let go. Prior to the closures, as of March 31, 2004, Acclaim employed 585 staff worldwide. Acclaim announced on August 30 that they were to go bankrupt, and filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy with the United States bankruptcy court in Central Islip, New York on September 1. A September 2005 complaint filed with the same court found founders Fischbach and Scorposki, as well as executives Rodney Cousens, Gerard F. Agoglia, Edmond P. Sanctis, Bernard Fischbach, James Scibelli, Robert H. Groman and Michael Tannen, accountable for the financial losses of Acclaim shortly before the bankruptcy filing, seeking in damages. An attempt to reopen the Cheltenham and Manchester studios in October 2004 (under the new name Exclaim) failed due to legal wrangling over intellectual property, with both the US and UK administrators claiming rights. In August 2005, former Activision executive Howard Marks purchased the name "Acclaim" for a reported $100,000. In the beginning of 2006, Marks formed a new company called Acclaim Games. According to a job listing for the company, Acclaim Games was aimed at the US and UK preteen multiplayer markets. However, the second iteration of Acclaim did not go well due to connectivity and payment issues for their online games, along with a lack of action against dishonest players, earning that iteration of the company an "F" grade from the Los Angeles/Southern California Better Business Bureau. Asset selling In November 2004, Acclaim's headquarters were sold to Anthony Pistilli of Pistilli Realty Group for $6 million. In 2005, Acclaim's former IPs were put up for sale and were sold in auction. The Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX and ATV: Quad Power Racing series were purchased by Crave Entertainment. Juiced was purchased by THQ, Emergency Mayhem was purchased by Codemasters, Interview with a Made Man was purchased by former employees of Acclaim Studios Manchester and The Red Star was purchased by budget publisher XS Games. In 2006, Throwback Entertainment purchased more than 50 of Acclaim's games, and vowed to bring such titles as Re-Volt, Extreme-G, Gladiator: Sword of Vengeance, Vexx, Fur Fighters and many other franchises into the next generation and beyond. In July 2010, South Korean based company We Go Interactive purchased Re-Volt, RC Revenge, and RC De Go! (developed and owned by Taito) from Throwback. In May 2016, the Acclaim brand itself, and not any of the IP previously held by Acclaim, was acquired by Collectorvision, an independent game developer, publisher and manufacturer. In October 2018, Liquid Media Group purchased 65 ex-Acclaim titles from Throwback for $1 million. This mainly consisted of installments in the NBA Jam, AFL Live, All-Star Baseball and NFL Quarterback Club franchises, as well as some Taito titles that Acclaim published outside of Japan. Controversies During Acclaim's decline towards bankruptcy, the company made several controversial business and marketing decisions in the United Kingdom. One example was a promise that a US$10,000 (£6000) prize would be awarded to UK parents who would name their baby "Turok", to promote the release of Turok: Evolution. A later investigation by VG247 found that all those who had reportedly changed their names were actors. Another was an attempt to buy advertising space on actual tombstones for Shadow Man: 2econd Coming. To promote Burnout 2: Point of Impact, Acclaim offered to reimburse any driver in the United Kingdom who received a speeding ticket. Following a negative reaction to this from the UK government, the plan was cancelled. In the last iteration of the BMX series, BMX XXX, nudity and semi-nudity (e.g., full motion video of strippers and nude female riders) was added in hopes of boosting sales. However, like most of Acclaim's video games during its final years, BMX XXX sold poorly, and was derided for its sexual content and poor gameplay. Dave Mirra himself publicly disowned the game, stating that he was not involved in the decision to include nudity, and he sued Acclaim for fear of being associated with BMX XXX. In the US, Acclaim suffered multiple lawsuits, a portion of them with former partners. Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen sued over unpaid royalties. Another lawsuit was from Acclaim's own investors, claiming that Acclaim management had published misleading financial reports. In 1997, two years after its acquisition of Sculptured Software, during which it offered employees what looked like iron-clad contracts and stock that would be vested over the course of the contracts, Acclaim terminated about half of the staff of the Salt Lake City studio, violating its own contract terms. The lay-off came abruptly to the point that the employees had to choose between taking a reasonable severance package (whose terms altered several times during the initial weeks after the layoff) and not suing, or join the other creditors and sue, but lose their severance packages. In 2007, one of numerous class action suits filed on behalf of stockholders was won, allowing some of the employees to realize a return on some of the stock that had been vested. Subsidiaries Games published References External links (archived) Category:1987 establishments in New York (state) Category:2004 disestablishments in New York (state) Category:Companies based in Nassau County, New York Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in 2004 Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2004 Category:Defunct companies based in New York (state) Category:Defunct video game companies of the United States Category:Golden Joystick Award winners Category:Video game companies established in 1987 Category:Video game companies disestablished in 2004 Category:Video game publishers

{"Type": "Public", "Industry": "Video games", "Fate": "Chapter 7 bankruptcy", "Founded": "1987 in Oyster Bay, New York, U.S.", "Defunct": "2004 09 01", "Headquarters": "U.S.", "Brands": "AKA AcclaimClub AcclaimAcclaim Max SportsAcclaim Sports", "Subsidiaries": "Subsidiaries"}

MapQuest (stylized as mapquest) is an American free online web mapping service. It was launched in 1996 as the first commercial web mapping service. MapQuest vies for market share with competitors such as Google Maps and Here. History right|frame|The former MapQuest logo was phased out as part of a website redesign unveiled on July 14, 2010. MapQuest's origins date to 1967 with the founding of Cartographic Services, a division of R.R. Donnelley & Sons in Chicago, which moved to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1969. In the mid-1980s, R.R. Donnelley & Sons began generating maps and routes for customers, with cooperation by Barry Glick, a University at Buffalo Ph.D. In 1994 it was spun off as GeoSystems Global Corporation. Much of the code was adapted for use on the Internet to create the MapQuest web service in 1996. MapQuest's original services were mapping (referred to as "Interactive Atlas") and driving directions (called "TripQuest"). Sensing the emerging demand for spatial applications on the Internet, and with crippling network latency in Lancaster, the executive team of Barry Glick and Perry Evans moved MapQuest to the up-and-coming LoDo area of Denver, Colorado. The initial Denver team consisted of Evans, Simon Greenman, Chris Fanjoy and Harry Grout. To make MapQuest a serious contender in the online spatial application market, a robust set of geographical tools was developed under Greenman's direction. Grout, who had spent time at Rand McNally, Etak and Navigation Technologies Corporation building digital map data, was tasked with acquiring data and licensing arrangements. The initial team experienced rapid growth in the Denver office, and in a short time MapQuest was becoming a well-known brand. On 25 February 1999, MapQuest went public, trading on Nasdaq. In December 1999, America Online (AOL) announced it would acquire MapQuest for $1.1 billion. The deal closed in 2000. Chief Operating Officer / Chief Financial Officer Jim Thomas managed these transactions.Howard, Mark R. (31 October 2011), "Economic Engine?". Florida Trend. Retrieved 22 May 2022. For a period, MapQuest included satellite images through a licensing deal with GlobeXplorer, but later removed them because of the unorthodox business mechanics of the arrangement brokered by AOL. In September 2006, the website once again began serving satellite imagery in a new beta program. In 2004, MapQuest, uLocate, Research in Motion and Nextel launched MapQuest Find Me, a buddy-finder service that worked on GPS-enabled mobile phones. MapQuest Find Me let users automatically find their location, access maps and directions and locate nearby points of interest, including airports, hotels, restaurants, banks and ATMs. Users also had the ability to set up alerts to be notified when network members arrive at or depart from a designated area. In 2005 the service became available on Sprint, and in 2006, Boost Mobile. In July 2006, MapQuest created a beta version of a new feature with which users could build customized routes by adding additional stops, reordering stops along the way and avoiding any undesired turns or roads. Users could also write out the starting address. In April 2007, MapQuest announced a partnership with General Motors' OnStar to allow OnStar subscribers to plan their driving routes on MapQuest.com and send their destination to OnStar's turn-by-turn navigation service. The OnStar Web Destination Entry pilot program began in the summer of 2007 with a select group of OnStar subscribers. Around 2008, the general public made a significant shift away from MapQuest to the much younger Google Maps service. In July 2010, MapQuest announced plans to become the first major mapping site to embrace open-source mapping data, launching a new site separate from its main site, entirely using data from the OpenStreetMap project. On July 14, 2010, MapQuest launched a simplified user interface and made the site more compact. MapQuest also introduced "My Maps" personalization, which enables the user to personalize the interface. In July 2012, Brian McMahon became the CEO and GM of MapQuest. In May 2015, with the purchase of AOL by Verizon Communications, MapQuest came under the ownership of Verizon. On 11 July 2016, MapQuest discontinued its open tile API, and users such as GNOME Maps were switched to a temporarily free tier of the Mapbox tileserver, while considering alternatives. In 2019, Verizon Media sold Mapquest to System1. Services and programs Currently, MapQuest uses some of TomTom's services for its mapping system. MapQuest provides some extent of street-level detail or driving directions for a variety of countries. Users can check if their country is available using a dropdown menu on the MapQuest home page. The company offers a free mobile app for Android and iOS that features POI search, voice-guided navigation, real-time traffic and other features. MapQuest also offers a mobile-friendly website. MapQuest has several travel products and also includes a feature to let users compare nearby gas prices, similar to the service offered by GasBuddy.com. However, this feature is only available in the United States. MapQuest's POI data helps the service differentiate itself from other wayfinding software by guiding users directly to the entrances of businesses and destinations, rather than to general street addresses. Publishing In October 2006, MapQuest sold its publishing division (which published traditional maps in paper format) to concentrate on its online and mobile services. See also List of online map services Comparison of web map services Digital mapping References External links MapQuest - OpenStreetMap Wiki Category:1967 establishments in Illinois Category:2019 mergers and acquisitions Category:American travel websites Category:Companies based in Denver Category:Companies based in Lancaster, Pennsylvania Category:Internet properties established in 1996 Category:Map companies of the United States Category:Transport companies established in 1967 Category:Web Map Services Category:Web mapping

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LJN Toys Ltd. was an American toy company and video game publisher based in New York City. Founded in 1970 by Jack Friedman, the company was acquired by MCA Inc. in 1985, sold to Acclaim Entertainment in 1990, and dissolved in 1994. The toy division of the company was closed by Acclaim and the company shifted towards video game publishing before being closed in 1994. The company's branding was last used for the release of Spirit of Speed 1937 in 2000. History Early history (1970-1985) Jack Friedman founded LJN in 1970 using funds from his employer Norman J. Lewis Associates (from which the company name "LJN" is derived, being a reversal of Lewis' initials) after seeing the sale figures of Mattel and Milton Bradley Company increase. Friedman later founded THQ and Jakks Pacific after leaving LJN. LJN shifted money used for television advertising to instead purchase licenses to make toys based on television shows. The first toyline by LJN based on a television show was for Emergency! The highest amount the company paid for a license by 1982 was $250,000. LJN purchased the license to make toys based on E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial for $25,000 due to other companies declining the option, including Kenner Products and Ideal Toy Company, and sold over $16-25 million worth of merchandise without the need of an advertising campaign. A doll based on Brooke Shields was released with a $2 million advertising budget and made over $12 million in 1982. LJN's revenue rose from $5 million in 1971 to $70 million in 1982 due to the E.T. and Brooke Shields toys. In 1984 LJN became the toy licensee of the World Wrestling Federation. The Wrestling Superstars line, which featured action figures based on WWF's roster of wrestlers, was produced from 1984 to 1989. LJN competed with Mattel in the toy market. The company produced the ThunderCats toyline in competition to Mattel's Masters of the Universe. MCA ownership (1985-1990) On March 26, 1985, MCA Inc. announced that it would purchase 63% of LJN's stocks for $39.8 million and proposed to buy the remainder of the stock for $14.26 for each share which would increase the total value of the deal to almost $65 million. However, the company failed to make a net income from 1986 to 1989, and MCA had to take a $53 million after-tax charge due to the expenses of the company before selling it to Acclaim Entertainment for $30 million in April 1990. LJN had a revenue of $110,510,000 and a net loss of $37.3 million in 1987. LJN entered the video game industry by publishing games based on movies and television shows developed by companies including Atlus, Beam Software, and Rare for the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1987. The company released the LJN Video Art in 1987. The majority of the company's $70 million in sales in 1990 came from video game sales on the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy. The company released a paint gun line named Gotcha! with a license from the film Gotcha!, but this line were criticized by consumer protection groups due to the danger it posed to eyes. The toyline was financially unsuccessful, and MCA had to take a $35 million after-tax charge due to its failure and the expenses of the Coleco. The company was also criticized by police officers and Americans for Democratic Action for its Entertech line of toy water guns due to how realistic they looked; LJN changed the design of the toys after three people in the United States from ages 13 to 19 were killed as a result of police officers thinking they had actual guns, and multiple cities and states banned the sale of realistic toy guns. Acclaim Entertainment ownership (1990-2000) Lawrence Kanga filed a lawsuit on the behalf of Clark Thiemann on January 31, 1990, against LJN, Nintendo, and Major League Baseball claiming that the game Major League Baseball was falsely advertised to Thiemann stating that it would allow him to simulate being a baseball team manager and Kanga stating that the game was advertised as having all of the players, but instead only had their uniform numbers. Acclaim closed LJN's toy division and shifted the company's focus to video game publishing. In 1991, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission recalled LJN's Sling 'Em- Fling 'Em wrestling ring toys based on the World Wrestling Federation, which sold 1.4 million products from 1985 to 1989, due to multiple children between six and ten being injured by the toys. Acclaim closed LJN in 1994, but reused the company's name for the release of Spirit of Speed 1937 in 2000. The LJN brand was revived again in 2021 by Jazwares for its All Elite Wrestling Unmatched line of action figures. The LJN-style figures resemble the Wrestling Superstars of the 1980s. References Category:1970 establishments in New York City Category:1994 disestablishments in New York (state) Category:Companies based in New York (state) Category:Defunct toy manufacturers Category:Defunct video game companies of the United States Category:Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1990 Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1970 Category:Toy companies of the United States Category:Video game companies disestablished in 1994 Category:Video game companies established in 1970 Category:Video game companies of the United States

{"Type": "Subsidiary", "Industry": "Video games", "Fate": "Dissolved", "Founded": "1970", "Defunct": "1994", "Headquarters": "US", "Parent": "MCA Inc. (1985-1990) Acclaim Entertainment (1990-1995)"}

Ultra Software Corporation was a shell corporation and publishing label created in 1988 as a subsidiary of Konami of America, in an effort to get around Nintendo of America's strict licensing rules in place at the time for the North American market. One of these rules was that a third-party company could only publish up to five games per year for the Nintendo Entertainment System in the US. This was hardly convenient for Konami, which had begun releasing more than ten games a year for both the Famicom and its Disk System add-on in Japan. With a greater library than it was allowed to localize, Konami formed the Ultra Games brand to extend its annual library to ten games a year. Ultra's first game was the NES version of Metal Gear. At first, Ultra was dedicated to localizing Konami's pre-existing software from Japan, but later it began publishing works from other companies as well. Some of Konami's most notable games released under the Ultra label include Operation C, Snake's Revenge and the first few Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles games for the NES and Game Boy. The IBM PC and Commodore 64 conversions of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Metal Gear were also published under the Ultra branding. After the North American launch of the Super NES in 1991, Nintendo started relaxing the restriction on the number of games third parties could publish each year. As a result, Ultra Games began losing its purpose and Konami dropped the label in early 1992. The last games released by Ultra Games were Ultra Golf and World Circuit Series, both released in March 1992. In Europe, Konami established the Palcom Software Limited subsidiary for similar purposes. Its library was similar to Ultra's but the company also published games that were not released in North America, notably Road Fighter, Parodius and Crackout. Palcom also released Super NES games that were published in America by Konami itself. In contrast, some games that were released under the Ultra name in North America, such as Metal Gear and Snake's Revenge, were published under the regular Konami brand in Europe. The European subsidiary lasted longer than Ultra Games, until it was closed down in early 1994. Games published All games were developed by Konami, except where noted. Ultra Games NES Metal Gear (June 1988) Skate or Die! (December 1988) Gyruss (February 1989) Q*bert (February 1989) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (June 1989) Defender of the Crown (July 1989; developed by Beam Software) Silent Service (December 1989; developed by Rare) Kings of the Beach (January 1990) Snake's Revenge (April 1990) Mission: Impossible (September 1990) RollerGames (September 1990) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game (December 1990) Ski or Die (February 1991) Base Wars (June 1991) Pirates! (October 1991; developed by Rare) Nightshade (January 1992; developed by Beam Software) Star Trek: 25th Anniversary (February 1992; developed by Interplay) Game Boy Motocross Maniacs (January 1990) Nemesis (April 1990) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Fall of the Foot Clan (August 1990) Quarth (December 1990) Operation C (February 1991) Blades of Steel (August 1991) Star Trek: 25th Anniversary (February 1992; developed by Visual Concepts) Ultra Golf (March 1992) World Circuit Series (March 1992) IBM PC (DOS) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1989; developed by Unlimited Software) Metal Gear (August 1990; developed by Banana Development) Commodore 64 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990; developed by Unlimited Software) Metal Gear (1990; developed by Unlimited Software) Palcom Software NES Skate or Die! (August 1990) Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles (August 1990) Crackout (1991) Pirates! (October 1991; developed by Rare) Defender of the Crown (July 1991; developed by Beam Software) Mission: Impossible (November 1991) Ski or Die (October 1991) Monster in My Pocket (1992) Parodius (1992) Road Fighter (1992) Castlevania III: Dracula's Curse (December 1992) Formula 1 Sensation (1993) Rackets & Rivals (1993) Bucky O'Hare (December 1993) Game Boy Blades of Steel (1991) Skate or Die: Bad 'N Rad (1991) Probotector (May 1992) Parodius (1992) Star Trek: 25th Anniversary (1993; developed by Visual Concepts) Zen: Intergalactic Ninja (1993) Super NES Cybernator (1993; developed by NCS Corporation) Pop'n TwinBee (1993) Sunset Riders (December 1993) See also Konami References External links Ultra Games profile on MobyGames Palcom profile on MobyGames Category:Konami Category:Defunct video game companies of the United States Category:Video game companies established in 1988 Category:Video game companies disestablished in 1992 Category:1988 establishments in Illinois Category:1992 disestablishments in Illinois Category:Defunct companies based in Illinois Category:Video game publishers Category:American companies established in 1988 Category:American companies disestablished in 1992

{"Type": "Shell subsidiary of Konami", "Fate": "Merged to parent company", "Parent": "Konami of America", "Founded": "1988", "Defunct": "1992", "Headquarters": "Buffalo Grove, IL, USA", "Industry": "Video games"}

The term Cowlitz people covers two culturally and linguistically distinct indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest; the Lower Cowlitz or Cowlitz proper, and the Upper Cowlitz / Cowlitz Klickitat or Taitnapam. Lower Cowlitz refers to a southwestern Coast Salish people, which today are enrolled in the federally recognized tribes: Cowlitz Indian Tribe, Quinault Indian Nation,"People of the Quinault." Quinault Indian Nation. Retrieved 24 Sept 2013. and Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation. The Upper Cowlitz or Taitnapam, is a Northwest Sahaptin speaking people, part of the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation. Their traditional homelands are in western Washington state in the United States. Cowlitz tribal groups or bands There is an ongoing dispute over the Cowlitz people, their history, territory, ancestry, ethnicity, and language; which is important for land claims and treaty negotiations with the U.S. government by Cowlitz descendants. Some scholars believe that they were originally divided into four multi-linguistic tribal bands and generally spoke two different dialects of Salish; the common language of Western Washington and British Columbia native peoples, and one Sahaptin dialect. However, not every band understood the specific dialect of another, and they bridged the language barrier with an intertribal trade language called Chinook Jargon."History of the Cowlitz Indian Tribe," by Roy I. Wilson, and Dr. Verne F. Ray, Indian Claims Conference, 1966 and 1974 Today, the majority is of the opinion that the tribal term "Cowlitz" is a regional collective designation applied by the Europeans to ethnically and linguistic different groups or bands of Indian peoples of the entire Cowlitz River Basin.Eugene Hunn: Anthropological Study of Yakama Tribe: Traditional Resource Harvest Sites West of the Crest of the Cascades Mountains in Washington State and below the Cascades of the Columbia River These are the four (or two) Cowlitz tribal groups or bands: the Lower Cowlitz or Cowlitz proper ("The People Who Seek Their Medicine Spirit", occupied 30 villages along the Lower Cowlitz River, other villages along the Toutle River; today the majority are enrolled within the Cowlitz Indian Tribe, some are part of Quinault Indian Nation, and Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation) the Upper Cowlitz, sometimes called Stick Indians, today identified as Sahaptin-speaking Taidnapam (″People of the Tieton River″, occupied and controlled fourteen villages along the Upper Cowlitz River (shch'il) above Morton and Mossyrock, other villages along the Cispus River (shíshpash), and the Tilton River (lalálx) and had frequent contact with their Upper and Lower Yakama and Klickitat kin who lived on the east side of the Cascade Range and spoke Sahaptin. They apparently intermarried with Salish-speaking Lower Cowlitz communities downriver and traveled freely as far as the mouth of the Cowlitz River but were not originally Salish-speaking people. Their own name Taitnapam indicates that they originally came from east of the Cascades - along the Tieton River (in Yakama: Táitin) hence territory of the Nahchísh-ħlama, a Yakama/Lower Yakama band along the Naches River and had strong linguistic and family ties to that band and the Klikatat / Klickitat; today as Yakima Cowlitz or Cowlitz Klickitat Band part of the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation).The other version is: Intermarriage among the tribes was common. Yakama and Klickitat tribes on the eastern side of the Cascades spoke Sahaptin. Over time a new dialect of Sahaptin came into common use by the Upper Cowlitz tribe called Taidnapum — which eventually came into wide use by the Lewis River Cowlitz as well. the Lewis River Cowlitz, sometimes called Lewis River Chinook, today considered to be regional group of Taidnapam (lived along Upper Lewis River and uppermost Nisqually River as neighbors to their Sahaptin kin the Mishalpam (Mical-ɫa’ma) (″Eatonville people″, lit. ″Mashel River people″) and Klickitat; today as Lewis River Klickitat Band part of the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation) the Mountain Cowlitz or Kwalhiokwa Cowlitz (lived between the Upper Chehalis River in the north and in the Willapa Hills to the south, intermarried with Salish-speaking Upper Chehalis (Kwaiailk) and the now extinct Northern Athapaskan-speaking Willapa (Kwalhioqua); today part of the Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation) They no longer existed as an independent tribe by 1855. Language Comparably with the dispute over who the original Cowlitz people were, there is debate over the original language of the Cowlitz tribes. The commonly called Cowlitz language or Sƛ̕púlmš is placed closer to the Upper Chehalis language, closer than Lower Chehalis itself is placed to Upper Chehalis, and belongs to the Tsamosan (Olympic) branch of the Coast Salish family of the Salishan languages, and was spoken by the Lower Cowlitz / Cowlitz proper. There is a dispute over the original language of the Upper Cowlitz and Lewis River Cowlitz bands. The question concerns whether they had adopted the Sahaptin language from east of the Cascade Mountains, ceased to use their original, heritage language, and developed a separate Taitnapam / Upper Cowlitz / Lewis River dialect of Sahaptin, or whether they were Sahaptin-speaking people from east of the Cascade Range who came to occupy the Upper Cowlitz River Basin by conquest and intermarriage. Modeste Demers reported that the Cowlitz peoples were fluent in Chinook Jargon.Blanchet, François N. Historical Sketches of the Catholic Church in Oregon. Portland: 1878. p. 59. Government The Cowlitz Indian Tribe was federally recognized on February 14, 2000, and their acknowledgement was reaffirmed in 2002. They are now recognized officially by the United States federal government and have an establishing federally recognized tribal lands (on a reservation) in Ridgefield, Washington. The tribal offices are in Longview, Washington. The Cowlitz political system evolved: from a strong system of chiefs to an elective presidential system in the early 20th century; and a constitutional elective Tribal Council system after 1950. Chief How-How (c. 1815), Chief Kiscox (c. 1850), Chief Umtux (c. 1850), Chief Scanewa (c. 1855), Chief Richard Scanewa (c. 1860), and Chief Antoine Stockum [Atwin Stokum] (1878) led the Cowlitz in the 19th century. Twentieth-century figures include Chief Baptiste Kiona (1912), President Dan Plamondon (1921), President John Ike Kinswa (1922), Chairman John B. Sareault (c. 1925), Chairman Jas. E. Sareault (c. 1930), Chairman Manual L. Forrest (1950), Chairman Joseph Cloquet (1959), Chairman Clifford Wilson (1961), Chairman Roy Wilson (1974), Chairman John Barnett, Chairman Bill Iyall (1993), Chairman Phil Harju (2020), Chairman David Barnett (2021), and Chairman Patty Kinswa-Gaiser (2022). The current Cowlitz Tribe General Council Chair is Patty Kinswa-Gaiser. Culture The Cowlitz tribe was unique among other tribes of Western Washington and Oregon in that they did not typically have access to saltwater or the coast and the Columbia River's resources were of little use to the tribe. Salmon was important to their diet, but not as much as compared to other tribes; as they were accomplished hunters who relied on harvesting roots as diet supplements, and utilizing horses for multiple purposes. The Cowlitz tribe completed a yearly cycle where they inhabited locations during certain seasons and harvested seasonal crops, in preparation for cold winter months. The season started in spring, when the Cowlitzes left their cedar houses along the river and streams by traveling via canoe and horseback to harvest camas bulbs, roots, barks, and grasses to make mats, fishnets, and basketry. Followed by the arrival of summer, where they would move into the higher country to pick and harvest seasonal berries. Lastly, followed by the return to fall, where the Cowlitzes would return to their cedar homes along the river to harvest Salmon, for the upcoming season. Generally, hunting and fishing were practiced all year round, but only roots and fruits had to be harvested seasonally. The Cowlitz, like the Chinookian tribes, practiced the custom of flattening the head; signifying the mark of freedom and an intellect similar to that of round-head Indian tribes. Indian Mothers typically practice head flattening on newborn infants until they reach eight to twelve months old; when the head has lost its original shape. The process is completed by placing a child onto a wooden board, usually covered with moss or loose fibers of cedar bark, then placing a pad between a piece of smooth bark, strapped on through the holes with leather bands, creating great pressure on the forehead. The result creates a wedge in between the skull, with the front of the skull flat and the skull risen at the crown. These practices were not seen as harmful to the mothers and their children; in fact, some children would cry until they were placed back into the head flattening device. The Cowlitz produced fully imbricated, coiled baskets with strong geometric designs. These were made of bear grass, cedar root, horsetail root, and cedar bark and were used to gather berries and fruits. The pigments were made from very bright fruits and vegetables like beets or blackberries. Such baskets were often repaired and kept through many generations. Today, the Cowlitz continue to practice their culture. History The Cowlitz tribe was historically based along the Cowlitz and Lewis Rivers, as well as having a strong presence at Fort Vancouver. The first white man known to have contacted the Cowlitz was French-Canadian Simon Plamondon of Quebec. Plamondon was hired as a fur trapper for Fort Astoria at the age of sixteen. In 1818 while making his first trip up the Cowlitz, Simon was captured by Chief Scanewea, of the Lower Cowlitz. He was then asked to stay with Scanewa's tribe and to prove his loyalties through the exchange of goods for furs. Once he had gained the trust of the tribe, he was rewarded with the marriage of Chief Scanewea's daughter, Thas-e-muth. When Chief Scanewea passed, Plamondon inherited most of his land and settled down with his wife on the Cowlitz Prairie where they bore four children: Sophie, Simon, Jr., Theresa, and Marianne. It is rumored that Plamondon was married many different times and very young; fathering nearly 100 descendants. Plamondon was employed with the Hudson's Bay Company until 1837 and in 1838 oversaw the building of Cowlitz Farm under the Puget Sound Agricultural Company, the Hudson's Bay Company agricultural subsidiary. The first European who attempted to convert the Cowlitz to Christianity was Herbert Beaver, an Anglican, who settled with his wife at Fort Vancouver in 1836. The couple set their sights on the Cowlitz tribe, only 50 miles southeast of Fort Vancouver, but growing tensions with John McLoughlin, the head at Fort Vancouver, prevented the couple from having any influence over the tribe; implementing their practices was with great difficulty. When the intermittent fever broke out, Beaver was responsible for vaccinating nearly 120 Lewis River Cowlitzes. After conflicts arose with McLoughlin, Beaver and his wife headed home to London in 1838, to continue on their work. Later that same year in December 1838, Catholic missionaries began to visit the Cowlitz tribe, including François N. Blanchet, a Roman Catholic Priest, who arrived near Toledo, Washington, and established St. Francis Xavier Mission. A once optimistic priest, became discouraged when the Cowlitz tribe did not fully immerse themselves into Catholicism, and instead held onto sediments of Native spirituality. As a response, a replacement, Father Modeste Demers, continued with Catholic teachings and baptizing, but he continued to remain just as pessimistic as his past predecessor did. After the priest left, the Cowlitz reportedly told the French-Canadian farmers, "We want to do something for them, we will work, make fences, and whatever they wish us to do."Blanchet (1878) p. 73. With the arrival of American settlers and conflicts arising over land claims, the 1846 Oregon Treaty gave the US government power back over once owned British lands of the Hudson's Bay Company. With British influence and French-Canadian fur trappers out of the picture, newly appointed Washington governor Isaac Stevens drafted four main treaty negotiations: Point Elliot, Point No Point, Neah Bay, and Medicine Creek. The Chehalis River Treaty, which included the Cowlitz tribe, was the last negotiation for Stevens; his refusal to listen to the tribe leader's negotiations and concerns led to the document never being signed. The fever struck the tribe during this time, and Stevens's assistant George Gibbs had determined that "the Cowlitz, a once numerous and powerful tribe, are now insignificant and fast disappearing." As a consequence, this led to the Indian Wars of 1855-1856, in which the U.S. Army was called to settle disputes with Indian tribes. The Cowlitz tribe remained neutral because of the government's promise of reservation lands if they remained peaceful, but after returning home, they found their land destroyed and property stolen. In 1924 the Cowlitz sent Frank Iyall as a delegate to congress for the American Indian Citizenship Act. He also served as delegate for the recognition of the Cowlitz Indian Tribe which received approval from congress but a veto from President Calvin Coolidge. In the 1960's Dale M. Kinkade conducted interviews and audio recordings with Emma Mesplie and Lucy Foster for the Cowlitz Language which went on to be much of the basis for the Lower Cowlitz dictionary the Cowlitz Indian Tribe uses today. The Cowlitz tribe did not receive federal recognition until 2000. Notable Cowlitz people David Barnett John Barnett Tanna Engdahl Rosalie Fish Debora Iyall Bill Iyall Mike Iyall T.A. Peterman Elissa Washuta Roy Wilson Notes Further reading Fitzpatrick, Darleen Ann. We Are Cowlitz: A Native American Ethnicity. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2004. . Ray, Verne F. Handbook of Cowlitz Indians. Seattle: Northwest Copy Company, 1966. External links Cowlitz Indian Tribe, official website United States. Cowlitz Indian Tribe Distribution of Judgement Funds Act: Report (to Accompany H.R. 2489) (Including Cost Estimate of the Congressional Budget Office). Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 2003. Category:Coast Salish Category:Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state)

{"Name": "Cowlitz", "Image": "250px", "Image caption": "Traditional Cowlitz territory", "Population": ">4,700+\"Cowlitz Tribe.\" Center for World Indigenous Studies. Retrieved 29 Sept 2013.", "Religions": "traditional tribal religion", "Languages": "English, Cowlitz, Sahaptin, Chinook Jargon", "Related ethnic groups": "Lower Cowlitz:Other Salish peoplesEspecially Chehalis and QuinaultMountain Cowlitz:Kwaiailk and WillapaTaidnapam:Nez Perce and other Sahaptin peoplesEspecially Klickitat and Yakama"}

Bram Dijkstra (born 5 July 1938) is an American author, literary critic and former professor of English literature. Dijkstra wrote seven books on various literary and artistic subjects concerning writing. He also curates art exhibitions and writes catalog essays for San Diego art museums. He joined the faculty of the University of California, San Diego in 1966 and taught there until he retired and became an emeritus professor in 2000. Publications Faces in Skin: Poems and Drawings (Oyez, 1965) Hieroglyphics of a New Speech: Cubism, Stieglitz and the Early Poetry of William Carlos Williams (Princeton University Press, 1970) Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil in Fin-de-siècle Culture (Oxford University Press, 1986) Evil Sisters: The Threat of Female Sexuality and the Cult of Manhood (Knopf, 1996) Georgia O'Keeffe and the Eros of Place (Princeton University Press, 1998) American Expressionism: Art and Social Change 1920-1950 (Harry N. Abrams, 2003) Naked: The Nude in America (Rizzoli, 2010) Reception Hieroglyphics of a New Speech "Dijkstra catches the excitement of this period [1920s] of revolutionary art, reveals the interactions between writers and painters, and shows in particular the specific and general impact this world had on Williams's early writings." - Literary Studies: Art "In this good book, with competence in matters of both painting and poetry Dijkstra most usefully clarifies an area of literary history that has hitherto been somewhat uncertainly documented." - American Literary Scholarship, 1970. Evil Sisters "An ideological study tracing the roots of distorted ideas of gender, sex and race." - San Diego Magazine, Dec. 1996. "[Dijkstra] has a way of refocusing the lens of cultural analysis on images and texts, so that the once taken for granted is seen wholly anew. Virtually every page is sprinkled with nuggets of insight, evidence of scholarly command of the material and expository skill." - San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 20, 1996. "Dijkstra provides another scholarly work that reveals the historical basis for gender and race imagery and conflict in modern culture, especially in film and television…This compelling, thought-provoking work is recommended especially for academic libraries and gender studies collections." - Library Journal, Oct. 1, 1996. "Dijkstra writes so compellingly that in his hands what might be portentous is a page-turning good read." - Booklist, Oct. 1, 1996. "Dijkstra, who writes about sex with irrepressible verve, could be Camille Paglia's twin brother, kidnapped in childhood by moralists and raised in the cult of race-gender-and-class guilt." - Kirkus Reviews, Oct. 1, 1996 Georgia O'Keeffe and the Eros of Place "Georgia O'Keeffe and the Eros of Place… rewards the persistent reader by shedding new light on a remarkable career." - Michael Berry, The Moving Finger, Feb. 20, 1999.Michael Berry, Georgia O'Keeffe and the Eros of Place, 1999, sff;org "[Dijkstra]…writes lyrically of how the sense of landscape set the stage for O'Keeffe's life." - The Sunday Oregonian, Jan. 10, 1999. American Expressionism "…Rescue(s) a generation of art too long forgotten." - New Labor Forum, Summer 2004. "American Expressionism brings back into the light a revolutionary generation of artists whom cynicism had conspired, for half a century and more, to airbrush out." - San Francisco Chronicle, Aug. 10, 2003. "This story is important to all who care about American art and society." - Los Angeles Times. Book Review. July 6, 2003. "Landmark study...carefully conceived...compellingly recasts and revitalizes the social realist period of American art...a valuable addition." - Library Journal, June 1, 2003. Naked: The Nude In America "...gorgeously illustrated book called Naked which explores the traditional, the beautiful, and the shocking in the portrayal of the nude in America... a tremendously beautiful coffee table book." - Carone, Angela, and Maureen Cavanaugh, "Looking at Nudity in American Art," KPBS, Oct. 26, 2010. "…It's all in there, gorgeous, raw and illuminating. Some works shock, and others are comfortingly conventional, but they all reward the viewer's patient scrutiny." - The San Diego Union Tribune, Nov. 7, 2010. "In "Naked," Dijkstra … deftly assembles a richly illustrated history of the American nude that spans centuries and media." - Artinfo.com, Oct. 27, 2010. Note He is probably best known for two books that have escaped the academic world into the world of popular culture: Idols of Perversity and Evil Sisters. These two books discuss vamp imagery, femmes fatales, and similar threatening images of female sexuality in a number of works of literature and art.Alessandra Comini, "Posters from the War Against Women", review of Idols of Perversity (The New York Times, Books section, Feb. 1, 1987) In comedian Steve Martin's short novel Shopgirl, Martin's heroine claims that Idols of Perversity is her favorite book. References External links Interview with Bram Dijkstra Category:1938 births Category:Living people Category:American literary critics Category:American people of Dutch descent Category:University of California, San Diego faculty Category:American academics of English literature

{"Name": "Bram Dijkstra", "Birth name": "Bram Dijkstra", "Birth date": "5 July 1938", "Nationality": "American", "Occupation": "Author"}

The Cowlitz River is a river in the state of Washington in the United States, a tributary of the Columbia River. Its tributaries drain a large region including the slopes of Mount Rainier, Mount Adams, and Mount St. Helens. The Cowlitz has a drainage basin,Lower Columbia Tributaries , Northwest Power and Conservation CouncilToutle Management Plan , Northwest Power and Conservation Council located between the Cascade Range in eastern Lewis County, Washington and the cities of Kelso and Longview. The river is roughly long, not counting tributaries. Major tributaries of the Cowlitz River include the Cispus River and the Toutle River, which was overtaken by volcanic mudflows (lahars) during the May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. When the smelt spawn in the Cowlitz River, the gulls go into a feeding frenzy that lasts for weeks. Kelso, Washington is known as the "Smelt Capital of the World". Dams The Cowlitz River has three major hydroelectric dams, with several small-scale hydropower and sediment retention structures within the Cowlitz Basin. The Cowlitz Falls Project is a 70 megawatt hydroelectric dam built in the early 1990s and completed in 1994. The dam is high and wide. The Cowlitz Falls Project produces on average 260 GWh annually for Lewis County PUD. Its reservoir, Lake Scanewa, is located at the confluence of the Cowlitz and Cispus Rivers downstream of Randle. Mossyrock Dam began generating power for Tacoma City Light in 1968. It rises from bedrock and created the long Riffe Lake (previously Davisson Reservoir). It is the highest dam in the Pacific Northwest.Cowlitz River Project , Tacoma Power The dam is named for the nearby city of Mossyrock, and the lake for the town of Riffe, which, along with Kosmos, was destroyed by the flooding of the Cowlitz River valley above the dam. The Mayfield Dam is long and high. An tunnel connects the reservoir to the powerhouse. The dam began producing electricity in 1963. Mayfield Lake offers many recreational opportunities: there are several county and state parks and the lake is below the Mossyrock Dam. The modulated inflow from the Mossyrock Dam allows Mayfield Lake to maintain a water level that rarely fluctuates more than a few feet. It is located several miles downstream of Mossyrock. Packwood Lake was dammed in 1964 by the Washington Public Power Supply System (now called Energy Northwest). The dam holds back the lake (previously held back by an ancient landslide), redirecting streamflow to a 27 megawatt hydroelectric generator in the Cowlitz River valley floor 2,000 feet (600 m) below just outside the town of Packwood. When designing and building the dam, care was taken so as not to affect the abundant wildlife of the lake and surrounding area: the dam raised the water level by only a few feet. thumb|left|The sediment retention structure on the North Fork of the Toutle River. The dam is approximately upriver from the confluence of the Toutle and the Cowlitz. A serious side effect of the Mount St. Helens 1980 eruption has been the downstream movement of enormous amounts of sediment through the North Fork Toutle River. After the eruption, river-borne sediment increased over five thousand-fold, making the Toutle River one of the most sediment-laden rivers in the world. The Toutle River Sediment Retention Structure was constructed to trap this sediment before it was carried farther downstream, where it could clog the river channel, exacerbate floods along the lower Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers, and fill the Columbia River shipping channel, which still requires periodic dredging. An overflow channel has been added to divert lahars around the dam. Bridges thumb|upright|The Box Canyon of the Cowlitz, viewed from a bridge in Mount Rainier National Park. The bottom of this panorama looks approximately straight down. Numerous road and rail bridges span the Cowlitz. Just upstream from its mouth at the Columbia river, a railroad bridge connecting the Port of Longview to the BNSF rail line crosses the Cowlitz, with a road bridge for SR 432 (Tennant Way) beside. Further upstream are the Allen St. and Cowlitz Way bridges, connecting West Kelso with the rest of Kelso. Just north of Kelso, a railroad bridge provides crossing for the Columbia & Cowlitz Railroad. Connecting SR 411 to Interstate-5 is the Lexington bridge, a two-lane bridge between the large unincorporated community of Lexington to Exit 42 on the east side of the bank. At Castle Rock, the A St. bridge provides access from downtown to the school and residential areas across the river. A few miles north, after the Toutle River split, the BNSF line crosses the river. Across the Lewis/Cowlitz County line, between the towns of Vader and Toledo, Washington, I-5 crosses the river. At Toledo, SR-505 crosses the river as well. Where Highway 12 crosses Mayfield Lake, just west of Mossyrock, causeways were built out to the middle of the lake, where a short bridge section connects the two sides. A small bridge provides a crossing for SR 122 at the head of Mayfield Lake. Just east of Mossyrock, the Cowlitz River Bridge on Highway 12 was the largest concrete arch bridge in North America until 1971 at . thumb|left|USGS stream gaging stations on the Cowlitz River At the head of Riffe Lake, the 27 Road provides access to the forestland south of the Cowlitz from Morton and Glenoma to the north. At Randle, SR 131 crosses the Cowlitz to provide access to the Cispus basin and the northern areas of the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument. Between Randle and Packwood, Highway 12 crosses the Cowlitz at the Cora bridge. At Packwood, Skate Creek Road spans the river, providing access to the Gifford Pinchot National Forest and Tatoosh Wilderness, as well as connecting the downtown and residential areas of Packwood. Upstream from Packwood, the Cowlitz splits into the Muddy and Clear Forks, with several Forest Service and Park Service roads crossing each. Other river structures When the Cowlitz Salmon Hatchery began operation in 1968, it was the largest of its kind in the world. Currently, it produces nearly 13 million fish each year. Adjacent is the barrier dam, which diverts spawning and upriver migrating fish to a separating station where fish are sorted by species. Some of the fish are used by the hatchery while others are transported upstream to continue migration. The Bonneville Power Administration, in cooperation with the Lewis County PUD, state and federal agencies and Tacoma Power, constructed a downstream anadromous fish collection facility as part of the Cowlitz Falls Project. The fish facility, along with the Cowlitz River Salmon Hatchery's diversion dam below Mayfield Lake, has permitted the reintroduction of salmon and steelhead in the upper Cowlitz River basin for the first time since the construction of the Mossyrock and Mayfield dams in the 1960s. Main tributaries Ohanapecosh River Lake Creek Johnson Creek Cispus River Tilton River Sulphur Creek Winston Creek Lacamas Creek Olequa Creek Toutle River Coweeman River Recreation The Cowliz River's two hatcheries provide an exceptional sportfishing opportunity for recreational anglers in Washington and Oregon. The river consistently ranks as one of the states top ten steelhead and salmon producers. See also List of rivers of Washington Tributaries of the Columbia River References External links USGS Cowlitz River Basin map Cowlitz Falls Project energy-northwest.com The Army Corps of Engineers' Mt. St. Helens Sediment Retention Structure Category:Rivers of Washington (state) Category:Tributaries of the Columbia River Category:Rivers of Cowlitz County, Washington Category:Rivers of Lewis County, Washington Category:Gifford Pinchot National Forest Category:Mount Rainier

{"Etymology": "from the Salish, tawallitch, perhaps meaning \"capturing the medicine spirit\" Phillips James W. Washington State Place Names https://archive.org/details/washingtonstatep00phil registration University of Washington Press 1971 Seattle and London 33 0-295-95498-1", "Mouth": "3 ft on", "Location": "Longview", "Coordinates": "46 5 52 N 122 54 40 W inline,title", "Basin size": "2586 sqmi on", "Left": "Cispus River, Toutle River", "Right": "Tilton River"}

Wolfgang Haken (; June 21, 1928 - October 2, 2022) was a German American mathematician who specialized in topology, in particular 3-manifolds. Biography Haken was born on June 21, 1928, in Berlin, Germany. His father was Werner Haken, a physicist who had Max Planck as a doctoral thesis advisor.Werner Haken, Beitrag zur Kenntnis der thermoelektrischen Eigenschaften der Metallegierungen. Accessed May 6, 2019 In 1953, Haken earned a Ph.D. degree in mathematics from Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel (Kiel University) and married Anna-Irmgard von Bredow, who earned a Ph.D. degree in mathematics from the same university in 1959. In 1962, they left Germany so he could accept a position as visiting professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He became a full professor in 1965, retiring in 1998. In 1976, together with colleague Kenneth Appel at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Haken solved the four-color problem: they proved that any planar graph can be properly colored using at most four colors. Haken has introduced several ideas, including Haken manifolds, Kneser-Haken finiteness, and an expansion of the work of Kneser into a theory of normal surfaces. Much of his work has an algorithmic aspect, and he is a figure in algorithmic topology. One of his key contributions to this field is an algorithm to detect whether a knot is unknotted. In 1978, Haken delivered an invited address at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Helsinki.International Congress of Mathematicians 1978. International Mathematical Union. Accessed May 29, 2011 He was a recipient of the 1979 Fulkerson Prize of the American Mathematical Society for his proof with Appel of the four-color theorem.Delbert Ray Fulkerson Prize, American Mathematical Society. Accessed May 29, 2011 thumb|Wolfgang Haken discusses the four-color theorem with Marshall Pangilinan. They are looking at the book 99 Variations on a Proof by Philip Ording. Haken died in Champaign, Illinois, on October 2, 2022, aged 94. Family Haken's eldest son, Armin, proved that there exist propositional tautologies that require resolution proofs of exponential size.Avi Wigderson, Mathematics and Computation, March 27 2018, footnote at Theorem 6.11 Haken's eldest daughter, Dorothea Blostein, is a professor of computer science, known for her discovery of the master theorem for divide-and-conquer recurrences. Haken’s second son, Lippold, is the inventor of the Continuum Fingerboard. Haken’s youngest son, Rudolf, is a professor of music, who established the world's first Electric Strings university degree program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.University of Illinois Electric Strings Degree Program Accessed November 15, 2022 Wolfgang is the cousin of Hermann Haken, a physicist known for laser theory and synergetics. See also Unknotting problem References Haken, W. "Theorie der Normalflachen." Acta Math. 105, 245-375, 1961. External links Wolfgang Haken memorial website Haken's faculty page at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Wolfgang Haken biography from World of Mathematics Lippold Haken's life story Category:1928 births Category:2022 deaths Category:Topologists Category:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty Category:University of Kiel alumni Category:Emigrants from West Germany to the United States Category:Scientists from Berlin

{"Caption": "Haken in 2008", "Birth date": "1928 6 21", "Birth place": "Berlin, Germany", "Death date": "2022 10 02 1928 6 21", "Death place": "Champaign, Illinois", "Occupation": "Mathematician, professor", "Alma mater": "Kiel University", "Known For": "Solving the four-color theorem"}

The White River is a river that flows through the U.S. states of Arkansas and Missouri. Originating in the Boston Mountains of northwest Arkansas, it arcs northwards through southern Missouri before turning back into Arkansas, flowing southeast to its mouth at the Mississippi River. Hydrography thumb|left|White River near Flippin, Arkansas, May 2006 Course The source of the White River is in the Boston Mountains of northwest Arkansas, in the Ozark-St. Francis National Forest southeast of Fayetteville. The river flows northwards from its source to loop through southwest Missouri before heading southeast through Arkansas to its mouth on the Mississippi River. On entering the Mississippi River Valley region near Batesville, Arkansas, the river becomes navigable to shallow-draft vessels, and its speed decreases considerably. The final serves as the last segment of the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System; this part of the channel is deeper than the rest of the river. Discharge Despite being much shorter than the Arkansas River, it carries nearly as much water—normally more than , and occasionally more than during periods of flooding. Flood management and reservoir creation In the 20th century, large sections of the White River were modified via dam construction to form a series of artificial reservoirs for the purpose of flood control, as well as hydroelectric power generation, water distribution and management, and recreation. The first of these encountered from the headwaters is Beaver Lake in northwest Arkansas, followed by Table Rock Lake and Lake Taneycomo in southern Missouri, and finally Bull Shoals Lake as the river loops southward into northern Arkansas. Downstream of Bull Shoals Dam, the White River returns to its natural riparian state as it heads southeast through the eastern Ozark-St. Francis National Forest. Ozark Power and Water Company In 1910, Congress authorized construction of a hydroelectric dam on the White River by the newly formed Ozark Power and Water Company.White River Valley Historical Quarterly. "Powersite Dam". The Library dot org. Retrieved 1 August 2016. Completed in 1913 at a cost of $2.3 million, Powersite Dam near Forsyth, Missouri confined a section of the White River to create Lake Taneycomo. The project brought electricity to a rural area of the Ozark Mountains south of Springfield, Missouri with rural electrification programs in the 1940s expanding service to the surrounding region. Recreation on Taneycomo drew tourism to Rockaway Beach and Branson. The Ozark Power and Electric Company operated independently until 1927 when it merged with Empire District Electric Company in 1927, who own and operate Powersite to this day. Army Corps of Engineers Beaver Lake, Bull Shoals Lake, and Table Rock Lake are man-made lakes or reservoirs created by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under the authority of the Flood Control Act of 1938. Bull Shoals Dam near Mountain Home, Arkansas was constructed from 1947 to 1951 at a cost of $86 million and is the 5th largest concrete dam in the United States. It confines Bull Shoals Lake, the largest of the lakes on the White River and the most downstream. The next to be constructed was Table Rock Dam near Branson, Missouri, completed in 1958 at a cost of $65 million. It confines Table Rock Lake, the second largest on the White and a popular tourist destination as part of the Branson area. Beaver Dam near Eureka Springs, Arkansas was built between 1960 and 1966 for $46 million. It confines Beaver Lake, the most upstream dam and reservoir on the river. A total of eight dams impound the upper White River, six in Arkansas and two in Missouri. The White River National Wildlife Refuge lies along the lower part of the river. Major tributaries The tributaries of the White River include Cache River, Bayou des Arc, Little Red River, Black River, North Fork River, Crooked Creek, Buffalo River, Kings River, James River, and Roaring River. Settlements Arkansas Augusta Batesville Calico Rock Newport Missouri Branson Hollister Rockaway Beach Angling Fishing for trout is popular in the upper portions of the river from the Beaver Lake tailwaters in northwestern Arkansas, through its course through southwest Missouri (including all of Lake Taneycomo), and back down through Arkansas to the Highway 58 bridge in Guion. The river has long been ranked one of the top trout fisheries in the country. Fishing is popular in these waters for a number of trout species including rainbow, brown, and cutthroat trout. A number of trout fishing resorts lie on the tailwaters of Bull Shoals Lake and the North Fork River. Fishing for white bass is also popular in these waters. See also Cotter Bridge Grand Prairie Area Demonstration Project List of rivers of Arkansas List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem) List of rivers of Missouri Whitewater Development Corporation White River Monster References External links Category:Rivers of Arkansas Category:Rivers of Missouri Category:Tributaries of the Mississippi River Category:Bodies of water of the Ozarks Category:Ozark-St. Francis National Forest Category:U.S. Interior Highlands Category:Rivers of Taney County, Missouri Category:Rivers of Desha County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Arkansas County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Phillips County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Monroe County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Prairie County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Woodruff County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of White County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Jackson County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Independence County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Stone County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Izard County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Baxter County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Marion County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Boone County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Benton County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Carroll County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Washington County, Arkansas Category:Bodies of water of Madison County, Arkansas Category:Rivers of Franklin County, Arkansas 01

{"Mouth": "188 ft onGoogle Earth elevation for GNIS mouth coordinates.", "Location": "Desha County, Arkansas", "Coordinates": "33 57 5 N 91 4 53 W inline,title", "Basin size": "27765 sqmi onhttp://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-IMPACT/2006/June/Day-02/i5057.htm FDsys - Browse Federal Register www.epa.gov", "Left": "James River, North Fork River, Black River", "Right": "Buffalo River, Little Red River, Bayou des Arc", "Waterbodies": "Lake Taneycomo, Beaver Lake, Bull Shoals Lake, Table Rock Lake", "Landmarks": "White River National Wildlife Refuge"}

Newtons are a Nabisco-trademarked version of a cookie filled with sweet fruit paste. "Fig Newtons" are the most popular variety (fig rolls filled with fig paste). They are produced by an extrusion process.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Their distinctive shape is a characteristic that has been adopted by competitors, including generic fig bars sold in many markets. The product was invented by Charles Roser and baked at the F. A. Kennedy Steam Bakery for the first time in 1891. History Until the late 19th century, many physicians believed that most illnesses were related to digestion problems,"National Fig Newton Day". CNN. and recommended a daily intake of biscuits and fruit. Fig rolls were the ideal solution to this advice. They were a locally produced and handmade product, brought to the U.S. by British immigrants. That was until a Philadelphia baker and fig lover, Charles Roser, invented a process in 1891 which inserted fig paste into a thick pastry dough. Cambridgeport, Massachusetts-based Kennedy Biscuit Company purchased the Roser recipe and started mass production. The first Fig Newtons were baked at the F. A. Kennedy Steam Bakery in 1891. The product was named after the city of Newton, Massachusetts. The Kennedy Biscuit Company had recently become associated with the New York Biscuit Company, and the two merged to form Nabisco—after which, the fig rolls were trademarked as "Fig Newtons". Since 2012, the "Fig" has been dropped from the product name (now just "Newtons"). Varieties Original Fig Newtons were the only variety available until the 1980s and as of 2012, Nabisco makes several varieties of the Newton, which, in addition to the original fig filling, include versions filled with apple cinnamon, strawberry, raspberry, cherry, blueberry and mixed berry. The Fig Newton also is sold in a 100% whole-grain variety and a fat-free variety. Fig Newton Minis have also been introduced. The fig bar is the company's third best-selling product, with sales of more than 700 million bars a year as of 2018.www.heraldmailmedia.com Have a rootin' tootin' celebration of Fig Newton Day, January 10, 2018, Lisa McCoy , Herald Mail Media In 2011, a crisp cookie was introduced in the United States named Newtons Fruit Thins, after being successfully marketed by Kraft in Canada as Lifestyle Selections, a variety of Peek Freans. The product line has since been discontinued. See also Fig cake Fig-cake (fruit) References External links Newtons brand page, from KraftFoodsCompany.com Fig Newton jingle lyrics, from NabiscoWorld.com Category:Fig dishes Category:Mondelez International brands Category:Nabisco brands Category:Products introduced in 1891 fr:Figolu

{"Product type": "Fig roll", "Owner": "Mondelez International", "Produced by": "Nabisco", "Country": "U.S.", "Introduced": "1891", "Website": "https://www.snackworks.com/brands/newtons snackworks.com/newtons"}

Chinookan peoples include several groups of Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest in the United States who speak the Chinookan languages. Since at least 4000 BCE Chinookan peoples have resided along the Lower and Middle Columbia River (Wimahl) ("Great River") from the river's gorge (near the present town of The Dalles, Oregon) downstream (west) to the river's mouth, and along adjacent portions of the coasts, from Tillamook Head of present-day Oregon in the south, north to Willapa Bay in southwest Washington. In 1805 the Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the Chinook Tribe on the lower Columbia. The term "Chinook" also has a wider meaning in reference to the Chinook Jargon, which is based on Chinookan languages, in part, and so the term "Chinookan" was coined by linguists to distinguish the older language from its offspring, Chinuk Wawa. There are several theories about where the name ″Chinook″ came from. Some say it is a Chehalis word Tsinúk for the inhabitants of and a particular village site on Baker Bay, or "Fish Eaters". It may also be a word meaning "strong fighters". Some Chinookan peoples are part of several federally recognized Tribes: the Yakama Nation (primarily Wishram), the Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation (primarily Wasco), and the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community. The Chinook Indian Nation, consisting of the five westernmost Tribes of Chinookan peoples, Lower Chinook, Clatsop, Willapa, Wahkiakum and Kathlamet is currently (2023) working to restore federal recognition. The Chinook Nation gained Federal Recognition on January 3, 2001 from the Department of Interior under President Bill Clinton. After President George W. Bush was elected, his political appointees reviewed the case and, in a highly unusual action, revoked the recognition. The Chinook Nation sought Congressional support for recognition by the legislature in 2008 with a Bill Introduced by Brian Baird. The Bill died in Congress. The unrecognized Tchinouk Indians of Oregon trace their Chinook ancestry to two Chinook women who married French Canadians traders from the Hudson's Bay Company prior to 1830. The specific Chinook band these women were from or if they were Lower or Upper Chinook could not be determined. These individuals, settled in the French Prairie region of northwestern Oregon, becoming part of the community of French-Canadians and Métis (Mix-Bloods). There is no evidence that they are a distinct Indian community within French Prairie. The Chinook Indian Nation denied that the Tchinouk had any common history with them or any organizational affiliation. On January 16, 1986, the Bureau of Indian Affairs determined that the Tchinouk Indians of Oregon do not meet the requirements necessary to be a federally recognized tribe. The unrecognized Clatsop-Nehalem Confederate Tribes was formed in 2000. The Clatsop-Nehalem have approximately 130 members and claim to have Chinookan and Salish-speaking Tillamook (Nehalem) ancestry. This is contested by the Chinook Indian Nation. The Indian Claims Commission, Docket 234, found, in 1957, that the Clatsop Chinooks were part of the Chinook Indian Nation. The Indian Claims Commission also found in Docket 240, 1962, that the Nehalem people were part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians. Historic culture Practices and lifestyle The Chinookan peoples were relatively settled and occupied traditional tribal geographic areas, where they hunted and fished; salmon was a mainstay of their diet. The women also gathered and processed many nuts, seeds, roots and other foods. They had a society marked by social stratification, consisting of a number of distinct social castes of greater or lesser status.Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, Indian Slavery in the Pacific Northwest. Spokane, WA: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1993; pg. 42. Upper castes included shamans, warriors, and successful traders. They composed a minority of the community population compared to common members. Members of the superior castes are said to have practiced social discrimination, limiting contact with commoners and forbidding play between the children of the different social groups.Ruby and Brown, Indian Slavery in the Pacific Northwest, p. 43. Some Chinookan peoples practiced slavery, a practice borrowed from the northernmost tribes of the Pacific Northwest.Ruby and Brown, Indian Slavery in the Pacific Northwest, p. 39. They took slaves as captives in warfare, and used them to practice thievery on behalf of their masters. The latter refrained from such practices as unworthy of high status. thumb|upright|left|Chinook child undergoing process of flattening the head. The elite of some tribes had the practice of head binding, flattening their children's forehead and top of the skull as a mark of social status. They bound the infant's head under pressure between boards when the infant was about 3 months old and continued until the child was about one year of age.Ruby and Brown, Indian Slavery in the Pacific Northwest, pg. 47. This custom was a means of marking social hierarchy; flat-headed community members had a rank above those with round heads. Those with flattened skulls refused to enslave other persons who were similarly marked, thereby reinforcing the association of a round head with servility. The Chinook were known colloquially by early white explorers in the region as "Flathead Indians". Living near the coast of the Pacific Ocean, the Chinook were skilled elk hunters and fishermen. The most popular fish was salmon. Owing partly to their settled living patterns, the Chinook and other coastal tribes had relatively little conflict over land, as they did not migrate through each other's territories and they had rich resources in the natural environment. In the manner of numerous settled tribes, the Chinook resided in longhouses. More than fifty people, related through extended kinship, often resided in one longhouse. Their longhouses were made of planks made from red cedar trees. The houses were about 20-60 feet wide and 50-150 feet long. Language and storytelling Franz Boas (1858-1942) In 1888 he published, "The Journal of American Folk-Lore" a journal discussing American Folklore, here he describes some “Chinook Songs” and offers them in both the Chinook language and English translation. "Native Legends of Oregon and Washington Collected" collection of Chinook legends and stories written and collected by Franz Boas in 1893, it was a collection of different Chinook Folklore taken from his time spent with the Chinookan people between the years of 1890 and 1891 during his summer trips to Oregon and Washington. Published in 1894, famed American/German anthropologist, Franz Boas, wrote the “Chinook Texts”. In this reference book Boas includes various, Myths, Beliefs, Customs, Tales, and Historical Tales, as told by the Chinookan people themselves. George Gibbs (1815-1873) George Gibbs another popular anthropologist of his time, collected Alphabetical Vocabulary of the Chinook Language. He was assisted by Robert Shortess and Soloman H. Smith of Oregon and A.C. Anderson of Victoria, Vancouver Island. The many words were collected and scattered from various different tribes given the scarcity of the Chinookan people at the time. The book was mainly written for trading purposes and Gibbs collected the majority of his translation from the traders themselves. Chinook people today 350px|right|thumb|Map of traditional Chinook tribal territory. The Chinookan peoples have long had a community on the lower Columbia River. These lower Columbia Chinook tribes and bands re-organized in the 20th century, setting up an elected form of government and reviving tribal culture. They first sought recognition as a federally recognized sovereign tribe in the late 20th century, as this would provide certain treaty-promised benefits for education and welfare. The Department of Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs rejected their application in 1997. Since the late 20th century, the Chinook Indian Nation has engaged in a continuing effort to secure formal recognition, conducting research and developing documentation to demonstrate its history. They are referred to in government and historic accounts, but treaties signed at Tansy Point in 1851 were not acted upon by Congress through a formal ratification process. This inaction caused the Chinook territories defined in the treaties to remain unceded. Nevertheless, these territories were taken by the federal government. If Congress had formally ratified the treaties, a reservation would have been established, which would have meant automatic recognition. In 2001, the U.S. Department of Interior recognized the Chinook Indian Nation, a confederation of the Cathlamet, Clatsop, Lower Chinook, Wahkiakum and Willapa Indians, as a tribe, according to its rules established in consultation with other recognized tribes. The tribe had documented continuity of their community over time on the lower Columbia. This recognition was announced during the last months of the administration of President Bill Clinton.Federal Register, Volume 66, Number 6 (Tuesday, January 9, 2001) Since the 1930s, individual Chinook people have had Allotments on the timber-rich Quinault Reservation in Grays Harbor County, Washington. The Quinault appealed recognition of the Chinook in August 2001, and the matter was taken up by the new administration.Amy McFall Prince, "Feds revoke tribe's status", The Daily News (TDN), 6 July 2002; accessed 25 November 2016 After President George W. Bush was elected, his new political appointees reviewed the Chinook materials. In 2002, in a highly unusual action, they revoked the recognition of the Chinook and of two other tribes also approved by the previous administration.For the 2001 recognition, see 66 Federal Register 1690 (2001) at indianz.com ; for the subsequent reversal, see 67 Federal Register 46204 (2002) at frwebgate5.access.gpo.gov Efforts by Brian Baird, D-Wash. from Washington's 3rd congressional district, to gain passage of legislation in 2011 to achieve recognition of the tribe were not successful. In his decision on a lawsuit filed in late 2017, U.S. District Court Judge Ronald B. Leighton ruled recognition could only be granted from Congress and other branches of government, but largely sided with the tribe; Leighton denied seven of eight claims by the Interior Department to dismiss the case, including a challenge to a 2015 rule that bars tribes from seeking recognition again. The Chinook Indian Nation's offices are in Bay Center, Washington. The tribe holds an Annual Winter Gathering at the plankhouse in Ridgefield, Washington. It also holds an Annual First Salmon Ceremony at Chinook Point (Fort Columbia) on the North Shore of the Columbia River. In 2019, the Chinook Indian Nation purchased ten acres of the 1851 Tansy Point treaty grounds. List of Chinookan peoples thumb|upright=1.00|alt=Cathlapotle Plankhouse|Cathlapotle Plankhouse, a full-scale replica of a Chinook-style cedar plankhouse erected in 2005 at the Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge, which was once inhabited by more than 1200 Chinook people thumb|upright=1.00|alt=Interior of a Chinookan plankhouse|Illustration of the interior of a Chinookan plankhouse Chinookan-speaking groups include: Lower Chinook (at the mouth of the Columbia River in modern Washington, part of the unrecognized Chinook Indian Nation) Kathlamet or Cathlamet (Cathlahmah) (at the mouth of the Columbia River in modern Oregon and Washington, part of the unrecognized Chinook Indian Nation) Clackamas or Cathlascans (″Those along the Clackamas River″, inhabited the Willamette Valley on the eastbank of the Willamette River as far as the Willamette Falls, above and below the Falls themselves on either bank, and along the Clackamas River and Sandy Rivers. Lewis and Clark estimated their population at 1800 persons in 1806. At the time the tribe lived in 11 villages and subsisted on fish and roots. By 1855, the 88 surviving members of the tribe were relocated to the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon) Clatsop (around the mouth of the Columbia River and the Clatsop Plains in northwestern Oregon, Chief Coboway welcomed Lewis and Clark; by 1840, the number of Clatsop Indians was 200, in 1850 the number was down by half; today predominantly part of the Chinook Indian Nation as one of its officially confederated tribes; some others part of Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, and the recently organized, unrecognized Clatsop-Nehalem Confederated Tribes) Clowwewalla, also (Willamette) Falls Indians or Tumwater Falls Indians (controlled the Willamette Valley, Oregon, perhaps a subgroup of the Clackamas, may have included the Cushook, Chahcowah, and Nemalquinner of Lewis and Clark, who estimated that they numbered 650 in 1805-6. On this basis Mooney (1928) estimated there might have been 900 in 1780. They were greatly reduced by the epidemic of 1829 and in 1851 numbered 13 and are now apparently extinct. Maybe some survive as Clackamas as part of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon)The Clackamas Chinook people Wasco-Wishram Wasco (known also by their Sahaptin name as Wascopam, lived traditionally on the south bank of the Columbia River, Oregon, they were divided into three subtribes: the Dalles Wasco or Wasco proper (near The Dalles in Wasco County), the Hood River Wasco (along the Hood River to its mouth into the Columbia River, sometimes divided into two bands: the Hood River Band in Oregon, and the White Salmon River Band in Washington). In 1822 their population was estimated to be 900, today 200 tribal members out of 4,000 of the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs are estimated to be Wasco) Wishram (a Yakama-Sahaptin term), their autonym as Ita'xluit was the source of transliteration as Tlakluit or Echelut (Echeloot) (lived traditionally on the north bank of the Columbia River, Washington, Wishram village or Nixlúidix ("trading place") near Five Mile Rapids, was the center of the regional trade system for Pacific Coast, Plateau, Great Basin and Plains tribes, in the 1700s, the estimated Wishram population was 1,500. In 1962 only 10 Wishrams were counted on the Washington census, today they are predominantly enrolled in the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation) Chilluckittequaw or Chiluktkwa (living on the north side of Columbia River in Klickitat and Skamania counties, Washington, from about 10 miles below the Dalles to the neighborhood of the Cascades. In 1806 Lewis and Clark estimated their number at 2,400. According to Mooney a remnant of the tribe lived near the mouth of White Salmon River until 1880, when they removed to the Cascades, where a few still resided in 1895, today sometimes considered as White Salmon River Band of Washington of the Hood River Wasco subtribe) Watlata or Cascades Indians (lived downstream from the other Wasco groups and were divided in two groups, one on each side of the Columbia River and at the Cascades of the Columbia River and the Willamette River in Oregon; the Oregon group were called Gahlawaihih [Curtis]). The Watlala, whose dialect is the most divergent dialect of the Wasco, may have been a separate tribe though identified as Wasco since 1830, and enrolled as "Ki-gal-twal-la band of the Wasco" and the "Dog River band of the Wasco″ in Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs) Kilooklaniuck (extinct as a tribe) Multnomah or Cathlascans (living in approximately 15 villages on Sauvie Island (Wappatoo / Wapato Island) (hosting a total of 2,000 people who built and resided in cedar log houses 30 yards long by 12 yards wide), other villages were located along Multnomah Channel and in the Wapato Valley near the mouth of the Willamette (Multnomah) River into the Columbia River and generally along the western Willamette riverbank, also known as Wappato / Wapato people after Wappato/Wapato (Indian potato), an marsh-grown plant like a potato or onion and important staple food for Native peoples, today part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, a minority are enrolled in the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon) Skilloothttps://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1092&context=anth_fac (occupied both sides of the Columbia River, between the Washougal River (from the Cascades Chinook placename: [wasiixwal] or [wasuxal], meaning "rushing water") and Cowlitz River; Clark mentioned one village of 25 houses, made of wooden planks with straw roofs. Altogether, the Corps estimated the Skilloot population in 1806 to be about 2,500. An 1850 population estimate put the tribe at about 200 surviving members. The Skilloot no longer exist as an independent band.) Wahkiakum, Wackiakum, Wac-ki-cum or Wahkiaku ("tall timber in reference to the plank houses", another source gives ″region downriver″,the ″Wahkiakum″ are often mistaken for the Lower Snake River Sahaptin-speaking local group or band of ″Wauyukma″ lived in two villages along the Elochoman River on the north bank of the Columbia River, Washington, opposite of the Kathlamet in Oregon; sometimes considered a Kathlamet village group under the leadership of Chief Wahkiakum, part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, and of the unrecognized Chinook Indian Nation) Willapa Chinook (along the north bank of the Columbia River in southwestern Washington around southern Willapa Bay, from Cape Disappointment to Grays Harbor, today enrolled in the federally recognized Shoalwater Bay Tribe and the unrecognized Chinook Indian Nation) In the 21st century, a large proportion of Chinook people live in the regions surrounding the towns of Bay Center, Chinook, and Ilwaco in southwest Washington and in Astoria, Oregon. Books written about the Chinook include the novel Boston Jane: An Adventure by Jennifer L. Holm Notable Chinook thumb|right|upright=0.80|Lower Chinook chief from Warm Spring reservation (1886). Comcomly, chief in the early to mid-19th century Charles Cultee, the principal informant to early 20th-century anthropologist Franz Boas on his language and tribal studies, especially for Chinook Texts. Ranald MacDonald, mixed-race son of Archibald McDonald, a Scottish Hudson's Bay Company fur trader, and Raven, Chief Comcomly's daughter, in Astoria, Oregon, was the first Westerner to teach English in Japan, in 1847-1848. He taught Einosuke Moriyama, who served as one of the chief interpreters during negotiations between Commodore Perry and the Tokugawa Shogunate J. Christopher Stevens, American diplomat and lawyer who served as the U.S. Ambassador to Libya from June 2012 to September 2012. He was killed when the U.S. consulate was attacked in Benghazi, Libya, on September 11, 2012"President Obama, Hillary Clinton pay tribute to slain Chinook member Stevens", Chinook Observer Newspaper, September 14, 2012 Catherine Troeh, historian, artist, activist and advocate for Native American rights and culture. An elder of the Chinook tribe, she was a direct descendant of Chief Comcomly. Chief Tumulth, signed the 1855 treaty that created the Grand Ronde Reservation; he was later killed by Gen. Philip Sheridan's forces Tsin-is-tum, "Princess Jennie Michel", a Native American folklorist. Called "Last of the Clatsops." See also thumb|right|upright=0.80|Drawing of a Chinook dugout canoe from a memoir of the Oregon Country published in 1844 Chinook salmon Chinook (wind) Boeing CH-47 Chinook Neerchokikoo References Further reading Chinookan Peoples of the Lower Columbia Published by University of Washington Press, 2013 - Oral traditions from the Chinook, Nez Perce, Klickitat and other tribes of the Pacific Northwest. External links Chinook Indian Nation, official website Who's Who in the Chinook tribes Lewis and Clark PBS Category:Columbia River Gorge Category:Native American tribes in Oregon Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state) Category:Oregon Coast Category:Terminated Native American tribes

{"Name": "Chinookan Peoples", "Image caption": "Location of Chinookan territory early in the 19th century", "Population": "2700", "Languages": "Chinook Jargon, English, formerly Chinookan languages", "Religions": "traditional tribal religion", "Flag caption": "Chinook people meet the Corps of Discovery on the Lower Columbia, October 1805 (by Charles M. Russell, 1905)"}

Covenant is a Swedish electronic band formed in Helsingborg in 1988. The band is currently composed of Eskil Simonsson and Joakim Montelius in the studio, while live shows consist of Simonsson along with touring members Chad Hauger, Daniel Jonasson of Dupont, Andreas Catjar and Daniel Myer of Haujobb. Their music comprises a mixture of synthpop and electronic body music. They have been releasing music since the early 1990s. History In the late 1970s and early 1980s, electronic music and several of its subgenres became a preferred musical style among European underground culture. It gained favor initially within major cities and eventually trickled into the continent's more secluded regions. This new wave of music was discovered at different instances by a group of friends living in Helsingborg, a scenic town in south western Sweden. Eskil Simonsson, Joakim Montelius and Clas Nachmanson, three teenagers with mutual, youthful curiosities for science, philosophy, and matters of existence, were all enthralled by the unique presentation and the emotional content of the music, specifically by that of bands such as Kraftwerk, The Human League, Depeche Mode, Front 242 and Nitzer Ebb. It was after attending the first Front 242 show in Scandinavia that the trio and others familiar to them decided to start a band. The friends carried this fascination with them to university life in the historic town of Lund, approximately southeast of Helsingborg. In between their academic endeavors and discussions of worldly affairs, they assembled a small recording studio in Nachmanson's bedroom and began to experiment with their own musical compositions. In 1988, the name "Covenant" was selected for the group—a name derived from the unspoken spiritual bond the trio professed to share. As Covenant, the three produced their first publicly released track, "The Replicant", by invitation of Swedish record label Memento Materia. "The Replicant" was released on a compilation album in 1992, and the track thrilled label executives, prompting them to ask for a full album. In 1994, the group compiled enough songs to release the album, which became Dreams of a Cryotank. Dreams was well received by critics and fans alike, and with its success, the boyhood friends decided to take their musical efforts more seriously. They upgraded and added more equipment, relocated their studio, and committed to tour. In 1995, Covenant performed at a festival in Germany at the request of Off-Beat Records. The band impressed Off-Beat's attending A&R representative, who signed them to a record deal the following day. Excited by the prospect of broader exposure, the band members eased further away from their educational pursuits and devoted themselves to completing a new album, 1996's Sequencer. Later in 1996, the band released the "Stalker" single before embarking on a tour with Haujobb and Steril across Germany, Belgium, and Holland. With Sequencer, the band sought to improve upon the weaknesses they found in Dreams by combining sequencing, diverse melodies, and commanding lyrics. It became an instant classic among many observers, some of whom boldly declared it "the best electro album of the decade."Promomall SSC . Subspace Records biography, accessed 16 August 2005. It would go on to be re-released a number of times throughout the world and remains a club favorite in many settings. Later in the year, San-Francisco-based record label 21st Circuitry agreed to distribute Covenant's albums in the United States, expanding the band's reach in the process. As a result, the group created the Theremin EP in 1997 specifically for North American release and started to accept tour dates throughout the US and Canada. The trio's third full-length album, Europa, debuted in 1998. Europa carried Covenant's initially aggressive, often distorted brand of music into the beat-driven realm of synth pop, marking the beginning of a gradual evolution in the band's collective sound. In the U.S., the album peaked at #101 on the CMJ Radio Top 200 and reached #3 on the CMJ RPM charts. Also in 1998, they sued the Norwegian black metal/Industrial metal band The Kovenant (then known as Covenant) for the rights to the name "Covenant", arguing that they had established use of the name first and forcing the Norwegian band to change the spelling of their name. Covenant spent 1999 touring, changing record labels, and on the preparation of another album. Off-Beat Records went out of business, and Dependent was created by former Off Beat employees. Together with a few selected former Off-Beat acts, Covenant joined Dependent. In addition, Covenant were signed with SubSpace Communications in Sweden, effectively ending their tenure with Memento Materia. Meanwhile, 21st Circuitry Records ceased operations, leading the three to find a new home in America with Metropolis Records (Metropolis had bought the rights to the 21st Circuitry back catalogue). Shortly thereafter, the band's first three albums and the Theremin EP were re-issued in the US under the Metropolis label. United States of Mind was released in 2000, and with it, Covenant's tendencies strayed further into synth pop. Also released that year was a stand-alone single, Der Leiermann. Sung to the tune of the album track Like Tears in Rain, it was a version of the German Art song of the same name. The song was originally a poem by Wilhelm Müller, set to music by Franz Schubert as part of the poem cycle "Die Winterreise". S. Alexander Reed asserts that this point in Covenant's career marks a distinct break from previous work in an attempt to project a sense of the "sublime built on wonder, rather than abjection." A live album, Synergy, was released later in the year which featured tracks from the band's first four albums. The group continued with 2002's Northern Light, which they portrayed as having a more sombre, cold sound in comparison to their earlier offerings. In another transition between labels, the European release of Northern Light was handled by Sony Music's Ka2 division rather than Dependent or Subspace. (The US release was through Metropolis.) Whilst they continued to produce music together, Montelius and Simonsson took up residence in separate countries; Montelius residing in Barcelona, Spain, and Simonsson living in Berlin, Germany. Nachmanson remained in Helsingborg. Covenant released their sixth studio album, Skyshaper, in March 2006 to an overall positive reception. The band toured Europe prior to the album's release and toured the United States beginning in September 2006.C O V E N A N T - official web site. Official website news feature, accessed 28 May 2005. In March 2007, Covenant announced that Nachmanson would not be touring with the band and his replacement would be Daniel Myer of Haujobb. In an interview with Side-Line magazine Covenant's Joakim Montelius said he was not sure if Clas would still continue with Covenant. In October 2007, Covenant released the road movie "In Transit" on DVD. It contained material from the world tour undertaken in support of the album "Skyshaper" and documented the band's travels in Europe, North America, South America and across Russia over a period of 18 months. The band confirmed Clas' departure in the DVD documentary. In January 2011, Covenant released their seventh studio album, Modern Ruin — the first album by the band with Myer as a core member. The band released a new EP, "Last Dance" in June 2013. The band released their new album, titled "Leaving Babylon" in September 2013.C O V E N A N T - official web site. Official website news feature, accessed 26 August 2013. In April 2015, the band embarked on a North American tour to promote their eighth album, Leaving Babylon. The band, joined on tour by an opening band called "The Labrynth," performed in approximately 20 cities, including Los Angeles, New York, Washington, D.C, and Austin. Slug Magazine favorably reviewed the 6 April show in Salt Lake City, describing Covenant's stage presence as "exquisite" and "just as powerful as their music." In October 2015, Covenant headlined the Gothic Meets Klassik festival in Leipzig, Germany, along with British synthpop band Mesh and songwriter and electronic musician Anne Clark. In November 2016, they released their ninth studio album The Blinding Dark. It was accompanied by a tour in Europe and, in 2018, the UK. and the U.S. In February 2019, the band commenced a ten-city tour through Germany, starting in Berlin on 7 February. The "Fieldworks Tour 2019" show stops offered a new extended play record called the "Fieldworks: Exkursion EP". The EP features five tracks, each written by a member of the band, and one song in collaboration with French electro-industrial newcomer Grabyourface, who also performed opening sets during the band's German tour that year. According to the band's Facebook page, this EP is intended to be the first of an upcoming cycle of records associated with the "Fieldworks" theme. The new music was inspired in part by sounds collected at an electricity plant, according to an interview conducted by a writer for the magazine Zero. "This time we wanted to use the sounds we have collected for many years, from exotic places on the six continents we have visited as a band, as well as the mundane hum of everyday life, as stepping stones for the songs," Joakim Montelius explained in an interview published on Gruftbote. The band headlined the final day of the Terminus Festival in Calgary on 28 July 2019 and then embarked on a set of five U.S. shows in Seattle (30 July), Portland (31 July), Los Angeles (2 August), Oakland (4 August), and Denver (6 August), respectively. Personnel Current members Eskil Simonsson - lead vocals, keyboards, programming, drums (1988-present)thumb|Eskil solo at o2 Islington Daniel Jonasson - keyboards (2011-present) Andreas Catjar - keyboards, guitars, (2013-present)thumb|Catjar on keyboards at o2 Islington Daniel Myer - keyboards, backing vocals (2006-2012, 2016-present) Former members Joakim Montelius - keyboards, backing vocals, programming (1988-present, studio only since 2010) Clas Nachmanson - keyboards, backing vocals, programming (1988-2007) Discography Studio albums Dreams of a Cryotank (December 1994) Sequencer (May 1996; March 1997, 2nd ed.; July 1999, US version) Europa (April 1998) United States of Mind (February 2000) - #9 DAC Top 50 Albums Charts, Germany Northern Light (September 2002) Skyshaper (March 2006) - #4 DAC Top 50 Album Charts, Germany Modern Ruin (January 2011) Leaving Babylon (September 2013) The Blinding Dark (November 2016) Live albums Synergy (November 2000) In Transit (October 2007) Singles and EPs Figurehead (October 1995) Stalker (December 1996) Theremin EP (1997) Final Man (February 1998) Euro EP (October 1998) - #18 CMJ RPM Charts, U.S.; #34 DAC 1999 Singles Charts, Germany It's Alright (November 1999) A single which was released on vinyl record and limited to 500 copies. Tour De Force (December 1999) - #4 DAC 1999 Singles Charts, Germany Der Leiermann (January 2000) - #2 DAC 2000 Singles Charts, Germany Released simultaneously with the Dead Stars single in Germany. Dead Stars (February 2000) Travelogue (February 2000) Included in the United States of Mind box set. Call The Ships To Port (August 2002) - #93 Offizielle Deutsche Charts, Germany Bullet (December 2002) Ritual Noise (January 2006) - #64 Offizielle Deutsche Charts #64; #1 DAC Singles Brave New World (September 2006) - #1 DAC Singles Lightbringer (feat. Necro Facility) (October 2010) Last Dance (June 2013) Sound Mirrors (August 2016) Fieldworks: Exkursion EP (February 2019) Theremin Theremin is an EP released by Covenant in 1997 by the American label 21st Circuitry. It compiled tracks which were, for the most part, previously unavailable in the US. It was re-released by Metropolis in July 1999. Track 1 was previously released on the German and American releases of Dreams of a Cryotank. Tracks 2, 3, 4, and 7 were previously released on the Figurehead EP. Track 5 was previously released on the Swedish and German releases of Dreams of a Cryotank. Track 6 was new to this release. Other releases United States of Mind Limited Box (February 2000) A boxset which included United States of Mind and the Travelogue single. Synergy Limited Box (November 2000) A boxset which included Synergy, a booklet with live pictures and lyrics for every released Covenant song, a band interview on VHS cassette tape, a "Bloody Mary" recipe, and seven live recorded tracks; limited to 4000 copies. Bullet DVD (January 2003) A DVD featuring a music video for the song "Bullet" along with making of footage. Project Gotham Racing 4 Soundtrack (November 2005) The band contributed the Skyshaper track "20 Hz" to a compilation which included other rock and electronic artists (listed here). Festival Soundtrack (2001) Playing at a concert visited by one of the main characters Wir sind die Nacht Soundtrack (2010) Music for a club scene (released also on the limited edition of their 2011 album Modern Ruin) Music videos "Stalker" (1996) "Call the Ships to Port" (2002) "Bullet" (2002) "Happy Man" (2006) See also Schaffel music References External links Official website Category:1988 establishments in Sweden Category:Electronic body music groups Category:Metropolis Records artists Category:Musical groups established in 1988 Category:Musical quartets Category:Swedish electronic music groups Category:Swedish synthpop groups

{"Origin": "Helsingborg, Sweden", "Genres": "\"slug-vow\"/>", "Labels": "21st Circuitry\ndependent\nMemento Materia\nMetropolis\nOff Beat\nSony Ka2\nSubSpace", "Website": "www.covenant.se", "Members": "Eskil Simonsson\nDaniel Jonasson\nAndreas Catjar-Danielsson\nDaniel Myer"}

Happy Rhodes (born Kimberley Tyler Rhodes, August 9, 1965) is an American singer, musician and songwriter with a four-octave vocal range, releasing 11 albums between 1986 and 2007. Family Rhodes' maternal grandfather Dave Stamper wrote songs for the Ziegfeld Follies of 1913 through 1931 and composed the music for several other Broadway shows. A family legend claims that Stamper wrote the well-known song "Shine On, Harvest Moon" in 1903 for Nora Bayes when he was working as her Vaudeville piano accompanist, but sold the rights and credit to Bayes and her husband Jack Norworth. Rhodes' parents divorced when she was young. Rhodes has two brothers who are twins. Musical background thumb|left|upright|Happy Rhodes at the Tin AngelPhiladelphia, PA 1996 Rhodes received her first musical instrument, an acoustic guitar, as a gift from her mother, at age 11. At 14 she was performing original songs in school shows. She left school early at age 16, choosing to obtain a GED. From age 16 to 18, Rhodes began performing in open mic nights at Caffè Lena in Saratoga Springs, New York. During this period, Rhodes met Pat Tessitore, the owner of a recording studio, Cathedral Sound Studios in Rensselaer, and became a studio intern to learn recording techniques. Tessitore was impressed with Rhodes' voice and songwriting, and volunteered to record all of the songs she had written to that point. Tessitore introduced Rhodes to Kevin Bartlett, a musician who had his own record label, Aural Gratification, and he urged her to gather up all the songs that she had recorded, to be released on cassette. She had enough songs to release three cassettes at the same time in 1986, Rhodes Vol. I, Rhodes Vol. II, and Rearmament. In 1987, she released the cassette of Ecto. Her first CD release was Warpaint, in 1991. The first four albums were only available on hand-dubbed cassettes until they were re-released on CD in 1992. For the CD releases, Rhodes Vol. I was renamed Rhodes I, and Rhodes Vol. II was renamed Rhodes II. Each of the CD re-releases contained bonus tracks not on the original cassettes. Aural Gratification released nine Happy Rhodes albums between 1986 and 1995, including Equipoise and RhodeSongs in 1993, Building The Colossus in 1994 and The Keep in 1995. Rhodes left Aural Gratification in 1998. Rhodes' 10th album, Many Worlds Are Born Tonight, was released in August 1998 by Samson Music, a label founded by Norm Waitt Jr., brother of Ted Waitt, co-founder of the Gateway Computer company. Rhodes was dropped from Samson when the label decided to concentrate on other genres of music and Samson transferred rights to the material back to Rhodes, as well as unsold product. In 2001, Rhodes recorded an 11th album, called Find Me, which was released October 19, 2007. Rhodes married musician Bob Muller in 2006 and they currently live on a farm in central upstate New York. Influences Rhodes has cited Wendy Carlos, Kate Bush, Queen, Yes, David Bowie, Bach and Peter Gabriel as primary influences. Her father owned a large record collection which included Bagpipe music and Switched-On Bach, by Wendy Carlos. By age nine, Rhodes could sing along with every note from that album. As a teenager she discovered the music of Queen and was impressed by their harmonies, which she later emulated on her first few albums. When Rhodes was introduced at age 16 to Kate Bush's music by an English pen pal, she was impressed by Bush's original writing style, vocal abilities and independence as a female artist. Rhodes has cited Bach's Air on a G String as her favorite piece of music. Live performances Most of her live shows have been in the northeast of America, primarily Philadelphia and New York City. Rhodes has sold out every show she's performed in Philadelphia when she was the headliner. She has performed several times at the Tin Angel, where she always plays two shows in an evening. Rhodes has also played The Middle East Club in 1995, the Mann Theater (opening for 10,000 Maniacs) and the University Museum Auditorium, both in 1992. In New York City Rhodes has played the Bottom Line several times. In 1994 Rhodes performed at YesFest, a convention for fans of the band Yes. She has also performed at the Knitting Factory in New York City as a guest of the band Project Lo. thumb|upright|Happy Rhodes at the Tin AngelPhiladelphia, PA 2005 As a solo artist Rhodes has performed in Philadelphia, New York City, Cambridge, MA, Troy, NY, Albany, NY, Saratoga, NY, Woodstock, NY, Bearsville, NY, New Haven, CT, Danbury, CT, Maple Shade, NJ, Denville, NJ, Bryn Mawr, PA, Mechanicsburg, PA, Cleveland, OH, Toledo, OH, Kenosha, WI, Chicago, IL and Santa Cruz, CA. Her last major solo tour was in support of her album Many Worlds are Born Tonight in 1998, playing the El Flamingo Club in New York City, the Troy Savings Bank Music Hall in Troy, New York, the Painted Bride Arts Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the Bearsville Theater in Bearsville, New York. Though the tour received positive reviews, it was not an economic success due to the ambitious multimedia presentation of the material. Ectofest In 1999 Meredith Tarr of New Haven and Chuck Stipak of Danbury, Connecticut organized a one-day music festival in Danbury to honor Rhodes and the mailing list Ecto, with all proceeds going to charity. The lineup for "Ectofest 1999," held on September 4, 1999, consisted of Rhodes, Rachael Sage, Sloan Wainwright, Susan McKeown and the Mila Drumke Band. Tarr and Stipak repeated the festival the next year and on September 2, 2000 "Ectofest 2000" featured Rhodes, Jessica Weiser, Anne Heaton, Amy Fairchild, Sloan Wainwright, Merrie Amsterburg and Susan McKeown. In 2001, West Coast fans (Shelly Deforte, Phil Hudson and Bill Mazur), who were encouraged by other members of the Ecto music discussion group to host a West coast version of the event, organized "Ectofest West" in Santa Cruz, California, held on June 9, 2001, at the Kuumbwa Jazz Center. Rhodes flew to California to perform but on the day of the concert she accidentally cut the ring finger on her fret hand while using a Leatherman tool, and severed the deep flexor tendon, as well as causing nerve damage. She was taken to the hospital where the hand was temporarily treated and bandaged. Rhodes performed 12 songs that evening sans guitar, relying on bandmates Eric Nicholas, Carl Adami and Bob Muller to fill in her parts. Rhodes had surgery on the finger when she returned from California and underwent physical therapy so she could play the guitar again. Ectofest West is the only time Rhodes has performed in front of an audience west of Chicago. Other performers at the festival were Cyoakha Grace, Jill Tracy and Veda Hille. / Two Loons for Tea was scheduled to play but the band was stranded in Houston during a hurricane, and was not able to get to Santa Cruz in time. Rhodes was scheduled to play Ectofest 2001 on August 25, 2001, in Danbury, CT but had to bow out because of her injury. Performers at that show were Edie Carey, Mila Drumke, Trina Hamlin, Jargon Society, Rachael Sage and Molly Zenobia. 2001's show was the last Ectofest until the 2007 Ectofest with Happy Rhodes, Noe Venable and Casey Desmond on September 8, 2007, at / the Lily Pad in Cambridge, MA. The show sold out 3 weeks in advance, with fans traveling from all over the United States and also Scotland and Germany. Security Project In 2016, Rhodes came out of retirement and started singing with Security Project, a Peter Gabriel appreciation band featuring Jerry Marotta, Trey Gunn, Michael Cozzi, and David Jameson, singing lead for 11 live shows in 2016, 19 shows in 2017, and 8 more shows in Spring 2018. Miscellaneous live information After 2001's Ectofest West, Rhodes did not perform again until April 2003, when she performed at a house concert in New Haven with percussionist Bob Muller. Rhodes has also performed at house concerts in Maple Shade, NJ, Toledo, OH and Kenosha, WI. Rhodes' most recent solo performance prior to Ectofest '07 was at the Tin Angel in Philadelphia on January 29, 2005, where she sold out two shows in the same evening. Rhodes has toured three times as guest keyboardist and vocalist for the Bon Lozaga band Project Lo, in 1997, 1999 and 2000. Through the years, Rhodes has performed live with backing musicians Bob Muller, Kevin Bartlett, Bon Lozaga, Carl Adami, Hansford Rowe, Kelly Bird, Martha Waterman, Eric Nicholas, Mark Foster, Ray Jung, Matthew Guarnere, Dave Sepowski, Peter Sheehan, Dean Sharp, Jamie Edwards and Paul Huesman. Rhodes has opened for or played on the same bill as 10,000 Maniacs, Shawn Colvin, Jeffrey Gaines, Pete & Maura Kennedy, Kyle Davis, Barbara Kessler, Willy Porter, and Steve Forbert, among others. Fans In 1991, Rhodes developed a following in Philadelphia through airplay on WXPN-FM. Her song "Feed The Fire" (from her album Warpaint) was said to be one of the station's most requested songs of 1991. Rhodes has received airplay and has been interviewed on radio shows such as the syndicated programs Echoes, and The World Cafe. She has received airplay on Morning Becomes Eclectic from KCRW in Santa Monica, CA, and WDST in Woodstock, NY, where Rhodes lived for a time, appearing on the compilation Alternative Woodstock. Much of the attention Rhodes has received has been via less traditional routes: In 1987 Aural Gratification released a sampler tape of Rhodes' music from the album Ecto. In late summer 1988 one of these cassettes was obtained by a programmer for an all-female-artists radio show called Suspended In Gaffa (named after a Kate Bush song) on KKFI-FM in Kansas City, MO. The programmer's discussion of Rhodes' music during 1989-1991 on the Kate Bush Usenet newsgroup rec.music.gaffa led to the formation in 1991 of the "Ecto" mailing list, named after Rhodes' 4th album and the song by the same name on the album. In 2000, an unknown person mislabeled one of Rhodes' non-album tracks, "When The Rain Came Down" (a bonus track on the CD re-release of Ecto), as being a duet between Kate Bush and Annie Lennox (who have never worked together), and shared it on the original Napster file-sharing network. Ecto (the mailing list) Ecto the Internet mailing list was created on June 13, 1991, by Jessica Koeppel Dembski out of Rutgers University. Originally called "Ectoplasm," the mailing list name was changed within a few days. It has operated continuously since its inception, and has from the beginning encouraged discussion of other musicians besides Happy Rhodes, especially female artists. The mailing list changed hands in the mid-1990s to Greg Bossert, then shortly thereafter to Rob Woiccak, who continues to administer the list. Jeff Wasilko hosts the mailing list at his smoe domain, which hosts several other music mailing lists. Among fans, the term "Ecto," used as a genre name, has grown to encompass a number of musicians who do not fit comfortably in other musical genres, such as Kate Bush, Peter Gabriel and Jane Siberry. Rhodes' fans have called themselves "Ectophiles" since almost the beginning of the mailing list, and the name was the inspiration for Tori Amos fans calling themselves "Toriphiles." Ecto remains a busy discussion list, with members discussing Happy Rhodes and much other "Ecto"-philic music. Rhodes thanks the "Ectophiles" in the liner notes of the CD re-releases of Rhodes I, Rhodes II, Rearmament, Ecto, Many Worlds Are Born Tonight and Find Me. Rhodes and the mailing list Ecto were the inspiration for the creation of The Ectophiles' Guide to Good Music, a collection of music reviews by Ectophiles created in 1998 by poet and author Neile Graham. A fan magazine, Terra Incognita (aka Rhodeways), was published by Sharon Nichols from 1994 to 2000. Discography Studio albums Rhodes Volume I (1986) Rhodes Volume II (1986) Rearmament (1986) Ecto (1987) Warpaint (1991) Equipoise (1993) Building the Colossus (1994) Many Worlds Are Born Tonight (1998) Find Me (2007) Compilations Rhodesongs (1993) The Keep (1995) Happy Rhodes: Ectotrophia (2018) 1983 - 1987 Her first four albums, Rhodes Volume I (1986), Rhodes Volume II (1986), Rearmament (1986) and Ecto (1987) were not conceived and recorded as album releases, but were a gathering together of songs recorded at Cathedral Sound Studios over a number of years. When fellow musician Kevin Bartlett offered to release Rhodes' songs on his cassette-only personal label Aural Gratification, Rhodes culled through the songs she had recorded and ordered them to her satisfaction. Rhodes I and Rhodes II are often considered to be a double album by fans because the songs are similar in theme and instrumentation. The third cassette, Rearmament, uses more electronic instrumentation and often displays the influence of Wendy Carlos. The fourth cassette, Ecto, contained a greater number of the more recent songs Rhodes had recorded and shows a greater maturity and complexity, foreshadowing the music Rhodes would make in the future. 1991 - 1995 Rhodes' first four albums were co-produced by Pat Tessitore and Rhodes, the 1991 album Warpaint was the first result of her collaboration with musician, producer and Aural Gratification record label owner Kevin Bartlett, and the first to feature musicians other than Rhodes. During this period, the two formed a duo named, appropriately enough, "Bartlett/Rhodes". They recorded a number of co-written songs and played a few dates, but the results were not generally considered successful, and they decided to continue on their individual endeavors. 1993 brought Equipoise an album of new material and Rhodesongs a compilation of music from Rhodes' first four album, alternative versions and a David Bowie cover. The cover of the 1994 album Building the Colossus commented on Rhodes' technically oriented fan base with an album sub-head of "c:\happy rhodes" and featured Peter Gabriel collaborators Jerry Marotta and David Torn. This exceptionally productive period was capped with the 1995 compilation The Keep, featuring acoustic versions of earlier songs, the traditional Christmas song Oh Holy Night and a medley of songs by the group Yes. 1996 - present After having entertained a number of traditional record company offers, and rejecting them due to an unwillingness to give up rights to her music, Rhodes assumed production and engineering duties on the 1998 release Many Worlds Are Born Tonight. Once the album was complete, she signed with a new label, Samson Music, and was able to tour the northeastern United States with a more elaborate stage show. The song Roy was released as a single and reached #42 on the Billboard Club Play/Dance Music chart. While sales were far greater than her previous albums, Samson eventually decided to concentrate on their Gold Circle Films division and dropped Rhodes. The parting was amicable, and the label returned her musical rights, as well as all unsold product. In 2001 Rhodes recorded a new album, Find Me, but it was not released until 2007, although a limited-edition CD sampler consisting of 8 songs - Fall, Charlie, The Chosen One, Can't Let Go, One And Many, Find Me, Here And Hereafter and She Won't Go was sold at her 2005 concert. The album includes three additional songs - Treehouse, Little Brother and Queen. One additional song, Shutdown, was recorded for the album but is not on the official release. Musicians on Find Me include guitarist Bon Lozaga and bassist Hansford Rowe of Gongzilla, bassist Carl Adami, guitarists Ted Kumpel and Jon Cather and pianist Rob Schwimmer. In 2018 the Chicago-based record label The Numero Group released a retrospective compilation of 18 songs titled "Happy Rhodes: Ectotrophia." The album package includes lyrics as well as extensive liner notes by Erin Osmon. Collaborations Kevin Bartlett: the duo Bartlett/Rhodes (1987-1989) Bartlett/Rhodes demo recording (never publicly released) Robby Aceto Additional vocals on the song "Shane Heads for the Immaculate Mountains" from Aceto's 1997 album Code. Samite Atmospheric backing vocals on "Stars To Share" from Samite's 1999 album Stars To Share. William Ackerman Lead vocals on "Before We Left All This Behind" from Ackerman's 2001 album Hearing Voices. Bob Holroyd Provided vocals to Holroyd's cover of Peter Gabriel's "Games Without Frontiers" from Holroyd's 2003 album Without Within. Atmospheric vocalizations on the instrumental songs "Haleakala," "Behind The Veil," "As I Live And Breathe, "Final Approach," "Matt's Mood" from Oster's 2005 album Released. Project Lo Vocals on "Mercy Street" (Peter Gabriel cover) and "Perfection" from their 1995 album Black Canvas. Hansford Rowe Vocals on "Rouler" from Rowe's 2003 album No Other. The Security Project In October 2016, Rhodes joined The Security Project as lead vocalist, and they began including Kate Bush songs in their repertoire. Her first album with the group was Five (1 March 2017). References External links Happy Rhodes - an authorized fansite Category:1965 births Category:Living people Category:American electronic musicians Category:American keyboardists Category:American women singer-songwriters Category:American contraltos Category:Singers with a four-octave vocal range Category:Musicians from Poughkeepsie, New York Category:Singer-songwriters from New York (state) Category:Guitarists from New York (state) Category:20th-century American guitarists Category:20th-century American women guitarists Category:21st-century American women

{"Born": "Poughkeepsie, New York, U.S.", "Origin": "Albany, New York, U.S.", "Genres": "Alternative rock, art rock, acoustic, pop rock", "Labels": "7D Media", "Website": "happyrhodesmusic.com"}

Stillaguamish people () are a Native American tribe located in northwest Washington in the United States near the city of Arlington, Washington, near the river that bears their name, the Stillaguamish River. They are an indigenous people of the Northwest Plateau, specifically, a Southern Coast Salish people.Prtizker 197 Today, Stillaguamish people are enrolled in the federally recognized tribes Stillaguamish Tribe of Indians and Tulalip Tribes of Washington. History Stillaguamish people today are descendants of the Stoluck-wa-mish River Tribe, who lived along the Stillaguamish River in the 1850s. They had multiple villages along the river, with notable locations including: Skabalko (at modern day Arlington), Chuck-Kol-Che (near modern day Trafton), Sŭl-gwähs' (at downtown Stanwood) and Sp-la-tum (near modern day Warm Beach). On January 22, 1855, the Stillaguamish people signed the Point Elliott Treaty as the "Stoluck-wa-mish." Many members of the tribe moved to the Tulalip Reservation, and others stayed along the river. Years later, in 2014, the Stillaguamish Reservation was established northwest of Arlington and the former village of Skabalko. The Stillaguamish Tribe of Washington ratified its constitution on January 31, 1953, establishing a democratically elected, six-member tribal council. In 1974, the Stillaguamish Tribe petitioned for recognition from the United States Government and received recognition on October 27, 1976. In 2003, the enrolled population of the tribe was 237. The tribe manages the salmon populations in the Stillaguamish River watershed with the help of Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife. As part of this effort, the tribe has a hatchery which releases chinook and coho salmon, running educational activities about salmon. Notes References Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. . External links Stillaguamish Tribe, official website Tulalip Tribes, official website Stillaguamish Tribe of Indians Natural Resources Department U.S. Department of Health and Human Services - Indian Health Service - Stillaguamish Tribe Category:Coast Salish Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state) Category:Tulalip Tribes

{"Name": "Stillaguamish", "Population": "over 237", "Religions": "Christianity, traditional tribal religion", "Languages": "Lushootseed, English", "Related ethnic groups": "other Salish peoples"}

Ramón Serrano Suñer (12 September 1901 - 1 September 2003), was a Spanish politician during the first stages of the Francoist dictatorship, between 1938 and 1942, when he held the posts of President of the FET y de las JONS caucus (1936), and then Interior Minister and Foreign Affairs Minister. A neofalangist originally from the CEDA, Serrano Suñer came to embody the most totalitarian impetus within the regime. Serrano Suñer was known for his pro-Third Reich stance during World War II, when he supported the sending of the Blue Division to fight along with the Wehrmacht on the Russian front. He was also the brother-in-law of Francisco Franco's wife Carmen Polo, for which he was informally nicknamed Cuñadísimo or the "most brother-in-law" (in comparison, the dictator himself was styled as generalísimo). Serrano Suñer was the founder of the 67,000-strong Spanish blind people's organization ONCE on 13 December 1938, as well as of the EFE press-agency, in 1939. Serrano Suñer also founded the Radio Intercontinental radio network in 1950. Early life He was born Ramón Serrano Suñer in Cartagena, the fifth of seven children born to an engineer working in the Valencian port of Castellón de la Plana. Although he was an excellent student, his father disapproved of his plans to become a lawyer. He enrolled at the Madrid's Central University to study law, just the same. A fellow student of José Antonio Primo de Rivera (son of Spanish dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera, and founder of the Falange), he developed a taste for falangism while spending a year in Bologna. He joined the State Lawyers Corps in 1924. Ramón Serrano Suñer and Francisco Franco were co-brothers-in-law, since the two married two sisters: Serrano Suñer married Ramona (Zita) Polo y Martínez-Valdés, in Oviedo on 6 February 1932, whom he had met shortly after moving to Zaragoza in 1931. Franco married Carmen Polo y Martínez-Valdés in October 1923. Ramón Serrano Suñer and Zita Polo had six children: Fernando, Francisco, Jaime Javier, José, María del Pilar and Ramón Serrano-Suñer y Polo.Ramón Serrano Suñer was Ramón Serrano Suñer's illegitimate daughter by the Marquis of Llanzol's wife but he never recognized her. Not knowing they were half-siblings, Carmen and Ramón Serrano Suñer y Polo fell in love and were only prevented from marrying at the last minute. She later became the Chief of Cabinet, ranking as Secretary of State, under Adolfo Suarez's right wing coalition and later as a socialist member of the European Parliament. María Luisa Mataix, "Carmen Díez de Rivera e Icaza". A short biography in Spanish (December 2002), based on Ana Romero, Historia de Carmen. Memoria de Carmen Díez de Rivera, Editorial Planeta. Early political career Suñer was a member of the Cortes within the group of the right-wing CEDA although he did not formally join in the CEDA. Prior to the Spanish Civil War, he distanced himself from the CEDA and approached the Falange Española de las JONS but did not join it either. He had called the members of the youth wing JAP to flee to the Falange in the spring of 1936. After the military coup of July 1936 and the outbreak of the civil war, he was locked in a Republican prison. He escaped in October 1936, dressed as a woman, and was then helped by the Argentine navy in getting to France, from where he was able to reach Salamanca on 20 February 1937, where Franco was in office at the time. It was there that he could work with Franco to participate for the rebels in the civil war. In 1938, Serrano Suñer went to Nuremberg with Nicolás Franco, Franco's brother, probably to the 10th Nuremberg Rally (Reichsparteitag Grossdeutschland in German) of the Nazi Party, to celebrate the Anschluss, the union of Austria with Germany, in March. Serrano Suñer served as Nationalist Minister of the Interior (1 February 1938 - 9 August 1939). When Franco amalgamated that ministry with the Ministry of Public Order ("Ministerio de Orden Público" in Spanish), a new name was created, the "Ministerio de la Gobernación", but the new name is now usually translated as "Ministry of the Interior". The merger was made by Franco on 9 August 1939, when Serrano Suñer became "Ministro de la Gobernación". Suñer also managed to re-elaborate the statutes of the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, decreasing the political power of the Secretary General in favour of a newly created office, the President of the Political Council, to which he was appointed on 9 August 1936. He felt the office of Gobernación on 16 October 1940. Just the day before, 15 October 1940, the former president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Lluis Companys, had been executed by firing squad in Barcelona. On 13 August, Companys had been handed over by the Gestapo authorities of occupied Paris to the Spanish policeman and spy Pedro Urraca Rendueles, along with the extradition of Basque Minister of the Interior Julián Zugazagoitia, who had served under Republican Prime Minister Juan Negrín. While Serrano Suñer had been Minister of the Interior, the Minister of Foreign Affairs was General Juan Luis Beigbeder y Atienza, formerly a Military Attaché at the Spanish Embassy Berlin as an Army Commandant in 1926. Already as a colonel, he was the predecessor of Serrano Suñer as a Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs. In September 1940, the strongly pro-Axis Serrano Suñer visited Berlin to meet the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop to discuss how Spain might best enter the war on the Axis side.Preston, Paul "Franco and Hitler: The Myth of Hendaye 1940" pages 1-16 from Contemporary European History, Volume 1, Issue # 1, March 1992 page 5. During the meeting, Serrano Suñer presented a "shopping list" to Ribbentrop, saying Spain wanted Gibraltar from the British; all of French Morocco and Algeria "which belonged to Spain's Lebensraum"; and about Portugal, he said: "Geographically speaking, Portugal has no right to exist". Additionally, Serrano Suñer wanted generous promises of German military and economic support before Spain entered the war. Serrano Suñer and Ribbentrop did not get along and they soon developed an intense mutual hatred of one another. Ribbentrop told Serrano Suñer that in return for military and economic aid and allowing the return of Gibraltar, Germany wanted to annex at least one of the Canary Islands (Ribbentrop stated that he preferred Germany to have all of the Canaries but was prepared to be magnanimous by taking only one); that Germany be allowed air and naval bases in Spanish Morocco with extraterritorial rights; German companies to be given control of the mines in Spanish Morocco; and finally Ribbentrop wanted an economic treaty that would have turned Spain into an economic colony of Germany. For the pro-Axis Serrano Suñer, who had been expecting the Germans to treat Spain as an ally and an equal, to learn that the Germans viewed Spain as little more than a satellite state was a great shock. During his visits to Berlin, Serrano Suñer, who had started to rethink the wisdom of Spain entering the war, was overruled by Franco, who was keen to enter the war as soon as possible on the Axis side before Britain was defeated. Franco, in his letters to Serrano Suñer, praised Hitler as a wise statesman and dismissed Ribbentrop's demands as the product of a man who failed to appreciate properly what Spain had to offer the Axis.Preston, Paul "Franco and Hitler: The Myth of Hendaye 1940" pages 1-16 from Contemporary European History, Volume 1, Issue # 1, March 1992 page 6. thumb|200px|right|Heinrich Himmler at Madrid Northern Railway Station, October 1940, being honoured by Spanish soldiers. Ramón Serrano Suñer is in a dark uniform then worn by the Spanish Falange Party leaders. Meanwhile, even on becoming Minister of Foreign Affairs, Serrano Suñer had to accept Jacobo Fitz-James Stuart y Falcó, 17th Duke of Alba, as ambassador to London, who, since November 1937 represented the rebellious Franco and, from March 1939, represented Francisco Franco until March 1945. He had been formerly a Minister of Public Instruction, later Minister of State, 1930-1931, under the dictatorship of General Dámaso Berenguer. In June 1939, Serrano Suñer had been back to Italy to present Benito Mussolini with the thousands of repatriated Italian soldiers who had fought by the side of Franco in Spain against the Republicans. He was appointed the 263rd Minister of Foreign Affairs (18 October 1940 - 3 September 1942) because of his skill at building a relationship with Mussolini. Even though he was working with Franco, he objected to the increasing role of the Catholic Church in Falangist politics. The two brothers-in-law had some intraparty conflicts of their own, as Serrano Suñer accused Franco of riding on a "cult of personality", and Franco viewed Serrano Suñer as increasingly becoming a thorn in the side of his party who criticised too many of its policies. Involvement in World War II Just one week after Serrano Suñer was promoted to Minister of Foreign Affairs, on 23 October 1940, Franco and Adolf Hitler met at the Hendaye railway station in France, near the Spanish border. There, Serrano Suñer met with Ribbentrop. Paul Schmidt, head interpreter of the German Chancellor, reported that Franco sat between Ribbentrop and Walther von Brauchitsch, while Adolf Hitler sat between the Spanish Foreign Affairs Minister Ramón Serrano Suñer and the Spanish Ambassador at Berlin, Eugenio Espinosa de los Monteros. However, neither the Spanish Ambassador at Berlin nor the German Ambassador at Madrid, Eberhard von Stohrer, were allowed at the exhaustive and inconclusive political meetings. By morning the meeting ended with no compromise. Serrano Suñer was later to say of the Hendaye summit that because of General Franco's obsession with Morocco, that if only Hitler had offered him French Morocco, then Spain would have entered the war in October 1940.Preston, Paul "Franco and Hitler: The Myth of Hendaye 1940" pages 1-16 from Contemporary European History, Volume 1, Issue # 1, March 1992 page 14. thumb|Serrano Suñer (left) and Joachim von Ribbentrop (right) in Berlin, 1940 Although Serrano Suñer had played a major role in establishing the Spanish state under Franco, being so influential as to be nicknamed the Cuñadísimo, which translates as supreme brother-in-law (a joke on "Generalísimo"), and despite Serrano Suñer's advocating Spain's joining the Axis powers, Franco opted for Spain to remain a nonbelligerent during World War II. Serrano Suñer's protégé, Pedro Gamero del Castillo, consulted in January 1941 with Hans Lazar, the press secretary of the German embassy, and told him that a Serrano Suñer government would commit to the Axis powers and thus asked for him to arrange for the Nazis to back his mentor publicly.Paul Preston, Franco, London: 1995, p. 415 However, it is unclear whether Gamero was working on his own initiative and Hitler was disappointed that Serrano Suñer had not tried harder to help Germany and called him the "gravedigger of the new Spain". To make up for that failure, Serrano Suñer proposed the Blue Division of Spanish volunteers250. Infanterie-Division to fight with the Germans against the Soviet Union after Operation Barbarossa, which started on 22 June 1941. On 23 June, upon receiving the news, he met with Franco in El Pardo, and the Council of Ministers passed a resolution thereafter concerning the sending of a division of Spanish volunteers to the front. A day after, on 24 June, he declaimed his famous invective () rallying a revanchist mood during a speech delivered from the balcony of the FET-JONS headquarters. On 25 November 1941 he signed in Berlin the revision of the pact of 25 November 1936 Germany-Japan Anti-Comintern Pact, an anticommunist pact concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan (later to be joined by other countries) directed against the Communist International (Comintern) or Komintern. In September 1942, following the Basilica of Begoña incident of August 1942, Serrano Suñer was forced to resign as foreign minister and president of the political council of the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS. Later life After World War II, he wrote a persuasive letter to Franco, calling for a transitional government that would have room for intellectuals in exile. When Franco received the letter, he wrote a derisive "Ho-ho." in its margin. Serrano Suñer ultimately retired from public life in 1947. In 1949, Serrano Suñer sponsored the visit to Spain of British Fascist leader Oswald Mosley, taking him to the tomb of José Antonio Primo de Rivera. In 1961, in the context of the Algiers putsch against French president Charles De Gaulle, Serrano Suñer was the main Spanish support to Raoul Salan during the latter's spell in Spain, and provided for Salan's transfer to Algeria so he could carry out the attempted generals' coup in April. Also by that time, Serrano operated too as a link between Salan and Portuguese dictator Oliveira Salazar, an enthusiastic supporter of Salan's putschist intentions. Serrano Suñer died on 1 September 2003 in Madrid, eleven days before his 102nd birthday. References Bibliography External links Cien Empresarios Españoles del Siglo Veinte Info on a book, 672 pages, by Rojo Cagigal, Juan Carlos . Azagra Ros, Joaquín Pedro . Arana Pérez, Ignacio . Echániz Ortúñez, José and others, 13 economists in total . , 2000. Milicia y diplomacia: los diarios del Conde de Jordana 1936-1944, forewords and initial study by Carlos Seco Serrano. (Selección y glosas de Rafael Gómez- Jordana Prats). Burgos: Dossoles, 2002. "Colección La Valija Diplomática". 311 pp.. Charles B. Burdick. Germany's Military strategy and Spain In World War II.Syracuse Univ. Press, Syracuse, U.S.A., (1968). 228 pages. . Former American Professor Charles B. Burdick biography can be seen at: Madrid Carmen Díez de Rivera Memorias de Carmen Diez de Rivera Ramón Serrano Súñer, Entre Hendaya y Gibraltar. , (2011). Pauley, Bruce F. (1981). Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: A History of Austrian National Socialism, University of North Carolina Press. . Category:1901 births Category:2003 deaths Category:FET y de las JONS politicians Category:Foreign ministers of Spain Category:Foreign relations of Spain during the Francoist dictatorship Category:Government ministers during the Francoist dictatorship Category:Interior ministers of Spain Category:Members of the State Lawyers Corps Category:Men centenarians Category:Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic Category:Politicians from Cartagena, Spain Category:Spanish anti-communists Category:Spanish centenarians Category:Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (National faction) Category:Spanish propagandists Category:World War II political leaders

{"Name": "Ramón Serrano Suñer", "Image caption": "Serrano Suñer during a visit to the headquarters of the LSSAH in Berlin-Lichterfelde, September 1940.", "Office 2": "Minister of the Interior", "Successor 2": "Valentín Galarza Morante", "Birth date": "12 September 1901", "Birth place": "Cartagena, Spain", "Death date": "yes 2003 9 1 1901 9 12", "Death place": "Madrid, Spain", "Nationality": "Spanish", "Spouse(s)": "Ramona (Zita) Polo y Martínez-Valdés", "Alma mater": "Universidad Central"}

Žilina (; ; ; ; names in other languages) is a city in north-western Slovakia, around from the capital Bratislava, close to both the Czech and Polish borders. It is the fourth largest city of Slovakia with a population of approximately 80,000, an important industrial center, the largest city on the Váh river, and the seat of a kraj (Žilina Region) and of an okres (Žilina District). It belongs to the Upper Váh region of tourism. Etymology The name is derived from Slavic/Slovak word žila - a "(river) vein". Žilina means "a place with many watercourses". Alternatively, it is a secondary name derived from Žilinka river or from the name of the local people, Žilín/Žiliňane. History The area around today's Žilina was inhabited in the late Stone Age (about 20,000 BC). In the 5th century, Slavs started to move into the area. However, the first written reference to Žilina was in 1208 as terra de Selinan. From the second half of the 10th century until 1918, it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. In the middle of the 13th century, terra Sylna was the property of the Cseszneky de Milvány family.Monumenta Hungariae historica The city started to develop around 1300, and, according to records in 1312, it was already a town. In 1321, King Charles I made Žilina a free royal town. On 7 May 1381, King Louis I issued Privilegium pro Slavis, which made the Slav inhabitants equal to the Germans by allocating half of the seats at the city council to Slavs. The town was burned in 1431 by the Hussites. During the 17th century, Žilina gained position as a center of manufacturing, trade, and education, and, during the Baroque age, many monasteries and churches, as well as the Budatín Castle, were built. In the Revolutions of 1848, Slovak volunteers, part of the Imperial Army, won a battle near the city against Hungarian honveds and gardists. The city boomed in the second half of the 19th century as new railway tracks were built: the Kassa Oderberg Railway was finished in 1872 and the railway to Bratislava (Pozsony in Hungarian) in 1883, and new factories started to spring up, such as the drapery factory Slovena (1891) and the Považie chemical works (1892). It was one of the first municipalities to sign the Martin Declaration (30 October 1918), and until March 1919, it was the seat of the Slovak government. On 6 October 1938, shortly after the Munich Agreement, the autonomy of Slovakia within Czechoslovakia was declared in Žilina. During the Holocaust in Slovakia, tens of thousands of Jews were deported from Žilina. Žilina was captured on 30 April 1945 by Czechoslovak and Soviet troops of the 4th Ukrainian Front, after which it again became part of Czechoslovakia. After the war, the city continued its development with many new factories, schools and housing projects being built. It was the seat of the Žilina Region from 1949 to 1960 and again since 1996. Today, Žilina is the fourth largest city in Slovakia, the third most important industrial center and the seat of a university, the Žilinská univerzita (founded in 1953). Since 1990 the historical center of the city has been largely restored and the city has built trolleybus lines. Geography Žilina lies at an altitude of above sea level and covers an area of . It is located in the Upper Váh region () at the confluence of three rivers: Váh, flowing from the east into the south-west, Kysuca, flowing from the north and Rajčanka rivers from the south, in the Žilina Basin. The city is surrounded by these mountain ranges: Malá Fatra, Súľovské vrchy, Javorníky and Kysucká vrchovina. Protected areas nearby include the Strážov Mountains Protected Landscape Area, the Kysuce Protected Landscape Area, and the Malá Fatra National Park. There are two hydroelectric dams on the Váh river around Žilina: the Žilina dam in the east and the Hričov dam in the west. Climate Žilina lies in the north temperate zone and has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. It is characterized by a significant variation between hot summers and cold, snowy winters. The average temperature in July is , in January, . The average annual rainfall is ; most of the rainfall occurs in June and in the first half of July. Snow cover lasts from 60 to 80 days per year. Symbol The coat of arms of Žilina is a golden double-cross (so-called cross of Lorraine) with roots and two golden stars on an olive-green background. The double-cross is of Byzantine origin and stems from Cyrillic-methodic tradition. This is one of the oldest municipal coat of arms, not only in Slovakia, but in Europe. It has been used as the city's symbol since 1378. Demographics Municipality Urban Metro Žilina 85,302 85,302 Kysucké Nové Mesto - 16,420 Varín - 3,537 Teplička nad Váhom 3,502 3,502 Belá - 3,361 Rajecké Teplice - 2,950 Rosina 2,925 2,925 Strečno - 2,661 Višňové 2,610 2,610 Divina - 2,483 Dlhé Pole - 2,029 Turie 1,981 1,981 Kamenná Poruba - 1,826 Stráňavy - 1,822 Lietavská Lúčka 1,786 1,786 Rudina - 1,669 Lietavská Svinná - Babkov - 1,596 Lietava 1,422 1,422 Radoľa - 1,391 Konská - 1,393 Dolná Tižiná - 1,243 Gbeľany 1,239 1,239 Krasňany 1,223 1,223 Snežnica - 1,013 Svederník 1,003 1,003 Kunerad - 949 Nededza 927 927 Divinka - 882 Lysica - 864 Lutiše - 795 Podhorie - 781 Horný Hričov - 763 Dolný Hričov 1,506 1,506 Hričovské Podhradie - 374 Hôrky 635 635 Bitarová 630 630 Ovčiarsko 511 511 Brezany 462 462 Mojš 450 450 Porúbka - 447 Rudinka - 384 Nezbudská Lúčka - 366 Total 108,114 159,729 Žilina has a population of 82,664 (as of September 2020), with the population of the urban area of 108,114 and the population of the metro area of 159,729. According to the 2001 census, 96.9% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 1.6% Czechs, 0.2% Romani, 0.1% Hungarians and 0.1% Moravians. The religious makeup was 74.9% Roman Catholics, 16.7% people with no religious affiliation, and 3.7% Lutherans. Economy Žilina is the main industrial hub of the upper Váh river basin region, with a fast-growing economy as north-west Slovakia's business center with large retail and construction sectors. By far the biggest and most important employer is Korean car maker Kia Motors. By 2009, the plant produced 300,000 cars a year and had up to 3,000 employees. Kia Motors' direct investment in the Žilina car plant amounts to over 1.5 billion USD. In 2009 the Žilina car plant produced Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage and Hyundai ix35 car models. Kia Motors is further upgrading its capacity to be ready to produce engines for a sister company, Hyundai, located at Nošovice in the Czech Republic with a planned investment of US$200 million. Žilina is also the seat of the biggest Slovak construction and transportation engineering company, Vahostav. The chemical industry is represented by Považské chemické závody and Tento, a paper mill company. Siemens Mobility also has an engineering center in Žilina. Main sights thumb|right|Mariánske námestie with burgher houses thumb|right|Budatín Castle thumb|right|Frescoes inside the church of St Stephen the King The historical center of the city, reconstructed in the early 1990s is protected as a city monument reserve (). It is centered on the Mariánske námestie and Andrej Hlinka squares. The Mariánske námestie square has 106 arcade passages and 44 burgher houses along the whole square.Spectacular Slovakia 2004: Žilina and Northern Slovakia, the Malá Fatra mountains It is dominated by the Church of St. Paul the Apostle, the old building of the city council, and the baroque statue of the Virgin Mary. Nearby is the Church of the Holy Trinity, a sacral building built around 1400, which is since February 2008 the cathedral of the Diocese of Žilina. The Church of Saint Stephen the King () is the oldest architectural relic of town Zilina, located just southwest from the center. It is one of the first Romanesque churches in Slovakia, dating back to the years 1200-1250, by the experts. The legend goes that the Hungarian King István I himself ordered to build it. Valuable is the inner decoration of the church. Wall paintings originate from approximately 1260; in 1950 they were discovered and later on restored by the Žilina fine artist Mojmír Vlkoláček. Nowadays it is a popular place for wedding ceremonies. Other landmarks around the city include: Budatín Castle, housing Považie Museum with its tinker trade exhibition The wooden Roman Catholic church of St. George in the Trnové section (one of the few outside north-eastern Slovakia) The Orthodox synagogue, which now houses the Museum of Jewish culture The New Synagogue, now a cultural centre The city is a starting point for various locations of western and eastern Slovakia, including hiking trails into the Lesser Fatra and Greater Fatra mountains. Other locations of interest include Bojnice Castle, Strečno, Orava region, and the villages of Čičmany and Vlkolínec. Culture Žilina is candidate city for the title of European Capital of Culture 2026. Žilina host several cultural institutions: Mestské divadlo Žilina (Žilina City Theater) Rosenfeld Palace (Žilina city cultural centre Rosenfeld Palace) Považská galéria umenia v Žiline (Považie galerie of contemporary art) Považské múzeum (Považie museum), situated in the Budatín castle but also running Strečno castle, Palace in Bytča, open-air museum Čičmany, manor-house in Divinka Bábkové divadlo Žilina (Žilina Puppet Theatre) Múzeum židovskej kultúry (Museum of Jewish culture) Štátny komorný orchester Žilina (Slovak Sinfonietta Žilina) Krajská knižnica v Žiline (Regional Library in Žilina) Stanica Žilina-Záriečie (Cultural Center Stanica) Nová synagóga Žilina (New Synagogue Žilina) Žilina is also home of two multi 3D digital theaters, in Mirage Shopping Centre - Ster Century Cinemas and Cinemax MAX in Max Shopping Centre OC Max Solinky. The city host also several cultural events: Žilina Cultural Summer Fest Anca - Animated film festival Žilina Literary festival KIOSK - festival of new Slovak theater Allegretto Žilina - International music Festival Puppet Žilina Jánošik's Days Sport thumb|Štadión pod Dubňom Football (soccer) club MŠK Žilina plays in the top Slovak division Fortuna liga and is one of the most successful teams in recent years, having won five domestic titles and been runners-up three times between 2001 and 2010. The team's colors are the yellow and green, taken from the city's flag. Home games are played at the Stadium Pod Dubňom which is situated at the edge of city center in the neighborhood of the ice hockey stadium. They played in the 2010-11 UEFA Champions League in the group stage for the first time in their history. Ice hockey club MsHK Žilina plays in the Slovak Extraliga. They have won one domestic title so far. Slovak professional road bicycle racer for World Tour team Bora-Hansgrohe, three-time world champion Peter Sagan, was born in Žilina in 1990, and is considered one of cycling's most promising young talents, having earned many prestigious victories in his early twenties. He was the winner of the points classification in the Tour de France in 2012 through 2016; as a result, Sagan became the first rider to win the classification in his first five attempts. In 2015, he was also the first Slovak cyclist to win the UCI Road World Championships. Government thumbnail|right|Žilina City Council thumbnail|View over Žilina The city is governed by a mayor () and a city council (Slovak: mestské zastupiteľstvo). The mayor is the head of the city and its chief executive, with a four-year term of office. The current mayor is Peter Fiabáne . The council is the city's legislative body, with 31 councillors. The last municipal election was held in 2014 and councillors are elected to four-year terms, concurrent with the mayor's. Žilina is divided into eight electoral districts, consisting of the following neighborhoods: Staré mesto, Hliny I-IV, Hliny VIII (5 councillors) Hliny V-VII, Bôrik (4 councillors) Solinky (5 councillors) Vlčince (6 councillors) Hájik (3 councillors) Bytčica, Rosinky, Trnové, Mojšová Lúčka (2 councillors) Závodie, Bánová, Strážov, Žilinská Lehota (2 councillors) Budatín, Považský Chlmec, Vranie, Brodno, Zádubnie, Zástranie (3 councillors) Žilina is the capital of one of eight considerably autonomous Regions of Slovakia. It is also the capital of a smaller district. The Žilina District (Slovak: okres Žilina) is nested within the Žilina Region. The city also hosts a regional branch of the National Bank of Slovakia. Education thumb|right|former building of Žilina University - Faculty of Nature Science thumb|Memorial dedicated to Saints Cyril and Methodius, with Holy Trinity Church in the background The city is home to the University of Žilina, which has seven faculties and 12,402 students, including 625 doctoral students. There are 18 public primary schools, one private primary school, and three church primary schools. Overall, they enroll 7,484 pupils. The city's system of secondary education (some middle schools and all high schools) consists of eight gymnasia with 3,514 students, ten specialized high schools with 3,696 students, and nine vocational schools with 4,870 students. Transport The city is an important international road junction, and Žilina railway station is a major rail junction. Roads and railways connect the city with Bratislava and Prievidza in the south, Čadca in the north, and Martin in the east. The construction of the D1, and D3 motorways and their feeders continues towards Žilina. The city is also served by international Žilina Airport, which is about away from the city center. Public transport within the city is operated by DPMZDPMZ and consists of buses (since 1949) and trolleybuses (since 1994). Night bus services started in Žilina in 1970 with the introduction of one route, the 50, which continues to operate as the sole night bus in the city, operating from 22:55 to 04:22. Route 50 makes a circuitous route of all major residential areas, and includes a stop at Železničná stanica, the principal railway station. File:Škoda 14Tr in Žilina, 2006.jpg|Trolleybus transport File:Zilina from above.jpg|Aerial view of Žilina Notable people thumb|180px|Ladislav Hecht AYA (band) Zuzana Babiaková Pavol Bajza Peter Baláž Štefan Beniač (1869-1942), Slovak priest, preacher and publicist Tomáš Bezdeda (born 1985, here), singer Peter Cehlárik (born 1995), Slovak hockey player Jakab Cseszneky de Csesznek et Visk, medieval magnate Martin Dúbravka, footballer Martin Ďurica, footballer Ľubomír Feldek (born 1936, here), Slovak poet Ján Franek (born 1960, here) Ľudovít Fulla Stanislav Griga (born 1961, here), football coach Ladislav Hecht (1909-2004), tennis player Peter Hoferica, footballer Anton Hrnko (born 1955, here), historian and politician Tomáš Hubočan, footballer Miroslav Hýll, footballer Juraj Jánošík, Slovak national hero Michael Kolář, cyclist Karol Križan, ice hockey player Dušan Kuciak Martin Kuciak Branislav Labant Gwido Langer Dávid Leimdörfer (1851-1922), rabbi and author Vladimír Leitner (born 1974), association football player Nela Lopušanová (born 2008), ice hockey player Ján Mikolaj (born 1953), Minister of Education of Slovakia (2006-2010) Marek Mintál (born 1977), association football player Juraj Okoličány (1943-2008), ice hockey referee Roman Ondak Emil Pažický Peter Pekarík, football player Ronald Petrovický, ice hockey player Lukáš Pohůnek, conductor Dárius Rusnák Branislav Rzeszoto Juraj Sagan, cyclist Peter Sagan, cyclist Ján Slota (born 1953), MP (1992-2002, 2006-2012), Mayor of Žilina (1992-2006) Ľuboš Šoška Peter Šoška Martin Šulík, actor Miroslav Šustek, writer Viktor Tausk, psychoanalyst Jozef Vengloš Radoslav Židek, snowboarder, first Slovak medal winner at the Winter Olympic Games Twin towns - sister cities Žilina is twinned with: Bielsko-Biała, Poland Changchun, China Dnipro, Ukraine Essen, Belgium Frýdek-Místek, Czech Republic Grodno, Belarus Kikinda, Serbia Krasnoyarsk, Russia Nanterre, France Plzeň, Czech Republic Prague 15, Czech Republic Třinec, Czech Republic References External links DPMZ - public transport official site Žilina official tourist guide Žilinak.sk - Leading news website Map and information system of Žilina Mesto v ktorom žijeme a nieje nám ľahostajné Category:Cities and towns in Slovakia Category:Žilina Region

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__NOTOC__ The Scandinavian Monetary Union was a monetary union formed by Denmark and Sweden on 5 May 1873, with Norway joining in 1875. It established a common currency unit, the krone/krona, based on the gold standard. It was one of the few tangible results of the Scandinavian political movement of the 19th century. The union ended during World War I. Overview The original Scandinavian currencies were based on the silver Reichsthaler, defined by the Hamburg Bank as 25.28 grams fine silver, which was equal to one Norwegian speciedaler or two Danish rigsdaler. Sweden's riksdaler specie was slightly heavier at 25.5 g and was equal to four Swedish riksdaler riksgalds. The Scandinavian switch to the gold standard was triggered by Germany's adoption of the German gold mark in 1873 and of the consequent disturbance in the silver market. The monetary union established the gold krone (krona in Swedish) replacing the legacy currencies at the rate of 1 krone = 1 Swedish riksdaler = Danish rigsdaler = Norwegian speciedaler = Hamburg reichsthaler. The latter's conversion to 4.50 German gold marks (hence, 1 krone = 1.125 marks) established the gold parity of the krone: one gram of fine gold worth 2.79 marks was equivalent to 2.48 krone (or 0.4032 g gold per krone).The Danish National Bank: From silver standard to gold standard The British pound (the "world currency" of the time) was equal to 18.16 kroner, and the franc of France and the Latin Monetary Union was worth 0.72 krone. Sweden's long-established tradition of using paper currency eased the implementation of a Gold Exchange Standard wherein gold coins rarely circulated but the respective central banks (the Sveriges Riksbank, Danmarks Nationalbank and Norges Bank) centralized their respective gold reserves and guaranteed the conversion of krone banknotes to gold for export purposes. The union provided fixed exchange rates and stability in monetary terms, but the member countries continued to issue their own separate currencies. Although not initially foreseen, the perceived security led to a situation where the formally separate currencies were accepted on a basis of "as good as" the legal tender virtually throughout the entire area. Upon acceding to the union, Sweden had the name of its currency changed from Riksdaler Riksmynt to Swedish krona. The word "krone/krona" literally means "crown", and the differences in spelling of the name represent the differences between the North Germanic languages. The political union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in 1905, but this did not affect the basis for co-operation in the monetary union. All three countries still use the same currencies as during the monetary union, but they lost their peg, one to one, in 1914. The Icelandic króna is a derivative of the Danish krone, established after Iceland was elevated to a separate kingdom in union with Denmark in 1918. Iceland cut its ties to Denmark in 1944 and became a republic. The Icelandic króna soon became volatile, causing a high inflation and in 1980 a currency reform was introduced, in which 1 new Icelandic króna was set to 100 original ones. The Scandinavian Monetary Union was inspired by the Latin Monetary Union, established in 1865.BBC As Scandinavia became industrialized, a call for a firm monetary system had risen in the 1860s. The idea of using a foreign currency was discussed, but as the old dividing of the British Pound was similar to what Scandinavia wished to get rid of, the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War made the French Franc less attractive and as the German Mark was out of the question in Denmark after the 1864 Second Schleswig War, the idea of a Scandinavian Monetary system based on the Gold standard was imposed 1873 to 1875.Lars Jonung (former Professor of the Swedish Trading School, Stockholm), https://www.nationalekonomi.se/filer/pdf/31-4-lj.pdf, pdf-page 2 (of 8) The union was dissolved gradually from the outbreak of World War One until 1924, when the union formally was dissolved.Lars Jonung, https://www.nationalekonomi.se/filer/pdf/31-4-lj.pdf, pdf-page 5 (of 8) Nevertheless, the 1:1:1 banknote rate continued at least until the economical crisis in the early 1930s."Söndagstidningen Södra Sverige", 16. December 1926, page with exchange rates Whether the Scandinavian Monetary Union was a success has been a subject of discussion. Some experts observe it functioned best between 1901 and 1905, at which point it was a complete system of coin, banknotes and common drawing rights available to the central banks. Although it was effective in its own limited monetary terms, the Union, however, was only of minor importance in the total foreign relations of the member countries. Moreover, the trade between the member countries composed only a small part of their total trade, a share that was in decline during the lifetime of the Union. The monetary union was never accompanied by a tariff union as well. This stresses its partial nature - it never formed a vital part of these countries' international economic relations."International Monetary Systems in Historical Perspective",Niels Kærgård and Ingrid Henriksen, 1995, publisher Palgrave Macmillan, London, , page 109, Other experts take a more positive view, arguing that no other politically independent countries went equally far in their monetary integration. From an international perspective, it was the most successful of all monetary unions during the time of the classic gold standard.Lars Jonung, https://www.nationalekonomi.se/filer/pdf/31-4-lj.pdf, pdf-page 4 (of 8) See also Economics Economy of Denmark Economy of Norway Economy of Sweden Monetary policy of Sweden Banks Danmarks Nationalbank Norges Bank Skandinaviska Banken Sveriges Riksbank Currencies before the union Danish rigsdaler Norwegian rigsdaler Norwegian speciedaler Swedish riksdaler Currencies during and after the union Danish krone Norwegian krone Swedish krona References Further reading Henriksen, Ingrid, and Niels Kærgård. "The Scandinavian currency union 1875-1914." in Jaime Reis, ed., International Monetary Systems in Historical Perspective. (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1995) pp. 91-112. Øksendal, Lars Fredrik. "The impact of the Scandinavian Monetary Union on financial market integration." Financial History Review 14#2 (2007): 125-148. Monetary Union Category:Numismatics Category:Currency unions Category:Economic history of Denmark Category:Economic history of Sweden Category:Economic history of Norway Category:Gold standard Category:1873 establishments in Denmark Category:1873 establishments in Sweden Category:1875 establishments in Norway Category:1914 disestablishments in Denmark Category:1914 disestablishments in Sweden Category:1914 disestablishments in Norway Category:19th-century economic history Category:20th-century economic history

{"Pegged with": "Gold standard", "Unit": "krone/krona", "Subunit": "1 100", "Symbol": "kr.", "Plural": "øre/öre (singular and plural)", "Is obsolete": "yes"}

The Squaxin Island Tribe are the descendants of several Lushootseed clans organized under the Squaxin Island Indian Reservation, a Native American tribal government in western Washington state. Historically, the ancestors of the Squaxin Island Tribe inhabited several inlets of the South Puget Sound. The Reservation was created in 1854 by the Treaty of Medicine Creek, comprising the entirety of Squaxin Island. Today, the reservation also includes several small parcels in the nearby area. Tribal members no longer reside on Squaxin Island itself, but 509 residents live on other Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land. Total tribal membership was at 1,022 as of 2010. History The Coast Salish clans that became the Squaxin Island Tribe were historically settled along the seven inlets of the South Puget Sound. These were known as the S'hotl-Ma-Mish (Carr Inlet), Noo-Seh-Chatl (Henderson Inlet), Steh-Chass (Budd Inlet, around modern-day Olympia), Squi-Aitl (Eld Inlet), T'Peeksin (Totten Inlet), Sa-Heh-Wa-Mish (Hammersley Inlet), and Squaksin (Case Inlet; which gave the reservation its name). They were speakers of a dialect continuum in the Salishan language family known as Lushootseed. Together with the Twana and Suquamish, they numbered about 1,000 in 1780. Unlike other peoples of the region, the Squaxin tribes were not dependent on a river system, as the Tumwater Falls blocked salmon from migrating far upstream. Instead, they were oriented towards the saltwater sound and the smaller watersheds directly adjacent to the seven inlets. Extended families lived together in longhouses laid out in villages, and were connected by family ties into a wide system of alliances. The Qwu?gwes site was used as a food processing camp by a nearby Squi-Aitl village for around 700 years. The site shows evidence of the large-scale harvesting of salmon and shellfish. Squaxin traded along routes stretching overland to the Columbia Basin and by sea throughout the Puget Sound. thumb|left|The remains of the treaty tree where the Medicine Creek Treaty was signed, surrendering Squaxin mainland possessions. After decades of trade and intermittent contact, serious white settlement in South Puget Sound began in the 1840s and 50s. In 1853, the Washington Territory was created and included Squaxin lands. In 1854, the newly appointed Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens began to pressure the tribes into treaties ceding their land to the United States. The Squaxin tribes were among the first targeted, and signed the Medicine Creek Treaty on December 26. The treaty surrendered all Squaxin mainland claims in exchange for Squaxin Island, twenty years of cash payments, and recognition of traditional native fishing and hunting rights.HistoryLink.org, Native American tribal leaders and Territorial Gov. Stevens sign treaty at Medicine Creek on December 26, 1854 The reservations proved far less valuable that the land that had given up. When the Nisqually realized how poor of a deal they had been given, their Chief Leschi began the Puget Sound War in an attempt to reverse the treaty. Despite not taking up arms, the Squaxin Tribe was forcefully interned on their reservation during the war. The small, forested island provided poor sustenance for the 375 Squaxin tribe members. After the war, most families left the island and returned to living around the South Puget Sound, but without rights to the land. Initially, the federal government honored its treaties with the tribes, but with increasing numbers of white settlers moving into the area, the settlers began to infringe upon the fishing rights of the native tribes. By 1883, whites had established more than forty salmon canneries.Blumm, at 434. In 1894, there were three canneries in the Puget Sound area; by 1905, there were twenty-four.Blumm, at 430. The whites also began to use new techniques, which prevented a significant portion of the salmon from reaching the tribal fishing areas.Blumm, at 434 ("Whites also effectively preempted upriver tribal fisheries by securing a locational advantage. . ."). When Washington Territory became a state in 1889, the legislature passed "laws to curtail tribal fishing in the name of 'conservation' but what some scholars described as being designed to protect white fisheries."Blumm, at 435 The state legislature, by 1897, had banned the use of weirs, which were customarily used by Indigenous fishermen.Fronda Woods, Who's in Charge of Fishing?, 106 412, 415 (2005). During the 1960s and 70s, Indians in Washington States were inspired by the ongoing Civil Rights Movement to demand that Washington State honor its treaty obligations. Through civil disobedience and demonstrations, Native activists such as Billy Frank, Jr. tried to assert their right to fish. In 1970, the US Attorney General finally filed suit against the state, and the Squaxin Island Tribe was one of the tribes called on to provide expert witnesses. In the famous Boldt decision, the US District Court recognized the tribes' original right to fish, and the decision was upheld on appeal to the Supreme Court. Since the decision, the Squaxin Island Tribe has become one of the tribal co-managers of the state's fisheries, and many tribal members get their income from the annual salmon catch. The Squaxin Island Tribe was one of the first Native American tribes in the U.S. to enter into the Self Governance Demonstration Project with the federal government. Culture and religion thumb|upright=0.6|left|Head flattening was a cosmetic practice done by many tribes in the pacific northwest, including the Squaxin. Storytelling was done through songs, which were accompanied with dances done to the beat of a drum. Other importance practices included the carving of cedar canoes, the weaving of baskets and fishing nets, and face-painting done with red and black hues made from ground-up rocks. Like the other peoples of the coastal northwest, upper-class Squaxin engaged in head-flattening, where infants had their foreheads compressed in a lateral direction. thumb|The first Indian Shaker Church at Mud Bay, Eld Inlet, Washington State, circa 1892 Traditional Squaxin religious beliefs were similar to those of other tribes in the Pacific Northwest, and involved shamanism. For several decades after the Puget Sound War, many Squaxins continued to practice these traditional beliefs. A new religious movement began in 1882 when Squaxin John Slocum founded the Indian Shaker Church after a near-death experience. Blending Catholic, Protestant, and indigenous religious elements, the church emphasized personal communication with God over written texts. The movement quickly spread throughout the Pacific Northwest. Native American religious movements were suppressed after the Battle of Wounded Knee, and Indian Shakers faced persecution from the Federal Government. Nonetheless, by the end of the twentieth century there were still more than 2,000 adherents. Today, most Squaxins consider themselves Protestant. Present-day tribe As of 2010, the Squaxin tribe had 1,022 registered members, up from 302 in 1984. The 2020 census showed 509 residents living on tribal lands (reservation and trust), up from 445 in 2000. The majority of these residents consider themselves Native American alone (281) or of mixed race (126). Reservation and Trust Lands In recent years, the Squaxin Island Indian Reservation has acquired more land in and around their older holdings. In the 1970s they acquired land in Kamilche where many of tribal members live, placing it under trust with the Department of the Interior. The tribe pressured the 31-acre Squaxin Island State Park into closing in the 1990s, and in 2015 purchased the property. In December 2021, Squaxin Island Tribe came to an agreement with Port Blakely Companies, a family owned timber company, to reacquire 1,000 acres of the tribe's ancestral land. Two miles of waterfront and 125 acres of tidelands on Little Skookum Inlet in Mason County were returned to the tribe, free of charge. The return of the shoreline restored the tribe’s direct access to Puget Sound, and some of the most productive shellfish beds in the region. In a separate transaction, the tribe purchased 875 acres of upland forest for an undisclosed sum. The so-called Kamilche property was acquired by Port Blakely following the signing of the 1854 Medicine Creek Treaty 167 years prior. Tribal chairman Kris Peters said the tribe has no plans to develop the property. The land will be used for nature conservation and ceremonial purposes. Overall, the Squaxin Tribe owns in Kamilche, two parcels of off-reservation trust land near Kamilche, as well as a plot of across Pickering Passage from Squaxin Island and a plot of on Harstine Island, across Peale Passage. The total land area including off-reservation trust lands is 6.942 km² (2.68 sq mi, or 1,715.46 acres). Museum thumb|left|The Home of Sacred Belongings - Squaxin Island Museum Library and Research Center Construction began on the Squaxin Island Museum, Library and Research Center (MLRC) in 1999 and it was opened in 2002. Built to educate both Squaxins and visitors on the culture of the Squaxin people, the structure was shaped to resemble Thunderbird in profile. The property the museum and cultural center stands on was gifted to the tribe by the Taylor family of nearby Taylor Shellfish. The MLRC offers guided tours, cultural classes, and numerous exhibits, among other activities. Paddle to Squaxin Island 2012 thumb|Canoes arriving in Olympia during the paddle to Squaxin 2012 event. In 2012, the Squaxin Island Tribe was chosen to host the annual Tribal Canoe Journey. The Journeys are annual events organized by the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest to revive traditional techniques of timber harvesting, making large, ocean-going canoes, and teaching canoe skills to new generations.Neel, David. The Great Canoes: Reviving a Northwest Coast Tradition. 1995. Douglas & McIntyre. Vancouver. p. 1. An estimated 40,000 people attended or visited the "Paddle to Squaxin Island" journey, hosted by the Squaxin Museum and The Evergreen State College, and funded by a National Endowment for the Arts "Our Town" grant. Protocol and dining were held in an old baseball field. The quiet community was loud for a whole week. Months before the event, major construction was done. Many parking lots were made, a campground was built and a Reflecting Pond was put in the Tribal Government Campus. A total of 102 canoes landed on Squaxin for the "Paddle to Squaxin Island" journey. Economic activity Fishing and lumber are major industries. The tribe operates Salish Cliffs Golf, the Skookum Creek Tobacco Company, and the Little Creek Casino and Resort. Adjacent to the casino is "Elevation", which became the first tribally owned legal cannabis retail store in the United States in November, 2015. Notes References External links Squaxin Island Tribe, official website Squaxin Island Tribe history Category:Coast Salish governments Category:Federally recognized tribes in the United States Category:Native American governments in Washington (state) Category:Populated places in Mason County, Washington

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A sea shanty, chantey, or chanty () is a genre of traditional folk song that was once commonly sung as a work song to accompany rhythmical labor aboard large merchant sailing vessels. The term shanty most accurately refers to a specific style of work song belonging to this historical repertoire. However, in recent, popular usage, the scope of its definition is sometimes expanded to admit a wider range of repertoire and characteristics, or to refer to a "maritime work song" in general. From Latin cantare via French chanter, the word shanty emerged in the mid-19th century in reference to an appreciably distinct genre of work song, developed especially on merchant vessels, that had come to prominence in the decades prior to the American Civil War.Hugill, Stan, Shanties from the Seven Seas: Shipboard Work-songs and Songs Used as Work-songs from the Great Days of Sail, Routledge & Kegan Paul (1961) p. 6. Shanty songs functioned to synchronize and thereby optimize labor, in what had then become larger vessels having smaller crews and operating on stricter schedules.Doerflinger, William Main, Songs of the Sailor and Lumberman, Mayerbooks (1990) pp. 96-7. The practice of singing shanties eventually became ubiquitous internationally and throughout the era of wind-driven packet and clipper ships. Shanties had antecedents in the working chants of British and other national maritime traditions, such as those sung while manually loading vessels with cotton in ports of the southern United States. Shanty repertoire borrowed from the contemporary popular music enjoyed by sailors, including minstrel music, popular marches, and land-based folk songs, which were then adapted to suit musical forms matching the various labor tasks required to operate a sailing ship. Such tasks, which usually required a coordinated group effort in either a pulling or pushing action, included weighing anchor and setting sail. The shanty genre was typified by flexible lyrical forms, which in practice provided for much improvisation and the ability to lengthen or shorten a song to match the circumstances. Its hallmark was call and response, performed between a soloist and the rest of the workers in chorus. The leader, called the shantyman, was appreciated for his piquant language, lyrical wit, and strong voice. Shanties were sung without instrumental accompaniment and, historically speaking, they were only sung in work-based rather than entertainment-oriented contexts. Although most prominent in English, shanties have been created in or translated into other European languages. The switch to steam-powered ships and the use of machines for shipboard tasks by the end of the 19th century meant that shanties gradually ceased to serve a practical function. Their use as work songs became negligible in the first half of the 20th century. Information about shanties was preserved by veteran sailors and folklorist song-collectors, and their written and audio-recorded work provided resources that would later support a revival in singing shanties as a land-based leisure activity. Commercial musical recordings, popular literature, and other media, especially since the 1920s, have inspired interest in shanties among s. Contemporary performances of these songs range from the "traditional" style of maritime music to various modern music genres. Word Etymology The origin of the word "shanty" is unknown, though several inconclusive theories have been put forth.For an overview of these theories, see: Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, pp. 22-23. One of the earliest and most consistently offered derivations is from the French , "to sing."e.g.: Hotten, John Camden, The Slang Dictionary, New edition, Chatto and Windus (1874) p. 284. The phenomenon of using songs or chants, in some form, to accompany sea labor preceded the emergence of the term "shanty" in the historical record of the mid-19th century. One of the earliest published uses of this term for such a song came in G. E. Clark's Seven Years of a Sailor's Life, 1867.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 20. Narrating a voyage in a clipper ship from Bombay to New York City in the early 1860s, Clark wrote, "The anchor came to the bow with the chanty of 'Oh, Riley, Oh,' and 'Carry me Long,' and the tug walked us toward the wharf at Brooklyn."Clark, George Edward, Seven Years of a Sailor's Life, Adams & Co. (1867) p. 165. While telling of another voyage out of Provincetown, Mass. in 1865, he wrote: Every man sprang to duty. The cheerful chanty was roared out, and heard above the howl of the gale. The cable held very hard, and when it surged over, the windlass sent the men flying about the deck, as if a galvanic battery had been applied to their hands. The vessel's head was often buried in the solid seas, and the men, soaked and sweating, yelled out hoarsely, "Paddy on the Railway," and "We're Homeward Bound," while they tugged at the brakes, and wound the long, hard cable in, inch by inch.Clark, Seven Years, p. 312. Additionally, Clark referred to a lead singer as a "chanty man", and he referred to stevedores unloading cargo from the vessels as "chanty men" and a "chanty gang".Clark, Seven Years, p. 41, 44. This reference to singing stevedores as "chanty men" connects the genre to a still earlier reference to chanty-man as the foreman of a work gang and the lead singer of their songs. Around the late 1840s, Charles Nordhoff observed work gangs engaged in a type of labor called "cotton-screwing" in Mobile Bay. Characterized by Nordhoff as one of the heaviest sorts of labor, cotton-screwing involved the use of large jack-screws to compress and force cotton bales into the holds of outbound ships. Work gangs consisted of four men, who timed their exertions in turning the jack-screw to songs called chants. Singing, or chanting as it is called, is an invariable accompaniment to working in cotton, and many of the screw-gangs have an endless collection of songs, rough and uncouth, both in words and melody, but answering well the purposes of making all pull together, and enlivening the heavy toil. The foreman is the chanty-man, who sings the song, the gang only joining in the chorus, which comes in at the end of every line, and at the end of which again comes the pull at the screw handles ... The chants, as may be supposed, have more of rhyme than reason in them. The tunes are generally plaintive and monotonous, as are most of the capstan tunes of sailors, but resounding over the still waters of the Bay, they had a fine effect.Nordhoff, Charles, The Merchant Vessel, Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co. (1855) pp. 40-1. According to research published in the journal American Speech, Schreffler argues that chanty may have been a back derivation from chanty-man, which, further, initially carried the connotation of a singing stevedore (as in Nordhoff's account, above). The historical record shows shanty (and its variant spellings) gaining currency only in the late nineteenth century; the same repertoire was earlier referred to as "song," "chant," or "chaunt."Schreffler, Gibb. Execrable Term: A Contentious History of chanty." American Speech 92.4 (2017): 429-458. Spelling The spelling of the term appeared quite inconsistently until after the 1920s. While the above noted, American sources used a "ch" spelling, the next published appearances of the term, coming in two very similar articles from British publications from 1868 and 1869, used "shanty".Dallas, E. S., ed., "On Shanties," Once a Week 31 (1 Aug. 1868) pp. 92-3.Payn, James, ed., "Sailors' Shanties and Sea Songs," Chambers's Journal 4(311) (11 December 1869) pp. 794-6. Early writers who gave substantial due to the genre (i.e. those who were not mentioning shanties only in passing) often used the "ch" spelling, regardless of their nationality.e.g.: Davis, J. and Ferris Tozer, Sailor Songs or 'Chanties, Boosey & Co. (1887); Smith, Laura Alexandrine, The Music of the Waters, Kegan, Paul, Trench & Co. (1888); Bullen, Frank. T. and W.F. Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, Orpheus Music Publishing (1914); Sharp, Cecil, English Folk-Chanteys, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. (1914); Robinson, Captain John, "Songs of the Chanty-Man: I-IV," The Bellman, 23(574-7) (14 July - 4 Aug. 1917). Addressing the Royal Musical Association in 1915, English musicologist Richard Runciman Terry put forward his belief that the genre should be spelled with "sh" on the grounds that the spelling should correspond obviously to pronunciation.Terry, Richard Runciman, "Sea Songs and Shanties," Journal of the Royal Music Association 11(41) (1915) pp. 135-140. In his subsequent shanty collections he used this spelling consistently.Terry, Richard Runciman, The Shanty Book, Part I, J. Curwen & Sons (1921); The Shanty Book, Part II, J. Curwen & Sons (1926). American shanty-collector Joanna Colcord made great use of Terry's first book (corresponding with the author, and reprinting some of his material), and she, too, deemed it sensible to adopt the "sh" spelling for her 1924 collection. Terry's works were the source for those among the earliest of commercial recordings (see below) and popular performances of shanties—especially because, unlike many earlier works, they provided scores with piano accompaniment and sufficiently long, performance-ready sets of lyrics. Colcord's work was also very handy in this regard and was used as a source by prominent British folk revival performers like A. L. Lloyd and Ewan MacColl. Terry and Colcord's works were followed by numerous shanty collections and scores that also chose to use the "Sh" spelling,e.g.: Harris, S. Taylor, Six Sea Shanties, Boosey (1925); Sampson, John, The Seven Seas Shanty Book, Boosey (1927); Fox Smith, Cicely, A Book of Shanties, Methuen (1927). whereas others remained insistent that "ch" be retained to preserve what they believed to be the etymological origins of the term.Bone, David William, Capstan Bars, The Porpoise Press (1931). By the late 20th century, the "Sh" spelling had become the more or less standard one in Commonwealth English,e.g.: Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition (1989). whereas "ch" spellings remained in common use mostly in the United States.This is attested by its use by institutions such as maritime museums and the U.S. Library of Congress. During the 1920s, the phrase came into regular use by lay commentators,e.g.: "Sea Chanteys Kept Alive. Sailors' Club in London is Collecting and Preserving the Old Songs of Sail," New York Times (7 Nov. 1926); Thomas, J.E., Lucy E. Broadwood, Frank Howes, and Frank Kidson, "Sea Shanties," Journal of the Folk-Song Society 8(32) (1928) pp. 96-100. though it was not documented in use by sailors themselves, nor has it been used by knowledgeable authors on the subject such as Stan Hugill. The term "sea shanty/chantey" has become a staple of popular usage, where it helps to disambiguate the work song genre from other meanings of the word "shanty". For example, the "ice fishing shanty," despite its reference to marine activity, is not related."Occupied ice fishing shanty blown across Michigan bay" History and development Emergence Singing or chanting has been done to accompany labor on seagoing vessels among various cultural groups at various times and in various places. A reference to what seems to be a sailor's hauling chant in The Complaynt of Scotland (1549) is a popularly cited example. Liberal use of the word "shanty" by folklorists of the 20th centurye.g., Broadwood, Lucy E. and A.H. Fox-Strangways, "Early Chanty-Singing and Ship-Music," Journal of the Folk-Song Society 8(32) (1928) pp. 55-60. expanded the term's conceptual scope to include "sea-related work songs" in general. However, the shanty genre is distinct among various global work song phenomena. Its formal characteristics, specific manner of use, and repertoire cohere to form a picture of a work song genre that emerged in the Atlantic merchant trade of the early 19th century. As original work songs, shanties flourished during a period of about fifty years. Work chants and "sing-outs" There is a notable lack of historical references to anything like shanties, as they would come to be known, in the entirety of the 18th century.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 5.Doerflinger, William Main, Songs of the Sailor and Lumberman, Mayerbooks (1990). In the second half of the 18th century, English and French sailors were using simple chants to coordinate a few shipboard tasks that required unanimous effort. A dictionary of maritime terms, in describing the anchor-hauling mechanical device known as a windlass, noted the use of such a chant. This particular old-fashioned style of windlass was one that required workers to continually remove and re-insert "handspikes" (wooden leverage bars) into the device to turn its gears. It requires, however, some dexterity and address to manage the handspec to the greatest advantage; and to perform this the sailors must all rise at once upon the windlass, and, fixing their bars therein, give a sudden jerk at the same instant, in which movement they are regulated by a sort of song or howl pronounced by one of their number.Falconer, William, An Universal Dictionary of the Marine, New Edition, T. Cadell (1784). Rather than the well-developed songs that characterize shanties, this "howl" and others were evidently structured as simple chants in the manner of "1, 2, 3!" The same dictionary noted that French sailors said just that, and gave some indication what an English windlass chant may have been like: UN, deux, troi, an exclamation, or song, used by seamen when hauling the bowlines, the greatest effort being made at the last word. English sailors, in the same manner, call out on this occasion,—haul-in—haul-two—haul-belay!Falconer, An Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Such simple or brief chants survived into the 19th century. First-hand observers such as Frederick Pease Harlow, a sailor of the 1870s, attested to their ubiquity, saying that they were brought into use whenever a brief task required one.Harlow, Frederick Pease, Chanteying Aboard American Ships, Barre Publishing Co. (1962). In historical hindsight these items have come to be generically called "sing-outs"; yet even before the known advent of the term shanty, Richard Henry Dana referred to "singing out". The wind was whistling through the rigging, loose ropes flying about; loud and, to me, unintelligible orders constantly given and rapidly executed, and the sailors "singing out" at the ropes in their hoarse and peculiar strains.Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., Two Years Before the Mast, Harper & Brothers (1840) p. 11. Later writers distinguished such chants and "sing-outs" from shanties proper, but in the case of relatively "simple" shanties—such as those for hauling sheets and tacks (see below)—there is a grey area. This has led some to believe that the more sophisticated shanties of later years developed from the more primitive chants.e.g. Fox Smith, Cicely, A Book of Shanties, Methuen & Co. (1927). Early British and Anglo-American sailor work songs A step up in sophistication from the sing-outs was represented by the first widely established sailors' work song of the 19th century, "Cheer'ly Man". Although other work-chants were evidently too variable, non-descript, or incidental to receive titles, "Cheer'ly Man" appears referred to by name several times in the early part of the century, and it lived on alongside later-styled shanties to be remembered even by sailors recorded by James Madison Carpenter in the 1920s. "Cheer'ly Man" makes notable appearances in the work of both Dana (sea experience 1834-36) and Herman Melville (sea experience 1841-42). When we came to mast-head the top-sail yards, with all hands at the halyards, we struck up "Cheerily, men," with a chorus which might have been heard half way to Staten Land.Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., Two Years Before the Mast, Harper & Brothers (1840) p. 413. The decks were all life and commotion; the sailors on the forecastle singing, "Ho, cheerly men!" as they catted the anchor;Melville, Herman, Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas, John Murray (1847) p. 151. Although "Cheer'ly Man" could be considered more "developed" than the average sing-out, in its form it is yet different from the majority of shanties that are known to us today, suggesting that it belonged to an earlier stage of sailors' songs that preceded the emergence of "modern" shanties. Detailed reference to shipboard practices that correspond to shanty-singing was extremely rare before the 1830s. In the first place, singing while working was generally limited to merchant ships, not war ships. The Royal Navy banned singing during work—it was thought the noise would make it harder for the crew to hear commands—though capstan work was accompanied by the bosun's pipe,Lowell, James Russell, ed., "Songs of the Sea," Atlantic Monthly 2(9) (July 1858) p. 153. or else by fife and drum or fiddle.Rodger, Nicholas, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649-1815, Penguin/Allen Lane (2004) p. 503. A writer from the 1830s made this clear: thumb|300px|A black fiddler accompanying heaving at the capstan, from The Quid (1832) On board a well-disciplined man-of-war, no person except the officers is allowed to speak during the performance of the various evolutions. When a great many men are employed together, a fifer or a fiddler usually plays some of their favourite tunes; and it is quite delightful to see the glee with which Jack will "stamp and go," keeping exact time to "Jack's the lad," or the "College Hornpipe."B., R., "A Cruise of a Revenue Cutter," The United Service Journal Part 1. (Jan. 1834) p. 68. Fife and fiddle were also used, in earlier times, for work aboard merchant vessels.B., O.P., "My Adventures (Part VI)," The Rural Repository 12(23) (16 April 1836) p. 180. One of the earliest references to shanty-like songs that has been discovered was made by an anonymous "steerage passenger" in a log of a voyage of an East India Company ship, entitled The Quid (1832). Crew and passengers alike were noted to join in at heaving the capstan around. They were said to sing "old ditties", along with which a few verses to one or more songs is given."Steerage passenger," The Quid, or Tales of my Messmates, W. Strange (1832) pp. 222-3. While this practice was analogous to the practice of what is later called singing "capstan shanties", the form of these verses is not particularly similar to later shanties. These songs do not appear to correspond to any shanty known from later eras. It is possible that the long, monotonous task of heaving the capstan had long inspired the singing of time-passing songs of various sorts, such as those in The Quid. For example, the composition of capstan-style "sailor songs" by Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland as early as 1838Wergeland, Henrik Arnold, Henrik Wergelands Samlede Skrifter, ed. by Hartvig Lassen, Chr. Tonsberg Forlag (1853). implies that Scandinavians also used such songs. However, these older songs can be distinguished from the later type of songs that were given the label shanty, suggesting there were other formative influences that gave birth to an appreciably new and distinctly recognized phenomenon."The Advent and Development of Chanties," discussion dated 20 March 2010 ff., The Mudcat Café Influence of African-American and Caribbean work songs Use of the term "shanty", once this paradigm for singing had become a comprehensive practice for most tasks, incorporated all manner of shipboard work songs under its definition, regardless of style and origin.e.g.: Adams, Captain R.C., On Board the Rocket, D. Lothrop & Co. (1879). Yet, shanties were of several types, and not all had necessarily developed at the same time. "Capstan shanties", some of which may have developed out of the earlier capstan songs discussed above, are quite variable in their form and origins. On the other hand, the repertoire of the so-called "halyard shanties" coheres into a consistent form. The distinctive "double-pull" format that typifies most of these songs—also at times used, with slight changes, for pumps, windlass, and capstan, too—was a later development that appears to owe much to African-American work songs.Schreffler, Gibb, "Ethnic Choices in the Presentation of Chanties: A Study in Repertoire", paper presented at the Society for Ethnomusicology Southern California and Hawai'i Chapter conference (February, 2011), p. 2. In the first few decades of the 19th century, European-American culture, especially the Anglophone—the sailors' "Cheer'ly Man" and some capstan songs notwithstanding—was not known for its work songs. By contrast, African workers, both in Africa and in the New World, were widely noted to sing while working. According to Gibb Schreffler, an Associate Professor of Music at Pomona College, European observers found African work-singers remarkable (as Schreffler infers from tone of their descriptions). Schreffler further infers that work songs may have had far less currency among European culture, based on the scant evidence of work-singing aboard European ships in the century prior.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," p. 1. Such references begin to appear in the late 18th century, whence one can see the cliché develop that Black Africans "could not" work without singing. For example, an observer in Martinique in 1806 wrote, "The negroes have a different air and words for every kind of labour; sometimes they sing, and their motions, even while cultivating the ground, keep time to the music.""Dances of the Negroes of the Island of Martinico." Bell's Court and Fashionable Magazine (May 1806): 202-3. So while the depth of the African-American work song traditions is now recognized,e.g.: Giola, Ted, Work Songs, Duke UP (2006). in the early 19th century they stood in stark contrast to the paucity of such traditions among European-Americans. Thus while European sailors had learned to put short chants to use for certain kinds of labor, the paradigm of a comprehensive system of developed work songs for most tasks may have been contributed by the direct involvement of or through the imitation of African-Americans. The work contexts in which African-Americans sang songs comparable to shanties included: Boat-rowing on rivers of the south-eastern U.S. and Caribbean; Corn-shucking parties on plantations of the south-eastern U.S.; The work of stokers or "firemen," who cast wood into the furnaces of steamboats plying great American rivers; Stevedoring on the U.S. eastern seaboard, the Gulf Coast, and the Caribbean—including "cotton-screwing" (using a large jackscrew to compress and force cotton bales into the holds of outbound ships at ports of the American South). During the first half of the 19th century, some of the songs African-Americans sang also began to appear in use for shipboard tasks, i.e. as shanties.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," pp. 1-2. thumb|left|300px|Leader of Mississippi steamboat hands singing a song from atop a capstan An example of a work song that was shared between several contexts, including, eventually, sailors working, is "Grog Time o' Day". This song, the tune of which is now lost, was sung by: Jamaican stevedores at a capstan in 1811;Hay, Robert, Landsman Hay: The Memoirs of Robert Hay 1789-1847, ed. by M.D. Hay (1953). Afro-Caribbeans rowing a boat in Antigua ca.1814;British Naval Officer, Service Afloat, Edward C. Mielke (1833) p. 259. Black stevedores loading a steamboat in New Orleans in 1841;Negro Singer's Own Book (ca. 1843-45) p. 337. and a European-American crew hauling halyards on a clipper-brig out of New York ca.1840s."An Old Salt," "Quarter-deck yarns; or, Memorandums from My Log Book," in The Evergreen; or Gems of Literature for MDCCL, ed. by Rev. Edward A. Rice, J. C. Burdick (1850) p. 11. Other such multi-job songs were: "Round the Corn(er), Sally", "Fire Down Below", "Johnny Come Down to Hilo", "Hilo, Boys, Hilo", "Tommy's Gone Away", "The Sailor Likes His Bottle-O", "Highland Laddie", "Mudder Dinah", "Bully in the Alley", "Hogeye Man", "Good Morning, Ladies, All", "Pay Me the Money Down", "Alabama, John Cherokee", "Yankee John, Stormalong", and "Heave Away (My Johnnies)". While the non-sailor occupations noted above were mainly within the purview of Black laborers, the last of them, cotton-screwing, was one in which non-Blacks also began to engage by the 1840s. These workers often came from the ranks of sailors of the trans-Atlantic cotton trade, including sailors from Britain and Ireland who, wanting to avoid the cold winter seasons on the Atlantic, went ashore to engage in the well-paid labor of cotton-screwing.Nordhoff, The Merchant Vessel, p. 43. A European-American who did just that in 1845 in New Orleans wrote, The day after our arrival the crew formed themselves into two gangs and obtained employment at screwing cotton by the day ... With the aid of a set of jack-screws and a ditty, we would stow away huge bales of cotton, singing all the while. The song enlivened the gang and seemed to make the work much easier.Erskine, Charles, Twenty Years Before the Mast, George W. Jacobs & Co. (1896) pp. 296-7. Shanty-writer Stan Hugill called Mobile Bay—one of the main cotton outports—a "shanty mart", at which sailors and laborers of different cultural backgrounds traded their songs.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 17. Perceptions of contemporary observers Commenters on the ethnic or national origins of shanties, writing in the 19th century when shanties were still in wide use, generally supposed the genre to originate in the United States and recognized parallels to African-American singing—as opposed to earlier English traditions from Britain.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," pp. 2-3. An early article to offer an opinion on the origin of shanties (though not calling them by that name), appearing in Oberlin College's student paper in 1858, drew a comparison between Africans' singing and sailor work songs. Along the African coast you will hear that dirge-like strain in all their songs, as at work or paddling their canoes to and from shore, they keep time to the music. On the southern plantations you will hear it also, and in the negro melodies every where, plaintive and melodious, sad and earnest. It seems like the dirge of national degradation, the wail of a race, stricken and crushed, familiar with tyranny, submission and unrequited labor ... And here I cannot help noticing the similarity existing between the working chorus of the sailors and the dirge-like negro melody, to which my attention was specially directed by an incident I witnessed or rather heard.Allen, Isaac. "Songs of the Sailor." Oberlin Student's Monthly 1(2) (Dec. 1858). p. 48. The author went on to relate an incident in which he once heard "a well known strain of music", finding to his surprise that it was being sung by Black men rowing canoes. He claimed they were singing, "Heigh Jim along, Jim along Josey, Heigh Jim along, Jim along Jo!"Allen, "Songs of the Sailor," p. 49. The implication is that this song was similar to a sailor song, probably the well-known shanty, "Haul Away, Joe" or "Haul Away for Rosie", viz.: "Way, haul away; O, haul away, my Rosey; Way, haul away; O, haul away, Joe."As in: Adams, On Board the Rocket, p. 312. The writer did not make a further connection to the minstrel song "Jim Along Josey","Jim Along Josey," Firth and Hall (1840), at The Library of Congress American Memory Collection. a relationship to which is obvious, although it is unknown whether this was the inspiration for the shanty or vice versa. In much of the shanty repertoire known today one finds parallels to the minstrel songs that came to popularity from the 1840s.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 14. The poetic meter of the couplets of many minstrel songs is identical to those in shanties, and the non sequitur-type "floating verses" of those songs were heavily borrowed. In an influential early article about shanties, New York journalist William L. Alden drew a comparison between shanties and both authentic African-American songs and the quasi-African-American minstrel songs: The old sailor songs had a peculiar individuality. They were barbaric in their wild melody. The only songs that in any way resemble them in character are "Dixie", and two or three other so-called negro songs by the same writer. This man, known in the minstrel profession as "Old Emmett", caught the true spirit of the African melodies—the lawless, half-mournful, half-exulting songs of the Kroomen. These and the sailor songs could never have been the songs of civilized men ... Undoubtedly many sailor songs have a negro origin. They are the reminiscences of melodies sung by negroes stowing cotton in the holds of ships in Southern ports. The "shanty-men," those hards of the forecastle, have preserved to some extent the meaningless words of negro choruses, and have modified the melodies so as to fit them for salt-water purposes. Certain other songs were unmistakably the work of English sailors of an uncertain but very remote period.Alden, W.L., "Sailors' Songs," Harper's New Monthly Magazine (July 1882) p. 281. Alden was not writing as a research historian, but rather as an observer of the then-current shanty-singing. His, then, was an impression of shanties based on their style and manner of performance, and he was writing at a time when shanties had yet to become framed by writers and media as belonging to any canon of national "folk music". An English author of the period, William Clark Russell, expressed his belief in several works that shanties were American in origin. I think it may be taken that we owe the sailors' working song as we now possess it to the Americans. How far do these songs date back? I doubt if the most ancient amongst them is much older than the century. It is noteworthy that the old voyagers do not hint at the sailors singing out or encouraging their efforts by choruses when at work. In the navy, of course, this sort of song was never permitted. Work proceeded to the strains of a fiddle, to the piping of the boatswain and his mates, or in earlier times yet, to the trumpet. The working song then is peculiar to the Merchant Service, but one may hunt through the old chronicles without encountering a suggestion of its existence prior to American independence and to the establishment of a Yankee marine.Russell, W. Clark, The Romance of Jenny Harlowe, D. Appleton & Co. (1889) p. 838. As time wore on and shanties were established as an indispensable tool aboard the ships of many nations carrying heterogeneous crew, inspiration from several national and cultural traditions fed into the repertoire and their style was subsequently shaped by countless individuals.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, pp. 19-20. Whatever their fundamental origins, by the late 19th century shanties constituted the heritage of international seamen, with little or no necessary national associations. 19th century thumb|300px|An American packet ship of the Black Ball Line New ships and new requirements Writers have characterized the origin of shanties (or perhaps a revival in shanties, as William Main Doerflinger theorized) as belonging to an era immediately following the War of 1812 and up to the American Civil War.e.g.: Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 6. This was a time when there was relative peace on the seas and shipping was flourishing. Packet ships carried cargo and passengers on fixed schedules across the globe. Packet ships were larger and yet sailed with fewer crew than vessels of earlier eras, in addition to the fact that they were expected on strict schedules. These requirements called for an efficient and disciplined use of human labor. American vessels, especially, gained reputations for cruelty as officers demanded high results from their crew. The shanties of the 19th century could be characterized as a sort of new "technology" adopted by sailors to adapt to this way of shipboard life.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices." p. 2. Recent research has considered a wider range of 19th century sources than had been possible by 20th-century writers. The evidence from these sources suggests that even in the mid-1830s the genre was still developing, which shifts the period of the rise and flourishing of shanties to a bit later than was previously accepted. The general silence of the historical record on modern shanties until as late as the 1840s,e.g.: Johnson, Theodore T., California and Oregon; or, Sights in the Gold Region, Lippencott, Grambo, and Co. (1851) p. 88. even as shipping shifted to the even faster clipper ships, suggests that they may not have come into widespread use until the middle of the century. They received a boost from the heavy emigrant movement of gold rushes in California and Australia. Popular shanties of the 1850s included "A Hundred Years Ago",Johnson, California and Oregon, p. 88. "One More Day",Whidden, John D., Ocean Life in the Old Sailing Ship Days, Little, Brown, and Company (1909) p. 99. "Santiana",Mulford, Prentice, Life by Land and Sea, F. J. Needham (1889) p. 24. "Haul on the Bowline", "Across the Western Ocean",Lowell, "Songs of the Sea," p. 154. and especially "Stormalong". Heyday and decline By the time of the American Civil War, the shanty form was fully developed, after which its repertoire grew and its implementation was widespread and rather standardized. The decade of the 1870s represents the zenith of the genre; those sailors who first went to sea after that decade are considered not to have seen shanties in their prime.e.g.: Harlow, Chanteying Aboard American Ships. In 1882, due to the proliferation of steamships, Alden was already lamenting the passing of shanties. The "shanty-man"—the chorister of the old packet ship—has left no successors. In the place of a rousing "pulling song," we now hear the rattle of the steam-winch; and the modern windlass worked by steam, or the modern steam-pump, gives us the clatter of cogwheels and the hiss of steam in place of the wild choruses of other days. Singing and steam are irreconcilable. The hoarse steam-whistle is the nearest approach to music that can exist in the hot, greasy atmosphere of the steam-engine.Alden, "Sailors' Songs," p. 281. Other writers echoed Alden's lament through and after the 1880s; the first collections of shanties appeared in that decade,Luce, Admiral Stephen Bleecker, Naval Songs, Wm. A. Pond & Co. (1883).Davis, J. and Ferris Tozer, Sailor Songs or 'Chanties, Boosey & Co. (1887).Smith, Laura Alexandrine, The Music of the Waters, Kegan, Paul, Trench & Co. (1888). in one sense as a response to what the authors believed was a vanishing art. Shanties continued to be used to some extent so long as windjammers were, yet these were comparatively few in the early 20th century. 20th century Formative writing Folklorists of the first decade of the 20th century, especially those from Britain, included shanties among their interests in collecting folk songs connected with the idea of national heritage. Cecil Sharp and his colleagues among the English Folk-Song Society were among the first to take down the lyrics and tunes of shanties directly from the lips of veteran sailors and to publish them more or less faithfully.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," pp. 3-4. Their efforts were matched by a number of less-rigorous articles and published collections issued by former sailors themselves.e.g.: Whall, W. B., Sea Songs and Shanties, Brown, Son and Ferguson (1910). By the 1920s, the body of literature on shanties had grown quite large, yet it was of variable quality. Most editors presented "ideal" versions of songs—not reflecting any one way the shanty may have been sung, but rather a composite picture, edited for print. Bowdlerization and omission of lyrics were typical.e.g.: Terry, The Shanty Book, Part I, p. xii. Moreover, few authors were trained folklorists and even fewer maintained a critical historical methodology. Editors customarily published fanciful, often nostalgic introductions to the material that included unsubstantiated statements. As a result, though much of the vanishing shanty repertoire was preserved in skeletal form, aspects of the genre were re-envisioned according to contemporary perceptions.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," p. 5. These early 20th century collectors' choices of what to include, what to exclude, and how to frame the repertoire all had an effect on how following generations have viewed the genre. Because sailors who had sung shanties were by this time very old or dead, and the general public had little opportunity to experience performances of shanties, the representations by these authors were all the more influential in mediating information and creating the impression of "standard" versions of songs. The English poet John Masefield, following in the footsteps of peers like Rudyard Kipling,Kipling, Rudyard, "The First Chantey" and "The Last Chantey," in The Works of Rudyard Kipling: The Seven Seas, D. Appleton (1899) pp. 18-25. seized upon shanties as a nostalgic literary device, and included them along with much older, non-shanty sea songs in his 1906 collection A Sailor's Garland.Masefield, John, A Sailor's Garland, Methuen & Co. (1906). Although Masefield had sea experience (1891-95), he was not an expert on shanties and the versions he gave of songs cannot be assumed entirely authentic. For example, he admits to never having heard a pumping shanty,Masefield, A Sailor's Garland, p. 300. and yet he goes on to present one without citing its source. In one of his earlier articles,Masefield, John, "Sea-Songs," Temple Bar (Jan. 1906) pp. 56-80. his shanties are set to melodies taken verbatim from Davis and Tozer's earlier work, and he mentions having utilized that and the other widely available collection (L.A. Smith, 1888) as resources. Masefield desired to connect shanties with much older English traditions and literature, and his characterization of individual items as such would prove attractive to later enthusiasts. So for example, Masefield implied that the shanty "A-roving" (which he titled "The Maid of Amsterdam") was derived from Thomas Heywood's The Tragedy of the Rape of Lucrece (1608).Masefield, A Sailor's Garland, p. 302. Lyrics and ideas from Masefield's collection became among the most quoted or plagiarized in later shanty collections,e.g.: Meloney, William Brown, "The Chanty-Man Sings," Everybody's Magazine 33(2) (August 1915) pp. 207-217. and by their sheer ubiquity these contributed to 20th century audiences' perceptions of the genre. The 1914 collection by Frank Thomas Bullen, Songs of Sea Labour,Bullen, Frank. T. and W.F. Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, Orpheus Music Publishing (1914). differed from the work of writers such as Masefield in having a more practical, rather than romantic, tone. Bullen, an Englishman, was an experienced shantyman, who sailed during the heyday of shanties to ports in the Southern U.S. and the Caribbean.Bullen and Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, p. vi. He took a firm stance that only true work songs should be included in his collection, thus resisting the temptation to let shanties slide into the genres of ballads or other off-duty songs. (Pressure of his publisher forced him to include two sea songs, clearly demarcated, at the end of the book.Bullen and Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, p. vii.) And rather than shape the shanties to appear as narrative pieces, he noted that, since most shanties would usually be improvised, it would be disingenuous to present more than one or two sample verses. As for his framing of the genre's origins, Bullen stated his belief that, "[T]he great majority of these tunes undoubtably emanated from the negroes of the Antilles and the Southern states, a most tuneful race if ever there was one, men moreover who seemed unable to pick up a ropeyarn without a song ..."Bullen and Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, p. xii. And Bullen's musicologist editor, Arnold, claimed, "[T]he majority of the Chanties are Negroid in origin ..."Bullen and Arnold, Songs of Sea Labour, p. viii. Bullen's insistence on including only true work songs in the collection meant that he likely omitted songs—generally those for heaving tasks, like capstan work—which had been easily borrowed from the land-based traditions of various nations. The effect of including only the most exclusively work-oriented songs meant that a higher percentage of African-American songs were represented. thumb|Cecil Sharp's English Folk-Chanteys (1914) was one of the first large collections of shanties made by a non-sailor and according to the methods of folklore. Its title reflects the interests and biases of its author. Somewhere between these perspectives was Cecil Sharp's, whose English Folk-Chanteys (1914) was published in the same year, and was based on shanties he collected from aged English sailors in Britain.Sharp, Cecil, English Folk-Chanteys, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. (1914). Sharp responds to Bullen's claims of African-American origins by ceding that many shanties were influenced through the singing of Black shantymenSharp, English Folk-Chanteys, p. xv.—a position that assumes English folk song was the core of the tradition by default. The title of Sharp's work reflects his project of collecting and grouping shanties as part of what he conceived to be a rather continuous English folk song tradition. Sharp states in the introduction that he deliberately excluded shanties which were obviously (i.e. to him) born of popular songs.Sharp, English Folk-Chanteys, p. x. This idea is problematic when one considers that the popular songs that were feeding shanties were largely American and based in real or imagined African-American musical traits. However, Sharp believed that by eliminating such shanties based on popular songs, he could concentrate those that were "folk" songs. Of his own admission, Sharp lacked any shantying or sea experience to intuitively judge shanties like someone such as Bullen, however he offers his objectivity, recording precisely what was sung to him, as consolation. While Sharp's manner of documenting shanties was more or less objective, the field of his research and his biases in what to collect certainly influenced the outcome of this study.Schreffler, "Ethnic Choices," p. 4. And whereas Bullen's work was fairly inaccessible, Sharp was influential as the leader of a cohort of scholars who were actively creating the young field of folk song research. By the 1920s, the proliferation of shanty collections had begun to facilitate a revival in shanty singing as entertainment for laypersons (see below), which in turn created a market for more shanty collections that were geared towards a general audience. Writers of the 1920s, 30s, and 40s, through their derivative, popular works, established in effect a new body of "common knowledge" about shanties that overwrote some of the knowledge of 19th century observers. Field-recording Shanty collection was seen as a facet of the early twentieth century folk revival. The Australian-born composer and folklorist Percy Grainger collected various shanties and recorded them on wax cylinders in the early 1900s, and the recordings are available online courtesy of the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library. In the 1920s, while the proliferation of soft-scholarly books was reifying the shanty repertoire, a few American scholars were audio-recording some of the last surviving sailors that had sung shanties as part of their daily work: in short, field recording. James Madison Carpenter, made hundreds of recordings of shanties from singers in Britain, Ireland, and the north-eastern U.S. in the late 1920s,Walser, Robert Young, "'Here We Come Home in a Leaky Ship!': The Shanty Collection of James Madison Carpenter," Folk Music Journal 7(4) (1998) pp. 471-495. allowing him to make observation from an extensive set of field data.Carpenter, James M., "Chanteys that 'Blow the Man Down,'" New York Times (26 July 1931). Robert Winslow Gordon, founding head of the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress, recorded sailors singing shanties in the San Francisco Bay Area in the early 1920s, and later made recordings of African-American work songs in Georgia and elsewhere,Rosenberg, Neil V. and Deborah G. Kodish, ed., "Folk-songs of America": The Robert Winslow Gordon Collection, 1922-1932, LP liner notes, Library of Congress (1978). seeking to demonstrate correspondences between these and the shanty genre.Gordon, Robert W., "Folk Songs of America: Work Chanteys," New York Times (16 Jan. 1927). Neither of these scholars had the opportunity, however, to publish major works on shanties. Similarly, Alan Lomax's work starting in the 1930s, especially his field recordings of work songs in the Caribbean and Southern U.S., makes a significant contribution to the information on extant shanty-related traditions. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Canadian folklorist Helen Creighton collected shanties from Nova Scotia seamen, such as 'Blow the Man Down', 'Whiskey Johnny', 'The Sailor's Alphabet', 'Shenandoah' and Rio Grande. Lastly, William Main Doerflinger carefully recorded and collected shanties from singers in New York and Nova Scotia in the 1930s and 1940s, the result of which was his Songs of the Sailor and Lumberman.Doerflinger, William Main, Shantymen and Shantyboys: Songs of the Sailor and Lumberman, Macmillan (1951; revised 1970). English folklorist Peter Kennedy recorded Stanley Slade of Bristol, England, thought to be 'The Last Shantyman', singing several shanties including 'Haul Away, Joe', 'Leave Her, Johnny' and 'Shenandoah', and the recordings are available online via the British Library Sound Archive. Stan Hugill and Shanties from the Seven Seas thumb|left|250px|Stan Hugill, author of Shanties from the Seven Seas. Hugill's old-time sailor image helped bolster the perceived authoritative nature of his work, in contrast to the academic, appearance of many previous scholars. One of the most celebrated volumes on shanties produced in the 20th century is Stan Hugill's Shanties from the Seven Seas (1961).Hugill, Stan, Shanties from the Seven Seas: Shipboard Work-songs and Songs Used as Work-songs from the Great Days of Sail, Routledge & Kegan Paul (1961). It is the largest of its kind, owing to Hugill's methodology and chronological position. With respect to methodology, Hugill aimed to be as inclusive as possible—to account for and to present, if sometimes only in fragments, any and all items of shanty repertoire that he was currently able to find. Any song that he had heard or read being attested as having been ever "used as shanty" was included—regardless of whether that song was not generally known as a shanty or if its use as a shanty was rare and incidental. The result is a varied portrait of the genre, highlighting its maximum diversity without, however, giving a focused sense of what songs were most common during the heyday of shanties or in latter eras. Hugill readily included more recently popular songs—those that evidently were not sung until after the shanty genre was experiencing decline, but which were extant when Hugill sailed (1920s-40s). He also culled from the major collections of non-English-language sailor work songs. Hugill's practice of liberally culling from all major prior works, in combination with original material from his own field experiences, makes it a handy sourcebook for performers, but a difficult work to assess in terms of historical accuracy. With respect to chronological position, while Hugill is affectionately known as "The Last Shantyman," he was also one of the last original shanty collectors.Schreffler, Gibb, "Confronting the Legacy of 'The Last Shantyman': New Media in an Auto-ethnography of Sea Shanty Performance," paper delivered at British Forum for Ethnomusicology Annual Conference, Liverpool, U.K. (April 2009). A few original collections followed, notably Roger Abrahams'Abrahams, Roger D., Deep The Water, Shallow the Shore, University of Texas Press (1974). and Horace Beck'sBeck, Horace, Folklore and the Sea, Mystic Seaport Museum (1973). works on contemporary shantying in the Caribbean, yet most publications in the "song collection" genre are general anthologies based in Hugill and his predecessors' works. To a great extent, Shanties from the Seven Seas is considered the "last word" on shanties and the first stop as a reference. The book's "authoritative" position is bolstered by the personal image of its author. In contrast to many of the academic folklorists who had collected shanties before him, Hugill possessed the look and pedigree of an old-time sailor, and he was actually able to perform the songs from his collection at sea music festivals. Shanties from the Seven Seas and Stan Hugill's performances have had a tremendous bearing on how shanties have been understood and performed by enthusiasts since the second half of the 20th century up to today. Revival Even as shanty singing to accompany work aboard ships was "dying," interest was being taken in "reviving" it—as a type of leisure pastime. Most shanty singing since the mid-20th century or earlier is considered to be in such a "revival" vein. A few of the editors of early shanty collections provided arrangements for pianoforte accompaniment with their shanties. While this may have simply been a customary way of presenting songs or attempting to frame their tonality, it may also suggest they hoped their examples could be performed, as well. One of the earliest shanty collections, Davis and Tozer's Sailor Songs or 'Chanties (which circulated in the early 1890s), included such accompaniment, along with safe, "drawing room" style lyrics. It is unknown whether any actual performances were based on this otherwise influential work, however, the proceedings from a meeting of the Manchester Literary Club, 4 February 1895, record an instance of laypersons attempting to recreate shanty performance at that early date.Manchester Literary Club, Papers of the Manchester Literary Club, Vol. 21, John Heywood (1895). In general, shanty performance by laypersons, up through the first two decades of the 20th century, would have been hindered by the lack of suitable resources, if not lack of interest. Independent of this literature, a revival of sorts was staged by the U.S. Shipping Board in 1918 when Stanton H. King of Boston, a merchant sailor of the 1880s, was appointed as "Official Chantey Man for the American Merchant Marine.""Official Chantey Singer," New York Times (27 Jan. 1918) p. 46. King taught shanties to the young Merchant Marine recruits, but it appears that they were used more for entertainment than work functions. A description of the daily training schedule included the following note: Recreation includes singing, for each ship is supplied with a piano. The musical program includes old-time chanties, in which the young men are instructed by a veteran deep-water chantie man.Howard, Henry, "Manning the New Merchant Marine," Pacific Marine Review 15 (August 1918). An on-shore revival in shanty singing for leisure was facilitated by song collections of the 1920s, especially Terry's The Shanty Book (in two volumes, 1921 and 1926). What set apart this and following collections was full musical score along with an adequate stock of lyrics. Collections prior to Terry's (except for Davis and Tozer's much earlier and contrived-sounding settings) had not provided enough verses to create "full" songs, and it is unlikely that performers would venture to improvise new verses in the manner of traditional shantymen. By 1926, it had become a custom at the Seven Seas Club in London to hold a shanty sing-along after the club's monthly dinners."Sea Chanteys Kept Alive. Sailors' Club in London is Collecting and Preserving the Old Songs of Sail," New York Times (7 Nov. 1926). By 1928, commercial recordings of shanties, performed in the manner of classical concert singing, had been released on HMV, Vocalion, Parlophone, Edison, Aco, and Columbia labels;Lloyd, Llewelyn, "Folk-songs of the Sea: Shanties on the Gramophone," Gramophone (March 1927); The Musical Times (1 April 1928). many were realizations of scores from Terry's collection. Shanties like "Johnny Come Down to Hilo" were more or less standardized through popular dissemination. The next revival in shanties occurred as part of the Anglophone folk music revival of the mid-20th century. The American folk revival group The Almanac Singers were recruited by Alan Lomax to record several shanties for the 1941 album Deep Sea Chanteys and Whaling Ballads.Carr, "New Sea Chantey Compilations On Compact Disc." In Britain, the incorporation of shanties into the folk revival repertoire was largely led by A.L. Lloyd starting in the 1950s. An amateur folklorist, Lloyd discarded the earlier classical style of presentations in favor of a more "authentic" performance style. He was generally mysterious about the sources of his shanty arrangements; he obviously referred to collections by editors like Sharp, Colcord, and Doerflinger, however it is often unclear when and whether his versions were based in field experience or his private invention. Lloyd's album The Singing Sailor (1955)Lloyd, A.L. and Ewan MacColl, The Singing Sailor Topic LP (1955). with Ewan MacColl was an early milestone, which made an impression on Stan Hugill when he was preparing his 1961 collection,Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 36. particularly as the performance style it embodied was considered more appropriate than that of earlier commercial recordings. Many other performers followed, creating influential versions and interpretations of shanties that persist today. For example, Lloyd's personal interpretation of "South Australia" was taken up by the Irish folk revival group The Clancy Brothers, from which this version spread to countless folk performers to become established as the "standard" form of what is usually presented as a "traditional" shanty. The Canadian, Alan Mills (1913-1977), recorded numerous songs for Folkways Records including "Songs of the Sea" (1959). Through the mass distribution of particular shanty forms through recordings and clubs, the folk revival has had the effect of creating an impression of rather consistent forms of texts and tunes—a sharp contrast to the highly variable and often improvised nature of work-based shanty singing. Another effect, due to the fact that most folk performers sang shanties along with other genres, is that shanty repertoire was ever more incorporated within the generic fold of "folk song," and their distinctive use, manner of performance, and identity were co-opted. With one foot firmly planted in the world of traditional shanties, the veteran sailor and author Stan Hugill also became a leader (and follower) of trends in the folk music revival. His presence as an exclusive performer of sailor songs did much to establish sea music as a revival genre apart from or within folk music.Frank, Stuart M., "Stan Hugill 1906-1992: A Remembrance," in Stan Hugill, Shanties From the Seven Seas, abridged edition, Mystic Seaport (1994) p. xx. By the late 1970s, the activities of enthusiasts and scholar-performers at places like the Mystic Seaport Museum (who initiated an annual Sea Music Festival in 1979) and the San Francisco Maritime Museum established sea music—inclusive of shanties, sea songs, and other maritime music—as a genre with its own circuit of festivals, record labels, performance protocol, and so on. Nature of the songs Function In the days when human muscles were the only power source available aboard ship, shanties served practical functions. The rhythm of the song served to synchronize the movements of the sailors or to pace the labor as they toiled at repetitive tasks. Singing helped to alleviate boredom and to lighten, perhaps, the psychological burden of hard work. Shanties may also be said to have served a social purpose, as to build camaraderie. Form All shanties had a chorus of some sort, in order to allow the crew to sing all together. Many shanties had a "call and response" format, with one voice (the shantyman) singing the solo lines and the rest of the sailors bellowing short refrains in response (compare military cadence calls). The shantyman was a regular sailor who led the others in singing. He was usually self-appointed.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, pp. 30-31. A sailor would not generally sign on as a shantyman per se, but took on the role in addition to their other tasks on the ship. Nevertheless, sailors reputed to be good shantymen were valued and respected. The following example, a verse of the shanty "Boney" (in reference to Napoleon), shows the call and response form and the interplay between the voices of the shantyman and the crew. Shantyman (solo): Boney was a warrior,All (refrain): Way-ay-ya,Shantyman (solo): A reg'lar bull and tarrier,All (refrain)''': John François!As in: Doerflinger, Songs of the Sailor and Lumberman, p. 6. When working this as a short-drag shanty (see below), hands on the line would synchronize their pulls with the last syllable of each response (in italics). Lyrical content The practical function of shanties as work songs was given priority over their lyrics or the musicality of a performance. Due to this, shanty texts might have been poor from an aesthetic standpoint—even at times random nonsense—so long as the singing fit the form of the work song. One writer about shanties warned his readers that their lyrics, to landsmen, would "probably appear as the veriest doggerel."Whitmarsh, H. Phelps, "The Chantey-man," Harper's Monthly Magazine 106(632) (Jan. 1903) p. 319. He went on to explain, As a rule, the chantey in its entirety possesses neither rhyme nor reason; nevertheless, it is admirably fitted for sailors' work. Each of these sea-songs has a few stock verses or phrases to begin with, but after these are sung, the soloist must improvise, and it is principally his skill in this direction that marks the successful chantey-man.Whitmarsh, "The Chantey-man," p. 319. Improvisation and stock verses were the tools of the trade of shantymen. Similar to the blues, shanties often exhibited a string of such verses without much explicit or continuous theme. While on one hand this may simply reflect the aesthetic of the music-culture from which the form originated, this, too, was a feature suited to practical restrictions. Work tasks might be of any length and often unpredictable. Songs with a fixed set of verses, or ballads, which tell a story, were not so well suited to tasks that could end abruptly at any time or that might require extending. Improvising of lyrics in such a context could be seen as an African-American musical characteristic, as Euro-American observers of Black work-singing consistently remarked on its extempore nature.For just a few examples, see: British Naval Officer, Service Afloat, p. 259; Brown, David, The Planter; or, Thirteen Years in the South, H. Hooker (1853) p. 85; Gosse, Philip Henry, Letters from Alabama, Morgan and Chase (1859) p. 305. Stock verses helped the shantyman fill space when his creative faculties came up short. These might take the form of multipurpose clichés, like, Up aloft this yard must go. [refrain] Up aloft from down below.This couplet is documented in many sources; here it is drawn from: Whitmarsh, "The Chantey-man," p. 321. [refrain] Or, the shantyman may use formulas, like "Were you ever in [blank]?", for example, Were you ever down in Mobile Bay? [refrain] A-screwing cotton by the day?Whidden, Ocean Life in the Old Sailing Ship Days, p. 99. [refrain] (The refrain in these cases may be any; that is, the stock verses may be fitted to any of a number of shanties having a similar tune-chorus form.) Many stock verses used phrases that "floated" between both minstrel and authentic African-American traditional songs. For example, the phrase "girl with the blue dress on" is documented in a Black muledriver's songScarborough, Dorothy and Ola Lee Gulledge, On the Trail of Negro Folk-songs, Harvard University Press (1925) p. 231. and in a popular minstrel song,Christy, Charles and George White, Christy's and White's Ethiopian Melodies, T. B. Peterson (1855) p. 65. as well as in a few shanties, for example, O wake her, O shake her, O shake that girl with the blue dress on, O Johnny come to Hilo; Poor old man.Sharp, English Folk-Chanteys, p. 19. As evident from the last lyric, above, shanty lyrics were not limited to seafaring or work topics. Drawing lyrics (and sometimes entire songs) from the popular and traditional repertoires of the time meant that a wide range of themes were represented. Sources Shanties reflect a variety of source material. As discussed above, there is a notable correspondence between shanties and African-American songs of both work and leisure. Popular music of the time was readily adapted, especially the minstrel music genre, songs of whose couplets were often of a suitable metrical length. It is common to find phrases from minstrel songs of the late 1830s and 1840s in many shanties, like "A Long Time Ago," "Jamboree," "Johnny Come Down to Hilo," or "Johnny Bowker." Music hall songs also had an influence, for example "Paddy on the Railway."Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas (abridged), p. 252. Popular marches were borrowed especially for capstan work, including "John Brown's Body"Smith, The Music of the Waters, pp. 40-1. and "Marching Through Georgia.""Minstrelsy on the Sea," The New York Times 27 (Jan. 1884) p. 10. A few shanties have ballad forms, such as "The Dreadnaught," "The Banks of Newfoundland," and "The Golden Vanitee", but these were relatively uncommon and required the addition of a chorus section. However, shantymen more often adapted lyrics and themes from ballads and "spliced" them to existing shanty melodies and choruses. Other shanties were adapted from land-based traditional songs, for example "Billy Boy" and "The Derby Ram." Types Broadly speaking, the categories for shanties can be understood in terms of whether the task(s) for which they were used was/were related to hauling or heaving. "Hauling" (pulling) actions were intermittent in nature. They required a coordinated show of focused exertion, not sustained, but rather at specific moments. Shanties for hauling tasks thus coordinated the timing of those exertions, the "pulls." "Heaving" (pushing) actions were of a continuous nature. In these, coordination was of minor importance as compared to pacing. Rather than rhythmically timing the labor, shanties for heaving were more intended to set an appropriate, manageable pace and to occupy or inspire workers throughout the duration of what could often be long tasks. Types related to hauling actions thumb|300px|Sailors hauling a line Long-drag shanty Also called a "halyard shanty". Sung with the job of hauling on halyards to hoist, over an extended period, topsail or topgallant yards. Usually there are two pulls per chorus as in "Way, hey, Blow the man down!" Examples: "Hanging Johnny," "Whiskey Johnny," "A Long Time Ago," and "Blow the Man Down." Sample: "Hurrah for the Black Ball Line" (video), led by Peter Kasin on the ship Joseph Conrad at the Mystic Sea Music Festival, 2010. Short-drag shanty Also called a "[fore/main]sheet shanty"."El Tuerto," "Sea Shanties," Coast Seamen's Journal 22(40) (23 June 1909). Sung for short hauling jobs requiring a few bursts of great force, such as changing direction of sails via lines called braces, or hauling taut the corners of sails with sheets or tacks. These are characterized by one strong pull per chorus, typically on the last word, as in "Way, haul away, haul away "Joe"'!" Examples: "Boney," "Haul on the Bowline," and "Haul Away Joe." Sample: "Haul Away Joe" (audio), sung by A. Wilkins, Eastern U.S., ca. 1930-32. From the U.S. Library of Congress, R. W. Gordon Collection. Sweating-up chant Also called a "swaying off chant.Robinson, "Songs of the Chanty-Man: I."Grant, Gordon, Sail Ho!: Windjammer Sketches Alow and Aloft, W.F. Payson (1931). Sung for very brief hauling tasks, as for a few sharp pulls or "swigs"Adams, On Board the Rocket. on a halyard to gain maximum tautness of a sail. These short chants are often classed as "sing-outs," but their form differs little from sheet shanties. Examples include mostly chants that have not gone under any well-known name,For collected examples of these, see: Harlow, Chanteying Aboard American Ships; Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, pp. 575-9. along with the better known "Johnny Bowker"Robinson, "Songs of the Chanty-Man I," p. 123. and other short-drag shanties. Sample: "Haul the Woodpile Down" (audio) sung by unnamed sailor in San Francisco Bay area, early 1920s. From the U.S. Library of Congress, R. W. Gordon Collection. Hand over hand shanty Used for lighter hauling tasks, such as setting staysails and jibsHugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 24. or when simply hauling in the slack of a rope. The action is that of tugging alternately with each hand, on each beat. Sample: A recreation of a hand over hand chant (video), from notation by Doerflinger (1951) of Capt. James P. Barker's singing. Bunt shantyWhitmarsh, "The Chantey-man," p. 323. Used for "bousing up" (i.e. hauling) a bunt—the tightly bunched bundle of a sail that would need to be gathered up and fastened to the yard when furling. "Paddy Doyle's Boots" is universally attestede.g.: Luce, Naval Songs. as one of the few, exclusive bunt shanties. However, "Saint Helena Soldier"Boyd, Alex J., The Shellback, ed. by Archie Campbell, Brentano's (1899) p. 306. and "Johnny Bowker" have also been noted. Stamp and go shanty Also called a "runaway" or "walk away" shanty.Whall, Ships, Sea Songs and Shanties.Masefield, "Sea-Songs."Williams, James H., "The Sailors' 'Chanties'," The Independent (8 July 1909) pp. 76-83. Although technically a hauling action, the work accompanied by this type of shanty was continuous in nature. Thus the songs had longer choruses, similar to heaving shanties. The work entailed many hands taking hold of a line with their backs to the "fall" (where the line reaches the deck from aloft) and marching away with it along the deck. On vessels of war, the drum and fife or boatswain's whistle furnish the necessary movement regulator. There, where the strength of one or two hundred men can be applied to one and the same effort, the labor is not intermittent, but continuous. The men form on either side of the rope to be hauled, and walk away with it like firemen marching with their engine. When the headmost pair bring up at the stern or bow, they part, and the two streams flow back to the starting-point, outside the following files. Thus in this perpetual "follow-my-leader" way the work is done, with more precision and steadiness than in the merchant-service."Songs of the Sea," Atlantic Monthly 2(9) (July 1858). As this maneuver could only be used on ships with large crews, such as vessels of war—in which few shanties were sung—shanties to accompany it were few in number and were not often noted in context. The most commonly cited example is "Drunken Sailor", which is thought to be one of the few shanties allowed in the Royal Navy.Hugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, pp. 134-5. Types related to heaving actions thumb|300px|Sailors working at a capstan Raising the anchor on a ship involved winding its rope around a capstan, a sort of giant winch, turned by sailors heaving wooden bars while walking around it. Other heavy tasks might also be assisted by using a capstan. Being a continuous action, shanties sung to accompany these tasks might have longer solo verses and, frequently, a "grand chorus", in addition to the call-and-response form. Examples: "Santianna", "Paddy Lay Back", "Rio Grande", "Clear the Track, Let the Bulgine Run", "Shenandoah", and "John Brown's Body." Sample: Roll the Old Chariot Along (audio) sung by unnamed sailor in San Francisco Bay area, early 1920s. From the U.S. Library of Congress, R. W. Gordon Collection. Windlass shantyHugill, Shanties from the Seven Seas, p. 26. Modern shanties were used to accompany work at the patent windlass, which was designed to raise anchor and was operated by the see-saw like action of pumping hand brakes. The up and down motion of the brake levers lent the action a binary form that was well-suited by many of the same songs used as halyard shanties. And yet, the continuous nature of the task also meant grand choruses were possible. So while halyard shanties and capstan shanties tended to be exclusive of one another, windlass shanties sometimes shared repertoire with each of those other types. Examples: "Sally Brown", "Heave Away, My Johnnies", and "Mister Stormalong." Sample: "Sally Brown" (video), led by Gibb Schreffler on the barkentine Gazela, 2022. Pump shanty thumb|right|300px|Operation of Downton pump Because of leakage of water into the holds of wooden ships, they had to be regularly pumped out. The frequency and monotony of this task inspired the singing of many shanties. One design of pump worked very similarly to the brake windlass, while another, the Downton pump, was turned by handles attached to large wheels. Examples: "Strike the Bell", "Fire Down Below", "South Australia", and "One More Day." An example of special note is "Leave Her, Johnny, Leave Her" (also known as "Time for Us to Leave Her"), which was generally sung during the last round of pumping the ship dry once it was tied up in port, prior to the crew leaving the ship at the end of the voyage. Other types Miscellaneous deep-water shanties Shanties might come into play for miscellaneous additional shipboard tasks. For example, songs used to accompany the work of holystoning the deck have been attested.Smith, The Music of the Waters, p. 7. "Poor Old Man" (also known as "Poor Old Horse" or "The Dead Horse") was sung in a ritual fashion once the sailors had worked off their advance pay (the so-called "dead horse") a month into the voyage. The ceremony involved hauling a stuffed facsimile of a horse up to the yardarm, before letting it drop into the sea, all the while singing this customary shanty.Tangye, Richard, Reminiscences of Travel in Australia, America, and Egypt, second edition, Sampson Low (1884) p. 21. Coastwise and longshore shanties Shanties have also been well-documented in use for tasks other than those of the deep-water sailor. The working of cargo was performed by stevedores to the accompaniment of shanties, for example in the tradition of the Georgia Sea Island Singers of St. Simons Island, Georgia. They used such shanties as "Knock a Man Down" (a variation of "Blow the Man Down") to load heavy timber.Parrish, Lydia, Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands, Creative Age Press (1942). The category of menhaden chanties refers to work songs used on menhaden fishing boats, sung while pulling up the purse-seine nets.Anderson, Harold, "Menhaden Chanteys: An African American Maritime Legacy," Marine Notes 18(1) (Jan.-Feb. 2000) pp. 1-6. The musical forms, and consequently the repertoire, of menhaden chanties differ significantly from the deep-water shanties, most noticeably in the fact that the workers "pull" in between rather than concurrently with certain words of the songs. Common examples are "The Johnson Girls" and "Won't You Help Me to Raise 'Em Boys." Off-shore whalermen in parts of the Caribbean sang shanties whilst rowing their whaleboats and when hauling their catch onto land.See: Abrahams, Deep the Water, Shallow the Shore. Sample: A menhaden chantey, "Won't You Help Me to Raise Um" (video), performed by The Northern Neck Chantey Singers of Virginia. Sample: A demonstration of whaleboat shanties (video), by The Barrouallie Whalers of St. Vincent & the Grenadines. The above categories, with respect to the repertoire they contain, are not absolute. Sailors often took a song from one category and, with necessary alterations to the rhythm, tempo, or form, used it for a different task. This can be seen in the frequent lack of consensus, among different writers and informants, as to what job a given shanty was used for. "Shanties" versus "sea songs" thumb|300px|Early 19th century Royal Navy sailors singing while off duty Shanties are work songs and were originally sung only for work. However, sailors also sang for pleasure in the fo'c's'le (forecastle) where they slept or, in fine weather, gathered near the fore bitts (large posts on the foredeck). While songs with maritime themes were sung, all manner of popular songs and ballads on any subject might be sung off watch. The leisure songs associated with sailors are labeled simply as "sea songs," but they have no consistent formal characteristics. They are also popularly known among enthusiasts, especially when distinguishing them from shanties, as fo'c's'le songs or forebitters. Although those terms were not in great evidence in the 19th century, some literary references to "fore-bitter" and, less so, "fo'c'sle song," attest to their use even prior to the appearance of "shanty."e.g.: McKillop, H.F., Reminiscences of Twelve Month's Service in New Zealand, Richard Bentley (1849) p. 130; Archer, Thomas, The Pauper, the Thief, and the Convict, Groombridge (1865) p. 87. Unlike shanties, during the singing of which one's hands were occupied, sea songs might be sung to the accompaniment of handy instruments like fiddle or concertina. Examples of sea songs include "Spanish Ladies",Marryat, Capt. Frederick, Poor Jack, Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans, (1840) p. 116. first popular in the Royal Navy,"The Man-of-War's Man," Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine 11(60) (Jan. 1822) p. 22. and "The Stately Southerner", a ballad about a U.S. war ship.e.g.: Williams, "The Sailors' 'Chanties'."; Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy and Mary Winslow Smyth, Minstrelsy of Maine: Folk-songs and Ballads of the Woods and the Coast, Houghton Mifflin (1927). Examples of sea songs that were poorly documented in the sailing era, but which gained great popularity among singers in the revival era, are "The Leaving of Liverpool" and "Rolling Down to Old Maui." In languages other than English While the crews of merchant ships in which shanties were sung might have come from a wide variety of national and ethnic backgrounds and might have spoken various mother-tongues, the shanty genre was by and large an English-language phenomenon. However, non-English-language sailor work songs were also developed. They are generally of these types: Preexisting non-English-language songs from the popular or folk song traditions of a linguistic group, which were adapted to the shanty paradigm; Preexisting, original shipboard worksongs from non-English-speaking peoples, retrofitted to the definition of "shanty"; Newly created non-English-language songs, designed to fit the established shanty paradigm; Translations of English shanties into other languages, often preserving their English choruses. There are notable bodies of shanty repertoire in Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch, French, Breton, and Welsh, and shanties have been translated into Polish and German. The terms for shanties in these languages do not always precisely correlate with English usage. In French, chant de marin or "sailor's song" is a broad category that includes both work and leisure songs. Swedish uses sjömansvisa, "sailor song," as a broad category, but tends to use the borrowed "shanty" to denote a work song. Similarly, Norwegian uses sjømannsvise as the broad category and the borrowed term sjanti (also spelled "shanty") or the native oppsang for work songs. The equivalents in German are Seemannslied and, again, shanty. Polish uses a word derived from English: szanta. Substantial collections of non-English shanties include the following, which have been instrumental in forming the modern day sailor song repertoires of revival performers in their respective languages: French Hayet, Capt. Armand: Chansons de Bord. Paris: Editions Eos (1927). German Baltzer, R. and Klaus Prigge. "Knurrhahn": Sammlung deutscher und englischer Seemannslieder und Shanties wie sie auf deutschen Segelschiffen gesungen wurden. Vol. 1, 2. Kiel: A. C. Ehlers (1935-6). Norwegian Brochmann, H. Opsang fra Seilskibstiden. Christiania: Norske Förlags Kompani Ltd. (1916). Swedish Sternvall, Sigurd. Sång under Segel. Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag (1935). Performance today Historically, shanties were usually not sung outside of work contexts, and singing sea songs was generally the purview of sailors. However, since their revival as leisure songs among laypersons they have been performed in a variety of contexts. Similarly to Euro-American folk music, shanties and sea songs are performed both informally by amateurs and as commercial entertainment by professionals, with many performers straddling both contexts. Some performers focus on shanties, sea songs, and related material, as part of the genre of maritime music, whereas in other cases performers of popular music (including the Folk genre) and classical music bring songs from the shanty repertoire into their own. Regional trends Devoted performances of shanties display certain customs and general trends in different areas. However, the genre is an international one; practices vary freely and are not limited to the following generalizations. North America In North America, enthusiasts could gather at regularly scheduled, open singing sessions, for example the "chantey sings" held monthly aboard the ship Balclutha in San Francisco,"Chantey Sing at Hyde Street Pier," National Park Service. Retrieved 10 Nov. 2011. weekly in Gloucester, Massachusetts,"NE ChanteySings" (Yahoo group). Retrieved 10 Nov. 2011. At these sessions, any participant is free to start up and lead a shanty, which the rest of those present—sometimes over one hundred or more participants—join on the choruses. The gatherings aim for an inclusive atmosphere that welcomes people of all ages, genders, ethnicities, and singing abilities. North American professionals often perform solo or in very small groups, frequently using instruments. One of America's oldest inns, The Griswold Inn in Essex, Connecticut, has hosted Monday evening sea chantey sessions since 1972, originally led by Cliff Haslam and later joined by other musicians as The Jovial Crew.for 45 Years" Annual maritime festivals in coastal towns provide a gathering point for both amateurs and professionals, and the site for the introduction of new interpretations. United Kingdom In the UK, shanties find a venue in pubs that host "folk clubs." Professional performers tend to be in larger groups with a more substantial chorus, allowing for a capella performances. They are frequently identified with a specific port town to which they belong. Many annual maritime festivals in Britain and across the Channel provide contexts for performance. Continental Europe thumb|right|300px|A German shanty choir s (German , Dutch ) are choral groups - often with many members - that perform only sailor songs. They are especially popular in the Netherlands, Germany, and Norway. Polish performers of shanties favor medium-sized groups, often singing in harmony, accompanying themselves on instruments, and presenting themselves similarly to the way a rock band would. Australia Sea Shanty Groups are active across Australia including Perth, Fremantle, and Albany. A group called The Anchormen formed by Matthew Wearne and Colin Anker in 2018, perform regular gigs in Bunbury, Western Australia.Charlesworth David, South Western Times, 11 April 2018 They performed at the City of Albany Maritime Festival in 2021. Anker said regarding Mental Health "We've had guys in the group say this is the only place where they feel comfortable in that no one judges them. We often face and perform to each other instead of the audience. It's a brotherhood. When you start singing sea shanties, it just grabs you and draws you in. You can't stop listening to and singing them."Waller Pip, Bunbury Mail, 1 June 2021. A favourite song is Spanish Ladies. Shanties borrowed by other genres Items from the shanty and sea song repertoire have been brought into the repertoires of performers of folk music, rock, country, and Western classical music. Sources for these renditions include books by folklorists and commercial recordings by shanty revival performers. The forms these performers produce tend to be quite standardized and relate to their source material similar to the way a cover song does. This can be contrasted with the method of performers focusing on maritime music, who tend to think of themselves as operating within that genre or a tradition, and who develop their repertoire from multiple sources and through various experiences. Folk The folk revival movement is one in which shanties themselves were often revived, especially as they have been viewed as a branch of heritage traditional songs of Anglophone culture. Several of the early performers in the Folk genre performed and recorded a significant number of sailor songs. For example, Paul Clayton recorded the album Whaling and Sailing Songs from the Days of Moby Dick (Tradition Records) in 1956, and Burl Ives' Down to the Sea in Ships came out in the same year. Since at least the 1950s, certain shanties have become staples of the Folk genre. This is evidenced in the popular Folk music fake book Rise Up Singing, which includes such shanties as "Blow the Man Down," "What Shall We Do with a Drunken Sailor," and "Bound for South Australia". Rock Borrowings into Rock music have often resulted from the fluid borders between Folk and Rock performers and audiences. For example, Bruce Springsteen's "Pay Me My Money Down" derives from the interpretation by the Folk group The Weavers, who in turn found it among the collected shanties once traditionally performed by residents of the Georgia Sea Islands. Some Rock performers, too, have been inspired to adopt shanties as part of what they perceive to be a connection to their regional or national heritage. For example, The Pogues recorded "Poor Paddy [Works on the Railway]" in the arrangement of Folk group The Dubliners, ostensibly because of the Irish connection. Others have been fascinated by "sea" themes, including "pirates" and the perceived freedom, wildness, or debauchery of sailor culture.Carr, "New Sea Chantey Compilations." Classical Classical composers have used shanties and sea songs (or their melodies) in their works. The Australian composer Percy Grainger is a notable case.e.g.: Grainger, Percy, "Sea-chantey setting nr. 3: Shallow Brown," G. Schirmer (1927). Malcolm Arnold's "Three Shanties" for woodwind quintet (1943)Arnold, Malcolm, "Three Shanties: for Wind Quintet," Paterson's Publications (1952). develops motifs from "Drunken Sailor," "Boney Was a Warrior," and "Johnny Come Down to Hilo." Performance styles Shanty performances today reflect a range of musical approaches and tastes. The purpose and parameters of shanty singing in the present era have had an influence on which shanties are sung and how. Performers who favor a "traditional" style do not necessarily believe they are replicating the exact style of shanty singing of the 19th century. However, within the constraints of modern contexts, they tend to adhere to certain stylistic traits that are believed to have characterized the genre historically. These may include a loud or full voice, an emphatic, strident—even harsh—tone (as if to carry over the noise of wind and waves), and tempos and rhythms that are reasonably conducive to working. They often perform a capella or only with light instrumentation typical of sailors (e.g. concertina). In general, performances may be more "rough around the edges" and be of variable length to accommodate impromptu changes in verses. A great many of the performers of shanties do so in what might be distinguished as a "folk music" style. They tend to be more interested in the songs themselves and less in the "shanty style" of performance, in favor of music that may be considered more pleasant, less rough, and with more variation and interest than traditional shanties offer. Stylistic characteristics include lighter vocals with a "folk" timbre, livelier tempos, and instrumental interludes between verses. Invariably these performers choose to accompany themselves on instruments such as guitar and banjo. Their rhythms may be syncopated and quite different from work song rhythms, relying on the instruments to keep time rather than the voice. Still other performers come to shanties from backgrounds in pop, rock, or theatrical music, and perform in what may be called a "contemporary" style. Some of the preferred characteristics are smooth, pop-style vocal timbre, carefully worked out harmony, and engaging rhythms. Less commonly—though it was the case with their earliest commercial recordings—shanties are performed in a "classical" choir style. Choirs like the Robert Shaw Chorale,Sea Shanties, Living Stereo (1961) the Norman Luboff Choir,Songs of the Sea, Columbia (1956) and The Seafarers ChorusWe Sing of the Sea, Elektra (1960) have released entire albums of shanties and sea songs. In popular media Appearances of shanties, or songs and melodies labeled as "shanties," in popular media can be anachronistic and fanciful. In accord with popular perception of shanties as a genre many hundreds of years old, songs with documented existence to only the mid-19th century, at the earliest, have been freely used to portray scenes from the 18th century and earlier. By imagining modern shanties to have been in use during such eras as the Golden Age of Piracy and the Napoleonic Wars, anachronistic associations have been formed between shanties and "pirates." Evidence for all these uses and associations can be found in the examples that follow in this section. Shanties, and short videos of them being sung, saw a spike in popularity in late 2020 into early 2021 mainly due to a trend on TikTok."Sea Shanty TikTok - @Nathanevanss.” Newsroom | TikTok, 16 Aug. 2019. Accessed 1 Feb. 2021. Popular literature Much of the available historical information on shanties comes from travelogue literature, most of it of scarcely notable popularity, but some of it reaching a wide audience, such as Dana's Two Years Before the Mast (1840).Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., Two Years Before the Mast, Harper & Brothers (1840). However, some fiction writers up through the mid-19th century, who had sailing experience, also included scenes involving sailors' work songs. Among these authors were Horace Elisha Scudder,Scudder, Horace Elisha, The Bodleys on Wheels, Houghton, Osgood and Company (1879). Elijah Kellogg,Kellogg, Rev. Elijah, The Ark of Elm Island, Lee and Shepard (1869); A Strong Arm and a Mother's Blessing, Lee and Shepard, (1881). and Herman Melville. In Redburn: His First Voyage, for example, Melville wrote: I soon got used to this singing; for the sailors never touched a rope without it. Sometimes, when no one happened to strike up, and the pulling, whatever it might be, did not seem to be getting forward very well, the mate would always say, "Come, men, can't any of you sing? Sing now, and raise the dead." And then some one of them would begin, and if every man's arms were as much relieved as mine by the song, and he could pull as much better as I did, with such a cheering accompaniment, I am sure the song was well worth the breath expended on it. It is a great thing in a sailor to know how to sing well, for he gets a great name by it from the officers, and a good deal of popularity among his shipmates. Some sea-captains, before shipping a man, always ask him whether he can sing out at a rope.Melville, Herman, Redburn: His First Voyage, Harper & Bros. (1850) pp. 63-4. The shanty genre was unfamiliar to much of the lay public until it was publicized in the 1880s, however, so most of the popular references in fiction do not begin until that decade. A well-known early example, though not strictly speaking a reference to a shanty, is the song "Fifteen men on the dead man's chest", which was invented by Robert Louis Stevenson for his novel Treasure Island (1883).Stevenson, Robert Louis, Treasure Island, Roberts Brothers (1883). Quotes of "Blow the Man Down" were particularly plentiful.e.g.: Hains, T. Jenkins, The Wind-jammers, J.B. Lippincott (1899) p. 145; Rideout, Henry Milner, "Wild Justice," The Atlantic Monthly 92(552) (Oct. 1903) p. 500. Rudyard Kipling romanticized the idea of the sailor's sea song within the poetic genre with his works "The First Chantey" and "The Last Chantey" (1893). Popular music While shanties were historically understood as work songs, the word "shanty" has often been used in popular culture since the mid-20th century as a catch-all term that also includes songs supposed to have been sung during leisure time at sea, and even other songs about the sea or which vaguely inspire thoughts of the sea. Much of the historical shanty repertoire, being by definition designed to suit work, is less attractive as entertainment listening. The musical forms were highly repetitive, and the lyrics were quite often doggerel without any cohesive or preconceived composition. For these reasons, sea songs that were never or only exceptionally adapted as shanties—but which have engaging melodies and texts—have proved popular to 20th century audiences under the rubric of "shanties." Both these non-shanty sailor songs and the historical repertoire of shanties are typically performed with instrumental accompaniment—something that was rare or unheard of at sea in the case of authentic shanties. Popular musical interpretations of traditional repertoire Music performers with no strong links to maritime music have interpreted traditional shanty and sea song compositions, of which widely scattered instances abound. For example, the bawdy sea song "Frigging in the Rigging" was recorded by the punk band Sex Pistols. Perhaps under the influence of Irish folk revival groups like The Clancy Brothers and The Dubliners, who included some shanties in their repertoires, some association has also been formed between shanties and Irish music. And so, looking back to these performers, later Irish-oriented rock groups like The Pogues interpreted traditional shanties and sea songs like "South Australia" and "The Greenland Whale Fisheries." A notable instance where many non-maritime music performers tackled the traditional maritime repertoire stems from the actor Johnny Depp's reported interest in shanties that developed while filming Pirates of the Caribbean. As a result, in 2006 Depp helped facilitate Rogue's Gallery: Pirate Ballads, Sea Songs, and Chanteys.Carr, James Revell, "New Sea Chantey Compilations On Compact Disc," Journal of American Folklore 122(484) (Spring 2009) pp. 197-210. A medley of sea songs performed by concert orchestra, Sir Henry Wood's Fantasia on British Sea Songs, is a popular component of the Last Night of the Proms in Britain. In 2021, sea shanties trended on TikTok after a viral rendition of the sea-themed song "Wellerman," performed by Scotland-based postman Nathan Evans and popularly mistaken to be a shanty, inspired users to seek and perform songs in the genre. New compositions in "shanty" style The musical style of shanties has also inspired new musical compositions, ranging from those designed to imitate 19th century song-style to those merely intended to evoke seafaring culture through evocative phrases and token musical features. For example, the Stan Rogers song, "Barrett's Privateers", being sung in a traditional style and having lyrics that relate an anecdote of maritime history, makes a convincing sea ballad and has been adopted into the repertoire of maritime music performers. Another newly composed song by folk singer Steve Goodman, "Lincoln Park Pirates," uses the phrase, "Way, hey, tow 'em away," imitating shanty choruses while at the same time anachronistically evoking the "piracy" in its subject. The theme song for the television show SpongeBob SquarePants has a shanty-like call and response structure and begins with a melodic phrase that matches the traditional "Blow the Man Down," presumably because the character "lives in a pineapple under the sea." The theme to Gilligan's Island was also inspired by shanty structure and style. An example of a more tenuous link between a new composition labeled as "shanty" and the salient characteristics of the genre, The Pogues recorded a song called "Sea Shanty."On Red Roses for Me, WEA International (1984). The only characteristic it appears to share with the shanty genre is a 6/8 meter (displayed by some well known shanties like "Blow the Man Down"). English composer Michael Maybrick (alias Stephen Adams) sold a hundred thousand copies of an 1876 song Nancy Lee in Seafaring style, with lyrics by Frederick Weatherly concerning an archetypal sailors wife. The song evoked an 1882 response Susie Bell from Australian composer Frederick Augustus Packer in the far flung British colony at Port Arthur (Australia) In film and television Songs from the shanty repertoire have appeared in motion pictures. These most often are not portrayed in an appropriate work context and sometimes not even a shipboard context, and many times they can be classed as anachronisms that serve to bring color and interest to the drama. The following is a sample list of notable films to have included traditional shanty repertoire.The Phantom Ship (1935): "Whiskey Johnny," "New York Girls," "Johnny Come Down to Hilo," "Sally Brown"Mutiny on the Bounty (1935): "Drunken Sailor" (tune only), "Hanging Johnny"Captains Courageous (1937): "Blow the Man Down," "Drunken Sailor" The Ghost Ship (1943): "Blow the Man Down"The Curse of the Cat People (1944): "Reuben Ranzo"Great Expectations (1946): "Sally Brown"Treasure Island (1950): "Johnny Come Down to Hilo" (tune only)Against All Flags (1952): "Haul on the Bowline"Moby Dick (1956): "Come Down You Bunch of Roses" (as "Blood Red Roses"), "Heave Away, My Johnnies," "The Maid of Amsterdam (A-Roving)," "Paddy Doyle's Boots," "Sally Brown," "Reuben Ranzo"The Buccaneers (1956-1957): "Blow ye winds of morning," "The Maid of Amsterdam," "Oh Shenandoah," "Spanish Ladies," "Blow the Man Down," "Johnny Come Down to Hilo," and othersBilly Budd (1962): "Hanging Johnny"Jaws (1975) : "Spanish Ladies"Roots (1977): "Haul the Bowline," "Haul Away, Joe"—on the brig UnicornLonesome Dove (1989): "Rise Me Up from Down Below" (aka "Whiskey-O")Down Periscope (1996): "Blow the Man Down"Moby Dick (1998): "New York Girls," "Cape Cod Girls" ("Bound Away to Australia"), "Donkey Riding," and "Haul Away Joe"SpongeBob SquarePants (1999): "Blow The Man Down" also borrowed into the theme, "Drunken Sailor", "Spanish Ladies" among othersGangs of New York (2002): "New York Girls"Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003): "Don't Forget Your Old Shipmate" and "Spanish Ladies"Pirates of the Caribbean (fillm series): "Yo Ho, A Pirate's Life for Me," "Fifteen Men on a Dead Man's Chest," "Hoist the Colors," "Jolly Sailor Bold"Moby Dick (2011): "Lowlands Away," "Blow You Winds Southerly," "Blood Red Roses," "The Hog-Eye Man," "Leave Her Johnny," "Haul Away Joe"Treasure Island (2012): "Lowlands Away My John"The Big Bang Theory (2012): "Blow the Man Down"The Finest Hours (2016): "Haul Away, Joe"The Lighthouse (2019): "Doodle Let Me Go "Fisherman's Friends (2019): "Island Records released the Fisherman's Friends original soundtrack titled Keep Hauling"Saturday Night Live (2021): "Sea Shanty" with host Regé-Jean Page In video games In Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag - set during the Golden Age of Piracy - the player character, the pirate Edward Kenway, can collect a number of sea shanties which his crew will then sing while on a voyage. In Assassin's Creed Rogue - set during the mid-18th century - sea shanties are available when on the player character's ship, the Morrigan. Some are immediately available, while others must be collected. In Red Dead Redemption 2 the character Simon Pearson, a former sailor, will sing the sea shanty "Homeward Bound" at the campsite while playing a concertina.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: In Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire, if the player's ship crew have a high morale score, sea shanties will be played while the player travels around the game's overworld.Pillars of Eternity 2 life at sea detailed | Switch Player These sea shanties are all based on real-world sea shanties, with the lyrics altered to add references to characters, locations and events within the game's fictional universe (the game's developers, Obsidian Entertainment, did something similar with cowboy songs in Fallout: New Vegas''): "Aim'Spirente", based on "Santianna" "Roll the Old Berath's Wheel", based on "Roll the Old Chariot Along" "The Faithful Sailor", based on "The Faithful Sailor Boy" "Heave Away my Lendry", based on "Heave Away My Johnny" "Haul Away and Go", based on "Haul Away Joe" "Deadfire Lines", based on "The Black Ball Line" See also Sailing ship Work song Military cadence List of maritime music performers List of maritime music festivals Shosholoza Notes External links John Ward's "Shanties and Sea Songs" webpage contains song lyrics harvested from some of the well-known published collections. "Shanties from the Seven Seas" project on YouTube contains sample performances of the over 400 shanties and sea songs included in Stan Hugill's largest print collection of the same name. Jerzy "Shogun" Brzezinski YouTube Channel contains sea shanties and forebitters sing in an authentic way in English, Polish, Welsh, Norwegian, German, French, Swedish and other foreign languages. Traditional Sea Shanties webpage This is the place where you can meet sea shanties and forebitters sing in an authentic way. Shanties and Sea Songs webpage has lyrics popular among and culled from North American shanty revival performers, and links to albums on which the songs may be heard. Contemplator.com, "Songs of the sea" section has lyrics gathered from songbooks, matched to embedded MIDI files of tunes. International Shanty and Seasong Association, based mainly in Germany and the Netherlands, promotes sailor songs through festivals, publications, and sponsorship of performing groups. Bilgemunky Radio online/podcast radio show devoted to pirate-themed music including both traditional-style shanty performers and "pirate rock" performers. Bordel de Mer French Internet radio show devoted to sailor songs from all over the world. illustrated account of the sea shanty * Category:Work music Category:Maritime culture Category:Maritime history Category:Internet memes introduced in 2021 Category:Nursery rhymes Category:Children's music Category:British songs Category:Scottish songs Category:Irish songs

{"Name": "Sea shanty", "Image": "Halyard illustration.tiff", "Image caption": "Sailors performing shipboard labor", "Derivative forms": "Pirate metal, viking metal"}

The United Kingdom held a national preselection to choose the song that would go to the Eurovision Song Contest 1978. It was held on Friday 31 March 1978 at the Royal Albert Hall and presented by Terry Wogan. The songs were backed by the Alyn Ainsworth Orchestra. The Eurovision Song Contest was broadcast on 22 April 1978, with Terry Wogan providing the BBC Television commentary and Ray Moore providing the BBC Radio 2 commentary. Colin Berry returned to present the UK jury results. Before Eurovision A Song for Europe 1978 Fourteen regional juries voted on the songs: Bristol, Bangor, Leeds, Norwich, Newcastle, Aberdeen, Birmingham, Manchester, Belfast, Cardiff, Plymouth, Glasgow, Southampton and London. Each jury voted internally and ranked the songs 1-12, awarding 12 points for their highest scoring song, down to 1 point for the lowest scoring entry. Final "The Bad Old Days" won the national and came 11th in the contest. Broadcast on Good Friday, a national holiday in the UK, A Song for Europe was watched by 13.7 million viewers and was the 16th-most watched programme of the week - the show's highest ever rating.Television's Greatest Hits, Network Books, Paul Gambaccini and Rod Taylor, 1993. + A Song for Europe 197831 March 1978 Draw Artist Song Songwriter(s) Points Place 1 Christian "Shine It On" Bill Martin & Phil Coulter 114 3 2 Brown Sugar "Oh No, Look What You've Done" Wayne Bickerton & Tony Waddington 49 11 3 Fruit Eating Bears "Door in My Face" Neville Crozier & Chris Crash 49 11 4 Jacquie Sullivan "Moments" Jacquie Sullivan 106 6 5 Sunshine "Too Much in Love" Wayne Bickerton & Tony Waddington 81 8 6 Ronnie France "Lonely Nights" Paul Curtis 68 9 7 The Jarvis Brothers "One Glance" Paul Curtis 114 3 8 Co-Co "The Bad Old Days" Stephanie de Sykes & Stuart Slater 135 1 9 Bob James "We Got It Bad" Bob James & Labi Siffre 66 10 10 Midnight "Don't Bother to Knock" Kenny Lynch, Steve O'Donnell & Colin Horton-Jennings 116 2 11 Babe Rainbow "Don't Let Me Stand in Your Way" Irving Martin & Peter Morris 84 7 12 Labi Siffre "Solid Love" Labi Siffre 110 5 Both groups 'Co-Co' and 'Sunshine' had participated in the A Song for Europe 1976 contest, albeit with different line-ups. 'Co-Co' would return to the A Song for Europe contest in 1980 with another line-up, under the name 'The Main Event'. Cheryl Baker of 'Co-Co' would eventually win the Eurovision Song Contest 1981 with the group 'Bucks Fizz'. Detailed Jury Votes Draw Song scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" scope="col" 1 "Shine It On" 12 11 9 10 5 4 11 12 12 7 9 3 5 4 114 2 "Oh No, Look What You've Done" 7 2 2 1 3 2 2 9 5 2 3 1 4 6 49 3 "Door in My Face" 2 1 7 2 1 7 3 3 2 3 1 2 10 5 49 4 "Moments" 8 8 11 7 8 3 9 6 10 8 10 6 3 9 106 5 "Too Much in Love" 9 3 5 4 2 6 10 7 9 5 6 7 6 2 81 6 "Lonely Nights" 1 4 1 8 4 5 1 2 1 10 7 11 12 1 68 7 "One Glance" 6 7 3 5 9 12 6 11 11 9 12 4 11 8 114 8 "The Bad Old Days" 11 12 12 11 10 11 7 4 3 11 11 12 8 12 135 9 "We Got It Bad" 3 6 10 3 12 1 4 1 8 1 4 5 1 7 66 10 "Don't Bother to Knock" 4 9 8 6 11 10 8 5 7 12 8 10 7 11 116 11 "Don't Let Me Stand in Your Way" 5 5 4 9 7 8 5 10 6 6 5 9 2 3 84 12 "Solid Love" 10 10 6 12 6 9 12 8 4 4 2 8 9 10 110 Jury Spokespersons Jury Spokesperson Aberdeen Gerry Davis Norwich Chris Denham Manchester Mike Riddoch Bangor Gwyn Llewelyn Southampton Peter Macann Leeds Brian Baines Belfast Michael Baguley Bristol Derek Jones Glasgow Ken Bruce Birmingham Tom Coyne London Ray Moore Cardiff Frank Lincoln Newcastle Mike Neville Plymouth Donald Heighway UK Discography Christian - Shine It On: Polydor 2059012. Brown Sugar - Oh No, Look What You've Done: State STAT77. Fruit Eating Bears - Door in My Face: DJM DJS10857. Jacquie Sullivan - Moments: Air CHS2219. Sunshine - Too Much in Love: State STAT76. Ronnie France - Lonely Nights: Pye 7N46062. The Jarvis Brothers - One Glance: EMI EMI2777. Co-Co - The Bad Old Days: Ariola/Hansa AHA513. Bob James - We Got It Bad: Polydor 2059016. Midnight - Don't Bother to Knock: Ariola/Hansa AHA514. Babe Rainbow - Don't Let Me Stand in Your Way: Mercury 6007113. Labi Siffre - Solid Love: EMI EMI2750. Only the winning song reached the UK Singles Chart. At Eurovision Voting + Points awarded to the United Kingdom Score Country 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point + Points awarded by the United Kingdom Score Country 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point References 1978 Category:Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 1978 Eurovision Eurovision

{"Country": "United Kingdom", "Selection process": "A Song for Europe 1978", "Selection date(s)": "31 March 1978", "Selected entrant": "Co-Co", "Selected song": "The Bad Old Days", "Selected songwriter(s)": "Stephanie de Sykes Stuart Slater", "Final result": "11th, 61 points"}

The Puyallup, spuyaləpabš or S’Puyalupubsh (pronounced: Spoy-all-up-obsh) ('generous and welcoming behavior to all people, who enter our lands') are a federally recognized Coast Salish Native American tribe from western Washington state, United States. They were relocated onto reservation lands in what is today Tacoma, Washington, in late 1854, after signing the Treaty of Medicine Creek with the United States. Today they have an enrolled population of 6,700, of whom 3,000 live on the reservation. The Puyallup Indian Reservation is one of the most urban Indian reservations in the United States with a population of 2,500. It is located primarily in northern Pierce County, with a very small part extending north into the city of Federal Way, in King County. Parts of seven communities in the Tacoma metropolitan area extend onto reservation land; in addition the tribe controls off-reservation trust land. In decreasing order of included population, the communities are Tacoma, Waller, Fife, Milton, Edgewood, Puyallup, and Federal Way. The reservation has a land area of 73.935 km² (28.547 sq mi), and a 2000 census resident population of 41,341 persons. These are predominantly non-Native Americans. The tribe has 6,700 enrolled members, of whom 2,500 live on the reservation. According to the census, more than 72 percent of the residents within the reservation boundaries identified as only Caucasian (European-American), and 3.2 percent identify as solely of Native American ancestry. The Puyallup, as with other Native American tribes, have long assimilated other ethnicities through intermarriage and adoption. They have brought up ethnically mixed children to identify with the tribe, both culturally and ethnically. History The Puyallup tribe originally spoke the Txʷǝlšucid or Twulshootseed local dialect of the Southern Lushootseed language of the Salishan family of languages, predominant among Northwest Coast indigenous peoples. They share a culture similar to that of other Northwest tribes, with a diet that depended on fishing salmon and other regional fish. Reservation thumb|upright|U.S. Government map of the reservation in 1892. The Puyallup River was later straightened along its lower course. With a land area of 73.935 km² (28.547 sq mi), the reservation () is one of the largest in the Northwest. Its size notwithstanding, it is often not shown on Washington maps because its land has been so thoroughly sold off to non-Natives. Due to land sales at a time when land was distributed to householders and other developments, neighboring jurisdictions have territory within the reservation. The city of Fife, Washington and the unincorporated community of Fife Heights, Washington lies entirely within the reservation as does much of the Port of Tacoma. The total population within the reservation is predominantly non-Native and not tribal members, according to the 2000 census. From the mid-nineteenth century, European Americans began to enter the area in greater numbers. The United States wanted to enable development of lands and settlement by these people. They arranged with the Puyallup and several other tribes, under the Treaty of Medicine Creek (1854), for the tribes to cede land to the US and go to the more restricted area of a reservation. This was initially designated for residence only by tribal members. The Puyallup and United States representatives had such different conceptions of property that they did not fully understand each other's position . While the tribe lost most of its historic territory, it retained rights for fishing, hunting and gathering on that land. The Port of Tacoma and the Puyallup Tribe reached a $163 million settlement in 1989-1990, enabled by the Puyallup Tribe of Indians Settlement Act of 1989. It became one of the largest 20th century Indian land claims settlements. Government thumb|250px|Flag of the Puyallup tribe In 1936 the Tribal Government was formed under the Wheeler Howard Act (also known as the Indian Reorganization Act), authorizing Native American tribes to re-establish their governments. The tribe wrote a constitution creating an elected government of representation at the Tribal Council, supported by a Tribal Court for certain level of issues among its tribal members. Tribal Council The tribal council is an elected body of seven people who oversee the operation of all the tribal programs. The Tribal Council is vested with power to govern by the Constitution. The Council acts as both the legislative and administrative bodies of the government. Members are elected by the general membership for three-year terms. Council members select a chair and vice chair. Herman Dillon Sr. (more known as the Chief.) Late Council Chairman Dillon. served on the council consecutively for more than two decades, up until his death. In this position he often represented the Tribe at meetings of various government entities, from the Tacoma area to the federal government in Washington, D.C. On June 7, 2019, the Puyallup Tribal Council chose David Z. Bean as chairman and Bill Sterud as vice chairman. The tribe operates numerous programs that are open to the public beyond intertribally enrolled members. Among its programs, the tribe operates https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Leschi_Schools K-12, a School for Native American children exclusively now. Tribal Court The Tribal Court and Children's Court (hereinafter “Court”) were established by the Puyallup Tribe's Constitution. The court's mission is to apply the written laws of its legislature, while recognizing the inherent customs and traditions of its people. The Court is devoted to protecting people's due process rights. The tribe explicitly works to protect children and elders, “who are considered sacred”. The Court's Chief Justice is Darwin Long Fox. Economic development Initially the federal government wanted Native Americans to develop the family farms then typical of European Americans. This was not a concept that the Puyallup were comfortable adopting. They remained deeply involved in fishing, which constituted such an important part of their culture that it is surrounded by ritual and spirituality. With economic and social changes in the 20th and 21st centuries, the tribe needed to develop other sources of employment and income than farming for its people. In the 20th century, the tribe generated income through cigarette sales. They could sell them at a lower price and tax-free to non-Natives, as their reservation is sovereign territory and they need not pay state taxes from their businesses. In recent years, the tribe signed an agreement with the State of Washington to sell cigarettes with taxes paid. The tribe and the state have a sharing of tax revenue collected from sales of cigarettes. Casino history Since the late 20th century, numerous states have used gambling, based on lotteries and other methods, as a source of revenue to support programs wanted by taxpayers. Changes in federal law and negotiations with such states have enabled federally recognized tribes on many reservations to establish bingo and other gambling facilities to generate revenue. Searching for new revenues and employment for its people, the Puyallup opened the Emerald Queen Casino in 1996 on a paddlewheel riverboat, the Emerald Queen, which it berthed in the Port of Tacoma. The riverboat was acquired for $15 million and could accommodate 2,000 people. In 2004, as part of an agreement with the Port to accommodate further commercial development of the waterway, the tribe closed the operation on the boat and its shore-side property. The unused Emerald Queen riverboat remained docked in Tacoma until 2023, when it was sold to a barge operator based in Seattle. The tribe has developed related gaming and entertainment facilities in two other locations, keeping the name Emerald Queen Casino for its overall operation. In the 21st century, a majority of the tribe's income is generated from the gambling casinos and related restaurant, retail and hotel facilities. In total area, the casino is one of the largest casinos in Washington state. It has locations in both Tacoma and Fife. The Tacoma location, includes the casino, a restaurant and buffet and an entertainment venue hosting singers and comedians. The entertainment venue, in collaboration with Brian Halquist Productions, Inc., is host to the Battle at the Boat boxing series, which is the longest-running casino boxing series in the Pacific Northwest. A majority of the casino is located in a new 310,000 sq ft multi-level structure, which opened in June 2020; also includes a hotel and parking garage. The original I-5 location was intended as a temporary facility, and closed permanently in May 2020. It has continued to be used pending other development. The permanent structure of the old casino is located in the old Puyallup Bingo Hall. The I-5 location opened originally in 2001, and the tent addition was opened in 2004. The Fife location includes a casino and a 140-room hotel. The tribe adapted a Best Western hotel for these purposes after purchasing the building in 2004. After renovation, the casino was opened in early 2005. The tribe undertook a major expansion in summer 2007, building two parking garages, a pool, a spa, new administrative towers, a ballroom, and a larger gaming area. The casino's restaurant, formerly named the Pacific Rim, was moved to the south tower and renamed the Tatoosh Grill. What is now the Pacific Rim Buffet is located on the ground floor of the tower. A new building for the Tacoma location was opened on June 8, 2020, following a $400 million expansion project. The facility near I-5 has five restaurants and a 12-story, 170-room hotel. The project also includes an events center with capacity for 2,000 people. Other ventures The Puyallup Tribe has used its economic development branch, Marine View Ventures, to expand into operating several gas stations on the reservation. In the early 21st century, it was using gambling revenues to invest in a partnership for a large container facility at the Port of Tacoma. When completed, it will be the largest such facility in the Northwest and will connect the tribe to the shipping trade. The Puyallup Tribe has also invested in the state's legal cannabis market. The tribe's first recreational cannabis store, Commencement Bay Cannabis, is located in Fife, adjacent to the casino itself. References Puyallup Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land, Washington United States Census Bureau Communities on the Puyallup Reservation, United States Census Bureau External links Puyallup Tribe of Indians, official website Emerald Queen Casino Website Category:Lushootseed language Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state) Category:Puyallup

{"Image": "center|270px", "Population": "6,700 (3,000 on the reservation)", "Languages": "English, Lushootseed", "Related ethnic groups": "other Salishan peoples"}

Petrus Ramus (; Anglicized as Peter Ramus ; 1515 - 26 August 1572) was a French humanist, logician, and educational reformer. A Protestant convert, he was a victim of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. Early life He was born at the village of Cuts, Picardy; his father was a farmer. He gained admission at age twelve (thus about 1527) to the Collège de Navarre, working as a servant. A reaction against scholasticism was in full tide, at a transitional time for Aristotelianism. On the occasion of receiving his M.A. degree in 1536, Ramus allegedly took as his thesis Quaecumque ab Aristotele dicta essent, commentitia esse (Everything that Aristotle has said is false), which Walter J. Ong paraphrases as follows: According to OngOng, Ramus, pp. 36-37. this kind of spectacular thesis was in fact routine at the time. Even so, Ong raises questions as to whether Ramus actually ever delivered this thesis.Ong, Ramus, pp. 36-41. Early academic career Ramus, as graduate of the university, started courses of lectures. At this period he was engaged in numerous separate controversies. One opponent in 1543 was the Benedictine .Kees Meerhoff, Bartholomew Keckerman and the Anti-Ramist Tradition, in Christoph Strohm, Joseph S. Freedman, H. J. Selderhuis (editors), Späthumanismus und reformierte Konfession: Theologie, Jurisprudenz und Philosophie in Heidelberg an der Wende zum 17. Jahrhundert (2006), p. 188. He was accused, by Jacques Charpentier, professor of medicine, of undermining the foundations of philosophy and religion. Arnaud d'Ossat, a pupil and friend of Ramus, defended him against Charpentier. Ramus was made to debate Goveanus (Antonio de Gouveia), over two days.James J. Murphy, Peter Ramus's Attack on Cicero: Text and Translation of Ramus's Brutinae Quaestiones (1992), p. x. The matter was brought before the parlement of Paris, and finally before Francis I. By him it was referred to a commission of five, who found Ramus guilty of having "acted rashly, arrogantly and impudently," and interdicted his lectures (1544). Royal support He withdrew from Paris, but soon afterwards returned, the decree against him being canceled by Henry II, who came to the throne in 1547, through the influence of Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. He obtained a position at the Collège de Navarre.Robert Mandrou, From Humanism to Science 1480-1700 (1978), p. 122. In 1551 Henry II appointed him a regius professor at the Collège de France, but at his request he was given the unique and at the time controversial title of Professor of Philosophy and eloquence. For a considerable time he lectured before audiences numbering as many as 2,000. , another professor there, published Contra novam academiam Petri Rami oratio (1551), and called him a "parricide" for his attitude to Aristotle. The more serious charge was that he was a nouveau academicien, in other words a sceptic. Audomarus Talaeus (Omer Talon c.1510-1581), a close ally of Ramus, had indeed published a work in 1548 derived from Cicero's description of Academic scepticism, the school of Arcesilaus and Carneades.Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticim from Erasmus to Spinoza (1979), pp. 28-30. After conversion thumb|Ramus awaiting his murderers: wood engraving by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, 1840 In 1561 he faced significant enmity following his adoption of Protestantism. He had to flee from Paris; and, though he found asylum in the palace of Fontainebleau, his house was pillaged and his library burned in his absence. He resumed his chair after this for a time, but he was summoned on 30 June 1568 before the King's Attorney General to be heard with Simon Baudichon and other professors: the position of affairs was again so threatening that he found it advisable to ask permission to travel. He spent around two years, in Germany and Switzerland.Edward Craig, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998), p. 52. The La Rochelle Confession of Faith earned his disapproval, in 1571, rupturing his relationship with Theodore Beza and leading Ramus to write angrily to Heinrich Bullinger.John D. Woodbridge, Kenneth S. Kantzer, Biblical Authority: A Critique of the Rogers/McKim Proposal (1982), p. 185, with caveats. Returning to France, he fell a victim in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572). Hiding for a while in a bookshop off the Rue St Jacques, he returned to his lodgings, on 26 August, the third day of the violence. There he was stabbed while at prayer.Katherine Duncan-Jones, Sir Philip Sidney: Courter Poet (1991), p. 60. Suspicions against Charpentier have been voiced ever since.John Foxe's Book of Martyrs , under Pierre de la Ramée. His death was compared by one of his first biographers, his friend and colleague , to the murder of Cicero. Pedagogue A central issue is that Ramus's anti-Aristotelianism arose out of a concern for pedagogy. Aristotelian philosophy, in its Early Modern form as scholasticism showing its age, was in a confused and disordered state. Ramus sought to infuse order and simplicity into philosophical and scholastic education by reinvigorating a sense of dialectic as the overriding logical and methodological basis for the various disciplines. He published in 1543 the Aristotelicae Animadversiones and Dialecticae Partitiones, the former a criticism on the old logic and the latter a new textbook of the science. What are substantially fresh editions of the Partitiones appeared in 1547 as Institutiones Dialecticae, and in 1548 as Scholae Dialecticae; his Dialectique (1555), a French version of his system, is the earliest work on the subject in the French language. In the Dialecticae partitiones Ramus recommends the use of summaries, headings, citations and examples. Ong calls Ramus's use of outlines, "a reorganization of the whole of knowledge and indeed of the whole human lifeworld.""Ramus, method, and the decay of dialogue: From the art of discourse to the art of reason," 1958. Cambridge, MA: Harvard. After studying Ramus's work, Ong concluded that the results of his "methodizing" of the arts "are the amateurish works of a desperate man who is not a thinker but merely an erudite pedagogue".The Barbarian Within, 1962: 79-80. On the other hand, his work had an immediate impact on the issue of disciplinary boundaries, where educators largely accepted his arguments, by the end of the century.Michelle Ballif, Michael G. Moran, Classical Rhetorics and Rhetoricians: Critical Studies and Sources (2005), p. 92. Logician The logic of Ramus enjoyed a great celebrity for a time, and there existed a school of Ramists boasting numerous adherents in France, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. It cannot be said, however, that Ramus's innovations mark any epoch in the history of logic, and there is little ground for his claim to supersede Aristotle by an independent system of logic. The distinction between natural and artificial logic, i.e., between the implicit logic of daily speech and the same logic made explicit in a system, passed over into the logical handbooks. He amends the syllogism. He admits only the first three figures, as in the original Aristotelian scheme, and in his later works he also attacks the validity of the third figure, following in this the precedent of Laurentius Valla. Ramus also set the modern fashion of deducing the figures from the position of the middle term in the premises, instead of basing them, as Aristotle does, upon the different relation of the middle to the major term and minor term. Rhetorician As James Jasinski explains, "the range of rhetoric began to be narrowed during the 16th century, thanks in part to the works of Peter Ramus."Sourcebook on Rhetoric, 2001, pp. xvii-iii In using the word "narrowed," Jasinski is referring to Ramus's argument for divorcing rhetoric from dialectic (logic), a move that had far reaching implications for rhetorical studies and for popular conceptions of public persuasion. Contemporary rhetoricians have tended to reject Ramus's view in favor of a more wide ranging (and in many respects, Aristotelian) understanding of the rhetorical arts as encompassing "a [broad] range of ordinary language practices."Jasinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric, 2001, pp. xviii Rhetoric, traditionally, had had five parts, of which inventio (invention) was the first. Ramus insisted on rhetoric to be studied alongside dialectic through two main manuals: invention and judgement under the dialectic manual, and style and delivery in the rhetoric manual. Memory, one of the five skills of traditional rhetoric, was regarded by Ramus as being part of psychology, as opposed to being part of rhetoric, and thus dispensed from his idea of rhetoric and dialectic.Steven Reid, Ramus, Pedagogy and the Liberal Arts: Ramism in Britain and the Wider World(2013), p. 13. Brian Vickers said that the Ramist influence here did add to rhetoric: it concentrated more on the remaining aspect of elocutio or effective use of language, and emphasised the role of vernacular European languages (rather than Latin). Ramist reforms strengthened the rhetoricians' tendency to focus on style.Peter Dixon, Rhetoric (1971), p. 65. The effect was that rhetoric was applied in literature.Brian Vickers, In Defence of Rhetoric (1988), p. 206. Invention involves fourteen topics, including definition, cause, effect, subject, adjunct, difference, contrary, comparison, similarity, and testimony. Style encompasses four tropes: metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, and irony. It also includes rules for poetic meter and rhythmical prose, figures corresponding to attitudes a speaker may take, and of repetition. Delivery covers the use of voice and gestures.Steven Reid, Ramus, Pedagogy and the Liberal Arts: Ramism in Britain and the Wider World(2013), p. 8. His rhetorical leaning is seen in the definition of logic as the ars disserendi; he maintains that the rules of logic may be better learned from observation of the way in which Cicero persuaded his hearers than from a study of Aristotle's works on logic (the Organon). Logic falls, according to Ramus, into two parts: invention (treating of the notion and definition) and judgment (comprising the judgment proper, syllogism and method). Here he was influenced by Rodolphus Agricola. This division gave rise to the jocular designation of judgment or mother-wit as the "secunda Petri". But what Ramus does here in fact redefines rhetoric. There is a new configuration, with logic and rhetoric each having two parts: rhetoric was to cover elocutio and pronuntiatio. In general, Ramism liked to deal with binary trees as method for organising knowledge.Michael Losonsky, Language and Logic, in Donald Rutherford (editor), The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy (2006), p. 176. Mathematician He was also known as a mathematician, a student of Johannes Sturm. It has been suggested that Sturm was an influence in another way, by his lectures given in 1529 on Hermogenes of Tarsus: the Ramist method of dichotomy is to be found in Hermogenes.Thomas M. Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition (1994), p. 131. He had students of his own. He corresponded with John Dee on mathematics, and at one point recommended to Elizabeth I that she appoint him to a university chair.Peter French, John Dee (1972), p. 143. The views of Ramus on mathematics implied a limitation to the practical: he considered Euclid's theory on irrational numbers to be useless.Peter French, John Dee (1972), p. 169. The emphasis on technological applications and engineering mathematics was coupled to an appeal to nationalism (France was well behind Italy, and needed to catch up with Germany).A. G. Keller, Mathematicians, Mechanics, and Experimental Machines in Northern Italy in the Sixteenth Century, p. 16, in Maurice Crosland (editor), The Emergence of Technology in Western Europe (1975). Ramism The teachings of Ramus had a broadly based reception well into the seventeenth century. Later movements, such as Baconianism, pansophism, and Cartesianism, in different ways built on Ramism, and took advantage of the space cleared by some of the simplifications (and oversimplifications) it had effected. The longest-lasting strand of Ramism was in systematic Calvinist theology, where textbook treatments with a Ramist framework were still used into the eighteenth century, particularly in New England. The first writings on Ramism, after the death of Ramus, included biographies, and were by disciples of sorts: Freigius (1574 or 1575),Thomas Johannes Freigius (1543-1583) was a Swiss scholar; . Banosius (1576),Théophile de Banos (died c. 1595) was a Huguenot pastor and author, originally from Bordeaux. Commentariorum de religione Christiana libri quatuor, nunquam antea editi (Frankfurt, 1576) included a biography of Ramus; Banosius was preacher in Frankfurt 1572 to 1578. Note in . (1599), of whom only Nancelius was closely acquainted with the man. Followers of Ramus in different fields included Johannes Althusius, Caspar Olevianus, John Milton, Johannes Piscator, Rudolph Snellius and Hieronymus Treutler. Works thumb|Arithmeticae libri tres, 1557 He published fifty works in his lifetime and nine appeared after his death. Ong undertook the complex bibliographical task of tracing his books through their editions. Aristotelicae Animadversiones (1543) Brutinae questiones (1547) Rhetoricae distinctiones in Quintilianum (1549) Dialectique (1555) Arithmétique (1555) De moribus veterum Gallorum (Paris, 1559; second edition, Basel, 1572) Liber de Cæsaris Militia Paris, 1584 , au Roy, Paris, (1562) Three grammars: (1548), Grammatica Graeca (1560), (1562) (1565, 1566, 1578) Prooemium mathematicum (Paris, 1567) Scholarum mathematicarum libri unus et triginta (Basel, 1569) (his most famous work) Commentariorum de religione christiana (Frankfurt, 1576) See also Mnemonics Ramism Notes References Further reading Nelly Bruyère, Méthode et dialectique dans l'oeuvre de La Ramée: Renaissance et Age classique, Paris, Vrin 1984 Desmaze, Charles. Petrus Ramus, professeur au Collège de France, sa vie, ses ecrits, sa mort (Paris, 1864). Feingold, Mordechai; Freedman, Joseph S.; Rother, Wolfgang (eds.). The Influence of Petrus Ramus. Studies in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Philosophy and Sciences. Schwabe, Basel 2001, . Freedman, Joseph S. Philosophy and the Arts in Central Europe, 1500-1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities (Ashgate, 1999). Graves, Frank Pierrepont. Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation of the Sixteenth Century (Macmillan, 1912). Høffding, Harald. History of Modern Philosophy (English translation, 1900), vol. i.185. Howard Hotson, Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications, 1543-1630 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Lobstein, Paul. Petrus Ramus als Theolog (Strassburg, 1878). Miller, Perry. The New England Mind (Harvard University Press, 1939). Milton, John. A Fuller Course in the Art of Logic Conformed to the Method of Peter Ramus (London, 1672). Ed. and trans. Walter J. Ong and Charles J. Ermatinger. Complete Prose Works of John Milton: Volume 8. Ed. Maurice Kelley. New Haven: Yale UP, 1982. p. 206-407. Ong, Walter J. (1982). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. New York: Methuen.(p. viii). ---.Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Harvard University Press, 1958; reissued with a new foreword by Adrian Johns, University of Chicago Press, 2004.Ong, S.J., Walter J.: Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue ). ---. Ramus and Talon Inventory (Harvard University Press, 1958). Owen, John. The Skeptics of the French Renaissance (London, 1893). Pranti, K. "Uber P. Ramus" in Munchener Sitzungs berichte (1878). Saisset, Émile. Les précurseurs de Descartes (Paris, 1862). Sharratt, Peter. "The Present State of Studies on Ramus," Studi francesi 47-48 (1972) 201-13. —. "Recent Work on Peter Ramus (1970-1986)," Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric 5 (1987): 7-58. —. "Ramus 2000," Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric 18 (2000): 399-455. Voigt. Uber den Ramismus der Universität Leipzig (Leipzig, 1888). Waddington, Charles De Petri Rami vita, scriptis, philosophia (Paris, 1848). External links 'Ramism' entry in The Dictionary of the History of Ideas Catholic Encyclopedia entry Charles Waddington, Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée) sa vie, ses écrits et ses opinions (1855) Category:1515 births Category:1572 deaths Category:People from Oise Category:University of Paris alumni Category:Academic staff of the Collège de France Category:Christian humanists Category:French philosophers Category:French Renaissance humanists Category:French mathematicians Category:16th-century French mathematicians Category:16th-century French writers Category:16th-century male writers Category:16th-century philosophers Category:French rhetoricians Category:Rhetoric theorists Category:Trope theorists Category:Deaths by stabbing in France Category:People murdered in France Category:French murder victims Category:French Calvinist and Reformed Christians Category:16th-century Calvinist and Reformed Christians Category:Calvinist and Reformed philosophers

{"Region": "Western philosophy", "Era": "Renaissance philosophy", "School": "Renaissance humanismRamism", "Institutions": "Collège de France"}

Rainhill is a village and civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of St Helens, Merseyside, England. The population at the 2011 census was 10,853. Historically part of Lancashire, Rainhill was a township in the ecclesiastical parish of Prescot and hundred of West Derby. Following the Local Government Act 1894, it became part of the Whiston Rural District. The Rainhill Trials of 1829 resulted in the selection of Stephenson's Rocket as the world's first modern steam locomotive. History Early history Rainhill has been recorded since Norman times but its name is believed to come from the Old English personal name of Regna or Regan. It is thought that around the time of the Domesday Book that Rainhill was a part of one of the townships within the "Widnes fee". Recordings have shown that in the year of 1246, Roger of Rainhill died and the township was divided into two-halves for each of his daughters. One half was centred on the now standing Rainhill Manor public house, see Rainhill Stoops below, and the other centred on Rainhill Hall, just off Blundell's Lane. Industrial Revolution Towards the end of the 18th century, four Catholic sons of a farmer, who came from the area around Stonyhurst, decided to seek their fortunes in Liverpool. The names of the brothers were Joseph, Francis, Peter and Bartholomew Bretherton. In 1800, Bartholomew decided to break into the coaching business. The partnership that he had with one or two of his brothers quickly built up and by 1820, he had the bulk of the coaching trade of Liverpool. He was running coaches to and from Manchester fourteen times a day from the Saracen's Head in Dale Street, Liverpool. Bartholomew chose Rainhill as his first stage and he developed facilities on the land alongside the Ship Inn (originally the New Inn by Henry Parr 1780) and on this site he was believed to be stabling at least 240 horses, coach horses, farriers, coach builders and veterinaries. Bartholomew had begun to purchase land in Rainhill, and in 1824, he bought the Manor of Rainhill from Dr James Gerrard of Liverpool. By 1830, he owned over around Rainhill. In 1824, across the road from the stables, he built Rainhill House and laid out beautiful gardens around it. Between 1923 and 2014 the house was known as Loyola Hall, serving as a retreat centre run by the Society of Jesus. Since 2017 it has reverted to Rainhill Hall and is a wedding venue.https://www.signatureliving.co.uk/woodland-wedding-venue During the Victorian era, Rainhill was the location of a notorious mass murderer; Frederick Bailey Deeming. In March 1892, the bodies of a woman and her four children were discovered buried under the concrete floor of Dinham Villa, Lawton Road, Rainhill. thumb|The preserved Rocket Rainhill was the site of the 1829 Rainhill Trials, in which a number of railway locomotives were entered in a competition to decide a suitable design for use on the new Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The winner was the Rocket, designed by George Stephenson. In 1979 the 150th anniversary of the trials was celebrated by a cavalcade of trains through the ages, including replicas of the winner and runner-up in the trials. Geography The village of Rainhill lies east of Prescot, south-southwest of St Helens, east-northeast of Huyton and east of Liverpool City Centre. Rainhill Stoops The most southerly area of Rainhill is known as Rainhill Stoops . The name of junction 7 of the M62 motorway and the A570 is known as "Rainhill Stoops". Warrington Road was a prominent road as a route between the larger settlements of Liverpool, Prescot and Warrington with Rainhill on route. The stoops (a historic marker, waypost or similar guide) existed along the road at key positions. With the establishment in 1753 of the Liverpool to Prescot turnpike, and its subsequent extension to Rainhill and then on to Warrington, a system of toll bars were installed with one such barrier at the stoops. Landmarks thumb|right|Skew Bridge. Coloured engraving from 1831 thumb|Skew Bridge as seen today. Rainhill has several churches including: St Ann's, St Bartholomew's and St James' - which are Church of England, Roman Catholic and Methodist, respectively. There is also an evangelical church. St Ann's well, a medieval stone lined structure is on the border with Sutton. A feature of the village is the George Stephenson Skew Bridge, a skew arch bridge of sandstone construction that carries the main road over the railway. It takes its name from the unusual diagonal angle at which the railway passes under the bridge. It is the world's first bridge to cross over a railway at an angle. The bridge was later widened to accommodate increases in road traffic. The milestone on the bridge that informs travellers of the distances to Warrington, Prescot and Liverpool was moved to the opposite side at the time of the expansion. Therefore, the distance markers pointed to the wrong destinations. This quirk was corrected in 2005 when the milestone was returned to the correct side of the bridge. Economy Rainhill is now primarily a commuter village, mainly for workers in Liverpool but also St Helens and Widnes. Housing on the southerly side of Rainhill is a mixture of semi-detached and detached dwellings, whereas homes to the north, across the Skew Bridge there is a more varied mixture of housing with examples of terraced with semi-detached as well as bungalows. Rainhill as a whole has a mixture of modern, inter-war and Victorian dwellings. Rainhill has several medical centres but the largest and most notable is Scott Clinic which once treated Michael Abram after he was convicted of stabbing Beatles member George Harrison. Rainhill was also home to Rainhill Hospital at one time the largest mental health asylum in the world; which, in December 1911, housed 1,990 patients. This was demolished in 1991. Its former site is now a housing estate as well as accommodating Reeve Court, an extra-care housing project for older people. Transport Rainhill railway station is situated on the Liverpool City Line, between the railway stations of Whiston and Lea Green. There are regular buses serving the area notably the 10A bus route which runs from Queen's Square in Liverpool city centre via Kensington, Page Moss, Huyton and Rainhill to St. Helens. The 61 bus route runs from Liverpool ONE bus station via Wavertree and Rainhill to Widnes town centre. All public transport in Rainhill is co-ordinated by the Merseyside county passenger transport executive, Merseytravel. Education thumb|right|Tower College There are several primary schools in Rainhill: Oakdene, Longton Lane, St Ann's and St Bartholomew's. Secondary education is provided by Rainhill High School which caters for students aged 11-18. Rainhill High School has a Sixth Form Centre offering A-level and Level 3 vocational qualifications. Part of the Stephenson Trust, Rainhill High School and Sixth Form Centre is the lead academy in the trust. Tower College is also situated in Rainhill and is a private independent school which provides education for children aged 3-16. Sports Rainhill is home to several sporting clubs including Rainhill Town AFC, Rainhill Cricket Club, Rainhill Rockets, Rainhill United JFC and Blundell's Hill Golf Club as well as Rainhill Forge Amateur Boxing Club. Mohammed Ashraful, the Bangladesh national cricket team captain made several appearances for Rainhill Cricket Club in 2006. People and culture Rainhill is a suburban area with households mainly of families and the elderly. Crime in Rainhill had a 3.6% decrease in total recorded crime from 2010 to 2011 however there was a 33% rise in vehicle theft, a 9% increase in drug offences and a 3% growth in criminal damage and arson. Notable people Melanie C (also known as Sporty Spice) from the Spice Girls was brought up in Rainhill before moving to Widnes. Frank Cottrell Boyce, screenwriter and novelist, was brought up in Rainhill. David Yates, film and television director, was brought up in Rainhill. Ian Nolan, former Tranmere Rovers footballer, lives in Rainhill. Les Dennis, television presenter, lived in Rainhill. Steve Coppell, ex-Manchester United winger and ex-Reading manager, was brought up and lived in Rainhill. Sue Smith, international women's footballer, was a pupil at Rainhill High School and lives in Rainhill. Jenny Welsby, England women's international rugby league player, was brought up and lived in Rainhill. Alan A'Court, English footballer who mostly played for Liverpool. Cliff Hall of The Spinners lived in Rainhill. Raheem Sterling, footballer for Chelsea F.C and England, attended Rainhill High School. Andre Wisdom, footballer from Derby County, lives in Rainhill. Jordon Ibe, footballer for AFC Bournemouth, attended Rainhill High School. Willy Russell, playwright, was born in Whiston Hospital and lived in Rainhill as a child. Trent Alexander-Arnold, footballer for Liverpool and England, attended Rainhill High School. Ben Woodburn, Welsh footballer attended Rainhill High School. References External links Category:Towns and villages in the Metropolitan Borough of St Helens Category:Civil parishes in Merseyside

{"Sovereign state": "England", "Population": "(2011 Census)", "Metropolitan borough": "Metropolitan Borough of St Helens", "Metropolitan county": "Merseyside", "UK Parliament": "St Helens South and Whiston", "Postcode district": "L35", "Dialling code": "0151", "OS grid reference": "SJ494912", "Website": "http://rainhillparish.org.uk"}

Lakmé is an opera in three acts by Léo Delibes to a French libretto by Edmond Gondinet and Philippe Gille. The score, written from 1881 to 1882, was first performed on 14 April 1883 by the Opéra-Comique at the (second) Salle Favart in Paris, with stage decorations designed by Auguste Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon (act 1), Eugène Carpezat and (Joseph-)Antoine Lavastre (act 2), and Jean-Baptiste Lavastre (act 3). Set in British India in the mid-19th century, Lakmé is based on Théodore Pavie's story "Les babouches du Brahmane" and the novel by Pierre Loti.Charles P. D. Cronin and Betje Black Klier (1996), "Théodore Pavie's 'Les babouches du Brahmane' and the Story of Delibes's Lakmé", The Opera Quarterly 12 (4): 19-33. Gondinet proposed it as a vehicle for the American soprano Marie van Zandt. The opera includes the popular "Flower Duet" ("Sous le dôme épais") for a soprano and mezzo-soprano, performed in act 1 by Lakmé, the daughter of a Brahmin priest, and her servant Mallika."Lakmé by Leo Delibes", NPR. Retrieved 15 January 2011 The name Lakmé is the French rendition of Sanskrit Lakshmi, the name of the Hindu Goddess of Wealth. The opera's most famous aria is the "Bell Song" ("L'Air des clochettes") in act 2. Lakmé combines many orientalist aspects that were popular at the time: an exotic location, similar to other French operas of the period, such as Bizet's Les pêcheurs de perles and Massenet's Le roi de Lahore, a fanatical priest, mysterious Hindu rituals, and "the novelty of exotically colonial English people". Performance history Following its premiere at the Opéra Comique in 1883, Lakmé reached its 500th performance there on 23 June 1909 and 1,000th on 13 May 1931. A series of performances took place at the Théâtre Gaîté Lyrique Paris in 1908, with Alice Verlet, David Devriès and Félix Vieuille.Wolff, Stéphane. Un demi-siècle d'Opéra-Comique. André Bonne, Paris, 1953. Roles thumb|right|Jean-Alexandre Talazac as Gérald +RoleVoice typePremiere cast, 14 April 1883Conductor: Jules DanbéLakmé, a priestess, daughter of Nilakanthacoloratura sopranoMarie van ZandtGérald, a British army officertenorJean-Alexandre TalazacNilakantha, a Brahmin priestbassCobaletFrédéric, officer friend of GéraldbaritoneBarréMallika, slave of Lakmémezzo-sopranoElisa FrandinHadji, slave of NilakanthatenorChennevièreMiss Ellen, fiancée of GéraldsopranoRémyMiss Rose, companion of EllensopranoZoé Molé-TruffierMistress Bentson, a governessmezzo-sopranoPierronFortune teller (Un Domben)tenorTesteA Chinese merchanttenorDavoustLe KouravarbaritoneBernardChorus: Officers, ladies, merchants, Brahmins, musicians Synopsis thumb|upright=1.5|Opéra-Comique, 2017 Place: India Time: Late nineteenth century, during the British Raj. Act 1 The Hindus go to perform their rites in a sacred Brahmin temple under the high priest, Nilakantha. Nilakantha's daughter Lakmé, and her servant Mallika, are left behind and go down to the river to gather flowers where they sing together the "Flower Duet". As they approach the water at the river bank, Lakmé removes her jewellery and places it on a bench. Two British officers, Frederic and Gérald (Delibes uses Frenchified versions of the then common English names Frederick and Gerald), arrive nearby on a picnic with two British girls and their governess. The British girls see the jewellery and, impressed with it, request sketches of it; Gérald volunteers to stay and make sketches of the jewellery. He spots Lakmé and Mallika returning and hides. Mallika leaves Lakmé for a while; while alone Lakmé sees Gérald and, frightened by the foreigner's incursion, cries out for help. However, simultaneously, she is also intrigued by him and so she sends away those who had responded to her call for help when they come to her aid. Lakmé and Gérald begin to fall in love with each other. Nilakantha returns and learns of the British officer's trespassing, vowing revenge on him for what he assumes to be an affront to Lakmé's honour. Act 2 At a busy bazaar, Nilakantha forces Lakmé to sing (the "Bell Song") in order to lure the trespasser into identifying himself. When Gérald steps forward, Lakmé faints, thus giving him away. Nilakantha stabs Gérald, wounding him. Lakmé takes Gérald to a secret hideout in the forest, where she lovingly nurses him back to health. Act 3 While Lakmé fetches sacred water that will confirm the vows of the lovers, Fréderic, Gérald's fellow British officer, appears before Gérald and reminds him of his military duty to his regiment. Gérald sadly accepts that his colleague is correct. After Lakmé returns, she senses the change in Gérald and realises that she has lost him. She dies with honour, rather than live with dishonour, killing herself by eating the poisonous datura leaf. Music In conventional form and pleasant style, but given over to the fashion for exoticism, the delicate orchestration and melodic richness earned Delibes a success with audiences.Lacombe, Hervé. The Keys to French Opera in the Nineteenth Century, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001. The passionate elements of the opera are given warm and expressive music, while the score in general is marked by subtle harmonic colours and deft orchestration. Oriental colour is used in prayers, incantations, dances and the scene in the market. The act 2 aria "Où va la jeune Hindoue?" (the Bell Song) has long been a favourite recital piece for coloratura sopranos. (Recordings of it in Italian, as "", also exist.) In recent years, the Flower Duet in act 1 has become familiar more widely because of its use in advertisements, in particular a British Airways commercial, as well as in films.For example, The Hunger The duet sung by Lakme and Mallika was adapted for the theme "Aria on air" for the British Airways "face" advertisements of the 1980s by music composers Yanni and Malcolm McLaren. Musical numbers Prelude Act 1 No. 1 Introduction: "À l'heure accoutumée" (At the usual time) (Nilakantha) Prayer: "Blanche Dourga" (White Durga) (Lakmé, Nilakantha) No. 1b - Scene: "Lakmé, c'est toi qui nous protège!" (Lakmé, it is you who protect us!) (Nilakantha, Lakmé) No. 2 - Duet (Flower Duet): "Viens, Mallika, les lianes en fleurs ... Dôme épais, le jasmin" (Come Mallika, the lianas in bloom ... The jasmine forms a dense dome) (Lakmé, Mallika) Scene: "Miss Rose, Miss Ellen" (Gérald) No. 3 - Quintet & couplets: "Quand une femme est si jolie" (When a woman is so pretty) (Gérald) Recitative: "Nous commettons un sacrilège" (We are committing sacrilege) (Gérald) No. 4 - Air: "Prendre le dessin d'un bijou" (Make a drawing of a jewel) (Gérald) No. 4b - Scene: "Non! Je ne veux pas toucher" (No! I do not want to touch) (Gérald, Lakmé) No. 5 - Recitative & Strophes: "Les fleurs me paraissent plus belles" (The flowers appear more beautiful to me) (Lakmé) No. 5b - Recitative: "Ah! Mallika! Mallika!" (Lakmé) No. 6 - Duet: "D'où viens-tu? Que veux-tu?" (Where are you from? What do you want?) (Lakmé, Gérald) No. 6b - Scene: "Viens! Là! Là!" (Come! There! There!) (Nilakantha, Lakmé) Act 2 Entr'acte No. 7 - Chorus & March: "Allons, avant que midi sonne" (Come before noon sounds) No. 7b - Recitative: "Enfin! Nous aurons du silence!" (Finally! We will have silence!) No. 8 - Airs de danse: Introduction No. 8 - Airs de danse: Terana No. 8 - Airs de danse: Rektah No. 8 - Airs de danse: Persian No. 8 - Airs de danse: Coda avec Choeurs No. 8 - Airs de danse: Sortie Recitative: "Voyez donc ce vieillard" (So see that old man) No. 9 - Scène & Stances: "Ah! Ce vieillard encore!"" (Ah! That old man again!) (Nilankantha, Lakmé) No. 9b - Recitative: "Ah! C'est de ta douleur" (Ah! It's your pain) (Lakmé, Nilankantha) No. 10 - Scène & Légende de la fille du Paria (Air des Clochettes/The Bell Song):"Ah!... Par les dieux inspires... Où va la jeune Hindoue" (Ah... Inspired by the gods... Where is the Hindu girl going) (Lakmé, Nilankantha) No. 11 - Scène: "La rage me dévore" (Rage consumes me) (Nilankantha, Lakmé) No. 12 - Scène & Choeur: "Au milieu des chants d'allegresse" (Amid chants of cheerfulness) (Nilankantha, Lakmé) No. 12b - Recitative: "Le maître ne pense qu'à sa vengeance" (The master thinks only of his revenge) No. 13 - Duet: "Lakmé! Lakmé! C'est toi!" (Lakmé! Lakmé! It's you!) (Lakmé, Gérald) No. 14 - Finale: "O Dourga, toi qui renais" (O Durga, you who are reborn) (Gérald) Act 3 Entr'acte No. 15 - Berceuse: "Sous le ciel tout étoilé" (Beneath the star-filled sky) (Lakmé) No. 15b - Recitative: "Quel vague souvenir alourdit ma pensée?" (What vague memory weighs down my thought?) (Gérald, Lakmé) No. 16 - Cantilène: "Lakmé! Lakmé! Ah! Viens dans la forêt profonde" (Lakmé! Lakmé! Ah! Come into the deep forest) (Gérald) No. 17 - Scène & Choeur: "Là, je pourrai t'entendre (There I will be able to hear you) (Lakmé, Gérald) No. 18 - Scène: "Vivant!" (Alive!) (Gérald) No. 19 - Duet: "Ils allaient deux à deux" (They went two by two) (Lakmé, Gérald) No. 20 - Finale: "C'est lui! C'est lui!" (It's him! It's him!) (Nilankantha, Lakmé, Gérald) Recordings 1940: Lily Pons (Lakmé), Armand Tokatyan (Gérald), Ezio Pinza (Nilakantha), Ira Petina (Mallika), New York Metropolitan Opera Chorus and Orchestra, Wilfrid Pelletier (conductor) (The Golden Age; live) 1952: Mado Robin (Lakmé), Libero de Luca (Gérald), Jacques Jansen (Frédéric), Jean Borthayre (Nilakantha), Agnés Disney (Mallika), Chœurs et Orchestre du Théâtre National de l'Opéra-Comique, Georges Sébastian (conductor) (Decca) 1967: Joan Sutherland (Lakmé), Alain Vanzo (Gérald), Gabriel Bacquier (Nilakantha), Jane Berbié (Mallika), Chœurs et Orchestre National de l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo, Richard Bonynge (conductor) (Decca) 1970: Mady Mesplé (Lakmé), Charles Burles (Gérald), Roger Soyer (Nilakantha), Danielle Millet (Mallika), Chœurs et Orchestre du Théâtre National de l'Opéra-Comique, Alain Lombard (conductor) (EMI) 1998: Natalie Dessay (Lakmé), Gregory Kunde (Gérald), José van Dam (Nilakantha), Delphine Haidan (Mallika), Chœur et Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse, Michel Plasson (conductor) (EMI) 2012: Emma Matthews (Lakmé), Aldo di Toro (Gérald), Stephen Bennett (Nilakantha), Opera Australia Chorus and Australian Opera and Ballet Orchestra, Emmanuel Joel-Hornak (conductor) (Opera Australia OPOZ56021BD (Blu-ray), OPOZ56020DVD (DVD), OPOZ56022CD) In film In the 1935 film I Dream Too Much, Lily Pons sings an excerpt from the Bell Song. In the 1947 film It Happened in Brooklyn, Kathryn Grayson performs the Bell Song in an operatic stage sequence. In the 1983 film The Hunger, the character portrayed by Catherine Deneuve plays the Flower Duet on the piano, then the music shifts into an actual opera recording."The Hunger soundtrack", imdb.com. Retrieved 4 February 2020 In Carlito's Way (1993), "Dôme épais le jasmin" plays while Carlito watches Gail teach a dance class, protecting himself from the rain with the lid of trash can. In the 2016 biographical film Florence Foster Jenkins, Lily Pons (portrayed by Aida Garifullina) sings the Bell Song. References External links Libretto, operone.de (in French) Lakmé in films. Essay by Donald Fagen of Steely Dan about the use of music from the opera Category:Operas by Léo Delibes Category:French-language operas Category:1883 operas Category:Operas Category:Opera world premieres at the Opéra-Comique Category:Operas set in India Category:Operas based on novels Category:Adaptations of works by Pierre Loti

{"Librettist": "Edmond Gondinet\n Philippe Gille", "Language": "French", "Based on": "Théodore Pavie's story \"Les babouches du Brahamane\"", "Premiere": "Opéra-Comique, Paris"}

Liverpool Lime Street is a terminus railway station and the main station serving the city centre of Liverpool. Opened in August 1836, it is the oldest still-operating grand terminus mainline station in the world. A branch of the West Coast Main Line from London Euston terminates at the station, as does the original Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Journeys from Lime Street cover a wide range of destinations across England, Scotland and Wales. Having realised that their existing Crown Street railway station was too far away from the city centre, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway commenced construction of the more central Lime Street station in October 1833. Designed by John Cunningham, Arthur Holme and John Foster Jr, it was officially opened in August 1836. Proving to be very popular with train commuters, expansion of the station had become necessary within six years of its opening. The first expansion, which was collaboratively produced by Joseph Locke, Richard Turner, William Fairbairn and John Kennedy, was completed in 1849 at a total cost of £15,000 (). During 1867, work upon a further expansion of Lime Street station commenced, during which time the present northern arched train shed was built. Designed by William Baker and Francis Stevenson, the train shed was the largest such structure in the world upon completion, featuring a span of , as well as the first to make extensive use of iron. During 1879, a second parallel southern train shed was completed. Following the nationalisation of the railways in 1948, Lime Street station was the subject of various upgrades and alterations, including new signalling systems in and around the station, a redeveloped concourse, and new retail and office spaces. In 1962, regular electric services between Lime Street and Crewe were officially started and, in 1966, the station hosted the launch of its first InterCity service, which saw the introduction of a regular service between Liverpool and London. During the 1970s, a new urban rail network known as Merseyrail was developed, while all other long-distance terminal stations in Liverpool were closed, resulting in such services being centralised at Lime Street for the whole city. In October 2003, the Pendolino service operated by Virgin Trains West Coast was ceremonially unveiled at the station, introducing a faster service between Liverpool and London. In May 2015, the electrification of the former Liverpool and Manchester Railway route was completed, as well as the line to Wigan via St Helens Central. Lime Street station is fronted by a large building designed in the Renaissance Revival style, the former North Western Hotel, which served as a hotel, office and student accommodation and now back to a hotel as the Radisson Red Liverpool Hotel. The hotel is set to open in December 2022. Since the 1970s, the main terminal building has also provided direct access to the underground Lime Street Wirral Line station on the Merseyrail network. Beginning in the 1960s, the Concourse House office tower block and several retailers stood outside the southern train shed, but they were demolished in 2010. Lime Street is the largest and oldest railway station in Liverpool; it is one of 18 stations managed by national infrastructure maintenance company Network Rail. During 2017, work commenced at Lime Street station on a £340 million remodelling programme. In Britain's 100 Best Railway Stations, written by columnist and editor Simon Jenkins, Lime Street Station was one of only ten stations to be awarded 5/5 stars.Jenkins, Simon and Richard Morrison. "Review: Britain’s 100 Best Railway Stations by Simon Jenkins." The Times, 9 December 2017. History Origins The original terminus of the 1830 Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR) was located at Crown Street, in Edge Hill, to the east of and outside the city centre. However, even before Edge Hill had been opened, it was apparent that there was a pressing need for another station to be built, which would this time be closer to the city centre. Accordingly, during October 1833, the construction commenced on a purpose-built station at Lime Street in the city centre; the land was purchased from Liverpool Corporation for £9,000 (). The means of connecting the new station to L&MR's network came in the form of a twin-track tunnel, which had been constructed between Edge Hill and the site of the new Lime Street station a year prior to work being started on the station itself; during the construction effort, the tunnel was frequently used to transport building materials for the station onto the site. The station was designed by the architects John Cunningham, Arthur Holme, and John Foster Jr. thumb|A period depiction of the original Lime Street Station frontage circa 1839 During August 1836, Lime Street Station was officially opened to the public, although the construction process was not completed until the following year. This building was designed with four large gateways, two of which were intentionally nonfunctional. For its early operations, as a consequence of the steep incline uphill from Lime Street to Edge Hill, trains would be halted at Edge Hill and the locomotives detached from the trains; the practice of the era was for the passenger carriages to be taken down by gravity, during which the rate of descent would be controlled by brakemen located in a brake van. The return journey was achieved via the use of a stationary steam engine located at Edge Hill, which would be used to haul the carriages up to Edge Hill by rope. This system was constructed by the local engineering firm Mather, Dixon and Company, who worked under the direction of the engineer John Grantham. During 1870, this practice came to an end; instead, trains would enter and depart the station by conventional means. Early expansion Lime Street Station was a near-instant success with the railway-going public. Within six years of its opening, the rapid growth of the railways had necessitated the expansion of the original station. An early plan for the enlarged station would have involved the erection of an iron roof, similar to that found at Euston station (pre 1960's rebuilding) in London, which was a ridge roof supported by iron columns. However, a different proposal quickly gained the approval of the station committee. A single curved roof was produced by a collaborative effort; designed and load tested by engineer Joseph Locke, with construction contracted to iron founder Richard Turner, and the work checked by engineer William Fairbairn and manufacturer John Kennedy. The expansion work was performed at a cost of £15,000 () and was completed during 1849, by which time the noted architect William Tite had also been involved. Meanwhile, during 1845, the L&MR had been absorbed by its principal business partner, the Grand Junction Railway (GJR); the following year the GJR became part of the London and North Western Railway. Amongst the features which date back to the 1846-1849 rebuild of the station are a group of four columns which adjoin former Platform 1, they have been attributed to engineer Edward Woods. By 1857, a pair of granite columns had been erected outside the station entrance; over time, these had become known as the "Candlesticks". During 1867, further expansion of Lime Street Station was required to cope with operational demands; changes included the present northern arched train shed. Designed by William Baker and Francis Stevenson the train shed featured a span of , leading to it being recognised as the largest such structure in the world at the time. It was also the first train shed in which iron was used throughout. During 1879, a second parallel southern train shed was completed, which had been designed by Stevenson and E.W. Ives. This second train shed featured dry construction techniques,That is, without the use of mortar. while each bay reportedly took only three days to build. thumb|Inward view of Liverpool Lime Street Station in 1959 Lime Street Station is fronted by a large building, built in the Renaissance Revival style, which formerly housed the North Western Hotel. Designed by Alfred Waterhouse, the building was built during 1871 and served as student accommodation for Liverpool John Moores University from 1996. It was announced on 28 September 2018 that the building will be restored as a hotel by the Marcus Worthington Group at a cost of £30m. It will reopen as the Radisson RED Liverpool Hotel in 2020. As a result of the Railways Act 1921, which grouped the majority of railway companies together to create the Big Four, Lime Street Station passed into the ownership of the newly formed London, Midland and Scottish (LMS) railway. The station played an early role in the development of mail trains, the Post Office first dispatched mail by train from Lime Street. British Rail era thumb|right|The station's frontage seen in 2006, including the Concourse House tower block and a row of shops, which were demolished in 2009. Upon nationalisation of the railways during 1948, Lime Street Station became a part of the London Midland Region of British Railways. On 28 January 1948, a new signal box controlling movements in and around Lime Street was commissioned; this signal box would remain in use for almost 70 years, being one of the last lever frames boxes still in operation by the time of its decommissioning during 2017-2018. During 1955, the station concourse was redeveloped and modernised. During 1959, preparatory work commenced at Lime Street for the first stage of the electrification of the West Coast Main Line. On 1 January 1962, regular electric services between Lime Street and Crewe were officially started. The railway lines to former platforms 10 and 11 were removed by 1965. On 18 April 1966, the station hosted the launch of its first InterCity service, which saw the introduction of a regular service between Liverpool and London. On 11 August 1968, the Fifteen Guinea Special, a return service to Carlisle, was hauled by the Black Five locomotive 45110 from Liverpool to and back. Arriving back at Lime Street at 7:58 pm, this train marked the end of British Railways' final steam-hauled mainline passenger journey. thumb|The Merseyrail map in use until 2018, when Maghull North was included. Lime Street is visible on the right-hand side of the central loop. An office tower block named Concourse House, along with a row of small retail outlets, used to stand outside the southern train shed, obscuring the arches. These dated from the 1960s, and by the 2000s had become run down. They were demolished as part of a comprehensive refurbishment completed in 2010. During the 1970s, a new urban rail network, known as Merseyrail was developed, resulting in four terminus stations being taken out of use in Liverpool and Birkenhead centres.These were Birkenhead Woodside, Liverpool Riverside, Liverpool Exchange and Liverpool Central High Level stations. As a consequence of this restructuring and rationalization, only Lime Street remained as a terminus, thus serving as a central point for the whole region for medium- and long-haul routes. At the same time, the Merseyrail network provided commuters with ease of access across the whole Merseyside region to the one remaining large terminus. Between 1983 and 1984, the station concourse was again altered and refurbished at a total estimated cost of £7.4 million. This refurbishment included the construction of the black glass building which partially surrounds platforms inside the northern train shed, as well as the glass screen which separates the concourse from platforms inside the southern train shed. The alterations also coincided with the opening of the International Garden Festival. On 29 November 1984, the new development was officially opened by Princess Anne. Privatisation era thumb|right|Statues of Ken Dodd and Bessie Braddock, installed in 2009 On 20 October 2003, the new Pendolino service operated by private rail operator Virgin Trains, which introduced a faster service between Liverpool and London, was ceremonially unveiled in the presence of the company's founder and chief executive officer Richard Branson. Designed from the onset to be a tilting train, it quickly replaced much of the previously-allocated locomotives and rolling stock used on the West Coast Main Line, namely the British Rail Class 86, 87 and 90 electric locomotives and Mark 2 and Mark 3 coaching stock. Prior to this, the fleet had been first introduced into passenger services from Birmingham International to Manchester Piccadilly on 23 July 2002 to coincide with the opening of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester."Virgin Pendolino starts." Rail Engineer, 1 September 2002. To help celebrate several high-profile occasions, such as Liverpool's role as European Capital of Culture during 2008, and the city's 800th anniversary in 2007, a £35 million redevelopment grant was issued for the station and its immediate surroundings. The Lime Street Gateway Project saw the demolition of the aging retail parade and office block located in front of the station, and an improved frontage and public plaza constructed in its place. Subsequently, Lime Street was voted Station of the Year 2010 at the National Rail Awards. The development was overseen by English Partnerships and was completed in October 2010. The main concourse features a pair of statues of comedian Ken Dodd and politician Bessie Braddock, a work entitled "Chance Meeting" by sculptor Tom Murphy, which were unveiled by Ken Dodd himself during June 2009. On 31 August 2014, the Earl of Wessex unveiled a memorial to the Liverpool Pals at the station. The memorial, which comprises two bronze friezes, was also sculpted by Tom Murphy. During 2014, former Platforms 1-5 were fully refurbished by national rail infrastructure maintenance company Network Rail. Electrification to Manchester and Wigan Completion of electrification of the former Liverpool and Manchester Railway's route, and the line to Wigan via St Helens Central, during May 2015 led to a recast of timetables. This included the introduction of a brand new TransPennine Express service to Newcastle via Manchester Victoria, running alongside the existing service to via and . It was unclear whether suitable electric rolling stock would be available in time for the completion of the work, but it was confirmed during April 2014 that electric trains would be available to operate the new electric services, and the first trains were introduced from March 2015, initially on the service to , with services to , and following over the course of the year. 2017 wall collapse At around 17:45 on 28 February 2017, the station was cut off after a wall collapsed into the cutting between Lime Street and Edge Hill, causing more than 200 tonnes of debris to fall onto all four of the tracks running into the throat of the station. While the line was blocked, Virgin trains terminated at Runcorn and other trains terminated at Liverpool South Parkway. The debris was cleared up, with repairs made to the overhead wires, and the station reopened just over a week later on 8 March 2017. 2017-18 station remodelling thumb|Liverpool Lime Street Station at night in December 2018. During 2017, work commenced upon a £340 million remodelling programme intended to improve Lime Street Station by modernising its signalling systems, install new platforms, and other to better conform with current demands. A major impetus for the work was the age of the station's signalling, the core of which dated from the 1940s and was increasingly difficult to acquire knowledgeable staff for its operation and maintenance; furthermore, as resignalling of the existing station layout offered only slightly less work than the implementation of an entirely fresh layout, only without the benefits of being able to do so, it was decided to take the rare occasion as a convenient chance to make various alterations and improvements at the same time. Perhaps the most noticeable change made for the perspective of passengers was the creation of an additional pair of platforms, which were built in the large space available between Platforms 7 and 8 (now 6 and 9); all of the other platforms were also lengthened and widened as a part of this work. thumb|right|The former "cab road", between former platforms 7 and 8 (now 6 and 9), which was replaced by two new platforms. According to industry publication Rail Engineer, the old layout of the station was relatively complex and posed some operational difficulties; many of the alterations sought to ease or eliminate some of these issues. As the curving of Platform 6 (now 5) had been a source of long-term driver difficulty in maintaining signal sightings, the platform was reprofiled to be straighter, permanently ending the problem. The new layout provides five platforms on each side of the station; beyond being simpler, the change facilitates the departure speed being increased from 15 to 25 mph and is also compatible with being maintained by modern mechanised equipment. In conjunction with the layout changes, new Mk3D overhead line equipment was installed along the route between Lime Street station and Edge Hill. Control of the signalling was transferred over to the centralised Manchester Rail Operating Centre. The remodelling of Lime Street had been deemed necessary in order to provide the capacity for additional services to Glasgow, which are set to start during 2019. Various new retail outlets, along with a supermarket, were also established by work performed during the programme. To accommodate the work, the station was mostly closed over a twenty-three day period, which started on 30 September 2017; during the latter stages of this blockade, limited services ran to/from Huyton and some destinations beyond this. The station closed from 2 June 2018 to 29 July 2018 to allow more of the remodelling to be undertaken. Station layout Liverpool Lime Street is divided into two sections: the mainline station, which offers national inter-city and regional overground services including local City Line routes, and services on the Wirral Line on the Merseyrail network, located underground between the mainline station and St George's Hall. Mainline station thumb|right|The station is fronted by the Radisson RED Liverpool Hotel, built in the Renaissance Revival style resembling a French Château. The mainline station is covered by the vast iron and glass roofs dating from the 1870s. The north train shed is fronted by a 1871 French Château styled building occupied by the Radisson RED Liverpool Hotel. The hotel is scheduled to open in the first quarter of 2022. Platforms 1 to 5 are shorter than 6 to 10, the latter dealing mainly with long-distance services to London, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and Norwich. Access to platforms 1-5 is through a ticket inspection barrier similar to airport passport control, while former platform 7 was gated with the creation of new shops and facilities. Former Platforms 8 and 9 were still "open". In 2009, new buildings were erected in the old "cab road" area between former platforms 7 and 8. Until the 2018 station remodelling, these housed customer lounges, the Virgin Trains customer service point, and an ATM, and there were retail units which had coffee shops amongst the units. + Platform numberingBracketed () items have no track. -2018 2018- Northern train shed1(0)2132435465 Southern train shedE(E)76(Cab road)7(Cab road)889910 There were also four non-passenger tracks.Trackatlas 2009. Three of these were headshunts, created in the northern trainshed to turn locomotives around: Track A, in between former platforms 1 and 2; track B, serving former platforms 3 and 4; and track D, for former platforms 5 and 6. There is also a platform with no passenger service between former platforms 6 and 7, known as platform E, or sometimes affectionately as platform 6¾. thumb|right|alt=The view from the end of platform 6 looking along the cutting at Liverpool Lime Street.|The view from the end of platform 6 looking along the cutting at Liverpool Lime Street. Facilities Toilets, booking offices, shops, a left-luggage office, taxi ranks and coffee bars are amongst the facilities provided. The main booking office is operated by Northern Trains. The concourse of the station contains several shops, including branches of M&S Simply Food, Starbucks, Upper Crust, Krispy Kreme, Costa Coffee, Boots and WHSmith. Car parking is managed by APCOA. The station also has two taxi ranks. Public transport links The station has direct bus services to the Liverpool One bus station on the 10A and 18 route, from the bus station for Liverpool John Lennon Airport use services 86A (frequent & night services) and 500. The bus services are provided by Arriva North West Services The main station is currently served by six train operating companies serving a wide variety of destinations. Services out of Lime Street () are as follows: thumb|right|An East Midlands Trains Class 158 at former Platform 6 East Midlands Railway East Midlands Railway operate an hourly service to Norwich via Warrington Central, Manchester Piccadilly, , Sheffield and Nottingham. Late afternoon and evening services terminate or start at Nottingham.GB eNRT December 2022 Edition, Table 53 (Network Rail) TransPennine Express TransPennine Express currently operate two trains per hour on their North Route via the Chat Moss line to , continuing to and , and one train per hour on their South Route via to , and continuing to via . Additionally, there are two trains per day to via the West Coast Main Line. thumb|left|A London Midland Class 350 at former Platform 8 London Northwestern Railway London Northwestern Railway currently operate an hourly service to via , calling at the local stations between and . thumb|right|A Class 319 at former Platform 2. The new electric services to Manchester Victoria and Wigan North Western were both officially timetabled from 17 May 2015 Northern Northern is the main train operating company at Lime Street, operating the ticket office. Services include: 1 train per hour to via , and 1 train per hour to via (semi-fast to Warrington Central) 1 train per hour to (stopping) 2 trains per hour to via 1 train per hour to via , and (fast to Wigan) thumb|right|A Virgin Trains Class 390 at former Platform 7 Avanti West Coast Avanti West Coast operate an hourly Pendolino service to London Euston calling at Runcorn, and Stafford (peak services call additionally at Lichfield Trent Valley, Tamworth, Nuneaton, Rugby, Milton Keynes Central and Watford Junction).GB eNRT December 2022 Edition, Table 65 (Network Rail) Transport for Wales Transport for Wales operate a two-hourly service to Chester via Runcorn, using the Halton Curve with occasional extensions to Wrexham General. Service summary Proposed services CrossCountry Trains Consultation 2018 The Department for Transport's 2018 consultation on the future of the CrossCountry franchise, which was due for renewal in 2019 but was later cancelled in September 2018 but cited Liverpool as a potential new destination for CrossCountry train service. If adopted this may restore some of the services lost in 2003. The Consultation closed in August 2018. Despite the cancellation of the competition, the consultation responses will be used to help develop options for the future of the franchise so Liverpool may be considered as a potential destination in the future. Long Term Rail Strategy Proposals In a long term rail strategy by Merseytravel, new direct services to Cardiff, Bristol, Leicester, Derby, Glasgow Central and Edinburgh Waverley have been proposed.https://www.merseytravel.gov.uk/Site%20Documents/LCR%20LTRS_Strategy%20Summary_01_08_14_Final%20Issue%20(6)_MTravel.pdf p.17 Virgin Trains Open Access Proposal In June 2019, Virgin Trains lodged an application for an open access service from to Liverpool Lime Street calling at , , , and Liverpool Lime Street to rival the future West Coast Partnership franchise Avanti West Coast from December 2022.Virgin Trains plans rival London-Liverpool services after franchise loss 11 June 2019 West Coast Partnership In August 2019, it was announced that Avanti West Coast would operate the West Coast Partnership franchise from December 2019. As part of the award, the new operator will look at providing up to two trains per hour between Liverpool Lime Street and from December 2022, subject to approval by the Office of Rail and Road.West Coast Partnership franchise improvements map Department for Transport; 14 August 2019. Future Northern and TransPennine Franchises In November 2018, it was revealed by Transport for the North several options for the future Northern and TransPennine franchise. Some options for Liverpool include extension of Liverpool to Crewe services towards Stoke-on-Trent and Alsager, increasing Liverpool to Blackpool North services and a new Liverpool to Leicester service via Crewe, Stoke-on-Trent, Uttoxeter and Derby. The Leicester service could be operated by either TransPennine Express or the future East Midlands Franchise.Modern Railways December 2018 p.13 TransPennine Franchise Agreement As part of the TransPennine Express (TPE) franchise agreement (awarded to FirstGroup which started services in April 2016), there will be three new direct services per day to Glasgow Central via Preston along the West Coast main line. The current hourly TPE Newcastle route was extended via to Edinburgh Waverley in December 2019. In 2005 Renaissance Trains proposed a twice-daily service from Lime Street to Glasgow Central, with weekend trains running instead from Blackpool to Glasgow.Briefing Concerning Glasgow Trains Proposal Renaissance Trains 18 October 2006"Renaissance for Glasgow-Nottingham" Rail issue 509 16 March 2005 page 12 The proposal did not get enough investment backing, but was revived in 2014. Chester, Wales and Shrewsbury via the Halton Curve The completion of the upgrade of the Halton Curve in 2018 provides a second rail route between Liverpool and Chester, and permits the introduction of new direct services from Liverpool to Wrexham, Llandudno and other parts of North Wales. As part of the new Wales & Borders franchise services to Chester were introduced in May 2019 with future services to Llandudno and Shrewsbury every hour and services to Cardiff every two hours planned. London Euston It was also proposed by 2016 that London Midland will also operate an hourly service to London Euston (as an extension of its existing Trent Valley semi-fast service), however, this was rejected by the Office of Rail Regulation. . From May 2019, its successor London Northwestern Railway operates a London to Liverpool service via Birmingham New Street.LNWR Timetable Timetable Liverpool to Birmingham/London 19 May to 14 December 2019 Northern Franchise Agreement As part of the Northern franchise agreement (awarded to Arriva, which started in April 2016), from December 2019 there will be a new "Northern Connect" service to Leeds via Manchester Victoria and Bradford Interchange (replacing the current all-stations local service to Victoria). This is the first time there is a direct service through to Rochdale, Halifax and Bradford Interchange since the timetable change on 10 December 2006 when Northern terminated all services at Manchester Victoria. Underground station thumb|right|The refurbished Wirral Line platform, at Lime Street underground station in 2015, with a Merseyrail Class 507 service The underground station consists of a single platform (sometimes referred to as Platform L), alongside the 1970s Liverpool Loop tunnel and a ticket hall above. The station, opened in 1977, is connected to the mainline station by means of a pedestrian subway and escalators, accessed via a long passageway which crosses beneath Lime Street itself, and by a lift from the main concourse. 2013 refurbishment Network Rail announced in early 2013 that Lime Street was to be the third station to be refurbished as part of the £40 million investment which would see all Merseyrail underground stations excluding Conway Park refurbished. This included the refurbishment of the platform and the booking hall. The station refurbishment work took place between April and August 2013. Subway refurbishment The subway linking the underground station to the mainline station was refurbished in June 2014. The subway was fitted out with new tiles, lighting, flooring and automatic doors to some of the entrances. Recent history The underground station had Wi-Fi installed in January 2016. In March 2016, it was announced that the Wirral Line loop would be having its track renewed. The underground station was closed between 3 January 2017 and 18 June 2017 whilst the works took place. Services Services operate on a five-minute frequency Monday-Saturday, and between five- and ten-minute frequency on Sundays in the winter. All trains travel through to Liverpool Central and Birkenhead of which: Four trains per hour continue to New Brighton Four trains per hour continue to West Kirby Four trains per hour continue to Chester Two trains per hour continue to Ellesmere Port To reach destinations on the Northern Line of the network, passengers must either use the Wirral Line and change at Liverpool Central station or walk the short distance to the station. Notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading One of the volumes contains a track diagram of the station around 1912. This includes the earlier signal box, in between the tracks at the station throat, the locomotive turntables on either side of the station throat and, on the north side of the station, the goods yard with wagon turntables. External links Station information for Liverpool Lime Street from National Rail Category:Grade II listed buildings in Liverpool Category:Grade II listed railway stations Lime Street Liverpool Lime Street Category:Railway stations in Liverpool Category:Former London and North Western Railway stations Category:Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1836 Category:Railway stations opened by British Rail Category:Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1977 Category:Railway stations served by East Midlands Railway Category:Railway stations served by TransPennine Express Category:Railway stations served by West Midlands Trains Category:Northern franchise railway stations Category:Railway stations served by Avanti West Coast Category:Railway stations served by Merseyrail Category:DfT Category A stations Category:DfT Category D stations Lime Street Gateway Category:John Cunningham railway stations Category:Railway stations served by Transport for Wales Rail Category:Stations on the West Coast Main Line

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Earlestown is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of St Helens in Merseyside, England. At the 2011 Census the town had a population of 10,830. History Earlestown is named after Sir Hardman Earle (11 July 1792 - 25 January 1877) a slave owner whose family was steeped in the slave trade. He was the Chairman of the London and North Western Railway. In July 1831, the Warrington and Newton Railway was opened, less than 6 months after the Liverpool and Manchester railway began service. A railway station was built at the junction of the two railways, a mile west of the town of Newton in Makerfield, now Newton-le-Willows and was given the name Newton Junction. A locomotive and wagon works was built just west of the station and a model town was constructed for its workers. In 1837, the name of the station was changed to Earlestown. Locomotive building was concentrated in another area within Newton-le-Willows. Between 1833 and 1895 the Vulcan Foundry produced some 6,000 locomotives to become the 4th largest locomotive building firm in the country, almost 70% of which were exported. Vulcan Foundry received its final steam locomotive order in 1954, while Earlestown was home to the major wagon works. Other significant (non-railway) employers in the town included Sankey Sugar, and T&T Vicars, who produced biscuit manufacturing equipment. There were also the nearby Lyme and Wood pits, located in neighbouring village of Haydock. Community Newton-le-Willows has held a market by Royal Charter since the 14th century. By the 1890s, the Earlestown area of Newton-le-Willows had outgrown the older part of the town and so the market was moved to its current location in Earlestown and the market square is the town's centre-piece. Today trading takes place on Friday, with a mixed flea market/car boot sale every Saturday. The Saturday Market features many regular traders selling tools, clothing, antiques, records, DVDs, model railways, wartime memorabilia as well as cheap house clearance and bric-a-brac. Earlestown Town Hall is an imposing building, fronted by a war memorial. In 1962 the Beatles visited Earlestown for a night gig and played at the town hall. On the same night Newton Boys Club on Graffton Street was opened by Frankie Vaughan for the local community. Another significant building included the art-deco former Curzon cinema which was demolished in January 2010. Earlestown has a small but busy town centre with many shops including high-street outlets such as Tesco, Boots, Wilko and several high street banks alongside independent retailers, bookmakers and fast-food takeaways. There are a range of traditional pubs, such as The New Market, The Ram's Head, The Railway Inn, The Griffin, and The Wellington. Earlestown is well served by many fast food outlets offering a good range of Indian and Chinese dishes as well as fish and chips and the ubiquitous McDonald's. Most of the local restaurants are curry houses; Earlestown's 'curry quarter-of-a-mile' on Queen Street has three Indian restaurants and a Tandoori take-away. Governance Newton-le-Willows is part of the Parliamentary constituency of St Helens North. At the 2019 general election, Conor McGinn was re-elected to this seat. Earlestown is one of two council wards within Newton-le-Willows. Transport Due to its role in the history of rail travel, Earlestown has good rail connections with its railway station having frequent services to Liverpool, Manchester, Warrington and North Wales. Earlestown is also well located as far as the road network is concerned, being close to junction 9 of the M62 motorway, junctions 21A, 22 and 23 of the M6 motorway, and the A580 East Lancashire Manchester-Liverpool road. See also St John the Baptist's Church, Earlestown Gallery File:2004-10-09 Viaduct from valley.jpg|Sankey Viaduct seen from the Sankey Valley Country Park. File:2004-10-09 Nine Arches.jpg|Detail of the viaduct from third arch. References External links http://www.earlestown.com/ http://www.newton-le-willows.com/ The Vulcan Foundry Newton-le-Willows Category:Towns and villages in the Metropolitan Borough of St Helens Category:Newton-le-Willows

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The Makah (; Makah: ) are an Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast living in Washington, in the northwestern part of the continental United States. They are enrolled in the federally-recognized Makah Indian Tribe of the Makah Indian Reservation, commonly known as the Makah Tribe. Linguistically and ethnographically, they are closely related to the Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht peoples of the West Coast of Vancouver Island, who live across the Strait of Juan de Fuca in British Columbia, Canada. Etymology and name The Makah people refer to themselves as the , which translates to somewhere near to "the people who live by the rocks and seagulls". Other thought translations include "the people who live on the cape by the seagulls", and "people of the point", as well as several others. This has sometimes been anglicized as Kwih-dich-chuh-ahtx. The English name, "Makah," is an exonym derived from the S'Klallam language name for the Makah, màq̓áʔa. It means "generous with food".Renker, Ann M., and Gunther, Erna (1990). "Makah". In "Northwest Coast", ed. Wayne Suttles. Vol. 7 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 429Makah Cultural and Research Center online museum: "Index" and "Introduction" History Pre-colonial Archaeological research suggests that Makah people have inhabited the area now known as Neah Bay for more than 3,800 years. Traditionally, the Makah lived in villages consisting of large longhouses made from western red cedar. These longhouses had cedar-plank walls which could be tilted or removed to provide ventilation or light. The cedar tree was of great value to Makah, who also used its bark to make water-resistant clothing and hats. Cedar roots were used in basket making. Whole trees were carved out to make canoes to hunt seals, gray whales and humpback whales. Makah acquired much of their food from the ocean. Their diet consisted of whale, seal, fish, and a wide variety of shellfish. They would also hunt deer, elk, and bear from the surrounding forests. Women also gathered a wide variety of nuts, berries and edible plants and roots for their foods. Japanese castaways In 1834, a dismasted, rudderless ship from Japan ran aground near Cape Flattery. The Makah took the three survivors of the broken ship and held them as slaves for several months before taking them to Fort Vancouver. From there, the United States transported them by ship to London and eventually China, but they never reached Japan again. Treaty of Neah Bay thumb|right|299px|A Makah settlement, c. 1900 On January 31, 1855, government-selected Makah representatives signed the Treaty of Neah Bay with the U.S. federal government, ceding much of their traditional lands. The treaty required the Makah to be restricted to the Makah Reservation (at in Clallam County) and preserved the Makah people's rights to hunt whales and seals in the region.History Link - Treaty of Neah Bay The Makah language was not used during the negotiation of the treaty, and the government used the S'Klallam-language name to refer to the tribe, rather than the Makah-language endoynm. Ozette village In the early 17th century, a mudslide engulfed part of a Makah village near Lake Ozette. The oral history of the Makah mentions a "great slide" which engulfed a portion of Ozette long ago. The mudslide preserved several houses and their contents in a collapsed state until the 1970s, when they were excavated by the Makah and archaeologists from Washington State University. Over 55,000 artifacts were recovered, representing many activities of the Makah, from whale and seal hunting to salmon and halibut fishing. Artifacts included toys, games, and bows and arrows. Archaeological test pits were excavated at the Ozette site in 1966 and 1967 by Richard Daugherty.Ozette overview , Palomar College However, it was not until 1970 that it became apparent what was buried there. After a storm in February 1970, tidal erosion exposed hundreds of well-preserved wooden artifacts. The excavation of the Ozette site began shortly after. University students worked with the Makah under the direction of archaeologists using pressurized water to remove mud from six buried long houses. The excavation went on for 11 years. It produced more than 55,000 artifacts, many of which are on display in the Makah Cultural and Research Center. Opened in 1979, the museum displays replicas of cedar long houses as well as whaling, fishing, and sealing canoes.Steury, Tim. "A Dialogue with the Past: Modern Archaeology in the Pacific Northwest and What We Are", Washington State Magazine. Culture Much of what is known about the traditional way of life of the Makah is derived from their oral traditions. Abundant archeological evidence excavated at the Ozette village site has also provided great insight into traditional Makah life. Historically, the structure of Makah society is a class system; people in the middle or lower classes could gain better social status by marrying into the upper levels. The community was in mostly a cognatic descent structure. The Makah traditional family consisted of parents and children living in a particular area. Members of Makah families were ranked in society according to their relationship to the chief of the tribe. There were no stratifications in gender roles; all genders were equal, participating in the hunting of whales and other livestock. Although men were more fishermen and hunters, women's activities centered on gathering resources for the family. Whaling Makah oral history relates that their tradition of aboriginal whaling has been suspended and re-established several times. Most recently, the practice was suspended in the 1920s because the commercial whaling industry had depleted the stocks of humpback and gray whales; all hunting was called off. After the gray whale was removed from the Endangered Species List, the Makah re-asserted their whaling rights. With the support and guidance of the United States government and the International Whaling Commission, the Makah successfully hunted a gray whale on May 17, 1999. According to federal law, the Makah are entitled to hunt and kill one baleen whale, typically a gray whale, each year. Archaeological records and oral history indicate a significant number of humpback whales were historically hunted as well. The Makah had gone over 70 years without catching a whale. thumb|right|299px|Makah whalers, c. 1910 thumb|right|299px|Makah whalers stripping the flesh from a whale, c. 1910. The Makah whaling technique is difficult and labor-intensive. The men hunt from cedar canoes, each seating six to nine people and more recently, from small fishing vessels. They take these into the Pacific Ocean adjacent to their reservation territory. Various traditional criteria are used to determine the best whale to harvest. By counting the whale's exhalations, the hunters determine when the whale is about to dive, and determine from this the best time to strike. Approaching the whale's left side, the hunter strikes when the whale is 3-4 feet deep, to avoid the force of the whale's tail. The harpoon is 16-18 feet long, composed of two pieces of yew wood spliced together. Historically, hunters used a mussel shell tip, in conjunction with barbs from elk horns. Since the late 20th century, hunters have used a steel "yankee style" head, but they have retained the yew wood shaft because of its flexibility, water resistance, and strength. Held fast to the whale, the harpoon shaft comes loose, to be recovered later, and a line is thrown from the canoe with seal skin floats attached, to provide drag to weaken the whale. In the past, a series of smaller lances were used to repeatedly strike the whale, gradually weakening and killing it, often over a period of hours, and in some cases, days. Recently, hunters have adopted use of a big game rifle after the harpoon strike, to ensure a more efficient kill. The International Whaling Commission permits four cartridges in whaling: .458 Winchester Magnum, .460 Weatherby Magnum, .50 BMG, and the .577 Tyrannosaur, which the Makah fired in the 1999 hunt. Once the whale has been killed, a crew member called the "diver" jumps into the water and cuts a hole through the bottom and top of the whale's jaw, to which a tow line and float are attached. This holds the whale's mouth shut and prevents the carcass from filling with water and sinking. Hunters tow the whale to shore, where it is received by members of the village. Traditional ceremonies and songs are performed to welcome the whale's spirit. Following this, the whale is divided in a precise and traditional fashion, with certain families having ownership of particular cuts. The "saddle piece" located midway between the center of the back and the tail is the property of the harpooner. It is taken to his home where a special ceremony is performed. The meat and oil are distributed to community members, and a great deal of it is consumed during a potlatch. The Makah assert that their right to whaling is guaranteed in the 1855 Treaty of Neah Bay, which states in part: "The right of taking fish and of whaling or sealing at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the United States."Makah Whale Hunt | NWR website , NOAA On September, 2007, five members of the Makah tribe shot a gray whale using a .460 caliber rifle, similar to that used in hunting elephants, despite court-imposed regulations governing the Makah hunt. The whale died within 12 hours, sinking while heading out to sea after being confiscated and cut loose by the United States Coast Guard. The tribal council denounced the killing and announced their intention to try the individuals in tribal court.Statement by the Makah Tribal Council, Seattle Times, 2003 Ethnobotany Makah women chew the roots and leaves of Viola adunca while giving birth.Gunther, Erna, 1973, Ethnobotany of Western Washington, Seattle. University of Washington Press. Revised edition, page 40 Contemporary culture In 1936, the Makah Tribe signed the Makah Constitution, accepting the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and establishing an elected tribal government. The constitution provided for a five-member Tribal Council. Each year the council elects a Tribal Chairperson. The Council develops and passes laws for the Makah Reservation. The Makah Tribe hosts its annual major public gathering, Makah Days, in late August. It features a grand parade and street fair as well as canoe races, traditional games, singing, dancing, feasting, and fireworks. Many Makah tribal members derive most of their income from fishing. Makah fish for salmon, halibut, Pacific whiting, and other marine fish. This makes them particularly vulnerable to effects of global warming: ocean acidification disrupts the development of the shells of molluscs (the fishes' main food source) and warming waters the salmon run. In response, the Makah tribe is drawing on traditional knowledge to create action plans for climate resilience that center tribal socioeconomic priorities. With the Hoh, Quileute, and Quinault Indian Nation, as well as the scientific community, the Makah conduct climate research at and monitor the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Language The Makah language is the Indigenous language spoken by the Makah people. The endonymous name for the language is .Davidson, Matthew (2002). Studies in Southern Wakashan (Nootkan) Grammar. Ph.D. dissertation, SUNY Buffalo, p. 349 Makah linguistically belongs to the Southern Nootkan branch of the Wakashan family of languages. It is also the only Wakashan language in the United States. Other tribes speaking Wakashan are located in British Columbia, Canada, immediately across the Strait of Juan de Fuca on the west coast of Vancouver Island, and northwards as far as that province's Central Coast region. Makah has been extinct as a first language since 2002, when its last fluent native speaker died. However, it survives as a second language. The Makah Tribe is also working to revive the language, and has established preschool classes to teach its children.Makah Language and the Makah Indian Tribe (Kweedishchaaht, Kweneecheeaht, Macaw, Classet, Klasset) Reservation The Makah Tribe owns the Makah Indian Reservation on the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula; it includes Tatoosh Island. They live in and around the town of Neah Bay, Washington, a small fishing village. Tribal census data from 1999 show that the Makah Tribe has 1,214 enrolled members; some 1,079 live on the reservation. The unemployment rate on the reservation is approximately 51%. Literary and cultural references Several books have explored Makah history, usually from the arrival of white settlers onward. The historical-adventure novel When Wolf Comes (2009) by John Pappas gives a glimpse into the lives of the Makah people of 1801. Young adult book Ghost Canoe (1998) by Will Hobbs takes place on and near the reservation, while Indian Days at Neah Bay by James G. McCurdy details life in Neah Bay in the early days of mandatory schooling from the perspective of the schoolteacher's son. The children's book Written in Stone (2014) by Rosanne Parry takes place in the 1920s, featuring an orphaned Makah girl who works to preserve her people's culture. Meanwhile, Arlyn Conly's memoir Never Trust a White Man takes place in the late 1950s, describing Neah Bay High School through the eyes of a white home economics teacher. French writer Frédéric Roux's novel L'hiver indien (2007) (Indian Winter, éditions Grasset & Fasquelle) explores the struggle between tradition and modernity for the Makah in northwestern Washington. In the realm of non-fiction, Voices of a Thousand People (2002) by Patricia Pierce Erikson with Helma Ward & Kirk Wachendorf recounts the founding of The Makah Cultural and Research Center and the work to preserve their heritage. Beyond books, the final scene of Jim Jarmusch's 1995 film Dead Man takes place in a reconstructed Makah village. Many of the actors featured in the scene are Makah tribal members; dialogue is in the Makah language. Additionally, the song "The Renegade" by Ian and Sylvia recounts conflict in the life of the son of a "Makah mother who marries a white man" though the original lyric is "klahowya", a greeting in Chinook Wawa, a widely-used trade language of the Pacific Northwest See also Nuu-chah-nulth people Ditidaht people Hoh people Robert T. Paine (zoologist) Notes References Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection External links Makah Tribe official website Makah photos and other items from the Library of Congress 1937 Corporate Charter of the Makah from a University of Oklahoma website Makah Tribe Profile at the website of the Northwest Portland Area Indian Health Board Makah Whaling Misunderstood, from a University of Oregon archaeologist's website University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections - The Pacific Northwest Olympic Peninsula Community Museum A web-based museum showcasing aspects of the rich history and culture of Washington State's Olympic Peninsula communities. Features cultural exhibits, curriculum packets and a searchable archive of over 12,000 items that includes historical photographs, audio recordings, videos, maps, diaries, reports and other documents. Makah Cultural and Research Center Online Museum Exhibit History and culture of the Makah people. Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission Category:Clallam County, Washington Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state) Category:Federally recognized tribes in the United States

{"Name": "Makah", "Native name": "qʷidiččaʔa·tx̌", "Native name language code": "myh", "Image": "200px", "Image caption": "A Makah woman, 1900", "Population": "1,213", "Religions": "Christianity, incl. syncrestic forms", "Languages": "English, Makah (survives as a second language)", "Related ethnic groups": "Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht"}

Coil were an English experimental music group formed in 1982 in London and dissolved in 2005. Initially envisioned as a solo project by musician John Balance (of the band Psychic TV), Coil evolved into a full-time project with the addition of his partner and Psychic TV bandmate Peter Christopherson, formerly of pioneering industrial music group Throbbing Gristle. Coil's work explored themes related to the occult, sexuality, alchemy, and drugs while influencing genres such as gothic rock, neofolk and dark ambient. AllMusic called the group "one of the most beloved, mythologized groups to emerge from the British post-industrial scene." After the release of their 1984 debut EP How to Destroy Angels, Coil joined Some Bizzare Records, through which they released two full-length albums, Scatology (1985) and Horse Rotorvator (1986). In 1985, the group began working on a series of soundtracks, among them the rejected score for the first Hellraiser film. After departing from Some Bizzare, Coil established their own record label, Threshold House, through which they produced and released Love's Secret Domain (1991). Financial difficulties slowed the group's work in the early 1990s before they returned to the project on releases such as Astral Disaster (1999), and the Musick to Play in the Dark series composed of Vol. 1 (1999) and Vol. 2 (2000), as well as releasing several projects under aliases such as Black Light District, ELpH, and Time Machines. Balance and Christopherson were the only constant members; other contributors throughout the band's career included Stephen Thrower, Danny Hyde, Drew McDowall, William Breeze, Thighpaulsandra and Ossian Brown. With involvement from these members, the group also started several smaller independent vanity labels, including Eskaton and Chalice. The group's first live performance in 16 years occurred in 1999, and began a series of mini-tours that would last until 2004. Following the accidental death of John Balance on 13 November 2004, Christopherson formally announced that Coil as a creative entity had ceased to exist, ending the Coil discography with The Ape of Naples (2005). Posthumous releases and compilations of unreleased material have since followed this, with Drew McDowall and Danny Hyde leading the project's archive. History 1982-1983: Formation and early years In 1978, John Balance (born Geoff[rey] Burton; also known as Rushton, by his stepfather's surname) was a teenage zine journalist, writing—along with his schoolmate Tom Craig, a grandson of Edward Carrick and grand-grandson of Edward Gordon Craig—under a moniker Stabmental, through which he published articles on UK underground artists, including seminal industrial bands Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire.; ; . A Throbbing Gristle fan, Balance had contacted them via mail, and thus befriended the Throbbing Gristle frontperson Genesis P-Orridge.; . In February 1980, Balance had attended a Throbbing Gristle gig recorded and released as Heathen Earth, where he had first met P-Orridge's bandmate Peter Christopherson and befriended him as well. Following the dissolution of Throbbing Gristle in 1981, P-Orridge, Christopherson, and Alex Fergusson (formerly of Alternative TV) went on to form the new project, titled Psychic TV, along with the accompanying fellowship titled Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth. Balance, who had attended the University of Sussex for a short time and participated in Brian Williams' Lustmord project, returned in London to live with Christopherson—with whom a romantic partnership had begun.; . As a Psychic TV member, Balance participated in the recording of the single "Just Drifting" (from the album Force the Hand of Chance) and, the following year, of the album Dreams Less Sweet. Already having an experience of performing and recording previous to his tenure in Psychic TV, Balance went on to use the name Coil in 1982, originally envisioned for a solo project.; ; . In 1983, Balance wrote a manifesto titled The Price of Existence Is Eternal Warfare and sent a tape of the song "On Balance", dated 5 May 1982, to Gary Levermore's label Third Mind Records for an inclusion on a compilation album Rising From The Red Sand; Levermore, however, had rejected the track. Despite this, Balance had recorded three more new tracks—"S for Sleep", "Red Weather", and "Here to Here (Double-Headed Secret)"—on 11 May 1983.; . On 4 August 1983, Coil—as the duo of Balance and Christopherson—had played its first gig in London at the Magenta Club, during a screening of films by Cerith Wyn Evans and Derek Jarman. Since Christopherson's commitments for Psychic TV—in which he had become disillusioned due to growing conflict with P-Orridge—still limited his participation in Coil, Balance approached John Gosling—also Psychic TV member who fronted his own project Zos Kia—to work with. Balance's and Gosling's collaboration resulted in the next three gigs during 1983, with the last one being performed in December on Berlin Atonal festival, where Balance participated as both Psychic TV and Coil member. The recordings from aforementioned gigs, as well as "On Balance", were later included on Zos Kia/Coil split album Transparent, released in February 1984 by Austrian label Nekrophile Records.; ; . Since January 1984, Balance and Christopherson had departed from Psychic TV and the Temple of Psychic Youth, in order to make Coil as a full-time concern.; ; ; ; . 1984-1986: How to Destroy Angels and Some Bizzare years The band's official recording debut, an extended play titled How to Destroy Angels, was released on the Good Friday (20 April) of 1984 by a Belgian-based label L.A.Y.L.A.H. Antirecords.; . Recorded on 19 February 1984 at Britannia Row Studios, the album was dedicated to Mars as the god of spring and war, using predominantly iron and steel instruments.; ; . Shortly after in May 1984, Coil went on to record their first full-length studio album, eventually titled Scatology, approaching JG Thirlwell as a co-producer and co-composer; several others contributors, including Stephen Thrower, Alex Fergusson and Gavin Friday, took part in its recording.; . Scatology'''s themes echoed those of How to Destroy Angels, while focusing mainly on alchemy as an idea of transforming matter.; ; .Scatology was released in early 1985 with a 1984 copyright date by the band's own label, Force & Form, and K.422 (a Some Bizzare Records sublabel), to mainly positive feedback. Shortly after, a single featuring a remix of "Panic" and a cover of "Tainted Love" was released, with the profits being donated to the Terrence Higgins Trust;; . hailed since then as the first AIDS benefit music release, it was supported with the "Tainted Love" video directed by Christopherson, which was purchased by The Museum of Modern Art in New York, U.S.; ; ; . Horse Rotorvator followed in 1986 as the next full-length release. Although songs such as "The Anal Staircase" and "Circles of Mania" sound like evolved versions of Scatology material, the album is characterized by slower tempos, and represented a new direction for the group. The album has a darker theme than previous releases, according to Balance: Horse Rotorvator was this vision I'd had of this mechanical/flesh thing that ploughed up the earth and I really did have a vision of it—a real horrible, burning, dripping, jaw-like vision in the night ... The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse killed their horses and use their jawbones to make this huge earth-moving machine." The artwork features a photograph of the location of a notorious IRA bombing, in which a bomb was detonated on a military orchestra pavilion. Horse Rotorvator was in part influenced by the AIDS-related deaths of some of their friends. Furthermore, the song "Ostia (The Death of Pasolini)" is about the mysterious death of Pier Paolo Pasolini, as well as what Balance described as "the number one suicide spot in the world", the white cliffs of Dover. Gold Is the Metal... and Unnatural History (1986-1990) After the release of Horse Rotorvator, Coil left Some Bizzare Records, since they fell out with its owner Stevo Pearce. Gold Is the Metal (With the Broadest Shoulders) followed as a full-length release in 1987, marking the beginning of the band's own label, Threshold House—the album is described in the liner notes as "not the follow-up to Horse Rotorvator, but a completely separate package - a stopgap and a breathing space - the space between two twins", which refers to Horse Rotorvator and Love's Secret Domain. The 13-track Unnatural History compilation was then released on Threshold House in 1990. The first three songs on the album were first released as one half of the Nightmare Culture mini-album. Love's Secret Domain (1991-1992)Love's Secret Domain (abbreviated LSD) followed in 1991 as the next "proper" Coil album, although a few minor releases had been produced since Horse Rotorvator. LSD represents a progression in Coil's style and became a template for what would be representative of newer waves of post-industrial music, blended with their own style of acid house. Although the album was more upbeat, it was not intended as a dance record, as Christopherson explained "I wouldn't say it's a party atmosphere, but it's more positive." "Windowpane" and a Jack Dangers remix of "The Snow" were released as singles, both of which had music videos directed by Christopherson. The video for "Windowpane" was shot in the Golden Triangle, where, Balance claimed, "the original Thai and Burmese drug barons used to exchange opium for gold bars with the CIA." Christopherson recalled "John [Balance] discovered while he was performing that where he was standing was quicksand! In the video you can actually see him getting deeper and deeper." Furthermore, Thai friends of the group commented that they had known of several people that died where Coil had shot footage for the music video. A music video for the song "Love's Secret Domain" was also shot, which was initially unreleased due to its nature: as Christopherson explained, "We shot 'Love's Secret Domain' in a go-go boy bar in Bangkok; with John [Balance] performing on stage with about 20 or 30 dancing boys, which probably won't get played on MTV, in fact!" As of January 2015, the music video is viewable on more than one YouTube channel. Stolen & Contaminated Songs followed as a full-length release in 1992. However, as with Gold Is the Metal..., it is a collection of outtakes and demos from the LSD era. Soundtracks and side projects (1993-1998) Coil separated their works into many side projects, publishing music under different names and a variety of styles. The pre-Coil aliases, Zos Kia and Sickness of Snakes, formed the foundation of a style that would evolve to characterize their initial wave of releases. Before embarking on their second wave of side projects and pseudonyms, Coil created a soundtrack for the movie Hellraiser, although they withdrew from the project when they suspected their music would not be used. Furthermore, Coil claimed inspiration for Pinhead was partly drawn from the piercing magazines that director Barker borrowed from the group. Balance explained after the release of Stolen and Contaminated Songs, in around 1992: Yeah it would have been brilliant but we wouldn't have carried on, because they were changing everything and they weren't being very nice to us, the actual film people. They were keeping us in the dark a lot. We said we'd had enough just at the same time they decided they wanted to use Howard Shore. They just wanted normal film music. They didn't want anything too scary which is sad and ridiculous for a horror film. Also in 1992, Threshold House released a "Remixes And Re-Recordings" version of How to Destroy Angels. Nurse with Wound's Steven Stapleton contributed a remix of the song, "How To Destroy Angels II". In 1993, Coil contributed music to Derek Jarman's film Blue. Their 1985 score for Jarman's The Angelic Conversation was released on CD in 1994. In addition, they recorded soundtracks for the documentary Gay Man's Guide to Safer Sex as well as Sarah Dales Sensuous Massage. Much like the pre-Coil aliases, Coil's series of side projects represented a diverse basis from which the group evolved a different style of sound. While Nasa Arab—credited to the group's project "The Eskaton"—was Coil's farewell to the acid house genre, the following projects, ELpH, Black Light District, and Time Machines, were all based heavily on experimentation with drone, an ingredient that would define Coil's following work. These releases also launched the start of Coil's new label Eskaton.Transparent was reissued in CD format in 1997 on Threshold House. A disc and booklet were packaged in a "thick" slipcase, which was released in partnership with the World Serpent music company. Late Coil (1998-2004) After the wave of experimental side projects, Coil's sound was completely redefined. Before releasing new material, the group released the compilations Unnatural History II, Windowpane & The Snow and Unnatural History III. In March 1998, Coil began to release a series of four singles which were timed to coincide with the equinox and solstices of that year. The singles are characterized by slow, drone-like instrumental rhythms, and electronic or orchestral instrumentation. The first single, Spring Equinox: Moon's Milk or Under an Unquiet Skull, featured two versions of the same song, the second version of which included an electric viola contribution from a newly inducted member, William Breeze. The second single, Summer Solstice: Bee Stings, also featured performances by Breeze, and also included the industrial-noise song "A Warning from the Sun (For Fritz)", which was dedicated to a friend of Balance and Christopherson's who had committed suicide earlier that year. The third single, Autumn Equinox: Amethyst Deceivers, includes the track "Rosa Decidua", which features vocals by Rose McDowall. The single also features the song "Amethyst Deceivers", later reworked and performed throughout most of Coil's tour—it was eventually re-made into an alternate version on the LP The Ape of Naples. The fourth single, Winter Solstice: North, also includes a track sung by McDowall, and is partially credited to the side project Rosa Mundi. The series would later be re-released as the double-CD set, Moon's Milk (In Four Phases).Astral Disaster was created with the assistance from new band member Thighpaulsandra, and was released in January 1999 via Sun Dial member Gary Ramon's label, Prescription. Although the album was initially limited to just 99 copies, it would later be re-released in a substantially different form. Musick To Play In The Dark Vol. 1 followed in September 1999, and a few months later Coil performed their first concert in 16 years.Queens Of The Circulating Library followed in April 2000, with production credit given to Thighpaulsandra. The single-track, full-length drone album is the only Coil release made without the assistance of Christopherson. Musick To Play In The Dark Vol. 2 followed in September 2000, and Coil began to perform live more intensively, a period that also included writing the music for Black Antlers in between a series of mini-tours. Coil also released a series of live albums around this time. Constant Shallowness Leads To Evil, a noise-driven experimental album reminiscent of Christopherson's work with Throbbing Gristle, was first sold at a live performance in September 2000. Coil finally released Black Antlers in June 2004. In contrast to many of their earlier releases, Coil's later material is characterized by a slower sound which relies more on drone than acid house. This change in sound was reflected in their live performances, as songs like "Ostia" and "Slur" were slowed down from their original pace, as well as re-recordings of "Teenage Lightning" and "Amethyst Deceivers" that were later released on The Ape Of Naples. Coil Live Coil's live incarnation is associated with a distinct legacy. The first live shows took place in 1983, but after only four performances, 15 years would pass before they would play live again. On 14 December 1999, Coil performed elph.zwölf at Volksbuehne in Berlin. Although the performance lasted just under 18 minutes, it marked the beginning of a new era of live performances. Coil would go on to perform close to 50 additional concerts, with varied set lists as well as performers. Coil performed twice at the Royal Festival Hall in 2000. The first concert was in April, as part of a weekend curated by Julian Cope, when they first performed as the full band line-up - and wearing the "fluffy suits" that would become a staple of live performances for the first time - performing Time Machines. They performed again in September, sharing a bill with Jim Thirlwell (as Foetus) on that occasion. Both performances were full sets. Coil's performances were surrealistic visually and audibly. The signature fluffy suits, an idea inspired by Sun Ra, played a foremost role at the live shows. The suits would later be used as album covers for the release Live One, while other costumes appear on the covers of Live Two and Live Three—straitjacket and mirror-chested hooded jumpsuit, respectively. Video screens projected footage and animations created by Christopherson, while fog machines created an eerie atmosphere. Balance would often screech and howl during performances, which would add to the effect. The band's performance at the 2003 All Tomorrow's Parties festival was released as ...And the Ambulance Died in His Arms. Released on Threshold House in 2005 as a digipak, a Thai version was released the following year. ...And the Ambulance Died in His Arms was released under a name chosen by Balance before his death in November 2004. Many Coil performances were released, including the widely available releases of Live Four, Live Three, Live Two, Live One and ...And The Ambulance Died In His Arms, as well as several very limited editions, such as Selvaggina, Go Back Into The Woods and Megalithomania!. Video recordings of several concerts were released on the DVD box set, Colour Sound Oblivion, in 2010. Coil's final performance was at DEAF (Dublin Electronic Arts Festival), Dublin City Hall in Ireland. Deaths of Balance and Christopherson Balance died on 13 November 2004, after he fell from a second-floor landing in his home. Christopherson announced Balance's death on the Threshold House website, and provided details of the circumstances of the death. Balance's memorial service was held near Bristol on 23 November 2004, and was attended by approximately 100 people. The final studio album, The Ape of Naples, was released on 2 December 2005. In August 2006, the rare CD-R releases The Remote Viewer and Black Antlers were "sympathetically remastered" and expanded into two-disc versions, which included new and recently remixed material. A comprehensive 16-DVD boxset, titled Colour Sound Oblivion, was released in July 2010. A "Patron Edition" was pre-orderable in November 2009 and sold out in three hours. Christopherson also discussed the possibility of releasing Coil's entire back catalogue on a single Blu-ray disc. In November 2006, the official Coil website posted the following announcement: "Following the success of Thai pressings of The Remote Viewer and Black Antlers, and after many requests, we are planning to expand the CD catalog still further." A few days later Duplais Balance and Moon's Milk in Six Phases were announced. Furthermore, an expanded vinyl version of The Ape of Naples, which includes the album The New Backwards, has been released, and a two-disc version of Time Machines has been announced. Six years after the death of Balance, Christopherson died in his sleep on 24 November 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand. Artistry Style, instruments and creative methods While their work became increasingly difficult to describe as their career progressed, Coil's musical style encompassed genres such as industrial music, noise music, ambient music and dark ambient, neofolk, spoken word, drone music and minimalism. They often considered their works more as magical rituals than as musical pieces; Balance explicitly referred to this approach as "magickal music". Balance described the first half of the Coil discography as "solar" and their later work as "moon musick". Coil incorporated many exotic and rare instruments into their recordings and performances. The group expressed particular interest in vintage electronic instruments including the Moog synthesizer, the ANS synthesizer, the Mellotron and the Optigan. During Coil's later period, marimba player Tom Edwards joined the group, and performed on the live albums Live Two and Live Three, as well as on the studio albums Black Antlers and The Ape of Naples. Often ensuing from improvisation and intuition, Coil utilized experimental techniques such as the cut-up technique, ritual drug use, sleep deprivation, lucid dreaming, tidal shifts, John Dee-like methods of scrying, technical glitches, SETI synchronization and chaos theory. Releases Coil's distribution sometimes included releasing limited editions of albums, thereby making them collectors' items among fans. Including quirks such as "art objects", sigil-like autographs and even stains of blood in the packaging of their albums, Coil claimed that this made their work more personal for true fans, turning their records into something akin to occult artifacts. This practice was markedly increased in the later half of Coil's career. Due to this, critics accused Coil and its record company of price gouging. However, Balance expressed interest in having regular Coil albums in every shop that wanted them. In 2003, Coil began re-releasing many rare works, mostly remixed. They also launched a download service, where a large amount of their out-of-print music was made available. Religious views Coil held pagan and alchemical beliefs, as well as a fixation on chaos magic, but were sometimes labelled as Satanic.Pilkington, Mark. "Sounds Of Blakeness ". Fortean Times, (2001). Retrieved 27 December 2006. Balance explicitly referred to himself as a "Born Again Pagan", and described his paganism as a "spirituality within nature." Christopherson, however, described the beliefs of Coil as unassociated: We don't follow any particular religious dogma. In fact, quite the reverse, we tend to discourage the following of dogmas, or false prophets, as it were. And we don't have a very sympathetic view of Christians up to this point. The thing we follow is our own noses; I don't mean in a chemical sense. Members John Balance was the founder of Coil and was the primary vocalist and composer of Coil's music. Peter Christopherson was the chief producer. Stephen Thrower worked as a full-time member of Coil from 1987 to 1992. Danny Hyde was periodically involved as co-author, collaborator, studio engineer, remixer, and producer. Peter Christopherson called him as Coil's 3rd secret member. Drew McDowall began collaborating with Coil in 1990 and was officially inducted in 1995. He left the group sometime between 1999 and 2000. Rose McDowall, Drew's ex-wife, provided vocals for several Coil tracks including "Wrong Eye", "Rosa Decidua" and "Christmas Is Now Drawing Near". She also collaborated with Coil for the short-lived project Rosa Mundi. Ossian Brown had been a Coil collaborator since about 1992 and joined the group in 2000, touring extensively with them and working on several recordings up until the final Coil album The Ape of Naples. William Breeze was Coil's electric viola player between 1997 and 2000. Thighpaulsandra became an official member on 26 January 1999 and participated until the final album, The Ape of Naples. Most notably, he created the entire instrumental for the album Queens of the Circulating Library. John Gosling performed with the initial live incarnation of Coil, as featured on Transparent. Tom Edwards of Spiritualized participated in Coil's live incarnation, and was Coil's marimba player from 2000 on. Cliff Stapleton played hurdy-gurdy on several live performances, as well as in the studio for Coil at various points throughout the 2000s. Massimo & Pierce of Black Sun Productions were members of Coil Live in 2002. However, they were stage performers, never contributing musically other than reading the poetic introduction to "Ostia" during live performances. Mike York was part of the Coil Live collective for a limited time. Influences and legacy Although Coil expressed interest in many musical groups, they rarely, if ever, claimed to be influenced by them. Coil explicitly stated the influence of such non-musical sources as William Burroughs, Aleister Crowley, Brion Gysin and Austin Spare. Furthermore, the group were friends with Burroughs and owned some of Spare's original artwork. Balance encouraged fans to trade, discuss and discover new and different forms of music, stressing the importance of variety. Music that Coil expressed interest in is diverse and wide-ranging, from musique concrète to folk music to hardcore punk to classical to techno. Among the musicians Coil expressed interest in were early electronic, experimental and minimalist artists: Harry Partch, La Monte Young, Karlheinz Stockhausen (once referred to by Balance as "an honorary member of Coil"), Alvin Lucier, and Arvo Pärt. Coil also expressed interest in krautrock groups including Cluster, Amon Düül II, Can, Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream. Rock musicians and groups Coil have expressed interest in are: Angus Maclise, Captain Beefheart, Flipper, Leonard Cohen, Lou Reed, Nico, Pere Ubu, Butthole Surfers, Napalm Death, The Birthday Party, The Velvet Underground and The Virgin Prunes. Coil expressed an interest in the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, and used a sample from his ballet Rite of Spring on the Horse Rotorvator song "The Anal Staircase". Furthermore, on the album Black Antlers Coil dedicated a song to Sun Ra and covered a song by Bam Bam. Coil's influence on electronic music has become more evident since the death of Balance, with electronic musicians from all over the world collaborating on a series of tribute albums. Some notable artists who appear on these albums are Alec Empire, Chris Connelly and KK Null (see ...It Just Is). Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor also expressed the significant influence that the group had on his work in February 2014: [Coil's] 'Tainted Love' video remains one of the greatest music videos of all time. I was always more attracted to Coil than Throbbing Gristle; the darkness and the scatology really chimed with me. If it's not immediately obvious: Horse Rotorvator was deeply influential on me. What they did to your senses. What they could do with sound. What Jhonn was doing lyrically. The exotic darkness of them permeated their work. The track "At the Heart of It All" (found on Scatology) later lent its name to an Aphex Twin track on the Nine Inch Nails remix album Further Down the Spiral; Coil also provided remixes for Further Down the Spiral as well as "Gave Up" on the remix album Fixed. Furthermore, in 2010, Reznor, Mariqueen Maandig and Atticus Ross started a new band called How to Destroy Angels—named after the Coil song—which received Christopherson's blessing after Reznor made contact with him. Discography Coil's rapid musical output over two decades resulted in a large number of releases, side projects and remixes as well as collaborations. Primary, full-length, Coil studio albumsScatology (1984)Horse Rotorvator (1986)Gold Is the Metal (With the Broadest Shoulders) (1987)Love's Secret Domain (1991)Stolen & Contaminated Songs (1992)Worship the Glitch (1995, as "ELpH vs. Coil")A Thousand Lights in a Darkened Room (1996, as "Black Light District")Time Machines (1998, as "Time Machines")Astral Disaster (1999)Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 1 (1999)Queens of the Circulating Library (2000)Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 2 (2000)Constant Shallowness Leads to Evil (2000)The Remote Viewer (2002)The Restitution of Decayed Intelligence (2003)Black Antlers (2004)The Ape of Naples (2005)The New Backwards'' (2008) References Citations Bibliography External links Coil at Brainwashed Threshold House online shop Interviews COIL Interview Collection Heathen Harvest Interview with Coil (1 April 2004) Stylus interview with Peter Christopherson. (12 April 2004) COIL - Robert Jelinek (Ed.) DER KONTERFEI 017 / Paperback / (November 2015) Category:British industrial music groups Category:English electronic music groups Category:English experimental musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 1982 Category:Musical groups from London Category:Ableton Live users Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2004 Category:LGBT-themed musical groups Category:Dark ambient music groups Category:Neofolk music groups Category:1982 establishments in England Category:Wax Trax! Records artists Category:Some Bizzare Records artists Category:Soleilmoon artists

{"Origin": "London, England", "Genres": "\"Aston-2016-366\">Aston 2016 366: \"In 1985, UK duo John Balance and Peter Christopherson, a.k.a. electronic experimentalists Coil, recorded a new cover of 'Tainted Love' as a benefit for the Terrence Higgins Trust, the charity named after one of Britain's first AIDS casualties.\"\nexperimental\navant-gardehttp://www.stylusmagazine.com/articles/artist_profile/coil.htm Coil - Artist Profile Ed Howard 2003 Stylus Magazine 20 November 2017 \navant-pop Obituary: John Balance Richard Smith 11 December 2004 The Guardian 20 November 2017 https://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/dec/11/guardianobituaries.artsobituarieshttp://www.factmag.com/2017/05/20/drew-mcdowall-interview/ Industrial legend Drew McDowall on Coil and confronting global crisis Zaldua Chris 20 May 2017 Fact Magazine 19 April 2018\npsychedeliaScatology - Review https://www.allmusic.com/album/scatology-mw0000710601 AllMusic 15 January 2018", "Labels": "Some Bizzare\nThreshold House\nEskaton\nChalice\nSolar Lodge", "Website": "thresholdhouse.com"}

Ellesmere Port ( ) is a port town in the Cheshire West and Chester borough in Cheshire, England. Ellesmere Port is on the south eastern edge of the Wirral Peninsula, north of Chester. The town had a population of 61,090 in the 2011 census. Ellesmere Port also forms part of the wider Birkenhead urban area, which had a population of 325,264 in 2011. The town was originally established on the River Mersey at the entrance to the Ellesmere Canal. As well as a service sector economy, it has retained large industries including Stanlow oil refinery, a chemical works and the Vauxhall Motors car factory. There are also a number of tourist attractions including the National Waterways Museum, the Blue Planet Aquarium and Cheshire Oaks Designer Outlet. History left|thumb| Ellesmere Port Dock at the Manchester Ship Canal looking towards the Stanlow Refinery The town of Ellesmere Port was founded at the outlet of the never-completed Ellesmere Canal. The canal (now renamed) was designed and engineered by William Jessop and Thomas Telford as part of a project to connect the rivers Severn, Mersey and Dee. The canal was intended to be completed in sections. In 1795 the section between the River Mersey at Netherpool and the River Dee at Chester was opened. However the canal was not finished as first intended; it never reached the River Severn. Upon reevaluation it was decided that the costs to complete the project were not projected to be repaid because of a decrease in expected commercial traffic. There had been a loss of competitive advantage caused by steam engine-related economic advances (nationally, regionally and locally) during the first decade of canal construction. During or before the construction of the canal the village of Netherpool changed its name to the Port of Ellesmere, and by the early 19th century, to Ellesmere Port. Settlements had existed in the area since the writing of the Domesday Book in the 11th century, which mentions Great Sutton, Little Sutton, Pool (now Overpool) and Hooton. The settlement of Whitby was a township in the ancient parishes of Eastham and Stoak, within the Wirral Hundred. The township, which included the hamlets of Ellesmere Port and Whitbyheath, became a civil parish in 1866. To enhance the economic growth of the area, the Netherpool, Overpool and Whitby civil parishes were abolished on 1 April 1911 to become parts of the new civil parish of Ellesmere Port. The first houses in Ellesmere Port itself, however, grew up around the docks and the first main street was Dock Street, which now houses the National Waterways Museum. Station Road, which connected the docks with the village of Whitby, also gradually developed and as more shops were needed, some of the houses became retail premises. The main employer at this time was Burnell's Iron Works which had been set up at the end of the nineteenth century. This was followed by the setting up of the Mersey Ironworks factory by the Wolverhampton Corrugated Iron Company In 1905 who settled on Ellesmere Port as a way of exploiting the company's international trade through the nearby ports of Birkenhead and Liverpool. Initially 300 workers and their families came from Wolverhampton and the surrounding areas to work in the factory, settling in a specially built worker's village named “Wolverham”. As the expanding industrial areas growing up around the canal and its docks attracted more workers to the area, the town itself continued to expand. thumb|Whitby lighthouse thumb|Ellesmere Port Hospital By the mid-20th century, thanks to the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 and the Stanlow Oil Refinery in the 1920s, Ellesmere Port had expanded so that it now incorporated the villages of Great and Little Sutton, Hooton, Whitby, Overpool and Rivacre as suburbs. The town centre itself had moved from the Station Road/Dock Street area, to an area that had once been home to a stud farm (indeed, the former Ellesmere Port and Neston Borough Council officially referred to the town centre as Stud Farm for housing allocation purposes) around the crossroads of Sutton Way/Stanney Lane and Whitby Road. The foundation stone for Ellesmere Port Civic Hall was laid by the Chairman of Ellesmere Port Borough Council, Horace Black, on 2 May 1953. It was designed in the modernist style and completed in 1955. In the 20th century, a number of new housing estates were developed, many of them on the sites of former farms such as Hope Farm and Grange Farm. Many estates consisted of both council housing and privately owned houses and flats. Ellesmere Port, in more recent times has had an influx of immigrants from Liverpool. Thus demand for housing increased with the opening of the Vauxhall Motors car plant in 1962. Opened as a components supplier to the Luton plant, passenger car production began in 1964 with the Vauxhall Viva. The plant is now Vauxhall's only car factory in Britain, since the end of passenger car production at the Luton plant in 2004 (where commercial vehicles are still made). Ellesmere Port currently produces the Vauxhall Astra model on two shifts, employing 2,500 people. In the mid-1980s, the Port Arcades, a covered shopping mall was built in the town centre. By the 1990s, it was the retail sector rather than the industrial that was attracting workers and their families to the town. This was boosted with the building of the Cheshire Oaks outlet village and the Coliseum shopping park, which also included a multiplex cinema; prior to this since the closure of the cinema in Station Road, Little Sutton (King's cinema) and the Queen's cinema adjacent to Ellesmere Port railway station in the 1960s the town's only cinema had been a single screen in the EPIC Leisure Centre. Since 1974 Ellesmere Port has been an unparished area when the civil parish of Ellesmere Port was abolished and all its functions were assumed by the new district of Ellesmere Port and Neston. The district was abolished in 2009, and the town no longer has its own council. In August 2012, Marks & Spencer opened their largest store (apart from Marble Arch in London) on a site near the Coliseum shopping park. Governance thumb|left|Council Offices Ellesmere Port was nearly included into the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, in Merseyside, when that was formed on 1 April 1974. It was removed from the proposals before the Local Government Act 1972 had its first reading, and instead remained in Cheshire as part of the borough of Ellesmere Port and Neston. Plans were announced which proposed combining the borough of Ellesmere Port and Neston with the Chester and Vale Royal districts to form a new "West Cheshire" unitary authority. The new unitary authority came into being on 1 April 2009 as Cheshire West and Chester. The Conservatives won control of this council in shadow elections in May 2008, winning a majority of seats in the Ellesmere Port area for the first time. At national level, Ellesmere Port is part of the Ellesmere Port and Neston parliamentary constituency. , the current Member of Parliament (MP) is Justin Madders (Labour). Demography thumb|Joseph Groome Apartment blocks thumb|Our Lady Star of the Sea Catholic Church + Population since 1901 Year Population 1901 10,366 1911 10,253 1921 12,891 1931 18,267 1951 32,653 1961 44,681 1971 61,637 1981 63,315 1991 31,378 2001 64,100 2011 61,090 The 2011 census records 27,134 households in Ellesmere Port, with 40.9% of the population aged between 30 and 59. It lists the ethnicity of the town as 95.2% White British, 0.8% White Irish, 1.6% White Other, 0.8% mixed ethnicity, 1.1% Asian, 0.2% Black and 0.1% other. 97.8% speak English as a first language. Religion According to the 2011 census, the main religion of Ellesmere Port is Christianity with 72.1% of the population. 20% have no religion, 6% are unspecified, 0.4% are Muslim, 0.2% are Buddhist, 0.1% Hindu and 0.2% other. Landmarks thumb|Blue Planet Aquarium thumb|Cheshire Oaks shopping centre Blue Planet Aquarium, largest aquarium in the UK 1998-1999 Cheshire Oaks Designer Outlet, largest outlet village in the UK 1995-present, largest outlet village in Europe 1995-1998. It is the location of the UK's largest artificial Christmas tree, tall and wide The Coliseum Retail Park, retail outlet located next to Cheshire Oaks Outlet Ellesmere Port Hospital, located in Whitby NHS, Ellesmere Port Hospital, accessed 25 May 2022 Ellesmere Port Sports Village, a £15 million sports village opened in late 2015 Marks & Spencer, second largest store in the UK National Waterways Museum, largest canal boat collection in the world Stanlow Oil Refinery, second largest industrial space in the UK Whitby Hall, listed Victorian building in Whitby Park and home of Theatre Porto, formerly Action Transport Theatre company Geography Ellesmere Port is located at the southern end of the Wirral Peninsula, in the county of Cheshire. Its suburbs include Overpool to the north west, Westminster to the north, Rossmore to the north east, with Whitby and Wolverham to the south. Parks and green spaces Whitby Park Rivacre Valley Local Nature Reserve Stanney Woods Nature Reserve Transport Road Ellesmere Port is located near the interchange of the M56 and the M53 motorways. The A41 road between Birkenhead and Chester, also passes through the area. The M56 carries the European Route E22 in this area. Buses There is a bus station in the town centre with frequent services to Chester, Liverpool, Runcorn, Elton, Helsby, Frodsham, Birkenhead and Neston. There are also services to Mold, North Wales operated by Stagecoach. Occasional National Express coaches serve the bus station. Most services are operated by Stagecoach Merseyside & South Lancashire with one service operated by Helms of Eastham and another by Arrowebrook Coaches. Rail Ellesmere Port railway station is on the Wirral line of the Merseyrail network and has a train service to Chester via Hooton and also Liverpool via Birkenhead. The line was electrified from Hooton to Ellesmere Port by British Rail in 1994. There is also an infrequent service to Warrington. Canal The Manchester Ship Canal joins the Mersey estuary north-west of Ellesmere Port at Eastham, but the town is also the northern terminus of the Shropshire Union Canal (which used to exchange goods with seagoing boats at what is now the National Waterways Museum). Sports thumb|Ellesmere Port Greyhound Stadium Speedway racing operated at the stadium in Thornton Road in the mid to late 1970s and in the 1980s; since March 2013, the stadium has been back in use for greyhound racing. Ellesmere Port Gunners raced in the lower tier Leagues. The Gunners' best season was their last, 1985, when they won the National League championship. The campaign was marred by a career-ending injury sustained by inspirational captain Joe Owen. Owen was hurt in a track crash at Birmingham. Ellesmere Port Town F.C. was once of town's main football team before the founding of Vauxhall Motors F.C. in 1963. Ellesmere Port Town F.C. was founded in 1948 and folded in 1973. The club's main achievements were playing in the Northern Premier League (The 7th tier in the English Football Pyramid) and reaching the F.A. Cup First Round in the 1971-1972 season, losing 3-0 to Boston United. Vauxhall Motors F.C. are the local football team. In 2009 Eddie Izzard and her run around the UK for Sport Relief saw her pass through Little Sutton village centre and Hooton. The footage is only minutes long however. In 2012 Ellesmere Port played host to the Paralympic Flame as part of the Paralympic Torch Relay celebrations. West Cheshire Colleges campus in Ellesmere Port was one of the drop off points for the flame as well as the EPIC leisure centre and the David Lloyd Leisure Centre. Events included sporting demonstrations and the parade of the Paralympic flame. Construction began in January 2014 for the new multimillion-pound Sports Village in Stanney Grange which initially was to incorporate an Olympic sized swimming venue (now smaller), tennis courts, football pitches and other sport halls, and will be the new home of Cheshire Phoenix, the local professional British Basketball League team from the start of the 2015/16 BBL Championship season. The village is situated on site of the old Stanney High School by Cheshire Oaks, the Coliseum and M&S. Notable people thumb|130px|Sir Herbert Williams, 1924 thumb|130px|John Prescott, 2007 The following people are natives of Ellesmere Port, or have lived there for a period of time. Norman Sailes (1920 in Ellesmere Port - 2012) a Fleet Air Arm pilot in WWII, awarded the Distinguished Service Cross Arthur Goddard (born 1921) was in charge of the Land Rovers engineering development from 1947 to 1957, went to the Little Sutton Primary School Charles Bronson (born 1952) also known as Charles Salvador, is an English criminal and "most violent prisoner in Britain" lived in Ellesmere Port in his early teens Hardeep Singh Kohli (born 1969) is a British presenter of Sikh heritage and TV presenter and personality. He lived briefly in the Little Sutton area. Politics Sir Herbert Williams, 1st Baronet (1884 in Hooton - 1954) Conservative MP for Reading 1924 to 1929, for Croydon South 1932 to 1945 and for Croydon East 1950 to 1954 John Prescott (born 1938) ex-Deputy Prime Minister attended the Grange Secondary Modern School in 1948. Andrew Miller (1949-2019) former Labour MP for Ellesmere Port and Neston from 1992 to 2015. Beverley Hughes (born 1950 in Ellesmere Port) Labour MP for Stretford and Urmston and former government minister Creative Arts thumb|130px|Ian Prowse, 2010 thumb|130px|Lee Latchford-Evans, 2009 Edgar Foxall (1906 in Ellesmere Port - 1990) was an English poet whose work features in one of the Penguin poetry anthologies, Poetry of the Thirties (1964). Lillian Beckwith (1916-2004) author, born and grew up in Ellesmere Port the daughter of a grocer as chronicled in her book About My Father's Business Russ Abbot (born 1947) an English musician, comedian and actor, he grew up in the town's Wolverham district. Mike Singleton (1951-2012) an English teacher in Ellesmere Port, then a British video game designer Ian Prowse (born 1964) singer, songwriter formerly of Pele and Amsterdam grew up in Little Sutton Stevie Riks (born 1967 in Ellesmere Port) an English comedian and impressionist, comedy writer, voice-over artist and multi-instrumentalist musician. Stove King (born 1974 in Ellesmere Port) an English musician, formerly the bassist for the rock band Mansun Lee Latchford Evans (born 1975) an English singer, dancer, stage actor, kickboxer and personal trainer, member of pop group Steps grew up here. Pele (active 1990 to 1996) were an English indie rock band, formed in Ellesmere Port Hooton Tennis Club (formed 2013) a four-piece indie-rock band including James Madden and Callum McFadden who grew up in the area. Sport thumb|130px|Stan Cullis Statue thumb|130px|Ian Bowyer, 2009 thumb|130px|Rob Jones, 2008 thumb|130px|Johannah Leedham, 2015 Sam Chedgzoy (1889 in Ellesmere Port - 1967) footballer, played 279 times for Everton between 1910 and 1926. Joe Mercer OBE (1914 in Ellesmere Port - 1990) England football international and manager, led Manchester City to the 1968 First Division championship, won the FA Cup (1969), League Cup (1970) and European Cup Winners' Cup (1970). Stan Cullis (1916 in Ellesmere Port - 2001) former Wolverhampton Wanderers player and manager, he played football for Cambridge Road School and Ellesmere Port Boys. Michael Ainsworth (1922 in Hooton - 1978) an English cricketer who played his county cricket for Worcestershire Dave Hickson (1929-2013) footballer who played for Everton, Liverpool and Tranmere Rovers, he also worked as an ambassador for Everton Ralph Gubbins (1932 in Ellesmere Port - 2011) an English professional footballer who made nearly 250 pro appearances Tony Coleman (born 1945 in Ellesmere Port) an English former footballer who made 250 pro appearances Mick Wright (born 1946 in Ellesmere Port) an English former professional footballer who made 282 appearances for Aston Villa Geoff Davies (born 1947 in Ellesmere Port) is an English former professional footballer who made 305 pro appearances Graham Turner (born 1947 in Ellesmere Port) is former Shrewsbury Town, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Aston Villa manager Ian Bowyer (born 1951 in Little Sutton) footballer, with Manchester City and Nottingham Forest, 608 caps Paul Jones (born 1953 in Ellesmere Port) a former professional footballer who played 445 games for Bolton Wanderers Barry Siddall (born 1954 in Ellesmere Port) an English former professional goalkeeper, with 614 appearances Neil Whatmore (born 1955 in Ellesmere Port) an English former footballer who made 449 pro appearances Colin Woodthorpe (born 1969) footballer grew up in the town, attended Stanney Comprehensive School, 928 appearances for Chester City, Norwich, Aberdeen and Bury. Rob Jones (born 1971) former footballer for Liverpool and England, 260 caps, grew up in the town. Anastasia Dobromyslova (born 1984) former Women's World Professional Darts Champion lives in the town. Tony Martin (born 1981 in Ellesmere Port) Professional darts player and Team GB soft tips darts captain. Johannah Leedham (born 1987 in Ellesmere Port) Team GB women's basketball captain for London 2012 Paul Butler (born 1988 in Ellesmere Port) an English professional Bantamweight boxer and a former IBF Bantamweight champion Doug Ellis business entrepreneur and Aston Villa chairman. See also Listed buildings in Ellesmere Port Ellesmere Port and Neston (UK Parliament constituency) References External links Local Newspaper Category:Towns in Cheshire Category:Port cities and towns of the Irish Sea Category:Former civil parishes in Cheshire Category:Unparished areas in Cheshire Category:Populated places established in 1795

{"Sovereign state": "England", "Population": "(2011 census)", "Unitary authority": "Cheshire West and Chester", "Ceremonial county": "Cheshire", "UK Parliament": "Ellesmere Port and Neston", "Postcode district": "CH", "Dialling code": "0151", "OS grid reference": "SJ4175"}

The Nisqually is a Lushootseed-speaking Native American tribe in western Washington state in the United States. They are a Southern Coast Salish people.Pritzker 184 They are federally recognized as the Nisqually Indian Tribe, formerly known as the Nisqually Indian Tribe of the Nisqually Reservation and the Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation. The tribe lives on a reservation in the Nisqually River valley near the river delta. The Nisqually Indian Reservation, at , comprises 20.602 km² (7.955 sq mi) of land area on both sides of the river, in western Pierce County and eastern Thurston County. In the 2000 census, it had a resident population of 588 persons, all in the Thurston County portion, on the southwest side of the Nisqually River.Nisqually Reservation, Washington United States Census Bureau The tribe moved onto their reservation east of Olympia, Washington, in late 1854 with the signing of the Medicine Creek Treaty. As reaction to the unfairness of the treaty, many members of the tribe led by Chief Leschi engaged and were eventually defeated by the US Army in the conflict known as the Puget Sound War in 1855-56. Government On September 9, 1946, the tribe's constitution and bylaws were approved. The constitution was amended in 1994. The governing body of the Tribe is the General Council comprising all enrolled tribal members 18 years of age or older. The day-to-day business and economic affairs of the tribe are overseen by a tribal council composed of seven tribal members elected by the tribe’s voting membership. Language The Nisqually is a subdialect of the southern dialect of Lushootseed named Twalshootseed, which belongs to the Salishan family. The Nisqually call themselves the Squalli-Absch / 'Susqually'absh (sq̓ʷaliʼabš), which means "people of the grass" or "People of the Grass Country" in Twalshootseed. Country The Nisqually Indians originally inhabited the interior woodlands and coastal waters from Mount Rainier west to Puget Sound. The lifestyle of the Nisqually, like many other Northwest Coastal tribes, revolved around fishing for salmon. In 1917, Pierce County, through the process of condemnation proceedings (eminent domain), took 3,370 acres (14 km²) for the Fort Lewis Military Reserve. When building Ft. Lewis in 1917, the United States government wanted to control land for the project that rightfully belonged to the Nisqually people. The War Department negotiated a price of $25 per acre to be paid to the natives for the land the U.S. deemed necessary for the fort. The Nisqually people had neither the opportunity nor the funds to fight the government’s acquisition of their lands. When the war ended in 1918, the Nisqually people petitioned for their land to be returned to them, as the fort no longer needed to train troops for the war. The request was denied by Newton Baker, President Wilson’s Secretary of War. Cannon and artillery fire from the fort could be heard from the Nisqually reservation for the better part of the next century. History left|thumb|Chief Leschi The Nisqually people have lived in the watershed for thousands of years. According to legend, the Squalli-absch (ancestors of the modern Nisqually Indian Tribe), came north from the Great Basin, crossed the Cascade Mountain Range and erected their first village in a basin now known as Skate Creek, just outside the Nisqually River Watershed's southern boundary. Later, a major village would be located near the Mashel River. The Nisqually have always been a fishing people. The salmon has not only been the mainstay of their diet, but the foundation of their culture as well. The Nisqually Tribe is the prime steward of the Nisqually River fisheries resources, and operate two fish hatcheries: one on Clear Creek and one on Kalama Creek. The Nisqually Tribe is located on the Nisqually River in rural Thurston County, east of Olympia, Washington. As of the year 2005, the tribe had a service area population of 5,719 Native Americans, 600 of whom reside on the reservation. An additional 5,119 service population members live off the reservation in Thurston and Pierce Counties. Tribal land holdings, on and near the Nisqually reservation, exceed 1,000 acres (4 km²)—all of which has been reacquired since 1986. The original reservation was established by the Medicine Creek Treaty of December 26, 1854. The reservation consisted of 1,280 acres (5.2 km²) on Puget Sound. On January 20, 1856, an executive order enlarged it to 4,717 acres (19.1 km²) on both sides of the Nisqually River. On September 30, 1884, land was set aside and divided into one-family allotments on both sides of the Nisqually River. The land did not include the river. The people lived in peace for a while harvesting fish from the river and growing potatoes on the prairie tracts. They also received few government rations. In the winter of 1917, the U.S. Army moved onto Nisqually lands and ordered them from their homes without any warning. Later, the Army reallocated 3,353 acres (13.6 km²) of their land to expand the Fort Lewis base. Interactions Between European Settlers and the Nisqually People In the 1840s European settlers began to migrate into Nisqually territory. The numbers of settlers gradually grew and the Nisqually people were originally peaceful with the settlers until the actions of territorial governor Isaac Stevens in 1853. Stevens terminated Indian land rights and took millions of acres from native peoples and attempted to establish the Treaty of Medicine Creek with Chief Leschi of the Nisqually people. Republished as The treaty proposed was declined by Leschi due to the small amounts of land they would receive from it as well as the treaty requiring the Nisqually people to move away from Medicine creek to less livable and isolated shrubland.Carpenter, Cecelia Svinth. Leschi: Last Chief of the Nisquallies. Orting, WA (P.O. Box 40, Orting 98360): Copies from Heritage Quest, 1986. It is firmly believed by many that Stevens’ laws and actions in the war heavily influenced the retaliation of the Nisqually natives in the Puget Sound Indian war due to his mistreatment of the Native Nisqually and the middling and unsurvivable land he assigned them.Reese, Gary Fuller. Leschi, the Officers and the Citizens. Tacoma, WA: Tacoma Public Library, 1986. After the Puget Sound Indian War had ceased, the native Nisqually tribesmen were assigned a new reservation back alongside the river but survival was still difficult due to the restricted sizes of their reservations as well as the U.S. military’s confiscation of 3,000 acres of their land for the creation of the Fort Lewis Military Reserve.Carpenter, Cecelia Svinth. Fort Nisqually: A Documented History of Indian and British Interaction. Tacoma, WA: Tahoma Research Service, 1986. Many Natives began to leave the reserves in search of better opportunities and homes elsewhere and from the beginning of the 20th century until the 1940s the US government controlled the education of Nisqually youth in attempts to assimilate them into white American culture.LaBeck, Paula, and Dan Morris. Who Is the Native American? Spokane, WA: Inland Register. Cuisine Fish, both fresh and smoked, is an important staple in Nisqually cuisine, especially salmon, but also cod, eulachon, halibut, herring, sturgeon, and trout. Shellfish, deer, elk, and sea mammals were traditionally hunted for food. Camas, wild berries, crab apples, and other wild plants are traditionally gathered.Pritzker 205 Notable Nisqually Billy Frank, Jr. (1931-2014), environmental leader and treaty rights activist Chief Leschi (1808-1858), chief Notes References Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. External links Nisqually Indian Tribe, official website Chehalis Tribe, official website Nisqually Indian Tribe Billy Frank's obituary Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state) Category:Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest

{"Name": "Nisquallysq̓ʷaliʼabš", "Image caption": "Billy Frank Jr. (Nisqually), speaking at the Elwha Dam removal ceremony, photo by Doug Zimmer", "Languages": "English, Nisqually", "Related ethnic groups": "other Coast Salish peoples"}

Washoe (c. September 1965 - October 30, 2007) was a female common chimpanzee who was the first non-human to learn to communicate using American Sign Language (ASL) as part of an animal research experiment on animal language acquisition. Washoe learned approximately 350 signs of ASL, also teaching her adopted son Loulis some signs. She spent most of her life at Central Washington University. Early life Washoe was born in West Africa in 1965. She was captured for use by the US Air Force for research for the US space program. Washoe was named after Washoe County, Nevada, where she was raised and taught to use ASL.Gardner, R. Allen, Beatrix T. Gardner, and Thomas E. Van Cantfort. Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees. State University of New York Press, 1989, p. 1 In 1967, R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix Gardner established a project to teach Washoe ASL at the University of Nevada, Reno. At the time, previous attempts to teach chimpanzees to imitate vocal languages (the Gua and Viki projects) had failed. The Gardners believed that these projects were flawed because chimpanzees are physically unable to produce the voiced sounds required for oral language. Their solution was to utilize the chimpanzee's ability to create diverse body gestures, which is how they communicate in the wild, by starting a language project based on American Sign Language. The Gardners raised Washoe as one would raise a child. She frequently wore clothes and sat with them at the dinner table. Washoe had her own 8-foot-by-24-foot trailer complete with living and cooking areas. The trailer had a couch, drawers, a refrigerator, and a bed with sheets and blankets. She had access to clothing, combs, toys, books, and a toothbrush. Much like a human child, she underwent a regular routine with chores, outdoor play, and rides in the family car.Prof. Mark Kruase, Southern Oregon University, January 20, 2011. Upon seeing a swan, Washoe signed "water" and "bird". Harvard psychologist Roger Brown said that "was like getting an S.O.S. from outer space". When Washoe was five, the Gardners decided to move on to other projects, and she was moved to the University of Oklahoma's Institute of Primate Studies in Norman, Oklahoma, under the care of Roger Fouts and Deborah Fouts. ASL instruction and usage Teaching method Washoe was raised in an environment as close as possible to that of a human child, in an attempt to satisfy her psychological need for companionship. While with Washoe, the Gardners and Foutses were careful to communicate only in ASL with Washoe, rather than using vocal communication, on the assumption that this would create a less confusing learning environment for Washoe. This technique was said to resemble that used when teaching human children language. After the first couple of years of the language project, the Gardners and Roger Fouts discovered that Washoe could pick up ASL gestures without direct instruction, but instead by observing humans around her who were signing amongst themselves. For example, the scientists signed "toothbrush" to each other while they brushed their teeth near her. At the time of observation, Washoe showed no signs of having learned the sign, but on a later occasion she reacted to the sight of a toothbrush by spontaneously producing the correct sign, thereby showing that she had in fact previously learned the ASL sign. Moreover, the Gardners began to realize that rewarding particular signs with food and tickles was actually interfering with the intended result of conversational sign language. They changed their strategy so that food and meal times were never juxtaposed with instruction times. In addition, they stopped the tickle rewards during instruction because these generally resulted in laughing breakdowns. Instead, they set up a conversational environment that evoked communication, without the use of rewards for specific actions. Confirmed signs Washoe learned approximately 350 words of sign languages. For researchers to consider that Washoe had learned a sign, she had to use it spontaneously and appropriately for 14 consecutive days. These signs were then further tested using a double-blind vocabulary test. This test demonstrated 1) "that the chimpanzee subjects could communicate information under conditions in which the only source of information available to a human observer was the signing of the chimpanzee;" 2) "that independent observers agreed with each other;" and 3) "that the chimpanzees used the signs to refer to natural language categories—that the sign DOG could refer to any dog, FLOWER to any flower, SHOE to any shoe."Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1984). A vocabulary test for chimpanzees. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 98, pg. 381-404 Combinations of signs Washoe and her mates were able to combine the hundreds of signs that they learned into novel combinations (that they had never been taught, but rather created themselves) with different meanings. For instance, when Washoe's mate Moja didn't know the word for "thermos", Moja referred to it as a "METAL CUP DRINK"; however, whether or not Washoe's combinations constitute genuine inventive language is controversial, as Herbert S. Terrace contended by concluding that seeming sign combinations did not stand for a single item, but rather were three individual signs.Sapolsky, Robert M. Human Behavioral Biology 23:Language. Stanford University. May 2010 Taking the thermos example, rather than METAL CUP DRINK being a composite meaning thermos, it could be that Washoe was indicating there was an item of metal (METAL), one shaped like a cup (CUP), and that could be drunk out of (DRINK). Self-awareness and emotion One of Washoe's caretakers was pregnant and missed work for many weeks after she miscarried. Roger Fouts recounts the following situation: Washoe herself lost two children. One baby chimpanzee died of a heart defect shortly after birth; the other baby, Sequoyah, died of a staph infection at two months of age. When Washoe was shown an image of herself in the mirror, and asked what she was seeing, she replied: "Me, Washoe." Primate expert Jane Goodall, who has studied and lived with chimpanzees for decades, believes that this might indicate some level of self-awareness. Washoe appeared to experience an identity crisis when she was first introduced to other chimpanzees, seeming shocked to learn that she was not the only chimpanzee. She gradually came to enjoy associating with other chimpanzees. Washoe enjoyed playing pretend with her dolls, which she would bathe and talk to and would act out imaginary scenarios. She also spent time brushing her teeth, painting and taking tea parties. When new students came to work with Washoe, she would slow down her rate of signing for novice speakers of sign language, which had a humbling effect on many of them. Quotes (In this section double quotes are signed by Washoe, single by someone else.) "Peekaboo (i.e. hide and seek) I go"Extract from Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, Gardiner "Baby (doll) in my drink (i.e. cup)" (when doll placed in her cup) "Time Eat?" and "you me time eat?" Asked 'Who's coming?' Responded "Mrs G" (correct). "You, Me out go". 'OK but first clothes' (Washoe puts on jacket.) "Good, go", 'Where Go', "You Me Peekaboo" 'What That' "Shoe" 'Whose That Shoe' "Yours" 'What color' "Black". Later life and death thumb|150px|Roger Fouts delivering Washoe's eulogy Washoe was moved to Central Washington University in 1980. On October 30, 2007, officials from the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute on the CWU campus announced that she had died at the age of 42. Impact on bioethics Some believe that the fact that Washoe not only communicated, but also formed close and personal relationships with humans indicates that she was emotionally sensitive and deserving of moral status. Work with Washoe and other signing primates motivated the foundation of the Great Ape Project, which hopes to "include the non-human great apes: chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas within the community of equals by granting them the basic moral and legal protections that only humans currently enjoy", in order to place them in the moral category of "persons" rather than private property. Related animal language projects The publication of the Washoe experiments spurred a revival in the scholarly study of sign language, due to widespread interest in questions it raised about the biological roots of language. This included additional experiments which attempted to teach great apes language in a more controlled environment. Herbert Terrace and Thomas Bever's Nim Chimpsky project failed in its attempt to replicate the results of Washoe. While Nim was successfully trained to use 125 signs, Terrace and his colleagues concluded that the chimpanzee did not show any meaningful sequential behavior that rivaled human grammar. Nim's use of language was strictly pragmatic, as a means of obtaining an outcome, unlike a human child's, which can serve to generate or express meanings, thoughts or ideas. There was nothing Nim could be taught that could not equally well be taught to a pigeon using the principles of operant conditioning. The researchers therefore questioned claims made on behalf of Washoe, and argued that the apparently impressive results may have amounted to nothing more than a "Clever Hans" effect, not to mention a relatively informal experimental approach. Critics of primate linguistic studies include Thomas Sebeok, American semiotician and investigator of nonhuman communication systems, who wrote: Sebeok also made pointed comparisons of Washoe with Clever Hans. Some evolutionary psychologists, in effect agreeing with Noam Chomsky, argue that the apparent impossibility of teaching language to animals is indicative that the ability to use language is an innately human development. Washoe's advocates disagreed that the research had been discredited, attributing the failure of the Nim Chimpsky and other projects to poor teaching, and to Nim's being consistently isolated in a sterile laboratory environment, and often confined in cages, for his entire life. Nim did most of his learning in a white eight-foot-by-eight-foot laboratory room (with one of the walls containing a one-way mirror), where he was often trained to use signs without the referent present. Living in this setting, Nim did not receive the same level of nurturing, affection, and life experience, and many have suggested that this impaired his cognitive development, as happens with human children subjected to such an environment. Other great ape language research projects, such as on Koko the gorilla, have received similar criticism to Project Washoe as to the selective interpretation of the use of sign language by apes and lack of objectivity. See also Kanzi Animal cognition Great ape language Koko (gorilla) List of individual apes Alex (parrot), talking parrot Batyr (elephant) References Further reading External links Friends of Washoe—a non-profit organization A conversation with Warshoe - When Her Caretaker Told The Chimp She Had Lost Her Baby Category:Individual apes involved in language studies Category:Primatology Category:1965 animal births Category:2007 animal deaths Category:Deaths from influenza Category:Individual chimpanzees Category:American Sign Language

{"Born": "West Africa", "Died": "Ellensburg, Washington, U.S.", "Cause of death": "Complications from SAIDS", "Known for": "Use of sign language"}

The Jaeger Corps also known as the Huntsmen Corps () is an elite special operations force of the Danish Defence part of Special Operations Command, formerly of the Royal Danish Army, based at Aalborg Air Base. History The Jaeger Corps traces its origins to 1785 when the corps was first formed as the "Jaeger Corps of Zealand". Facing emerging threats from Sweden, Prussia, and Great Britain, Denmark created a light infantry force from hunters and woodsmen. The corps existed in various forms until it was remade in its current form in 1962 when Major P.B. Larsen and First Lieutenant Jørgen Lyng became the first two to complete the training. Throughout the Cold War, the Jaegers' primary tasking was that of a long-range reconnaissance unit, with wide renown for their skills in parachute operations. In the post-Cold War era, the Jaegers deployed for the first time in 1995 to Sarajevo with a six-man counter-sniper team. Following the September 11 terrorist attacks and the beginning of the United States invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001, the Jaegers' training programme changed. As such, the Jaegers increased their proficiency in counter-terrorism skills, while still maintaining their excellence at reconnaissance operations. In 2002, the Jaegers were deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Danish contribution (Task Group Ferret) to Task Force K-Bar, along with the Frogman Corps. During these operations, the Jaegers took part in reconnaissance, observations, capturing of high-value targets, and direct-action raids on Taliban and al-Qaeda positions. As part of Task Force K-Bar, the Jaeger Corps was awarded the American Presidential Unit Citation on 7 December 2004 for its effort as part of the joint special operations task force in Afghanistan. The first Jaeger to be killed in combat was in 2013 when a Jaeger was hit by an explosion in Afghanistan. Four Jaegers had previously died during training accidents. Selection and training The selection course to become a Jaeger is very demanding, both mentally and physically. To be accepted into the Corps, a candidate must complete the following: Pre-course 1 (5 days) Introduces the candidate to the subjects covered in the patrol course, and identifies the areas in which the candidate must improve (orienteering, swimming, etc.). Pre-course 2 (2 days) More training and evaluation in the above covered subjects. Pre-course 3 (2 days) More training and evaluation in the above covered subjects with tougher requirements. Patrol Course (8 weeks) Basic medical, demolition, and marksmanship using basic direct-action and special reconnaissance training events to assess candidates. This course must be completed at a satisfactory level to continue to the aspirant course. Selection Course (8 weeks) Candidates receive training in advanced breaching, close-quarters battle, demolition, and sniping. If passed the candidate is awarded his or her "bugle" for the beret. Basic parachuting course (2 weeks) Combat Swimming Course (2 weeks) Approximately 10% of candidates successfully complete the program and become a full member of the Jaeger Corps. The successful Jaeger continues in the training wing for individual training during their first (probationary) year. During this time they will receive High Altitude Parachute Operations (HAPO) training in High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) and High Altitude High Opening (HAHO), environmental training (desert and winter), advanced infiltration training (mountain, nontactical vehicle, ski and rotary-wing), attain Joint Terminal Attack Controller (JTAC) certification, and gain additional communications skills. New Jaeger Corps members are also taught a hand-to-hand combat system called MTM (man-to-man) combat, which was developed in 1992 by Peter Hedegaard in collaboration with two of the Corps's own close-combat instructors. Insignia and status The Jaeger Corps wear a frogberet also and the maroon beret with a brass emblem depicting a hunter's bugle on a black felt liner. After one year of satisfactory service and training in corps the wearer is issued the shoulder patch "JÆGER" and may call himself by this name. The unit's insignia features a hunting horn from their origin as hunters and woodsmen. The Jaeger Corps is composed of around 150 highly trained soldiers with special expertise in counter-terrorism, demolitions, parachuting, and combat swimming, HAHO and HALO parachuting, infiltration, sabotage, reconnaissance and more. The corps regularly trains with similar units from different countries, such as the US Navy SEALs, US Army DELTA, British SAS and the Danish naval special forces group, the Frogman Corps. The corps is based on the structure and modus operandi of the British SAS. Their slogan, which is Latin, Plus esse, quam simultatur translates to Hellere at være, end at synes ("Rather to be, than to be seen") in Danish, meaning that the soldier's capabilities do not have to be widely recognized or boasted—they are only more effective if unknown. International Joint Training Like most western Special Operations Forces, the Jaegers regularly take part in joint training operations with other NATO and Coalition SOFs. These exercises include reconnaissance patrols throughout Europe, arctic survival training, helicopter insertion techniques, parachute insertion techniques, hostage rescue training, Close Air Support training, medical training, and other SOF-specific skills. Allied units as the Jaegers regularly practice with include: US Army Special Forces US Navy SEALs US Army Delta Force 22nd Special Air Service Regiment Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK) Särskilda operationsgruppen Kommando Spezialkräfte Army Ranger Battalion Netherlands Special Operations Command Special Operations Regiment (Belgium) Well known jaegers Poul Kjeld Larsen: Jaeger Nr. 1 - Co-found and first CO of the Corps Jørgen Lyng: Jaeger Nr. 2 - Co-found and first XO of the Corps and later Chief of Defence Helge Adam Møller: Jaeger Nr. 157 - Danish politician for the Conservative and former MP Poul Dahl: Jaeger Nr. 160 - Author, Danish politician for Venstre and former MRC. Dahl served as CO of the Corps in start of the 1990's B. S. Christiansen: Jaeger Nr. 163 - Author, lecturer, coach and media personality. Carsten Mørch: Jaeger Nr. 173 - Author, lecturer and coach Lars Møller: Jaeger Nr. 200 - Author Lothar Friis: Jaeger nr. 215 - Expeditions leader in the tv show "Ingen kære mor" TV2. Thomas Rathsack: Jaeger Nr. 229 - Author, debater and media personality. Nicolai Moltke-Leth: Jaeger Nr. 243 - Author, lecturer, coach and expeditions leader in the tv show "56° Nord" Kanal 5 René Brink Jakobsen: Jaeger Nr. 353 - First (and only) Jaeger to be killed in combat. See also Special Support and Reconnaissance Company References Further reading External links Official webpage of Jægerkorpset Danish Defence official videos of Jægerkorpset Category:Companies based in Aalborg Category:Military counterterrorist organizations Category:Military units and formations established in 1961 Category:Special forces of Denmark

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Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, Lord of West-Souburg (Dutch: Filips van Marnix, heer van Sint-Aldegonde, heer van West-Souburg, French: Philippe de Marnix, seigneur de Sainte-Aldegonde; 7 March/20 July 1540 - 15 December 1598) was a Flemish and Dutch writer and statesman, and the probable author of the text of the Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus. Biography - career right|201px Marnix of St. Aldegonde was born at Brussels, the son of Jacob of Marnix. He studied theology under John Calvin and Theodore Beza at Geneva. Returning to the Habsburg Netherlands in 1560, he threw himself into the cause of the Reformation, taking an active part in the compromise of the nobles in 1565 and the assembly of Sint-Truiden. He issued a pamphlet in justification of the iconoclastic movement Beeldenstorm which devastated many churches in Flanders in 1566, and on the Duke of Alba's arrival next year had to flee the country. After spending some time in Friesland and in the Electorate of the Palatinate he was in 1570 taken into the service of William, prince of Orange, and in 1572 was sent as his representative to the first meeting of the States-General assembled at Dordrecht. In 1573 he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at Maaslandsluys, but was exchanged in the following year. He was sent as the representative of the insurgent provinces to Paris and London, where he attempted in vain to secure the effective assistance of Queen, Elizabeth I of England. In 1578 he was at the Diet of Worms, where he made an eloquent, but fruitless, appeal for aid to the German princes. Equally vain were his efforts in the same year to persuade the magistrates of Ghent to cease persecuting the Catholics in the city. He took a conspicuous part in arranging the Union of Utrecht. In 1583 was chosen burgomaster of Antwerp. In 1585 he surrendered the city, after the months' siege of Antwerp, to the Spaniards. Attacked by the English and by his own countrymen for this act, he retired from public affairs and, save for a mission to Paris in 1590, lived henceforth in Leiden or on his estate in Zeeland, where he worked at a translation of the Bible. His daughter Elizabeth married Sir Charles Morgan (), a Welsh mercenary serving with the Dutch States Army who ended his career as Governor of Bergen op Zoom. He died at Leiden on 15 December 1598. Literary work St. Aldegonde, or Marnix (by which name he is very commonly known), is celebrated for his share in the great development of Dutch literature which followed the classical period represented by such writers as the poet and historian Pieter Hooft. Of his works, the best known is the Roman Bee-hive (De roomsche byen-korf), published in 1569 during his exile in Friesland, a bitter satire on the faith and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. This was translated, or adapted, in French, German and English (by George Gilpin). He also wrote an educational treatise dedicated to John, Count of Nassau. As a poet, St. Aldegonde is mainly known through his metrical translation of the Psalms (1580/1591); and, the Dutch national anthem Wilhelmus van Nassouwe is also ascribed to him. His complete works, edited by Lacroix and Quinet, were published at Brussels in 7 volumes (1855-1859), and his religious and theological writings, edited by Van Toorenenbergen, at The Hague, in 4 volumes (1871-1891). Marnix wrote one of the earliest Bible translations into Dutch. Less known to the general public is his work as a cryptographer. St. Aldegonde is considered to be the first Dutch cryptographer (cfr. The Codebreakers). For Stadholder William the Silent, he deciphered secret messages that were intercepted from the Spaniards. His interest in cryptography possibly shows in the Wilhelmus, where the first letters of the couplets form the name Willem van Nassov, i.e. William 'the Silent' of Nassau, the Prince of Orange, but such acrostics - and far more intricate poetic devices - were a common feature of the Rederijker school in the Lowlands. There is a marble sculpture of him by Paul de Vigne in Brussels. Marnix could speak Spanish, and this influenced his writing style.«Sans doute l'Espagne ne fut représentée dans notre pays que par un petit nombre de fonctionnaires groupés dans le grand centre administratif qu'était Bruxelles et les organismes centraux indigènes, comme les organismes provinciaux et locaux, continuèrent-ils ainsi que par le passé à être gérés par des nationaux et à employer les langues nationales; cependant, à partir du gouvernement de Marguerite de Parme et surtout à l'arrivée du duc d'Albe, l'espagnol fut mis à l'honneur à la Cour et devint plus familier aux grands seigneurs et aux hauts fonctionnaires. Quel effet ce bilinguisme plus ou moins parfait pouvait-il exercer sur le français, il est permis d'en juger par l'apparition de mots espagnols dans le correspondances comme celle de Granvelle, et mieux encore par la prose de Marnix de Sainte-Aldegonde. Contrairement à la plupart des écrivains français de la Renaissance, celui-ci était un excellent connaisseur de l'espagnol, et notamment dans le Tableau des différends de la Religion, des mots et des expressions espagnoles viennent souvent émailler de façon pittoresque ou narquoise le contexte français; pareils traits seraient inexplicables s'ils n'étaient pas destinés à des lecteurs ayant au moins la connaissance de quelques rudiments d'espagnol. A la Cour, des troupes de comédiens espagnols venaient donner des représentations» —Herbillon, Jules. Éléments espagnols en wallon et dans le français des anciens Pays-Bas, 23-24. Mémoires de la Commission royale de toponymie et de dialectologie. Section wallonne 10. Liège: Michiels, 1961. See also House of Coloma Marnixstraat Bornem Castle Saint Aldegonde References Sources and references Edgar Quinet, Marnix de St Aldegonde (Paris, 1854) Théodore Juste, Vie de Marnix (The Hague, 1858); Frédéricq, Marnix en zijnenederlandsche geschriften (Ghent, 1882) Tjalma, Philips van Marnix, heer van Sint-Aldegonde (Amsterdam, 1896) 'On the Education of Youth', trans. Robert de Rycke in 'History of Education Quarterly', Summer 1970) Category:1538 births Category:1598 deaths Category:Poets of the Habsburg Netherlands Category:Dutch people of the Eighty Years' War (United Provinces) Category:Pre-19th-century cryptographers Category:Dutch nobility Category:Belgian nobility Category:Diplomats from Brussels Category:Burials at Pieterskerk, Leiden Category:National anthem writers Category:16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:Dutch Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:Mayors of Antwerp, Belgium Category:Writers from Brussels

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Paul Lacroix (; 27 February 1806 - 16 October 1884) was a French author and journalist. He is known best by his pseudonym P.L. Jacob, bibliophile, or Bibliophile Jacob, suggested by his great interest in libraries and books generally. Biography Lacroix was born in Paris, the son of a novelist. He was a prolific and varied writer, composing more than twenty historical romances and a variety of serious historical works, including histories of Napoleon III and of the Czar Nicholas I of Russia. He was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, Le moyen âge et la renaissance (1847), a profusely illustrated standard work on the manners, customs and dress of the Renaissance. He also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture, including Manners, Custom and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period. Someone using the name Pierre Dufour published an exhaustive six-volume Histoire de la prostitution (1851-1854), which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works concerning bibliography were also numerous, as was his periodical Revue universelle des arts [Universal Review of the Arts], which he initiated in 1855. In 1855 he was appointed librarian of the Arsenal Library, Paris. He married Apolline Biffe on 7 May 1834. She lived with Paul Lacroix's collaborator, art collector Théophile Thoré-Bürger, for more than a decade until his death. Works (selection) thumb| L’Origine des cartes à jouer, 1835 L'Homme au Masque de Fer, 1837 Bibliothèque de M. G. de Pixerécourt, 1838 Bibliothèque dramatique de M. de Soleinne, 1843-1845 Bibliothèque dramatique de Pont de Vesle, 1846 Costumes historiques de la France d’après les monuments les plus authentiques, 1852 Histoire de la prostitution, 1853 Œuvres complètes de François Villon, nouvelle édition revue, corrigée et mise en ordre avec des notes historiques et littéraires, par P. L. Jacob, Bibliophile, Paris, P. Jannet, 1854 Plus romanesque aventure de ma vie, Paris, P. Henneton, 1854 (read on Gallica). Ballets et mascarades de Cour, de Henri III à Louis XIV (1581-1652), 1868-1870 Vie militaire et religieuse au Moyen Âge et à l’époque de la Renaissance, 1869 Aventures de l’abbé de Choisy habillé en femme, 1870 Mœurs, usages et costumes au Moyen Âge et à l’époque de la Renaissance, 1871-1877 Œuvres poétiques de Marc-Claude de Buttet, 2 tomes, in -8, 1880. English translations published in the United States History of prostitution among all the peoples of the world: from the most remote antiquity to the present day 3. vol. (1926) Translated from the original French (Histoire de la prostitution, 1853) by Samuel Putnam Danse Macabre [1832] translated by Brian Stableford, 2013, Black Coat Press, References Sources Ferdinand Hoefer, Nouvelle Biographie générale, t. 27, Paris, Firmin-Didot, 1861, (p. 595-8). External links Paul Lacroix on data.bnf.fr Works by Paul Lacroix (P.L. Jacob) at openlibrary.org Suite de la Convalescence du vieux conteur by P.-L. Jacob, bibliophile on Gallica Category:Writers from Paris Category:1806 births Category:1884 deaths Category:19th-century French dramatists and playwrights Category:19th-century French historians Category:French bibliophiles Category:French bibliographers Category:Officers of the Legion of Honour

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Burnley () is a town and the administrative centre of the wider Borough of Burnley in Lancashire, England, with a 2001 population of 73,021. It is north of Manchester and east of Preston, at the confluence of the River Calder and River Brun. The town is located near the countryside to the south and east, with the towns of Padiham and Brierfield to the west and north respectively. It has a reputation as a regional centre of excellence for the manufacturing and aerospace industries. The town began to develop in the early medieval period as a number of farming hamlets surrounded by manor houses and royal forests, and has held a market for more than 700 years. During the Industrial Revolution it became one of Lancashire's most prominent mill towns; at its peak, it was one of the world's largest producers of cotton cloth and a major centre of engineering. Burnley has retained a strong manufacturing sector, and has strong economic links with the cities of Manchester and Leeds, as well as neighbouring towns along the M65 corridor. In 2013, in recognition of its success, Burnley received an Enterprising Britain award from the UK Government, for being the "Most Enterprising Area in the UK". For the first time in more than fifty years, a direct train service now operates between the town's Manchester Road railway station and Manchester's Victoria station and onward to Wigan Wallgate via the restored Todmorden Curve which opened in May 2015. History Toponymy The name Burnley is believed to have been derived from Brun Lea, meaning "meadow by the River Brun". Various other spellings have been used: Bronley (1241), Brunley (1251) and commonly Brumleye (1294)A History of the county of Lancaster vol 6: Burnley Township @ UK History Accessed 2010 Origins Stone Age flint tools and weapons have been found on the moors around the town, as have numerous tumuli, stone circles, and some hill forts (see: Castercliff, which dates from around 600 BCE). Modern-day Back Lane, Sump Hall Lane and Noggarth Road broadly follow the route of a classic ridgeway running east-west to the north of the town, suggesting that the area was populated during pre-history and probably controlled by the Brigantes. Limited coin finds indicate a Roman presence, but no evidence of a settlement has been found in the town. Gorple Road (running east from Worsthorne) appears to follow the route of a Roman road that may have crossed the present-day centre of town, on the way to the fort at Ribchester. It has been claimed that the nearby earthworks of Ring Stones Camp (), Twist Castle () and Beadle Hill () are of Roman origin, but little supporting archaeological information has been published. Following the Roman period, the area became part of the kingdom of Rheged, and then the kingdom of Northumbria. Local place-names Padiham and Habergham show the influence of the Angles, suggesting that some had settled in the area by the early 7th century; sometime later the land became part of the hundred of Blackburnshire. There is no definitive record of a settlement until after the Norman conquest of England. In 1122, a charter granted the church of Burnley to the monks of Pontefract Abbey. In its early days, Burnley was a small farming community, gaining a corn mill in 1290, a market in 1294, and a fulling mill in 1296. At this point, it was within the manor of Ightenhill, one of five that made up the Honor of Clitheroe, then a far more significant settlement, and consisted of no more than 50 families. Little survives of early Burnley apart from the Market Cross, erected in 1295, which now stands in the grounds of the old grammar school. Over the next three centuries, Burnley grew in size to about 1,200 inhabitants by 1550, still centred around the church, St Peter's, in what is now known as "Top o' th' Town". Prosperous residents built larger houses, including Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham and Towneley Hall. In 1532, St Peter's Church was largely rebuilt. Burnley's grammar school was founded in 1559, and moved into its own schoolhouse next to the church in 1602. Burnley began to develop in this period into a small market town, with a population of not more than 2,000 by 1790. It is known that weaving was established in the town by the middle of the 18th century, and in 1817 a new Market House was built. The town continued to be centred on St Peter's Church, until the market was moved to the bottom of what is today Manchester Road, at the end of the 19th century. Industrial Revolution In the second half of the 18th century, the manufacture of cotton began to replace wool. Burnley's earliest known factories - dating from the mid-century - stood on the banks of the River Calder, close to where it is joined by the River Brun, and relied on water power to drive the spinning machines. The first turnpike road through the area now known as Burnley was begun in 1754, linking the town to Blackburn and Colne eventually leading to the area of Brun Lea developing into a town, and by the mid 19th century, there were daily stagecoach journeys to Blackburn, Skipton and Manchester, the latter taking just over two hours. The 18th century also saw the rapid development of coal mining on the Burnley Coalfield: the drift mines and shallow bell-pits of earlier centuries were replaced by deeper shafts, meeting industrial as well as domestic demand in Nelson, Colne & Padiham, and by 1800 there were over a dozen pits in the modern-day centre of the town alone. thumb|left|Burnley wharf on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal The arrival of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1796 made possible transportation of goods in bulk, bringing a huge boost to the area's economy and the town of Burnley was born. Dozens of new mills were constructed, along with many foundries and ironworks that supplied the cotton mills and coal mines with machinery and cast and wrought iron for construction. The town became renowned for its mill-engines, and the Burnley Loom was recognised as one of the best in the world. A permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of Burnley Barracks in 1820. Disaster struck the town in 1824, when first its only local bank (known as Holgate's) collapsed,Burnley Express Accessed 2010 forcing the closure of some of the largest mills. This was followed by a summer drought, which caused serious problems for many of the others, leading to high levels of unemployment and possibly contributing to the national financial crisis of 1825. By 1830, there were 32 steam engines in cotton mills throughout the rapidly expanding town, an example of which, originally installed at Harle Syke Mill, is on display in the Science Museum in London.Science Museum Accessed 2010 Around 1840, a traveller described the town as ugly, stating that: "parts of it were so situated that good architectural effects might have been obtained had the disposition and the resources co-existed". The Great Famine of Ireland led to an influx of Irish families during the 1840s, who formed a community in one of the poorest districts. At one time, the Park District (modern-day town centre, around Parker St.) was known as Irish Park. In 1848, the East Lancashire Railway Company's extension from Accrington linked the town to the nation's nascent railway network for the first time. This was another significant boost to the local economy and, by 1851, the town's population had reached almost 21,000. The Burnley Building Society, incorporated in Burnley in 1850, was, by 1911, not only 'by far the largest in the County of Lancashire... but the sixth in magnitude in the kingdom'. The Cotton Famine of 1861-1865, caused by the American Civil War, was again disastrous for the town. However, the resumption of trade led to a quick recovery and, by 1866, the town was the largest producer of cotton cloth in the world.Burnley Borough Council . Retrieved 6 September 2007. By the 1880s, the town was manufacturing more looms than anywhere in the country.Weavers triangle Accessed 2010 In 1871, the population was 44,320, and had grown to 87,016 by 1891. Burnley Town Hall, designed by Holton and Fox of Dewsbury, was built between 1885 and 1888. The Burnley Electric Lighting Order was granted in 1890, giving Burnley Corporation (which already controlled the supply of water and the making and sale of gas) a monopoly in the generation and sale of electricity in the town. The building of the coal-powered Electricity Works, in Grimshaw Street, began in 1891, close to the canal (the site of the modern-day Tesco supermarket) and the first supply was achieved on 22 August 1893, initially generating electricity for street lighting.Burnley Express Accessed 2010 The start of the 20th century saw Burnley's textile industry at the height of its prosperity. By 1901 there were 700,000 spindles and 62,000 looms at work in the textile industry. Other industries at that time included: brass and iron foundries, rope works, calico printing works, tanneries, paper mills, collieries and corn mills and granaries. By 1910, there were approximately 99,000 power looms in the town, and it reached its peak population of over 100,000 in 1911. By 1920, the Burnley and District Weavers', Winders' and Beamers' Association had more than 20,000 members. However, the First World War heralded the beginning of the collapse of the English textiles industry and the start of a steady decline in the town's population. The Bank Parade drill hall was completed in the early 20th century. There is a total of 191 Listed buildings in Burnley - one Grade I (Towneley Hall), two Grade II* (St Peter's Church and Burnley Mechanics) and 188 Grade II.Listed Buildings in Burnley, Britishlistedbuildings.co.uk, Retrieved 3 September 2012 World Wars Over 4000 men from Burnley were killed in the First World War, about 15 per cent of the male working-age population. 250 volunteers, known as the Burnley Pals, made up Z Company of 11th Battalion, the East Lancashire Regiment, a battalion that as a whole became known by the far more famous name of the Accrington Pals. Victoria Crosses were awarded to two soldiers from the town, Hugh Colvin and Thomas Whitham, along with a third to resident (and only son of the chief constable) Alfred Victor Smith. In 1926 a memorial to the fallen was erected in Towneley Park, funded by Caleb Thornber, former mayor and alderman of the borough to ensure the sacrifice of the men lost was commemorated. The local school of art created pages of vellum with the names of the fallen inscribed. These were framed in a rotating carousel in Towneley Hall for visitors to see. There were 2000 names inscribed - less than half the number of actual casualties. During the Second World War, Burnley largely escaped the Blitz, with the only Luftwaffe bomb to known to have fallen within the town landing near the conservatory at Thompson Park on 27 October 1940. In early 1941 a network of five Starfish site bombing decoys were established in the rural areas near Burnley, designed to protect Accrington. A site was located near Crown Point in Habergham Eaves with two on Hameldon Hill, and others in Worsthorne-with-Hurstwood and near Haslingden. On 6 May 1941, a stick of eight bombs straddled houses around Rossendale Avenue on the southern edge of town, causing only minor damage. On the night of 12 October the control shelter at the Starfish site near Crown Point suffered a direct hit, killing Aircraftman L R Harwood, and severely injuring four other men. Although the blackout was enforced, most of the aircraft in the sky above the town would have been friendly and on training missions, or returning to the factories for maintenance. Aircraft crashes did occur, however: In September 1942 a P-38 Lightning from the 14th Fighter Group USAAF crashed near Cliviger, and Black Hameldon Hill claimed a Halifax from No. 51 Squadron RAF in January 1943, and also a B-24 Liberator from the 491st Bombardment Group USAAF in February 1945. Lucas Industries set up shadow factories, producing a wide range of electrical parts for the war effort. Notably they were involved with the Rover Company's failed attempts (and Rolls-Royce's later successful ones) to produce Frank Whittle's pioneering jet engine design, the W.2 (Rolls-Royce Welland) in Barnoldswick. Magnesium Elektron's factory in Lowerhouse became the largest magnesium production facility in Britain.magnesium.com Accessed 2010 An unexpected benefit of the conflict for the residents of Burnley occurred in 1940. The Old Vic Theatre Company and the Sadler's Wells Opera and Ballet Companies moved from London to the town's Victoria Theatre. For their actions during the war, two Distinguished Service Orders and eight Distinguished Conduct Medals, along with a large number of lesser awards, were awarded to servicemen from the town. Burnley's main war memorial stands in Place de Vitry sur Seine next to the central library. Post-Second World War The Queen, together with Prince Philip, first visited the town as well as Nelson and the Mullard valve factory at Simonstone near Padiham in 1955. There were widespread celebrations in the town in the summer of 1960, when Burnley FC won the old first division to become Football League champions. The Queen paid a second official visit to the town in summer 1961, marking the 100th anniversary of Burnley's borough status. The rest of the decade saw large-scale redevelopment in the town. Many buildings were demolished including the market hall, the cattle market, the Odeon cinema and thousands of mainly terraced houses. New construction projects included the Charter Walk shopping centre, Centenary Way and its flyover, the Keirby Hotel, a new central bus station, a large scale housing development known as Trafalgar Gardens, and a number of office blocks. The town's largest coal mine, Bank Hall Colliery, closed in April 1971 resulting in the loss of 571 jobs. The area of the mine has been restored as a park. In 1980 Burnley was connected to the motorway network, through the construction of the first and second sections of the M65. Although the route, next to the railway and over the former Clifton colliery site, was chosen to minimise the clearance of occupied land, Yatefield, Olive Mount and Whittlefield Mills, Burnley Barracks, and several hundred more terrace houses had to be demolished. Unusually this route passed close to the town centre and had a partitioning effect on the districts of Gannow, Ightenhill, Whittlefield, Rose Grove and Lowerhouse to the north. The 1980s and 1990s saw massive expansion of Ightenhill and Whittlefield. Developers such as Bovis, Barratt and Wainhomes built large housing estates, predominantly on greenfield land. In summer 1992, the town came to national attention following rioting on the Stoops and Hargher Clough council estates in the south west of the town. The millennium brought some improvement projects, notably the "Forest of Burnley" scheme,Visit Burnley Accessed 2010 which planted approximately a million trees throughout the town and its outskirts, and the creation of the Lowerhouse Lodges local nature reserve.Lancashire Wildlife Trust Accessed 2010 In June 2001, during the 2001 England riots, the town again received national attention following a series of violent disturbances arising from racial tensions between some of its White and Asian residents.Burnley Task Force report. Retrieved 6 September 2007 Governance Burnley was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1861, a Parliamentary Borough returning one member in 1867 and became, under the Local Government Act 1888, a county borough outside the administrative county of Lancashire. Under the Local Government Act 1972 Burnley's county borough status was abolished, and it was incorporated with neighbouring areas into the non-metropolitan district of Burnley. Burnley has three tiers of government: Local government responsibilities are shared by Burnley Borough Council and Lancashire County Council; at a national level the town gives its name to a seat in the United Kingdom parliament. While the town itself is unparished, the rest of the borough has one further, bottom tier of government, the parish or town council.Burnley Borough Council . Retrieved 18 September 2007. Borough Council thumb|Burnley Town Hall on Manchester Road Burnley Borough Council is currently governed by a multi-party coalition. The role of mayor is a ceremonial post which rotates annually and for 2020-21 is Wajid Khan (Labour Party). The borough comprises 15 wards, 12 of which - Bank Hall, Briercliffe, Brunshaw, Coal Clough with Deerplay, Daneshouse with Stoneyholme, Gannow, Lanehead, Queensgate, Rosegrove with Lowerhouse, Rosehill with Burnley Wood, Trinity, and Whittlefield with Ightenhill - fall within the town itself. The remaining three - Cliviger with Worsthorne, Gawthorpe, and Hapton with Park, cover the neighbouring town of Padiham and a number of villages.Burnley Borough Council . Retrieved 6 November 2007. County Council Lancashire County Council is currently controlled by the Conservative Party and has been since 2017. They have had only one other term in power between 2009 - 2013, the rest of the time from 1981, the council has been under Labour control. The borough is represented on the council in six divisions: Burnley Central East, Burnley Central West, Burnley North East, Burnley Rural, Burnley South West, and Padiham & Burnley West. National The constituency of Burnley elects a single member of Parliament (MP). Since the general election in 2019, the town has been represented by Antony Higginbotham, its first Conservative Party MP in over 100 years. The constituency had been represented by MPs of the Labour Party since 1935, apart from 2010 - 2015, when it was represented by Gordon Birtwistle, a Liberal Democrat. Richard Shaw was the town's first MP in 1868. Arguably its most notable MP was former leader of the Labour Party and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Arthur Henderson. Geography thumb|right|The River Brun as it flows through Burnley The town lies in a natural three-forked valley at the confluence of the River Brun and the River Calder, surrounded by open fields, with wild moorland at higher altitudes. To the west of Burnley lie the towns of Padiham, Accrington and Blackburn, with Nelson and Colne to the north. The centre of the town stands at approximately above sea level and east of the Irish Sea coast. Areas in the town include: Burnley Wood, Rose Hill, Healey Wood, Harle Syke, Haggate, Daneshouse, Stoneyholme, Burnley Lane, Heasandford, Brunshaw, Pike Hill, Gannow, Ightenhill, Whittlefield, Rose Grove, Habergham, and Lowerhouse. Although Reedley is considered to be a suburb of the town, it is actually part of the neighbouring borough of Pendle. To the north west of the town, and home of the Pendle Witches, is the imposing Pendle Hill, which rises to , beyond which lie Clitheroe and the Ribble Valley. To the south west, Hameldon Hill rises to , on top of which are the Met Office north west England weather radar, a BBC radio transmitter, and a number of microwave communication towers. This site was the first place in the UK chosen for an unmanned weather radar, beginning operation in 1979; it is one of 18 that cover the British Isles.Met Office Weather Radar Accessed 2010 Also since 2007 the three turbines of the Hameldon Hill wind farm have stood on its northern flank. To the east of the town lie the Boulsworth Hill and the moors of the South Pennines, and to the south, the Forest of Rossendale. On the hills above the Cliviger area to the south east of the town stands Coal Clough wind farm, whose white turbines are visible from most of the town. Built in 1992 amidst local controversy, it was one of the first wind farm projects in the UK. Nearby, the landmark RIBA Award-winning Panopticon Singing Ringing Tree, overlooking the town from the hills at Crown Point, was installed in 2006. Due to its hilly terrain and mining history, rural areas of modern Burnley encroach on the urban ones to within a mile of the town centre on the south, north west and north east. The Pennine Way passes six miles (10 km) east of Burnley; the Mary Towneley Loop, part of the Pennine Bridleway, the Brontë Way and the Burnley Way offer riders and walkers clearly signed routes through the countryside immediately surrounding the town. Burnley has a temperate maritime climate, with relatively cool summers and mild winters. There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year, contributing to a relatively high humidity level. While snowfall occasionally occurs during the winter months, the temperature is rarely low enough for it to build up on the ground in any quantity. The town is believed to be the first place in the UK where regular rainfall measurements were taken (by Richard Towneley, beginning in 1677). Demography The Borough of Burnley comparedUK Census 2011BurnleyNW EnglandEnglandTotal population87,0597,052,17753,012,456Foreign born7.7%8.2%13.8%White87.4%90.2%85.4%Asian10.7%5.5%7.1%Black0.2%1.4%3.5%Christian63.6%67.3%59.4%Muslim9.9%5.1%5.0%Hindu0.2%0.5%1.5%No religion19.7%19.8%24.7%Under 18 years old22.2%21.2%21.4%Over 65 years old16.2%16.6%16.3%Unemployed5.3%4.7%4.4%Perm. sick / disabled7.0%5.6%4.0% The 2001 United Kingdom census showed a total resident population for the Burnley subdivision of the Burnley Built-up area of 73,021. The entire built-up area, which includes Nelson, Colne and Brierfield had a population of 149,796; for comparison purposes, this was about the same size as Oxford or Swindon in South England. At that time the racial composition of the wider local government district (the Borough of Burnley) was 91.77% white and 7.16% South Asian or South Asian/British, predominantly from Bangladesh. The largest religious groups were Christian (74.46%) and Muslim (6.58%). 59.02% of adults between the ages of 16 and 74 were classed as economically active and in work.Office for National Statistics. 2001 census. Accessed 6 September 2007. In the 2011 United Kingdom census, these figures had changed to 87.4% white and 10.7% South Asian or South Asian/British, with 63.6% identifying as Christian and 9.9% Muslim. The Burnley Built-up area, had a population of 149,422 according to the 2011 census. The ONS annual population survey for the year Apr 2013-Mar 2014 showed that 63.1% of adults between the ages of 16 and 64 were classed as economically active. The majority of its Asian residents live in the neighbouring Daneshouse and Stoneyholme districts. In total, the size of its Asian community is much smaller than that in nearby towns such as Blackburn and Oldham. In February 2010, the Lancashire Telegraph reported that Burnley topped Home Office figures for the highest number of burglaries per head in England and Wales between April 2008 - April 2009. This claim (minus the dates) was repeated during one of the questions in the first of the televised 2010 general election debates. However, in May 2010, the NPIA Local Crime Mapping System (believed to be the source of the data in the report) listed a 49.5% drop in this rate on the previous year. Burnley has some of the lowest property prices in the country, with numerous streets appearing in the annual mouseprice.com most affordable streets in England and Wales report. These streets are concentrated in areas of terrace housing in poorer neighbourhoods adjacent to the town centre. Between 2005 and 2010, approximately £65m of government funds was invested into these areas through the Elevate East Lancashire housing market renewal company (replaced by Regenerate Pennine Lancashire in 2010). Year 1911 1921 1931 1939 1951 1961 1971 2001 Population 106,322 103,157 89,258 85,400 84,987 80,559 76,489 73,021 Economy thumb|right|Burnley Market, Charter Walk In 2013, Burnley was awarded an Enterprising Britain award from the UK Government for being the 'Most Enterprising Area in the UK'. This accolade subsequently received praise from the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, and His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales. A series of high-profile regeneration schemes, including: a direct rail link to Manchester, an aerospace supply village and multimillion-pound investment in the former Victorian industrial heartland through a project called 'On The Banks' are radically transforming the economy of the Lancashire town. Although traditional manufacturing has been in decline in the town for several decades, high end advanced manufacturing remains very strong in the town. The Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, Vince Cable, said in 2013: "Burnley in the north of Lancashire is currently now booming economically on the back of manufacturing and proximity to the aerospace industry." Cable praised the town again in 2014 saying: "If every other part of Britain was like Burnley we wouldn't be talking about a recession". The last deep coal mine, Hapton Valley Colliery, closed in February 1981 and the last steam-powered mill, Queen Street Mill, in 1982. Over the next two decades, Burnley's three largest manufacturers closed their factories: BEP in 1992, Prestige in July 1997 and Michelin in 2002. The town has struggled to recover: its employment growth between 1995 and 2004 placed it 55th of England's 56 largest towns and cities,Institute for Public Policy Research . Retrieved 6 September 2007. and as of 2007 it was the 21st most deprived local authority (out of 354) in the United Kingdom. In 2016, a study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation put Rochdale, Burnley and Bolton at top of a list of the 74 largest UK cities and towns faring worst compared with UK trends.Ten of top 12 most declining UK cities are in north of England - report, The Guardian, 29 February 2016, accessed 12 February 2017 10.1% of its working age population currently claims incapacity benefit and ESA (national average 6.2%). The largest employment sector in the town is now Health (21%), followed by Manufacturing (16%). Home shopping firm Shop Direct announced in January 2010 that it was to close its Burnley call centre with the loss of 450 jobs. The company, which owns Littlewoods, Additions Direct, Very, Empire Stores and Marshall Ward, had been in the town for over 30 years, originally as Great Universal Stores but now known as GUS plc. Modern economic developments have been industrial estates and business parks with the following currently in Burnley:Burnley Council Accessed 2010 Heasandford, Rossendale Road, and Healeywood Industrial Estates; Network 65, Shuttleworth Mead, Smallshaw & Chestnut, Elm Street, and Gannow Business Parks; and Burnham Gate Trading Estate. A further large business park called Burnley Bridge, on a site near Hapton formerly belonging to Hepworth PlasticsThis is Lancashire Accessed 2010 has recently opened. Key manufacturing employers today are in highly specialised fields: Safran Aircelle (aerospace), GE subsidiary Unison Engine Components (aerospace), AMS Neve (professional audio), and TRW Automotive and Futaba-Tenneco UK (automotive components).Central Lancashire City Region Development Programme . Retrieved 11 September 2007. In 2011 Gardner Aerospace, which made parts for the Eurofighter Typhoon, closed its site, with the loss of 120 jobs. The town has also had a long association with Endsleigh Insurance Services, providing its main training facility and an important call centre. Endsleigh acquired a number of the former Burnley Building Society's properties in the town centre following its merger with the Provincial Building Society and subsequent merger with the Abbey National. It also hosts the head office of The Original Factory Shop chain. In 2004, the Lancashire Digital Technology Centre was opened by Sir Digby Jones on land formerly occupied by the Michelin factory, to provide support and incubation space for start-up technology companies. The rest of the Michelin site has recently been opened as Innovation Drive, a new business park aimed at businesses in the Aerospace and Advanced Manufacturing supply chain. Continuing the town's historic association with fabric weaving is Ian Mankin Ltd, a company which manufactures high quality, natural woven fabrics and furnishings using only natural, recycled or certified organic fibres, at Ashfield Mill, Active Way, Burnley BB11 1BS, on the northern edge of the Weavers' Triangle. The company also supplies fabrics to the Landmark Trust for use in their restoration of historic buildings across the UK. Burnley's main shopping area is St James Street, along with the nearby Charter Walk Shopping Centre. The YMCA claimed to have opened the largest charity shop in the UK in 2009, when they temporarily took over the former Woolworths store in the centre.YMCA Accessed 2010 The shopping centre was sold in 2001 by Great Portland Estates to Sapphire Retail Fund, which was 50% owned by the Reuben Brothers. The centre was bought in March 2011 by Addington Capital following the 2010 collapse of Sapphire Retail Fund.Financial Times Accessed 2010 The centre incorporates the council-run market which is open four days a week. The town centre is home to a large number of high street multiples, along with other shops, including specialist food shops, independent record shops and an independent bookshop. On the edge of the town centre, there are four retail parks; there are also a number of mill shops. Plans have been in place since 2004 to construct a second town centre shopping centre, originally called 'The Oval'. By the time a sufficient number of tenants had signed up to begin construction, the effects of the financial crisis cast doubts over the project. In early 2011 fresh plans were released for a considerably smaller scheme involving a cluster of retail units. The site is now earmarked for a cinema and restaurants and is due to open in 2016 As well as Woolworths, the financial crisis has also led to the closure of several other shops in the last few years, including T J Hughes, Miss Selfridge, and HMV but has gained new high street names in large retail units including Next and River Island. The Market Square is currently under redevelopment with a number of retailers already moved in and more said to be 'signed up' to move in once the development is complete. As well as traditional motor dealerships, the town is home to the second Motorpoint car supermarket in the UK. The local brewery, Moorhouse's, which was founded in 1865, produces a range of award-winning beers - including the very popular Pride of Pendle and Blond Witch - and currently operates six pubs in the area. The Worsthorne Brewing Company produces a number of cask ales including Chestnut Mare, Packhorse, Foxstones Bitter, Some Like It Blonde, Old Trout, Collier's Clog and Winter Ales. The Moonstone Brewery is operated within the "Ministry of Ale", Burnley's first Brewpub. Reedley Hallows Brewery, whose ales include Old Laund Booth and Pendleside was launched in 2012 by the former Head Brewer at Moorhouses. Religion thumb|St Peter's Church, Church Street St Peter's Church, around which the town developed, dates from the 15th century, and is designated a Grade II* listed building by English Heritage. St Andrew's Church on Colne Road was built in 1866-67, to a design by J. Medland Taylor, and was restored in 1898 by the Lancaster architects Austin and Paley. It is designated a Grade II listed building. There are many other places of worship including those for Roman Catholics, Baptists, United Reformed Church, Methodists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Latter-Day Saints and Spiritualists. The chapel at Towneley Hall was the centre for Roman Catholic worship in Burnley until modern times. Well before the Industrial Revolution, the town saw the emergence of many non-conformist churches and chapels. In 1891 the town was the location of the meeting which saw the creation of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland. Burnley has ten mosques,Mosques in Burnley, Lancashire, Mosques.muslimsinbriutain.org, Retrieved 5 September 2012 with the first purpose-built premises opening in 2009. A total of 17 religious buildings or structures are designated as listed buildings - all Grade II by English Heritage.Listed Buildings in Burnley, Britishlistedbuildings.co.uk, Retrieved 18 September 2012 Landmarks Leeds and Liverpool Canal Along the Burnley section of the canal are a number of notable features. The long and up to high almost perfectly level embankment, known as the Straight Mile, was built between 1796 and 1801 (before the invention of the steam shovel), to avoid the need for locks. It is regarded as one of the original seven wonders of the British waterways. The much more modern (1980) Whittlefield motorway aqueduct is believed to be the first time a canal aqueduct was constructed over a motorway in the UK. Weavers' Triangle The Weavers' Triangle is an area west of Burnley town centre, consisting mostly of 19th-century industrial buildings, clustered around the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. The area has been identified as being of significant historical interest as the cotton mills and associated buildings encapsulate the social and economic development of the town and its weaving industry. From the 1980s, the area has been the focus of major redevelopment efforts. Singing Ringing Tree thumb|right|The Singing Ringing Tree, overlooking Burnley The Singing Ringing Tree is a wind powered sound sculpture resembling a tree, set in the landscape of the Pennines, south of Burnley town centre. Completed in 2006, it is part of the series of four sculptures within the Panopticons arts and regeneration project created by the East Lancashire Environmental Arts Network (ELEAN). The project was set up to erect a series of 21st-century landmarks, or Panopticons (structures providing a comprehensive view), across East Lancashire as symbols of the renaissance of the area. Designed by architects Mike Tonkin and Anna Liu of Tonkin Liu, the Singing Ringing Tree is a tall construction comprising pipes of galvanised steel, which harness the energy of the wind to produce a slightly discordant and penetrating choral sound covering a range of several octaves. Some of the pipes are primarily structural and aesthetic elements, while others have been cut across their width enabling the sound. The harmonic and singing qualities of the tree were produced by tuning the pipes according to their length by adding holes to the underside of each. In 2007 the sculpture was one of 14 winners of the National Award of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) for architectural excellence. Towneley Hall thumb|left|Towneley Hall in Towneley Park on the eastern edge of town Towneley Hall was the home of the Towneley family for more than 500 years. Various family members were influential in the scientific, technological and religious developments which took place in the 17th and 18th centuries. The male line of the family died out in 1878 and in 1901 one of the daughters, Lady O'Hagan, sold the house together with of land to Burnley Corporation.Towneley Hall Official Site . Retrieved 24 September 2008. The hall contains the 15th-century Whalley Abbey vestments and has its own chapel, which contains a finely carved altarpiece made in Antwerp in about 1525. Transport thumb|right|256px|Burnley bus station Burnley is served by Junctions 9, 10 and 11 of the M65 motorway, which runs west to Accrington, Blackburn and Preston (where it connects to the M6), and northeast to Nelson and Colne. From the town centre, the A646 runs to Todmorden, the A679 to Accrington, the A671 to Clitheroe, and the A682 (a nearby rural section of which has been classified as Britain's most dangerous road) south to Rawtenstall and north east to Nelson and the Yorkshire Dales. The A56 dual carriageway skirts the western edge of the town, linking to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester and the M62. Rail services to and from Burnley are provided by Northern. The town has four railway stations: Burnley Manchester Road, Burnley Central, Burnley Barracks and Rose Grove. A fifth station, Hapton, serves Padiham and Hapton to the west of the town, but inside the borough. Manchester Road station has an hourly semi-fast service west to Preston (the nearest station on the West Coast Main Line) and Blackpool North, and east to Leeds and York, whilst the Central and Barracks stations provide an hourly stopping service west to Blackpool South and Preston, and east to Nelson and Colne. In May 2015, a direct train service to Manchester and onwards to Wigan Wallgate was reinstated. This provides a direct route to Manchester Victoria for the first time in over fifty years with the construction of a short section of track at the Hall Royd Junction of the Caldervale Line (known as the Todmorden curve). This has reduced the journey time between Burnley and central Manchester from around 1 hour and 25 minutes via Blackburn and Bolton and 1 hour and 4 minutes via Hebden Bridge to approximately 45 minutes via Todmorden and Rochdale where Metrolink tram connections via Oldham are possible. In preparation for this new direct service a new Manchester Road station building including a ticket office and waiting rooms has recently been completed, which has made Manchester Road the new principal station for the town Burnley bus station, designed by Manchester-based SBS Architects, won the UK Bus Award for Infrastructure in 2003. The main bus operator is Burnley Bus Company, with Tyrer Bus operating some tendered town services. Other services are provided by First West Yorkshire (591/592 to Halifax), Blackburn Bus Company (152 to Preston) and Rosso (483 to Bury). National Express operates three coach services to London each day, and one to Birmingham. The X43 Witch Way service (operated by Burnley Bus Company) runs from Burnley to Manchester via Rawtenstall and Prestwich using a fleet of specially branded double-decker buses. The fastest journey takes about an hour. Burnley does not have an airport, but there are four international airports within an hour's travel of the town: Manchester Airport at , Liverpool John Lennon Airport at , Leeds Bradford Airport at , and Blackpool Airport at . Since 2009, the Reedley Marina has provided a 100-berth facility, on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal on the northern edge of town. Sport thumb|Turf Moor, the home of Burnley F.C. The town's sporting scene is dominated by Burnley Football Club, nicknamed "The Clarets" and founded in 1882. They were one of the first to become professional (in 1883), and subsequently put pressure on the Football Association to permit payments to players. In 1888, Burnley were one of the 12 founder members of the Football League. From the 1950s until the 1970s, under chairman Bob Lord, the club became renowned for its youth policy and scouting system, and was one of the first to set up a purpose-built training ground (Gawthorpe). The team currently compete in the English Premier League, the first tier of English football. The club has played its home matches at Turf Moor since 1883, with average attendances of 20,000 in the Premier League. Individual seasons accessed via dropdown menu. The club is well supported in the town, and is one of the best supported sides in English football per capita. Burnley have been champions of England twice, in 1920-21 and 1959-60, have won the FA Cup once, in 1913-14, and have won the FA Charity Shield twice, in 1960 and 1973. When the team won the 1959-60 Football League, the town of Burnley became one of the smallest to have an English first tier champion. It is one of only five English league clubs to have been champions of all four professional league divisions (along with Wolverhampton Wanderers, Preston North End, Sheffield United and Portsmouth). There are two members of the Lancashire Cricket League in the town. Burnley Cricket Club play their home matches at Turf Moor, their ground being adjacent to the football ground, while Lowerhouse Cricket Club play at Liverpool Road. England Cricketer James Anderson started his career at Burnley Cricket Club and TV weatherman John Kettley used to play for them. Burnley is also home to Burnley Rugby Club (formerly Calder Vale Rugby Club 1926-2001). They field three senior sides, with teams at most junior age groups, and play at Holden Road, the site of Belvedere and Calder Vale Sports Club. Rugby League is represented in the town by Burnley and Pendle Lions RLFC. They train and play their home games at Prairie Sports Village. They are in the North West Men's Merit League. Burnley Tornados is the American Football club in the town. Burnley held greyhound racing and speedway at Towneley Stadium, that existed from 1927 until 1935. Burnley has good public sporting facilities for a town of its size. The £29m St Peter's Centre (opened in 2006) offers swimming, squash courts and a fitness suite, while the nearby Spirit of Sport complex includes a large sports hall, and several indoor courts and outdoor synthetic pitches.Burnley Borough Council . Retrieved 7 September 2007. There is an outdoor athletics track at Barden Lane, where the Burnley Athletic Club meets. For golfers, there are both 9-hole and 18-hole municipal golf courses at Towneley Park, along with an 18-hole pitch and putt course.www.burnley.gov.uk . Retrieved 4 December 2007 Burnley Golf Club have a private course, established in 1905 above the town in Habergham Eaves. There are tennis courts at Towneley Park, and at the Burnley Lawn Tennis Club, as well as eleven bowling greens around the town,Burnley Borough Council . Retrieved 7 September 2007. and a £235,000 skate park at Queens Park, which opened in 2003. There are also basketball, caving and judo clubs in the town. In 2001, the private Crow Wood Leisure Centre was established in countryside on the edge of the town, offering a combination of fitness facilities, racquet and equestrian sports. In 2013 Crow Wood opened its own day Spa, the Woodland Spa, which was named Day Spa of the Year at the Professional Beauty Awards 2014, just one year after opening. Culture and entertainment Museums and galleries On the outskirts of the town there are galleries in two stately homes, the Burnley council-owned Towneley Hall and Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham, which is owned by Lancashire County Council and managed by the National Trust. There are also two local museums: the Weavers' Triangle Trust operates the Visitor Centre and Museum of Local History in the historic surroundings of the Weavers' Triangle, while the Queen Street Mill Textile Museum is unique as the world's only surviving steam driven cotton weaving shed. Mid Pennine Arts were instrumental in the Panopticons project and run exhibitions and creative learning projects across the town and wider area. Parks There are several large parks in the town, including Towneley Park, once the deer park for the 15th century Towneley Hall, and three winners of the Green Flag Award, Queens Park which hosts a summer season of brass band concerts each year, and Thompson Park which has a boating lake and miniature railway. The other parks include Scott Park, Ightenhill Park and Thursby Gardens. A greenway route linking Burnley Central Station along a former mineral line and incorporating the former Bank Hall colliery and reclaimed landfill site at Heasandford extends out of the town towards Worsthorne at Rowley Lake. The lake was constructed in the 1980s as a means to divert the river Brun away from former mine workings that were causing significant pollution of the river. Activities thumb|left|Burnley Mechanics Theatre, originally a Mechanics' Institute There is a modern 24-lane ten pin bowling centre on Finsley Gate, operated by 1st Bowl. A 9-screen multiplex cinema opened in 1995 (with 3 3D screens as of 2010), operated by Reel Cinemas. The town's theatre, named after its former use as a Mechanics Institute, hosts touring comedians and musical acts and amateur dramatics. In 2005, Burnley Youth Theatre moved into a second, purpose-built £1.5 million performance space next to Queen's Park, one of only two purpose-built youth theatres in the UK. Festivals Each year Burnley hosts the two-day Burnley International Rock and Blues Festival, which started as the Burnley National Blues Festival in 1988. The renamed festival moved from Easter to the early May Bank Holiday. The festival introduced a new logo, website and branding in a bid to attract new and younger audiences, and to encourage cross-town participation with a 'Little America' theme. It is one of the largest blues festivals in the country, drawing fans from all over Britain and beyond to venues spread across the town. In the 1970s the town was also an important venue for Northern soulRoberts, Northern Soul Top 500, p.369 and several local pubs still hold regular Northern soul nights. In recent years the town has also hosted the annual Burnley Balloon Festival in Towneley Park and a science festival at UCLan's local university campus. A funfair is usually held around the second weekend in July at Fulledge Recreation Ground, which is also the venue for the town's main Guy Fawkes Night celebration. Nightlife thumb|right|Hammerton Street, one of Burnley's main areas for nightlife Major bars and nightclubs in Burnley include Panama's, Genesis, Projekt, BB11, Koko's, the Mix, Pharaoh's, The Jungle, Mr Green's, Mojitos, Remedy, Smackwater Jack's Bar, Inside-Out and Sanctuary Rock Bar. There are also chain-owned bars, such as Wetherspoons and Walkabout. Lava & Ignite, which was a leading nightclub, closed in 2014. Curzon Street in Burnley was also the site of the legendary Angels nightclub. Burnley has a small gay scene, centred on the Guys as Dolls showbar in St James Street.FLAG Burnley Accessed 2010 In 1971 the granting of a licence to the town's first gay club, The Esquire, caused considerable controversy, with Tory deputy council leader, Alderman Frank Bailey, suggesting that the building be bought by the corporation to stop the plan. A rainbow plaque was unveiled at Burnley Library on 30 July 2021 marking the 50th anniversary of a meeting organised by the Campaign for Homosexual Equality regarding the gay club. Bénédictine and hot water, known locally as "Bene 'n' Hot" is a popular drink in east Lancashire, after soldiers stationed in Normandy during the First World War brought back a taste for the drink. The Burnley Miners' Club is the world's largest consumer of the French liqueur, and has its own Bénédictine Lounge. Media Local radio for Burnley and its surrounding area is currently provided by Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR) and BBC Radio Lancashire. Local television news programmes are BBC North West Tonight and ITV Granada Reports. There are two local newspapers: the Burnley Express, published on Tuesdays and Fridays, and the daily Lancashire Telegraph, which publishes a local edition for Burnley and Pendle. Two free advertisement-supported newspapers, The Citizen and The Reporter, are posted to homes throughout the town. Burnley was one of seven sites chosen to be part of Channel 4's The Big Art project in which a group of 15 young people from all over the town commissioned artist Greyworld to create a piece of public art. The artwork, named "Invisible", is a series of UV paintings placed all around the town centre displaying public heroes. Appearance in television and cinema Parts of the 1961 British film Whistle Down the Wind, and the two BBC television series All Quiet on the Preston Front and Juliet Bravo, were filmed in the town. Burnley Fire Station was the location of Social Services in the first series of Juliet Bravo, and Burnley Library was used for exterior shots of the magistrates' court in the series. Numerous locations in the town were used in the 1996-1998 BBC comedy drama Hetty Wainthropp Investigates. Ashfield Road, which runs between the Burnley College and DIY superstore, was used as a film location in the 1951 film The Man in the White Suit. Queen Street Mill textile museum was used for a scene in the 2010 Oscar-winning film The King's Speech,Burnley Express Accessed 2011 and for scenes in the 2004 BBC dramatisation of Elizabeth Gaskell's North and South, as well as Life on Mars (S1 E3; 2006). It has also featured in the following BBC documentaries: Fred Dibnah's Industrial Age (E2; 1999), Adam Hart-Davies' What the Victorians Did for Us (E1; 2001), and Jeremy Paxman's The Victorians (2009), as well as Who Do You Think You Are? (Bill Oddie episode), Flog It and UKTV History's The Re-Inventors (2006). Towneley Hall featured in the BBC comedy drama Casanova (2005) and the BBC antiques quiz Antiques Master is currently filmed there.BBC Programmes Accessed 2010 The canal embankment featured in the 2007 ITV documentary Locks and Quays (S2 E9) and two families in Burnley have been featured in the ITV series 60 Minute Makeover (S6 E28 and S7 E70). In 2023 Netflix released a comedy "Bank of Dave" billed as a true-ish story of a Burnley's businessman David Fishwick, who in 2011 opened 'Burnley Savings & Loans' trading under the slogan 'Bank on Dave'. Education thumb|Sir John Thursby Community College Burnley Grammar School was first established in St Peter's Church in 1559, with its first headmaster a former chantry priest, Gilbert Fairbank. In 1602, one of the governors, John Towneley, paid for a new schoolhouse to be built in the churchyard;Hall & Spencer, Burnley: A Pictorial History, p. 2 the school moved again in 1876 to a new building on Bank Parade, which can still be seen today. The first technical school, in Elizabeth Street, was erected in 1892. The equivalent school for girls, Burnley Girls' High School, was established in 1909 on a site in Ormerod Road (along with the Technical School and Art School) later moving to Kiddrow Lane in the 1960s. The tripartite system of Education established by the Education Act 1944 affected Burnley in the following ways: Heasandford Technical High School for Girls and Towneley Technical High School for Boys were established (Burnley Technical High School was formed in 1956 by the merger of the two),BTHS Index Accessed 2010 as were Barden, Burnley Wood, Rosegrove & St. Mary's (Roman Catholic) Secondary Modern Schools. The borough completed the move to comprehensive education in 1981.at which point the town had the following schools:Burnley St Peter's Heritage - Story of Church and Town . Burnleystpeterheritage.co.uk, Retrieved 13 November 2007 Secondary Schools: Habergham (mixed), Ivy Bank (mixed), Gawthorpe (mixed), Towneley (mixed), Barden (boys), Walshaw (girls), St Theodores RC (boys), St Hilda's RC (Girls). Further education: Habergham and St Theodores Sixth Forms and Burnley College (all mixed). In 2003 a plan was devised to replace all the secondary schools in the town as part of the first wave of a nationwide programme funded by the Department for Education and Skills called Building Schools for the Future. Funding was secured in 2004 and in 2006 the new schools opened (in the buildings of their predecessors). Today there are still five 11-16 secondary schools: School Locality Description Ofsted Website Blessed Trinity RC Community College Burnley Secondary school website Burnley High School Burnley Secondary school website Sir John Thursby Community College Burnley Secondary school website Shuttleworth College Padiham Secondary school website Unity College Burnley Secondary school website Shuttleworth College moved into new buildings in 2008, Sir John Thursby in 2009, and Blessed Trinity, Hameldon and Unity in 2010. Thomas Whitham Sixth Form, which forms a sixth element of the BSF programme, offers sixth form provision at its Burnley campus (opened 2008) on Barden Lane. University Technical College Lancashire is a university technical college for 14- to 19-year-olds that opened in Burnley in September 2013. Burnley High School is a free school for 11- to 19-year-olds that opened in Burnley in September 2014. Burnley College has its heritage in the mid 19th century and is the borough's main tertiary education (post 16) provider, offering a comprehensive range of 40 A Levels, a range of advanced vocational courses and professional training. Apprenticeship courses provided over 1000 local apprenticeship places in 2013, within businesses across Pennine Lancashire. Burnley College in partnership with the University of Central Lancashire (UCLan Burnley) also provides adult education and 70 degree courses. Burnley College moved to a new £80 million campus, (in partnership with the University of Central Lancashire), off Princess Way in 2009. It achieved 'outstanding' status in that year's OFSTED inspection. The inspection awarded the College 54 out of 54 areas grade one status. The Mohiuddin Trust charity subsequently purchased the former College site for £2m, and opened the Mohiuddin International Girls' College in October 2010.Burnley Express Accessed 2010 Attainment The town's educational attainment has continued to improve over the last few years. In 2012, 82% of children at the end of Key Stage 2 achieved Level 4 or above in English and 81% in Mathematics. In 2012 59% of students at the end of Key Stage 4 achieved A*-C grades or above at GCSE and in 2012 Burnley College reported a 99.8% A Level pass rate and a record number of A and A* grades. Accessed 2013 People Art Keith Coventry, the winner of the 2010 John Moores Painting Prize, was born and educated in the town. The watercolourist Noel Leaver studied and also taught at the former Burnley School of Art, later attended by Greta Tomlinson. Entertainment Possibly the best-known Burnley figure in the field of entertainment is actor Ian McKellen, who was born in the town in 1939. There is a blue plaque on the house where he lived, but where he says he was not born. Other actors born in the town include J. Pat O'Malley, Mary Mackenzie, Irene Sutcliffe, Julia Haworth, Richard Moore,Urban Talent Acting Agency . Accessed 22 October 2007. Jody Latham, Kathy Jamieson, Hannah Hobley, Natalie Gumede and Lee Ingleby. Coronation Street regular Malcolm Hebden grew up in the town. Screenwriter Paul Abbott, creator of Shameless, and television producer and executive Peter Salmon were also born here. thumb|Burnley rock band Chumbawamba in 2012 Musicians born in the town include Danbert Nobacon, Alice Nutter, Lou Watts and Boff Whalley (all of Chumbawamba),A Chumbawamba FAQ. Accessed 22 October 2007. Eric Haydock (bassist in The Hollies), classical composer John Pickard,Rickards, 'Icarus Soaring: The Music of John Pickard', p.2 the DJ Anne Savage, Record Producer Ady Hall of Sugar House, young soprano Hollie Steel. and singer Cody Frost. The 19th-century author and clergyman Silas K. HockingBurnley Borough Council . Accessed 23 October 2007. wrote his most famous work, Her Benny (1879), while living in Burnley. Crime writer Stephen Booth is another native of the town, as are journalist and broadcaster Tony Livesey and author and documentary maker Stewart Binns. Politics and the church David Waddington, Lord Waddington of Read (former Conservative Home Secretary and former Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords), Phil Willis, Liberal Democrat MP for Harrogate & Knaresborough,Liberal Democrats official site . Retrieved 23 October 2007. and the diplomat Sir Vincent Fean were born in Burnley, as was the 16th-century Catholic martyr Robert Nutter, and the 17th-century Catholic martyr Thomas Whittaker. Suffragettes Margaret Aldersley was born in Burnley in 1852 while Ada Nield Chew died in the town in 1945. Military James Yorke Scarlett, commander of the Heavy Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava, was married to a Hargreaves coal heiress and lived at Bank Hall. 2nd Lieutenant Hugh Colvin VC and Private Thomas Whitham VC both served during World War I. Science and industry Engineer Sir Willis Jackson was born and educated in the town. James Drake, a pioneer of British motorways, was also born here. 17th-century mathematician Sir Jonas Moore was from Higham but is believed to have been educated at the Grammar School. Moore's contemporary, Richard Towneley, pioneered many scientific and technological developments at Towneley Hall. Scottish cardiology pioneer Sir James Mackenzie lived and practised medicine in the town for more than a quarter of a century. The Lasker Award-winning molecular biologist Edwin Southern, inventor of the Southern blot, was born and raised in Burnley. Sport Burnley's sporting figures include England and Lancashire cricketer James Anderson, former England international footballers Jimmy Crabtree, Billy Bannister, and Jay Rodriguez, Northern Ireland international Oliver Norwood, Pakistan international Adnan Ahmed, former England Women's goalkeeper Rachel Brown, ex-Manchester United player Chris Casper, Commonwealth Games Gold Medal-winning gymnast Craig Heap. Supercars Championship driver Fabian Coulthard, second cousin of Formula One driver David Coulthard, was born in Burnley along with Neil Hodgson, 2003 World Superbike champion. Also long-time Burnley F.C. chairman Bob Lord, football pioneer Jimmy Hogan (who grew up in the town), football manager Harry Bradshaw, handball player Holly Lam-Moores, middleweight boxer Jock McAvoy, World Rally Championship navigator Daniel Barritt, and hammer thrower Sophie Hitchon. See also Pendelfin, a Burnley-based stoneware company named after Pendle Hill Collieries in the Burnley area of Lancashire List of mining disasters in Lancashire References Footnotes Bibliography Brian Hall & Ken Spencer, Burnley: A Pictorial History, Phillimore, 1993, Guy Rickards, "Icarus Soaring: The Music of John Pickard" in Tempo, n.s., 201 (July 1997), pp. 2-5 Kev Roberts, Northern Soul Top 500, Goldmine Publications, 2000, Further reading Walter Bennett, The History of Burnley, 4 vols., Burnley Corporation, 1946-1951 Ken Bolton & Roger Frost, Burnley, Francis Frith, 2006 Mike Townend, Burnley, Tempus Publishing, 2004 Mike Townend, Burnley Revisited, Tempus Publishing, 2006 External links General information Burnley Borough Council Official council site Visit Burnley Official tourism site Maps and photographs Ordnance Survey Map of Eastern Burnley in 1890 Ordnance Survey Map of Western Burnley in 1890 Ordnance Survey Map of Burnley in 1910 Ordnance Survey Map of Burnley in 1953-55 Photographs of Burnley at Geograph (UK) Burnley in 2007 | Photographs of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Burnley Image Burnley Category:Towns in Lancashire Category:Market towns in Lancashire Category:Unparished areas in Lancashire Category:Former civil parishes in Lancashire

{"Sovereign state": "England", "Population": "(2001 Census)", "OS grid reference": "SD836326", "Postcode district": "BB10-BB12", "Dialling code": "01282", "UK Parliament": "Burnley", "District": "Burnley", "Shire county": "Lancashire", "Website": "burnley.co.uk"}

Sir Adam Beck (June 20, 1857 – August 15, 1925) was a Canadian politician and hydroelectricity advocate who founded the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. thumb|Mayor Thomas Langton Church and Sir Adam Beck (centre) thumb|Sir Adam Beck Manor in London Biography Beck was born in Baden, Canada West to German immigrants, Jacob Beck and Charlotte Hespeler (sister of William Hespeler). He was the great-great-grandson of Count Károly Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka (1723-1795). He attended school at the Rockwood Academy in Rockwood, Ontario. As a teenager he worked in his father's foundry, and later established a cigar-box manufacturing company in Galt (now Cambridge, Ontario) with his brother William. In 1885, he moved the company to London, Ontario, where it quickly flourished and established Beck as a wealthy and influential civic leader. He was also involved in horse breeding and racing, and at a horse show in 1897 he met Lilian Ottaway of Hamilton daughter of Cuthbert Ottaway and Marion Stinson. Lilian's mother, by then Marion Crerar, objected to their 21-year age difference - she was 19 and he 40 - as well as Beck's love of horse racing, which they felt would keep him away from home. Nevertheless, they were married on September 7, 1898. Beck named their London mansion Headley, after Lilian's parents' home in Surrey, England. In addition to horse breeding, for which he won numerous prizes, Beck was also associated with tennis and lawn bowling. Also in 1898, Beck ran for provincial legislature for the first time, but lost. In 1900, Beck founded the London Health Association, which would later develop into the University and Victoria Hospitals. In 1902, he was elected mayor of London and a few months later was elected to the Ontario legislature as the Conservative member from the London riding. He was re-elected mayor in 1903 and 1904 while simultaneously serving as a member of the provincial legislature (which is no longer permitted). Already a wealthy man, he donated his salary to charity while serving as mayor. In 1905, he was appointed minister without portfolio in the government of premier Sir James P. Whitney. Beck was an early and prominent advocate of publicly owned electricity grids, opposing the privately owned companies who he felt did not adequately serve the needs of the public. With the slogan "Power at Cost" and in Latin, "dona naturae pro populo sunt" ("the gifts of nature are for the public"), he convinced Premier Whitney to create a board of enquiry on the matter, with him as chairman. The enquiry suggested creating a municipally owned hydroelectric system, funded by the provincial government, and using water from Niagara Falls and other Ontario lakes and rivers. In 1906 Whitney appointed Beck the first chairman of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission. He was knighted by King George V in 1914 for his promotion of electricity and development of transmission lines. In 1915, he tried to introduce a network of interurban railways, known provincially as radials (long-distance trolleys) in Ontario under public ownership, but this plan had to be put on hold during World War I. In the 1919 post-war election, Beck lost his seat to Hugh Stevenson as the United Farmers of Ontario swept the Conservatives out of power. Beck continued to push his radial railways proposal after World War I, which pitted him against Premier Ernest Drury, with whom he had an antagonistic relationship. In 1920, Drury created a Royal Commission, chaired by Robert Franklin Sutherland, which concluded that the popularity of automobiles had rendered Beck's proposal obsolete. During his time in the provincial legislature Beck remained active in London. His daughter Marion, born in 1904, suffered from tuberculosis, but with Beck's wealth and influence she had access to the best doctors and medicine. Realizing that not everyone could afford such care, in 1910 Beck founded a sanitorium, which was very advanced for its time. The Queen Alexandra Sanitorium, named after Alexandra of Denmark, wife of King Edward VII, was officially opened on April 5 of that year by Governor General Earl Grey. It was later renamed the Beck Memorial Sanitorium. Later still it was renamed the Children's Psychiatric Research Institute (CPRI). Today the building houses the London Child and Parent Resource Institute. In 1918 Beck also paid fellow Londoner Guy Lombardo to play at Marion's débutante party. Lilian Beck died of cancer on October 17, 1921. In 1923 Beck was re-elected to the Ontario legislature, until his own death from anemia in 1925. Former Prime Minister of Canada Arthur Meighen, Ontario premier George Howard Ferguson, and London mayor George Wenige attended his funeral. The Queenston Chippawa power station (now Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations), which he helped to create, was renamed after him in 1950. Also named for him were Sir Adam Beck Collegiate Institute, a public secondary school in London which is now home to the Thames Valley District School Board headquarters, an elementary school in Upper Beaches, Toronto, Ontario, and a bilingual elementary school in Etobicoke. Sir Adam Beck Public School was built in his hometown of Baden. In 1990, Headley, the Becks' mansion at Richmond and Sydenham streets, was demolished by Sifton Properties Ltd. and replaced with a condominium replica dubbed the Sir Adam Beck Manor. In Toronto, there is a statue of Beck (Adam Beck Memorial), sculpted by Emanuel Hahn, on University Avenue at Queen Street West. It was jointly erected by City of Toronto and the Toronto Hydro-Electric Commission in 1934. References Sources Ontario Liberals blacking out Adam Beck's energy legacy, by Christina Blizzard, May 16, 2015 Sir Adam Beck at The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed September 1, 2019 External links Biocards: Sir Adam Beck at www.londonhistory.org Hydro One : About Hydro One : History : Sir Adam Beck at www.hydroone.com Category:1857 births Category:1925 deaths Category:Canadian people of German descent Category:Canadian Knights Bachelor Category:Deaths from anemia Category:Foundrymen Category:Mayors of London, Ontario Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Category:Politicians from the Regional Municipality of Waterloo Category:Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario MPPs Category:University of Western Ontario alumni Category:Ontario Hydro

{"Name": "Sir Adam Beck", "Predecessor 2": "Francis Baxter Leys", "Successor 2": "Hugh Allan Stevenson", "Birth date": "1857 06 20", "Birth place": "Baden, Canada West", "Death date": "1925 08 15 1857 06 20", "Death place": "London, Ontario", "Spouse(s)": "Lilian (Ottaway) Beck"}

The Israel Security Agency (ISA; ; Sherut haBitaẖon haKlali; "the General Security Service"; jihāz al'amn al`ami), better known by the acronym Shabak (; ; ) or the Shin Bet (a two-letter Hebrew abbreviation of "Security Service"), is Israel's internal security service. Its motto is "Magen veLo Yera'e" (, lit. "Shield and not seen" or "The unseen shield"). The Shin Bet's headquarters are located in northwest Tel Aviv, north of Yarkon Park. It is one of three principal organizations of the Israeli intelligence community, alongside Aman (military intelligence) and Mossad (foreign intelligence service). Organization Shabak is believed to have three operational wings: The Arab Department: responsible primarily for Arab-related counterterrorism activities in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. The Israel and Foreigners Department: formerly named the Non-Arab Affairs Department. It includes the Department for Counter-intelligence and Prevention of Subversion in the Jewish Sector, also known as the "Jewish Department". It is responsible for preventing espionage, and for dealing with extremists who carry out actions (such as terrorism) against the state and the democratic regime. As its original concerns mostly related to the Communist Bloc, it shrank after the fall of the Soviet Union, but rose again in importance in response to Jewish terrorist activity beginning in the early 80s. The Protective Security Department: responsible for protecting high-value individuals and locations in the country such as government officials, embassies, airports, and research facilities. Although a security agency, it is not a part of the Israeli Ministry of Defense, and its chief answers directly to the Prime Minister of Israel. Duties and roles Shabak's duties are safeguarding state security, exposing terrorist rings, interrogating terror suspects, providing intelligence for counter-terrorism operations in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, counter-espionage, personal protection of senior public officials, securing important infrastructure and government buildings, and safeguarding Israeli airlines and overseas embassies. History With the Israeli declaration of independence in 1948, the Shabak was founded as a branch of the Israel Defense Forces and was initially headed by Isser Harel (the father of Israeli Intelligence, who later headed the Mossad). Responsibility for Shabak activity was later moved from the IDF to the office of the prime minister. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Shabak's responsibilities included only internal security affairs. In February 1949 (a short while before the end of the war), its responsibilities were extended to counter-espionage.Shin Bet history (Hebrew) One of the Shabak's leading successes was obtaining a copy of the secret speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in 1956, in which he denounced Stalin. A Polish edition of the speech was provided to the Israeli embassy in Warsaw by the boyfriend of the secretary of a Polish communist official. The Shabak's Polish liaison officer conveyed the copy to Israel. The Israeli government then decided to share the information with the United States, which published it with Israeli approval. On the other hand, a study published in 2013 by Matitiahu Mayzel casts doubt on the story, arguing that the speech was not secret and that it was conveyed to the West by multiple sources, including Soviet political and intelligence agencies. A notable achievement in counter-espionage was the 1961 capture of Israel Beer, who was revealed to be a Soviet spy. Beer was a lieutenant colonel in the reserves, a senior security commentator and close friend of Ben-Gurion and reached high Israeli circles. Beer was tried and sentenced to ten years in prison (later extended by the Supreme Court to fifteen years, following his appeal), where he died. A year before, Kurt Sitte, a Christian German from the Sudetenland and a professor in the Technion, was revealed as a Czechoslovakian spy.Shin Bet between 1957 and 1967 (Hebrew) thumb|right|200px|Medal given to Shabak workers on the 40th anniversary of the state of Israel, 1988 In 1967, an Egyptian-Israeli double agent, Rif'at al Gamal/Jacques Bitton, gave Egypt false information about Israel's battle plans, claiming it would begin with ground operations. The Egyptians thus left their aircraft on open runways, which enabled the Israel Air Force to knock out Egypt's air force within three hours of the outbreak of the Six-Day War. Operation Yated, as it was later known, is considered one of the most successful deceptions in Israeli intelligence history, on a par with Britain's Operation Mincemeat during World War II. After the war, monitoring terrorist activity in the West Bank and Gaza Strip became a major part of Shabak's mission. During 1984-1986, Shabak experienced a major crisis following the Kav 300 affair in which four Palestinian militants hijacked a bus. Two of the hijackers were killed in the ensuing standoff and the other two were killed shortly after being taken into custody by Shabak officers, who later covered up the event and conspired to frame a senior IDF officer.David K. Shipler, Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land. 1986. . pages 89, 90. Following the affair, Shabak head Avraham Shalom was forced to resign. The 1987 Landau Commission, set up to investigate Shabak interrogation methods, criticized the organization and established guidelines to regulate what forms of physical pressure could be used on prisoners. Among the practices authorised were "keeping prisoners in excruciatingly uncomfortable postures, covering their heads with filthy and malodorous sacks and depriving them of sleep." Human rights groups in Israel maintained that this amounts to torture.Israel admits torture 9 February 2000, BBC A 1995 official report by Miriam Ben-Porat, made public in 2000, showed that Shin Bet "routinely" went beyond the "moderate physical pressure" authorised by the Landau Commission. In the report, Israel admitted for the first time that Palestinian detainees were tortured during the First Intifada, between 1988 and 1992. In 1995, the Shin Bet failed to protect the Israeli prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, who was assassinated by right-wing Israeli radical Yigal Amir. Shin Bet had discovered Amir's plans, and a Shin Bet agent was sent to monitor Amir, and reported that Amir was not a threat. Following the assassination, the Shabak director, Carmi Gillon, resigned preemptively. Later, the Shamgar Commission pointed to serious flaws in the personal security unit. Another source of embarrassment and criticism was the violent, provocative and inciting behavior of Avishai Raviv, an informer of the Shabak's Jewish Unit during the time leading up to the assassination.See the chapter on Raviv in the Shamgar report in Hebrew Later, Raviv was acquitted of the charges that he encouraged Yigal Amir to kill Yitzhak Rabin. A few months after the Rabin assassination, Hamas chief bombmaker Yahya Ayyash was assassinated in a targeted killing in which an explosive device was planted in his cellular phone.Katz, Samuel. The Hunt for the Engineer. Lyons Press, 2002. Gillon was replaced by Israeli Navy admiral Ami Ayalon, who helped to restore the organizational morale, after the debacle of the Rabin assassination, and to rehabilitate its public image. In 2000, Ayalon was replaced by Avi Dichter, an ex-Sayeret Matkal commando and experienced Shabak agent, who tightened the working relationship with the Israel Defense Forces and Israeli police. Dichter was in charge when the al-Aqsa Intifada erupted. He turned Shabak into a prominent player in the war on terrorism after the collapse of the 2000 Camp David Summit. In November 2003, four former heads of Shabak (Avraham Shalom, Yaakov Peri, Carmi Gillon and Ami Ayalon) called upon the Government of Israel to reach a peace agreement with the Palestinians. In May 2005, Dichter was replaced by Yuval Diskin, who served until 2011. In 2007, the service launched its first-ever public recruitment drive, unveiling a "slick Website" and buying on-line ads in Israel and abroad in a campaign aimed at "attract[ing] top-tier computer programmers" to its "cutting-edge" IT division. On March 18, 2008, it was announced that Shabak's official website would also offer a blog, where four of its agents would discuss anonymously how they were recruited, and what sort of work they perform; they would also answer questions sent in by members of the public. The decision to launch the blog was made by the Shin Bet's top brass, including head Yuval Diskin, and is part of an attempt to attract high-tech workers to the agency's growing IT department. According to Shabak officers, the Web site and blog are aimed also at promoting a more accessible and positive public image for the secret service, long associated with "dark, undercover and even violent activity".Yaakov Katz, "Shin Bet security agency launches blog" , Jerusalem Post, 17 March 2008. In 2011, Yoram Cohen was chosen as the new head of Shabak, and served until 2016. In 2016, Nadav Argaman was chosen as the new head of Shabak, and assumed office on 8 May 2016. On 11 October 2021, Ronen Bar was announced as the next head of the ISA, and took office on 13 October. Accountability Former Shin Bet director special assistant Barak Ben-Zur said that since 1948 (or more particularly 1957) the group has been brought under the control of the Knesset in order to monitor its budget. In May 2002, Shin Bet was brought under the purview of the Knesset Foreign and Security Committee, which could investigate whether it is working within legal boundaries which, in turn, involves the Constitution, Law and Justice Committee. The government legal adviser approves Shin Bet activities while the Political-Security Cabinet receives reports directly from the Shin Bet director and ensures that every detainee has the right to submit a complaint. Information gathering, interrogation methods and torture Shabak also extracts information by interrogating suspects, and there is a history of concern over its methods. In 1987, after complaints about excessive use of violence, the Landau Commission drew up guidelines condoning "moderate physical pressure" when necessary, but in 1994, State Comptroller Miriam Ben-Porat found that these regulations were violated and senior GSS commanders did not prevent it. Later, in 1999, the Israeli Supreme Court heard several petitions against Shabak methods, including (1) "forceful and repeated shaking of the suspect's upper torso, in a manner which causes the neck and head to swing rapidly," (2) manacling of the suspect in a painful "Shabach position" for a long period of time, (3) the "frog crouch" consisting of "consecutive, periodical crouches on the tips of one's toes," and other methods. The Court ruled that Shabak did not have the authority, even under the defense of "necessity," to employ such methods. This ruling was hailed as landmark against using torture on Palestinian prisoners.World: Middle East Israeli 'torture' methods illegal , September 6, 1999, BBC Shabak claims it now uses only psychological means, although B'Tselem and Amnesty International continue to accuse Shabak of employing physical methods that amount to torture under international conventions. In 2015, Physicians for Human Rights-Israel noted that petitions against Shin Bet had quadrupled since 2012, and claimed that over the past several years of 850 complaints against Shin Bet for torture none had yet been investigated. It further claimed that no system of legal redress against security organizations is in place.Tamar Pileggi, '850 Torture Complaints yield no investigations,' The Times of Israel 11 February 2015. Shabak has also worked closely with the Israeli Air Force in "targeted killings" of field commanders and senior leaders of Palestinian militant factions of Hamas, the Islamic Jihad, the Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, and Fatah. These killings are usually done by helicopter gunships. Both the IAF commanders and Shabak agents sit together in the command center to monitor the operations. Shabak's task is to give intelligence about when and where the target will be available for a strike and then react to IAF drone feedback to ensure the men at the location are indeed the correct targets. Detentions Salah Haj Yihyeh, a Palestinian who runs mobile clinics for Physicians for Human Rights, was detained for questioning by the Shin Bet. In the questioning, Yihyeh answered questions about the activities of the organization, its budget, the identity of its donors, and details about others employed by PHR. The board of Physicians for Human Rights, in a letter to Shin Bet chief Yuval Diskin, rejected the "crossing of a red line in a democracy." The letter argued that since the only cause for calling an employee of the group was to scare him, the tactics were unacceptable and illegal.Akiva Eldar, Haaretz: "Physicians for Human Rights official detained by Shin Bet" , 3 June 2008. Palestinian journalist Mohammed Omer was detained in July 2008 by Shin Bet. Having arrived on a flight from London, Omer says that he was taken aside by a Shin Bet official. According to Democracy Now!, Omer was later questioned, strip-searched, and then beaten by eight armed Shin Bet officers. Injuries from the ordeal allegedly left Mohammed Omer in the hospital for a week.Democracy Now: "Award-Winning Palestinian Journalist Mohammed Omer Details Abuse by Israeli Security Officials" , 7 July 2008. The Israeli government rejected Omer's claims outright, citing inconsistencies in his allegations and noting that such investigations are strictly regulated.Ofra Edelman, "Charges dropped against settler filmed shooting Palestinians" - Haaretz , 14 July 2009. Shin Bet in popular culture In 2012, six former heads of the Shabak (Shalom, Peri, Gillon, Ayalon, Dichter, and Diskin) featured in a documentary film, The Gatekeepers, and discussed the main events of their tenures. In Messiah, Tomer Sisley plays Aviram Dahan, a Shin Bet operative who is fighting terrorism to protect his country. Shabak directors thumb|Reuven Rivlin the president of Israel with Yoram Cohen the former director of the Shin Bet and Nadav Argaman the new director. May 2016 Isser Harel (1948-1952) Izi Dorot (1952-1953) Amos Manor (1953-1963) Yossef Harmelin (1964-1974) Avraham Ahituv (1974-1981) Avraham Shalom (1981-1986) Yossef Harmelin (1986-1988) Yaakov Peri (1988-1994) Carmi Gillon (1995-1996) Ami Ayalon (1996-2000) Avi Dichter (2000-2005) Yuval Diskin (2005-2011) Yoram Cohen (2011-2016) Nadav Argaman (2016-2021) Ronen Bar (2021-present) See also Israel Security Forces Israel Border Police Yamam Security agency Administration of Border Crossings, Population and Immigration Aliyah Bet References External links Shabak website Profile: Israel's Shin Bet agency, BBC News Text of the 1999 High Court of Justice ruling (PDF) B'tselem report on Shabak's use of torture "Inside Shin Bet" video documentary by Al Jazeera Shin Bet (GlobalSecurity.org) Knesset said "No" to Shabak Photos Category:Israeli intelligence agencies

{"Uniformed as": "Israel Security Agency", "Common name": "Shabak", "Abbreviation": "English: ISA, Local: Shabak - Hebrew: שב״כ, Arabic: ar شاباك", "Headquarters": "Yarkon Park, Tel Aviv", "Formed": "yes 1949 2 8 25 May 2011 Shabak The History of the ISA https://www.shabak.gov.il/english//heritage/Pages/default.aspx#cbpf=.1948-1956#cbp=/SiteCollectionImages/english/Time-Line-pics/IsserHarel.JPG", "Multinational agency": "Israel"}

was a province of Japan in the area that is today the northern portion of Fukui Prefecture in the Hokuriku region of Japan.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Echizen" in . Echizen bordered on Kaga, Wakasa, Hida, and Ōmi Provinces. It was part of Hokurikudō Circuit. Its abbreviated form name was . thumb|right|Hiroshige ukiyo-e "Echizen" in "The Famous Scenes of the Sixty States" (六十余州名所図会), depicting Tsuruga Bay History Ancient and classical Echizen was an ancient province of Japan and is listed as one of the original provinces in the Nihon Shoki.Satow, Ernest. (1874). "The Geography of Japan," The region as a whole was sometimes referred to as . In 507, during a succession crisis, the king of Koshi was chosen to become the 26th emperor of Japan, Emperor Keitai. In 701 AD, per the reforms of the Taihō Code, Koshi was divided into three separate provinces: Echizen, Etchū, and Echigo. The original Echizen included all of what is now Ishikawa Prefecture. In 718 A.D., four districts of northern Echizen (Hakui District, Noto District (also called Kashima District), Fugeshi District and Suzu District), were separated to form Noto Province. During the Nara period, the poet Nakatomi no Yakamori was exiled to Echizen, where he wrote some of his 40 poems collected in the Man'yōshū, including his love letters to Sanuno Otogami no Otome. Another famous Man'yōshū poet, Ōtomo no Yakamochi, wrote many pieces about Echizen. . In 823 AD, the two eastern districts of Echizen (Kaga and Enuma) were separated to form Kaga Province. Kaga was thus the last province to be created under the ritsuryō system, and Echizen received its current borders at that time. During the Heian period, the provincial governor of Echizen, Fujiwara no Tametoki, was the father of the celebrated author Murasaki Shikibu. Lady Murasaki left her hometown of Heian-kyō only once in her life, to go to Echizen with her father. She stayed for just over one year, and then returned home to marry Fujiwara no Nobutaka. Her experiences in Echizen are said to have had a major influence on her greatest work, The Tale of Genji, and many place names from Echizen appear in her stories and poems. Echizen was a strategically important province due to its proximity to Kyoto and Nara and due to its location on the Sea of Japan with contacts to the Asian continent. The province was traditionally famous for its production of washi paper. A text dated AD 774 mentions the washi made in this area. Echizen is also well known for its ceramics. It is one of the so-called six old kiln sites of Japan (the others being Shigaraki, Bizen, Seto, Tanba, and Tokoname). The exact location of the provincial capital and Provincial temple of Echizen are unknown, but are believed to have been in what is now the city of Echizen. Medieval and pre-modern Echizen For most of the war between the Northern and Southern Courts, Echizen was under the control of the Ashikaga shogunate. The province was often used as a launching point for the shogunate's attack against the capital, and Echizen became the stage for a number decisive battles of the war. During most of the Muromachi period, the Shiba clan ruled as shugo of Echizen. The Shiba were displaced by the Asakura clan towards the start of the Sengoku period, who made Ichijōdani their headquarters. Under Asakura Yoshikage, Echizen enjoyed a peace and stability far greater than the rest of Japan during this chaotic period, partly due to his negotiations with the Ikkō-ikki. As a result, Echizen became a refuge for people fleeing the violence to the south. When Oda Nobunaga invaded Echizen, he defeated the Asakura clan, burned Ichijōdani Castle to the ground and re-established the provincial capital at Echizen-Fūchu, divided among his generals Fuwa Mitsuharu, Sassa Narimasa, and Maeda Toshiie. The province remained in their hands only for a short time, after which the three were granted larger fiefs of their own elsewhere. After the death of Nobunaga, control of Echizen passed on to Shibata Katsuie, who built his castle at Kitanosho Castle in what is now the city of Fukui. Shibata himself only held Echizen Province for a few years, after which he was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After the Battle of Sekigahara and the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, the entire province was awarded by Tokugawa Ieyasu to his second son, Yūki Hideyasu, who became the daimyō of Echizen Domain, from his base at Fukui Castle.Appert, Georges. (1888). "Matsudaira" in Ancien Japon, pp. 70; compare Papinot, Jacques Edmond Joseph. (1906). Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géographie du Japon; Papinot, (2003). Nobiliare du Japon, pp. 29-30; retrieved 2013-3-26. During the early years of the Tokugawa shogunate, many nobles and aristocrats moved to Fukui city in hopes to win the favor of Hideyasu, who was widely expected to become the new shōgun. There was great disappointment and resentment when the shogunate passed on to Ieyasu's third son, Tokugawa Hidetada. However, Echizen remained a strategically important military and political base; the Tokugawa shōguns needed loyal daimyō in the provinces surrounding the capital, and Echizen served as a powerful buffer between Kyōto and the Maeda clan of Kaga, who were not among the fudai (hereditary Tokugawa allies). Much of the province remained in the control of the Matsudaira clan until the Meiji Restoration; however, due to internal conflicts, the kokudaka of Fukui Domain was much reduced from its initial size, and several new domain were created. A large portion of the area of the province also became tenryo territory administered directly by the shogunate. Meiji period and beyond During the Bakumatsu period, Matsudaira Shungaku, the 17th daimyō of Fukui Domain plays a major role in national politics, and acted as an intermediary to negotiate the surrender of pro-Tokugawa forces to the Meiji government at the end of the Boshin War. However, with the Meiji restoration, the centre of political power shifted completely from Kyoto to Tokyo, and Echizen increasingly became a backwater. On August 29, 1871, Fukui Prefecture and Tsuruga Prefecture were established. However, on August 21, 1875 Fukui Prefecture was abolished, becoming part of Ishikawa Prefecture, whereas Tsuruga Prefecture became part of Shiga Prefecture. Fukui Prefecture was re-established on February 7, 1881. Although Echizen no longer existed after 1871 and maps of Japan were reformed after that dateNussbaum, "Provinces and prefectures" at p. 780. At the same time, Echizen continued to exist legally for certain purposes. For example, Echizen is explicitly recognized in treaties in 1894 (a) between Japan and the United States and (b) between Japan and the United Kingdom.US Department of State. (1906). A digest of international law as embodied in diplomatic discussions, treaties and other international agreements (John Bassett Moore, ed.), Vol. 5, p. 759. In a border adjustment between Fukui prefecture and Gifu Prefecture on October 15, 1958, the village of Itoshiro in Ōno District was transferred to Gifu. Historical districts Echizen Province consisted of four districts: Fukui Prefecture Asuwa District (足羽郡) - dissolved Imadate District (今立郡) Nanjō District (南条郡) Nyū District (丹生郡) Ōno District (大野郡) - dissolved Sakai District (坂井郡) - dissolved Tsuruga District (敦賀郡) - dissolved Yoshida District (吉田郡) Bakumatsu period domains #Name type daimyō kokudaka 22pxFukui DomainshinpanMatsudaira clan320,000 koku 25pxMaruoka DomainfudaiArima clan50,000 koku 25pxSabae DomainfudaiManabe clan40,000 koku 25pxŌno DomainfudaiDoi clan50,000 koku 25pxEchizen-Katsuyama DomainfudaiOgasawara clan22,000 koku 25pxTsuruga DomainfudaiSakai clan11,000 koku Notes References Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 Papinot, Edmond. (1910). Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha. OCLC 77691250 External links Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903 Category:Former provinces of Japan Category:Hokuriku region Category:1871 disestablishments in Japan Category:States and territories disestablished in 1871 Category:History of Fukui Prefecture

{"Native name": "越前国", "Conventional long name": "Echizen Province", "Common name": "Echizen Province", "Capital": "Echizen", "Today part of": "Fukui Prefecture", "Year founded": "701 AD", "Year dissolved": "1871"}

Lawrence University is a private liberal arts college and conservatory of music in Appleton, Wisconsin. Founded in 1847, its first classes were held on November 12, 1849. Lawrence was the second college in the U.S. to be founded as a coeducational institution. History Lawrence's first president, William Harkness Sampson, founded the school with Henry R. Colman, using $10,000 provided by philanthropist Amos Adams Lawrence, and matched by the Methodist church. Both founders were ordained Methodist ministers, but Lawrence was Episcopalian. The school was originally named Lawrence Institute of Wisconsin in its 1847 charter from the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature, but the name was changed to Lawrence University before classes began in November 1849.See also Charles Breunig’s book, A Great and Good Work: A History of Lawrence University, 1847-1964. Its oldest extant building, Main Hall, was built in 1853.Council of Independent Colleges, "Main Hall", Historic Campus Architecture Project. Lawrence University was the second coeducational institution in the country. Lawrence's first period of major growth came during the thirty-year tenure (1894―1924) of alumnus Samuel G. Plantz as president, when the student body quadrupled, from 200 to 800. From 1913 until 1964, it was named Lawrence College, to emphasize its small size and liberal arts education focus. The name returned to Lawrence University when it merged with Milwaukee-Downer College. The state of Wisconsin then purchased the Milwaukee-Downer property and buildings to expand the campus of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Initially, the university designated two entities: Lawrence College for Men and Downer College for Women. This separation has not lasted in any material form, though degrees are still conferred "on the recommendation of the Faculty of Lawrence and Downer Colleges" and the university by-laws still make the distinction. The Lawrence Conservatory of Music, usually referred to as "the Con", was founded in 1874. Lawrence offers three degrees: a Bachelor of Arts, a Bachelor of Music and a Bachelor of Musical Arts. It also offers a five-year dual degree program, where students can receive both B.A. and B.Mus. degrees. Freshman Studies at Lawrence is a mandatory two-term class, in which all students study the same selected 11 classic works of literature, art, and music, the list varying from year to year. President Nathan M. Pusey is credited with initiating the program in 1945, although Professor Waples chaired the Freshman Studies Committee and was responsible for implementing the program. The program continues to this day, despite being temporarily suspended in 1975. Lawrence University is part of the Oberlin Group, a consortium of liberal arts college libraries. Milwaukee-Downer traditions thumb|Main Hall is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is an Appleton landmark. The traditions and heritage of Milwaukee-Downer are woven into the Appleton campus, from the grove of hawthorn trees (called Hawthornden) between Brokaw and Colman halls, to the sundial on the back of Main Hall, to the bestowing upon each class a class color and banner. Presidents thumb|Lawrence Memorial Chapel University presidents 1849-1853 William Harkness Sampson, principal 1853-1859 Edward Cooke, president 1859-1865 Russell Zelotes Mason, president 1865-1879 George McKendree Steele, president 1879-1889 Elias DeWitt Huntley, president 1883-1889 Bradford Paul Raymond, president 1889-1893 Charles Wesley Gallagher, president 1893-1894 L. Wesley Underwood, acting president 1894-1924 Samuel G. Plantz, president 1925-1937 Henry Merritt Wriston, president 1937-1943 Thomas Nichols Barrows, president 1944-1953 Nathan Marsh Pusey, president 1954-1963 Douglas Maitland Knight, president 1963-1969 Curtis William Tarr, president 1969-1979 Thomas S. Smith, president 1979-2004 Richard Warch, president 2004-2013 Jill Beck, president 2013-2021 Mark Burstein, president 2021-present () Laurie Carter, president Presidents of Milwaukee-Downer College 1895-1921 Ellen Sabin 1921-1951 Lucia Russell Briggs 1951-1964 John Johnson Academics thumb|Seeley G. Mudd Library contains over 420,000 volumes The student/faculty ratio at Lawrence is 9:1. The college offers majors in most of the liberal arts. The school also offers the option of interdisciplinary areas of study and allows students to design their own majors. Lawrence grants Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Music degrees, with a double degree possible. Lawrence offers a number of cooperative degree programs in areas such as engineering, health sciences and environmental studies. All students are required to take First-Year Studies during their first two trimesters, which introduces students to broad areas of study and provides a common academic experience for the college. Known as Freshman Studies until 2021, the program was established in 1945, and aside from a brief interruption in the mid-1970s it has remained a consistent fixture of the school's liberal arts curriculum.F. M. Doeringer, "A History of the Freshman Program, 1945-1986", lawrence.edu, retrieved June 28, 2022. Lawrence's First-Year Studies program focuses on a mixture of Great Books and more contemporary, influential works, which include non-fiction books, fiction books, and various other types of works, such as paintings, photographs, musical recordings, and the periodic table of the elements. Readings are replaced every few years, with the exception of Plato's Republic, which has been included on the list since 1945.Ed Berthiaume, "2020-21 guide to Freshman Studies reading list: 'Shows a remarkable range'", lawrence.edu, August 5, 2020, retrieved June 28, 2022. Conservatory of Music The Lawrence University Conservatory of Music was founded in 1874 and has been a part of Lawrence University ever since. The Conservatory offers Bachelor of Music degrees in Performance, Theory/Composition, Music Education, and a five-year double degree option that grants both a BM degree from the Conservatory and a BA degree from the College. Approximately 25% of the Lawrence student body, or 350 students, is in the Conservatory. The Conservatory has three choirs, two bands, two jazz ensembles, a symphony orchestra, an improvisation collective, five world music ensembles, and numerous chamber music groups. The Conservatory offers also a Bachelor of Musical Arts, primarily—but not exclusively—for students whose interest is in other than Western Classical Music; students take 3/4 of their classes in Music, and 1/4 in other subjects. Academic affiliation Lawrence is a member of the Associated Colleges of the Midwest, an academic consortium of 14 liberal arts colleges in the Midwest and Colorado which coordinates several off-campus study programs in a large number of countries as its primary activity. Campus The campus is located in downtown Appleton, divided into two parts by the Fox River. The academic campus is on the north shore of the river, and the major athletic facilities (including the 5,000-seat Banta Bowl) are on the southeast shore. Lawrence also has a northern estate called Björklunden (full name: Björklunden vid sjön), which serves as a site for retreats, seminars, concerts, and theatrical performances. It contains a chapel for weddings. Donald and Winifred Boynton of Highland Park, Illinois, donated the property in Door County to Lawrence in 1963. Campus development In the mid-1980s, the Physics Department built a $330,000 small laser laboratory (known as the "laser palace"), which includes 800 5 mW small lasers and more than 500 mirrors. In 2009, Lawrence opened the Richard and Margot Warch Campus Center, a gathering place for students, faculty, staff, alumni, and guests from the Fox Cities community. The building is situated on the Fox River on the site of the former Hulburt House. The Warch Campus Center includes a cinema, campus dining services, campus mailboxes, and various meeting and event spaces. The building has earned a LEED Gold certification for meeting sustainability goals in energy conservation, environmental friendliness, and green building. Student body thumb|Hiett Hall, a dormitory Lawrence enrolls about 1,500 students. The total enrollment in academic year 2010-11 was 1,566 students,As of Fall 2010. the largest student body in Lawrence University's history. Over 75% of the students identify as white, about 12% are international students, and about 25% of students study in the conservatory of music. In the fall of 2014, a quarter of the incoming class were domestic students of color. Lawrence students have been named Rhodes Scholars seven times. Since 1976, 57 students and nine faculty have received Fulbright Scholarships. Since 1969, 73 students have been named Watson Fellows. Student traditions At the beginning of every academic year in September, incoming freshmen arrive a week before returning students to partake in Welcome Week. During Welcome Week, various activities are planned in order to help the incoming class get to know one another and to help them acclimate to college life. During the first night of Welcome Week, students and their parents attend the President's Welcome, which concludes with the traditional matriculation handshake, where every member of the incoming class shakes hands and exchanges words with the university's president. During the fall term, the on-campus fraternity Beta Theta Pi hosts the annual Beach Bash. For this event, the brothers of ΒθΠ shovel approximately 14 tons of sand into the fraternity house basement, and install a boardwalk and a lifeguard station that doubles as a DJ booth.This tradition was skipped in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During spring term, Lawrence hosts a music festival, LU-aroo (a play on words on the popular music festival Bonnaroo). Held on the quad, the festival features many talented student bands, both from the college and the conservatory. In 2016, the musician The Tallest Man on Earth played at the festival. Media The student newspaper, The Lawrentian, has been published for over a century. Lawrence had a radio station, WLFM, from 1955 (broadcasting beginning in 1956) through 2005. Athletics Lawrence University's intercollegiate athletic teams, known as the Vikings since 1926, compete in the Midwest Conference in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, ice hockey, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, and track & field; women's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing, golf, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball. In 2005-06, the men's basketball team was ranked first in Division III for much of the season, after starting the season unranked. The Vikings were the only undefeated team in all divisions of college basketball for the last six weeks of the season, ending with a record of 25-1. Star forward Chris Braier won the Josten's Award as the top player in the country for both playing ability and community service. Coach John Tharp was named Division III Midwest Coach of the Year. Beginning in 2004, Lawrence qualified for the Division III national tournament in five of the next six years (2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009). Their best result was in 2004, advancing to the quarterfinals (Elite 8), but fell to eventual national champion Wisconsin-Stevens Point by a point in overtime at Tacoma, Washington. In 2011, Lawrence's men's cross country team won the Midwest Conference championships for the first time since 1985, beating Grinnell College and ending its 14-year winning streak. Recognition Lawrence was ranked 63rd on the 2022-2023 U.S. News: List of Best U.S. National Liberal Arts Colleges and 35th in its best-value schools list.https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/lawrence-university-3856/overall-rankings Notable faculty William Chaney, historian Richard N. Current, historian Estelí Gomez, soprano William H. Riker, political scientist Charles B. Schudson, judge Fred Sturm, jazz composer and musician Arthur Thrall, artist Harry Dexter White, economist, first U.S. Director of IMF (1946-47), and Soviet informant John Holiday, opera singer, music professor, and finalist on season 19 of The Voice. Peter N. Peregrine, renowned anthropologist and archaeologist Notable alumni James Sibree Anderson, Wisconsin State Representative Martha Bablitch, judge of the Wisconsin Court of Appeals John Miller Baer, 1909, Congressman from North Dakota William Baer, Assistant Attorney General for the Antitrust Division Melvin Baldwin, Congressman from Minnesota Charles A. Barnard, Wisconsin State Representative Sam Barry, college basketball and baseball coach (attended) Myrt Basing, NFL player Jennifer Baumgardner, 1992, feminist writer and activist Lisle Blackbourn, 1925, NFL head coach Champ Boettcher, NFL player Thomas Boyd, Wisconsin State Representative Alexander Brazeau, Wisconsin State Representative Webster E. Brown, Congressman from Wisconsin (attended) Bonnie Bryant, 1968, author of children's books Louis B. Butler Jr., 1973, associate justice of the Wisconsin Supreme Court Thomas Callaway, Actor and Interior Designer Robert A. Collins, Wisconsin State Representative Julia Colman (1828-1909), American temperance educator, activist, editor, writer Charles Rankin Deniston, Wisconsin State Representative James Dinsdale, Wisconsin State Representative William Diver, 1942, linguist and founder of the Columbia School of Linguistics Pawo Choyning Dorji, 2006, filmmaker and photographer William Draheim, Wisconsin State Senator Paul Driessen, 1970, author and lobbyist Dale Duesing, 1967, operatic baritone Siri Engberg, curator, Walker Art Center Cynthia Estlund, 1978, law professor and author Edna Ferber, author and playwright (attended) James A. Frear, Congressman from Wisconsin (attended) Earle W. Fricker, Wisconsin State Representative William Fuller, 1975, poet and senior vice president and chief fiduciary officer of Northern Trust Corporation Dominic Fumusa, 1991, actor John Rankin Gamble, 1872, Congressman from South Dakota Robert J. Gamble, 1874, Congressman from South Dakota Ed Glick, NFL player (attended) Walter Samuel Goodland, governor of Wisconsin (attended) Suzanne Graff, actress Michael P. Hammond, 1954, chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts Lorena Hickok, confidante of Eleanor Roosevelt (attended) Earnest Hooton, 1903, physical anthropologist John D. Huber, Columbia University political scientist Thomas R. Hudd, Congressman from Wisconsin (attended) Frank W. Humphrey, 1881, Wisconsin State Representative Bruce Iglauer, founder of Alligator Records Lester Johnson, Congressman from Wisconsin Zachary Scot Johnson, 2001, singer-songwriter and creator of Thesongadayproject Jeffrey Jones, 1968, actor Kaja Kallas, 1999, Prime Minister of Estonia Scott Klug, 1975 former congressman from Wisconsin Peter Kolkay, bassoonist Eddie Kotal, National Football League player Takakazu Kuriyama, Japanese ambassador to the United States (attended) Barbara Lawton, 1987, Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin (2001–2011) Fred Lerdahl, 1965, composer and music theorist John A. Luke Jr., 1971, CEO of MeadWestvaco Harry N. MacLean, 1964, true crime author Momodu Maligie, 2004, Minister of Water Resources for Sierra Leone William H. Markham, Wisconsin State Senator John McDonald, NFL player James H. McGillan, mayor of Green Bay, Wisconsin James Merrell, 1975, professor of history at Vassar College John S. Mills, U.S. Air Force major general Terry Moran, 1982, chief White House correspondent for ABC News David Mulford, 1969, United States Ambassador to India (2004–2009) William F. Nash, Wisconsin State Senator George Allen Neeves, Wisconsin State Representative Tom Neff, 1975, CEO and founder of The Documentary Channel Justus Henry Nelson, missionary in the Amazon (attended) Garth Neustadter, 2011 Emmy winner, Outstanding Music Composition for a Series Angelia Thurston Newman, poet, author, lecturer Roger Nicoll, 1963, neuroscientist at UCSF Jessica Nelson North, 1917, author Arnold C. Otto, Wisconsin State Representative Rip Owens, NFL player (attended) Alice Peacock, 1992 singer-songwriter Charles Pettibone, Wisconsin State Senator Cindy Regal, 2001, experimental physicist Scott Reppert, 1983, player for Lawrence's football team Eben Eugene Rexford, author of works on gardening (attended) Carl W. Riddick, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from the Second District of Montana Josh Sawyer, video game designer at Obsidian Entertainment Melvin H. Schlytter, Wisconsin State Representative Campbell Scott, 1983, actor Michael Shurtleff, 1942, casting director, author Eric Simonson, 1982, Oscar-winning writer-director Red Smith, 1926, MLB player, NFL player and assistant coach, head coach of the Georgetown Hoyas football team and Wisconsin Badgers football team Janet Steiger, 1961, chairman of the Federal Trade Commission Thomas A. Steitz, 1962, Sterling Professor of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry at Yale University, 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate Heidi Stober, 2000, operatic soprano Fred Sturm, 1973, jazz composer and arranger William T. Sullivan, Wisconsin State Representative Gladys Taber (1899-1980), author Anton R. Valukas, 1965, U.S. attorney, author of the Valukas Report Madhuri Vijay, 2009, novelist, author of The Far Field James Franklin Ware, 1871, legislator William Warner, U.S. Senator from Missouri (attended) Iva Bigelow Weaver, soprano and music educator based in Milwaukee Alexander B. Whitman, Wisconsin State Senator George W. Wolff, Wisconsin State Representative and Senator Tom Zoellner, 1991, author, journalist Al Zupek, 1944, NFL player See also List of NCAA fencing schools References External links Category:Educational institutions established in 1847 Category:Liberal arts colleges in Wisconsin Category:Music schools in Wisconsin Category:Private universities and colleges in Wisconsin Category:Buildings and structures in Appleton, Wisconsin Category:Education in Outagamie County, Wisconsin Category:Tourist attractions in Outagamie County, Wisconsin Category:1847 establishments in Wisconsin Territory

{"Motto": "Light! More Light!Veritas est lux", "Type": "Private liberal arts college", "President": "Laurie Carter", "Students": "1,555 undergraduates(fall 2013)As of Fall 2013. Lawrence University 2013 Profile Lawrence University http://www.lawrence.edu/mfhe/www_dept_ora/Everyone/MI13-138%20LU%20Profile%202013_2.pdf February 27, 2014", "Campus": "Urban - 84 acre ha 0 Björklunden - 425 acre ha 0", "Endowment": "$487 million (2021)As of June 30, 2021.https://www.nacubo.org/-/media/Nacubo/Documents/research/2021-NTSE-Public-Tables--Endowment-Market-Values--REVISED-February-18-2022.ashx U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2021 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY20 to FY21 National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA February 18, 2022 February 20, 2022", "Website": "http://www.lawrence.edu"}

Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (also known as Batman: The Animated Movie - Mask of the Phantasm) is a 1993 American animated romantic superhero film featuring the DC Comics character Batman. It was directed by Eric Radomski and Bruce Timm, and written by Alan Burnett, Paul Dini, Martin Pasko, and Michael Reaves. The film is based on Batman: The Animated Series (1992-1995) and is the first original theatrical film produced by Warner Bros. Animation before eventually establishing the additional Warner Bros. Feature Animation division for theatrical productions afterwards. Kevin Conroy, Mark Hamill, Efrem Zimbalist Jr., Bob Hastings and Robert Costanzo reprise their voice roles from Batman: The Animated Series, joined by Dana Delany, Hart Bochner, Stacy Keach Jr., Abe Vigoda, Dick Miller and John P. Ryan. Produced between the first and second seasons of the series, the film follows Batman as he reconciles with a former lover, Andrea Beaumont, and faces a mysterious vigilante who is murdering Gotham City's crime bosses. The situation becomes more complicated when the Joker enters the picture. The plot was inspired by Mike W. Barr's Batman: Year Two comic book story arc, but features an original antagonist, the Phantasm, in place of the Reaper, while also borrowing elements from the Batman: Year One graphic novel, recounting how Bruce Wayne became Batman and his first attempts to fight crime. Originally planned for a direct-to-video release, Warner Bros. gave Mask of the Phantasm a theatrical release, condensing its production into a strenuous eight-month schedule. The film was the first theatrical feature film produced by Warner Bros. Animation, and was released through the studio's Family Entertainment division on December 25, 1993, to generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the stylized animation, voice performances, story, and music. Due to the decision to release it in theaters on short notice, Mask of the Phantasm failed at the box office. After its release on home media, it became financially successful, and has developed a cult following. Until the limited release of Batman: The Killing Joke in 2016, Mask of the Phantasm was the only animated Batman film to be given a theatrical release, as well as the only one to receive a full theatrical release until The Lego Batman Movie in 2017. Plot A young Bruce Wayne and Andrea Beaumont begin a relationship after meeting while visiting their respective parents' graves. During this time, Bruce makes his first attempts at crime-fighting. He foils a truck hijacking but was disappointed that he did not strike fear into the criminals. Bruce becomes conflicted about how to honor his parents; whether to defend Gotham City to avenge their deaths as opposed to their likely wish to see him grow up to be settled and married. Bruce proposes marriage to Andrea who accepts. However, she abruptly leaves Gotham with her father, businessman Carl Beaumont, ending the engagement in a Dear John letter. Heartbroken, Bruce assumes the mantle of Batman. Ten years later, Chuckie Sol proposes flooding Gotham with counterfeit money, but is thwarted by Batman. When Sol tries to escape in his car, the Phantasm, a masked vigilante resembling the Grim Reaper, attacks him. Sol attempts to kill the assailant with his car, but the Phantasm dodges it and Sol careens to his death. Witnesses see Batman at the scene and believe him to have killed Sol. City councilman Arthur Reeves, once a lawyer for Carl Beaumont, vows to have Batman arrested. The Phantasm murders another gangster, Buzz Bronski, in the Gotham Cemetery. Bronski's bodyguards mistakenly believe the Phantasm to be Batman. Batman investigates the scene of Bronski's death and encounters Andrea, inadvertently revealing his identity to her. Batman finds evidence linking Carl Beaumont with Sol, Bronski, and a third gangster, Salvatore Valestra, later finding a photograph of the four together in Valestra's home. Paranoid that Batman will come for him next, the now-elderly Valestra asks Reeves for help but is refused. In doing so, Valestra reveals he illegally aided Reeves in his political career. In desperation, Valestra turns to the Joker. The Phantasm goes to kill Valestra at his penthouse, only to find Valestra already killed by Joker venom. Joker booby-trapped the place expecting to kill Batman with a bomb, but sees through a camera that Batman is not the killer. The Phantasm escapes the blast and is pursued by Batman but disappears. The police attempt to ambush Batman, but he is saved by Andrea. Andrea later explains to Bruce that her father embezzled money from Valestra and was forced to flee to Europe to find a way to repay it. What Andrea later realized is that Valestra wanted "payment in blood". While Bruce considers resuming his relationship with Andrea, he concludes that Carl Beaumont is the Phantasm. However, Bruce takes another look at the photo. He recognizes Valestra's unnamed enforcer as the Joker prior to his transformation. The Joker confronts Reeves, who reveals Batman did not commit the murders and accuses Reeves of targeting him to erase his mob connections. Reeves is exposed to Joker venom; albeit a weakened dose as Joker was interrupted. Later hospitalized, Reeves struggles with hysteria. Batman interrogates Reeves, and he confesses that while previously working as Carl's lawyer, he helped the Beaumonts escape. When he ran out of money during his first run for office, he sold out their location to Valestra. Reeves failed to realize that Valestra wanted Beaumont dead. A flashback is shown where Andrea is at the Mediterranean coast, briefly passing the Joker then going inside and giving an offscreen scream at finding her father murdered. Both Batman and the Joker deduce that the Phantasm is Andrea. As all the Valestra mob are dead; Phantasm's final target is the Joker. Andrea tracks down the Joker to his hideout in Gotham's abandoned World's Fair (an earlier scene showing Bruce and Andrea on a happy date there). They fight but are interrupted by Batman. Batman pleads with her to stop, to no avail. The Joker prepares to destroy the fair but is seized by Andrea, who bids Batman goodbye as the explosives detonate. Batman survives the blast but finds no trace of either Andrea or the Joker. Alfred later consoles Bruce in the Batcave, assuring him that Andrea could not have been helped, before finding Andrea's locket containing a picture of them together. A sorrowful Andrea departs Gotham and a saddened Batman, cleared of accusations against him, resumes crimefighting. Voice cast Kevin Conroy as Bruce Wayne / Batman Mark Hamill as The Joker Dana Delany as Andrea Beaumont Hart Bochner as City Councilman Arthur Reeves Stacy Keach as Carl Beaumont and voice of Phantasm Abe Vigoda as Salvatore "The Wheezer" Valestra Dick Miller as Chuckie Sol John P. Ryan as Buzz Bronski Efrem Zimbalist Jr. as Alfred Pennyworth Bob Hastings as Commissioner James Gordon Robert Costanzo as Detective Harvey Bullock Arleen Sorkin as Mrs. Bambi (uncredited) Jane Downs, Pat Musick, Vernee Watson-Johnson, Ed Gilbert, Peter Renaday, Jeff Bennett, Charles Howerton, Thom Pinto, Marilu Henner, Neil Ross as Additional Voices Production Impressed by the success of the first season of Batman: The Animated Series on Fox, Warner Bros. assigned Alan Burnett to write a story for a full-length animated film. The original idea for the film was to have Batman being captured by his enemies at Arkham Asylum and face a kangaroo court in which the villains try him for making them what they are. The idea's concept, however, was considered "too brainy", as it required Batman to be immobile for a long time, so the idea was later used in the series' episode "Trial", which was aired after the film's release. Although the Joker does play a pivotal role in the film, it was Burnett's intention to tell a story far removed from the television series' regular rogues gallery. Burnett also cited he "wanted to do a love story with Bruce because no one had really done it on the TV show. I wanted a story that got into his head." Members of the creative team have claimed that they did not intend for the Joker to appear in the film; Paul Dini has contradicted this, stating that the Joker's role was always part of the story from the beginning of the film's production. The writers were highly cautious of placing the Joker in the film, as they did not want any connection to Tim Burton's 1989 film Batman, but writer Michael Reaves said, "We then realized that we could make his appearance serve the story in a way that we never could in live-action." In order to keep the Joker as a solo threat, Bruce Timm and Burnett convinced frequent Animated Series writer Dini to not use Harley Quinn in the film for that reason. The same technique was previously used in the episodes "Joker's Wild" and "The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne". Aiding Burnett in writing the script were Martin Pasko, who handled most of the flashback segments; Reaves, who wrote the climax; and Dini, who claims he "filled in holes here and there". The film's plot was heavily influenced by the 1987 miniseries Batman: Year Two, written by Mike W. Barr and illustrated by Alan Davis, Paul Neary, Alfredo Alcala, Mark Farmer and Todd McFarlane. Orson Welles' 1941 classic Citizen Kane served as an influence for the flashbacks, a story about loss and the passage of time. According to Kevin Conroy, Andrea Beaumont was named after voice director Andrea Romano. The character of Hazel, the cook robot of the World of the Future Fair, was named by Burnett after Hazel the Maid (portrayed by Academy Award-winning actress Shirley Booth), The Saturday Evening Post protagonist of cartoonist Ted Key's TV series Hazel. On the other hand, the design of the Phantasm went into 20 different versions until one was found which convinced the film's crew. According to Burnett, the Phantasm was like the Grim Reaper with a cape, although the idea was to make him resemble the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come of Charles Dickens' novel A Christmas Carol, something that even the Joker mentions in the finished version of the film. Early in production, Warner Bros. decided to release Phantasm theatrically, rather than straight to video. That left less than a year for production time (most animated features take well over two years from finished story to final release). Due to this decision, the animators went over the scenes in order to accommodate the widescreen theatrical aspect ratio.Dini, Kidd, p.117 The studio cooperated well, granting the filmmakers a large amount of creative control. Warner Bros. also increased the production budget to $6 million, which gave the filmmakers opportunities for more elaborate set pieces. The opening title sequence featured a flight through an entirely computer-generated Gotham City. As a visual joke, sequence director Kevin Altieri set the climax of the film inside a miniature automated model of Gotham City, where Batman and the Joker are giants. This was an homage to a mainstay of Batman comic books of the Dick Sprang era, often featuring the hero fighting against a backdrop of gigantic props (they would later do another homage to Sprang's works in The New Batman Adventures episode "Legends of the Dark Knight"). From start to finish, the film was completed within eight months. Themes Paul Dini intended each of the flashbacks into Batman's love life to "have a tendency to get worse, when you hope things will get better." Bruce's relationship with Andrea, which at first shows promise, eventually turns into turmoil. At first, Bruce and Andrea are set for marriage, but then Bruce is given a farewell note from Andrea cutting off their relationship. This eventually leads into Bruce's decision to become Batman. Richard Corliss of Time felt this scene paralleled Andrea's decision to avenge her own parents and reject love when she finds her own father murdered. Both events transform the two people (Bruce becomes Batman, Andrea becomes the Phantasm). One scene depicts Bruce Wayne at his parents' tombstone saying, "I didn't count on being happy." According to Reaves, this scene was to be a pivotal moment in Bruce's tragic life, as he denies himself the opportunity to live a normal life. Reaves also stated: "When Bruce puts on the mask for the first time, [after Andrea breaks their engagement], and Alfred says 'My God!' he's reacting in horror, because he's watching this man he's helped raise from childhood, this man who has let the desire for vengeance and retribution consume his life, at last embrace the unspeakable." Music The soundtrack was composed by Shirley Walker, the main composer for The Animated Series. Walker cited the score as a favorite among her own compositions. In an interview with Cinemusic.com, Walker explained that the "latin" lyrics used in the Main Title were actually names of key Warner Bros. staff read backwards. The song "I Never Even Told You" was written by Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard. It was performed by Tia Carrere. Hans Zimmer, who would later compose the score for The Dark Knight Trilogy, played the synthesizer on the score. The score was originally released on December 14, 1993, by Reprise Records.The Soundtrack Gallery On March 24, 2009, La-La Land Records released a limited expanded edition. The release includes all tracks found on the original release with some tracks expanded. It also features almost 30 minutes of previously unreleased material. Marketing In December 1993, two novelizations were released. One was a young readers book written by Andrew Helfer, with the other being an adult-oriented novelisation authored by Geary Gravel. DC Comics released a comic book adaptation written by Kelley Puckett and drawn by Mike Parobeck. The comic book adaptation was later included with the VHS release. Kenner, who had already released toys for the cartoon series, produced several tie-in figures for the film, including Joker and the Phantasm (packaged unmasked, spoiling a pivotal plot point in the film). Batman & Robin Adventures Annual #1: Shadow of the Phantasm is a comic book sequel to the film. It was written by Dini and released in 1996. In 2015, a DC Collectibles action figure 2-pack featuring Batman and Phantasm was released. Home media Mask of the Phantasm was released on LaserDisc in April 1994 and on VHS in May of the same year. The VHS was reissued in April 2003 as part of a three-tape pack with Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero and Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Mask of the Phantasm was first released on DVD in December 1999 as a snap case and in October 2005 as a keep case with the insert. The film was re-released in April 2004 as a three disc DVD box set that included SubZero and Return of the Joker. That version is currently out of print. Warner Home Video re-released the film again in February 2008 as a double feature DVD with SubZero. The film was released as part of the Warner Archive Collection on Blu-ray on July 25, 2017, featuring new high definition transfers in 16:9 and open matte 4:3 presentations.Batman: Mask of the Phantasm Heads to Blu-ray. Coming Soon. June 19, 2017. The film was also included in the Blu-ray release of the Batman: The Complete Animated Series box-set in late 2018. The film was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on September 12, 2023. It featured a 26-minute documentary about the legacy of Kevin Conroy, who died 9 months prior to the 4K re-release. Reception Box office Batman: Mask of the Phantasm opened on Christmas Day, 1993 in the United States in 1,506 theaters, accumulating $1.2 million over its first 2 days. The film went on to gross $5.8 million in the domestic total box office intake. The filmmakers blamed Warner Bros. for the unsuccessful marketing campaign, which is commonly attributed to the rushed production schedule due to studio's last-minute decision to release the film theatrically. Despite this, Mask of the Phantasm eventually turned a profit with its various home media releases. Critical response Empire cited it as the best animated film of 1993, and felt it contained better storylines than Tim Burton's Batman and Batman Returns. TV Guide Magazine was impressed with the Art Deco noir design that was presented. In addition the film's climax and Batman's escape from the Gotham City Police Department were considered to be elaborate action sequences. Richard Harrington of The Washington Post agreed with overall aspects that included the animation, design, dialogue and storyline, as well as Shirley Walker's film score. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert regretted not having viewed the film during its theatrical release and gave it a positive review on their television series, At the Movies, when the film was released on home media, with Siskel feeling that Phantasm was better than Batman Returns and Joel Schumacher's Batman Forever, and only slightly below Batman. However, Chris Hicks of the Deseret News felt "the picture didn't come alive until the third act" feeling that the animators sacrificed the visuals for the storyline. Leonard Klady of Variety had mixed reactions towards the film, but his review was negative overall. He felt the overall themes and morals were clichéd and cited the animation to be to the "point of self-parody". Wireds Scott Thill called Kevin Conroy "the finest Batman on record" in 2009. In a 2010 list, IGN ranked Mask of the Phantasm as the 25th best animated film of all time. That same year, IGN also stated it was "the Dark Knight's best big screen story" until Batman Begins. In 2011, Total Film also named Mask of the Phantasm as one of the greatest animated films of all time, coming in at 47th out of 50. Time ranked Phantasm as one of the 10 best superhero films ever in 2011. In 2017, Screen Rant named the film the best Batman film of all time. In 2018, Paste magazine called the film "the greatest Batman movie". In 2022, Empire magazine named Mask of the Phantasm the best Batman film. Also in 2022, nearly 30 years after its release, Rolling Stone placed Mask of the Phantasm at number 19 on its list of the 50 Greatest Superhero Movies of All Time, being the only traditionally-animated film included, the third-best animated superhero film and the second-best Batman film of all time, behind only The Dark Knight (number 8). Mask of the Phantasm was cited as an example of a film that effectively personified the character's "inner bubble" and psyche by actor Robert Pattinson, who portrayed Batman in the Matt Reeves film The Batman (2022). To commemorate the film's 20th anniversary, a screening of the film was held in Santa Monica with cast members Kevin Conroy, Dana Delany and Mark Hamill in attendance. To commemorate the film's 25th anniversary, Fathom Events rereleased the film for one day on November 12, 2018. Accolades Alongside The Lion King and The Nightmare Before Christmas, Mask of the Phantasm was nominated for an Annie Award in the category of Best Animated Feature, but lost to the former. Notes References Bibliography External links Batman: Mask of the Phantasm at The World's Finest Interview with Writer Martin Pasko Original theatrical trailer Excerpt Category:1993 films Category:1993 action thriller films Category:1993 animated films Category:1993 children's films Category:1993 crime thriller films Category:1990s American animated films Category:1990s animated superhero films Category:1990s English-language films Category:1993 romance films Category:American children's animated action films Category:American children's animated superhero films Category:American children's animated science fiction films Category:American films about revenge Category:Animated Batman films Category:Animated films about revenge Category:Animated films based on animated series Category:DC Animated Universe films Category:Films based on television series Category:Films directed by Eric Radomski Category:Films directed by Bruce Timm Category:Films scored by Shirley Walker Category:Films with screenplays by Alan Burnett Category:Films with screenplays by Paul Dini Category:Films produced by Benjamin Melniker Category:Films produced by Michael E. Uslan Category:Warner Bros. films Category:Warner Bros. Animation animated films Category:Works based on Batman: The Animated Series Category:World's fairs in fiction

{"Directed by": "Eric Radomski\n Bruce Timm", "Produced by": "Benjamin Melniker\n Michael Uslan", "Screenplay by": "Alan Burnett\n Paul Dini\n Martin Pasko\n Michael Reaves", "Story by": "Alan Burnett", "Based on": "Batman Bob Kane Bill FingerUncredited", "Starring": "Kevin Conroy\n Mark Hamill\n Dana Delany\n Hart Bochner\n Abe Vigoda", "Music by": "Shirley Walker", "Edited by": "Al Breitenbach", "Distributed by": "Warner Bros.", "Budget": "$6 million", "Box office": "$5.6 millionhttps://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0106364 Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993) Box Office Mojo November 22, 2021"}

Ann Fagan Ginger (born July 11, 1925) is an American lawyer, teacher, writer, and political activist. She is the founder and Executive Director Emerita of the Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute in Berkeley, California. Personal and Professional Career Ginger is an expert in human rights and peace law under the statutes and treaties of the United States and the United Nations. The author of 22 books and many articles, Ginger has lectured widely. She has been a visiting professor of law at Hastings University, the University of Santa Clara, and San Francisco State. Ginger was born in 1925 in East Lansing, Michigan, to radical parents. Her father was from a rural family of English Quaker descent; her mother was urban and of Lithuanian Jewish heritage. Ginger graduated from the University of Michigan Law School in 1947, one of only eight women in her class. She met her husband, historian Ray Ginger, at Michigan. Ginger practiced labor law in Ohio for a few years, and then moved with her husband to Boston in 1951 when he was hired by the Harvard Business School. Forced to leave Harvard for their refusal to sign non-Communist oaths, the couple moved to New York City. Ann Ginger began working half-time as an administrator for the National Lawyers Guild while raising two children; between 1954 and 1959 she rose to the position of editor of the NLG's professional journal, The Guild Practitioner. In 1955, Ginger began compiling and publishing the Civil Liberties Docket, a summary and archive of contemporary civil rights and civil liberties litigation materials and decisions, much of which was "not otherwise available." In 1962, she was the only woman lawyer to attend the first joint meeting of black and white attorneys in the South, co-sponsored in Atlanta by the Guild and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. There she spoke in favor of the Civil Rights Movement also supporting women's rights. In 1963, having divorced and moved to Berkeley, California, Ginger hired Boalt Hall law students Michael Tigar and Dennis Roberts to help the Docket keep up with the explosion in school desegregation and other civil rights litigation. Tigar would later describe Ginger as "a superb editor and writer." In 1965, she founded the independent nonprofit Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute in Berkeley, named for scholar Alexander Meiklejohn. Ginger argued and won a case before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1959, upholding the due process rights of a target of Ohio's state-level Un-American Activities Committee. She chaired the City of Berkeley Commission on Peace and Justice from 1986-1989 and was Vice-Chair from 1989-1999. Ginger's biography of the pioneering left-wing immigration lawyer, Carol Weiss King, was published in 1993. Marriage and Harvard Controversy From the late 1940s until the mid-1950s, Ann Fagan Ginger was married to historian and author Ray Ginger (1924 - 1975). In September 2000, she wrote to the Harvard Board of Overseers demanding an apology for Harvard's 1954 action in forcing her then-husband to resign his position at the Business School for refusing to swear he was not a Communist. Harvard had demanded the same of Ann Ginger, although she was not a university employee. Harvard further demanded that the couple leave Massachusetts as a condition of receiving Ray Ginger's final two weeks' pay. Ann Ginger was then pregnant with their second son. At the time of her 2000 letter, she also made public FBI files that confirmed the Gingers' account of being required to sign a non-Communist oath. This was the first documented proof of Harvard having made such a demand, which Harvard had previously publicly denied. Harvard replied a few months later, admitting that Ray Ginger had been forced out of the faculty but not apologizing. Board of Overseers President Sharon Gagnon wrote: "I would not presume to ... second-guess the motives or judgments of individuals in that difficult time. It seems clear, however, that Harvard took an action in the case of Mr. Ginger that many thoughtful people today, looking back, would not find appropriate." Ann Ginger found the response insufficient and said Harvard needed a truth and reconciliation commission to make it face what it had done. Francis Boyle, law professor at the University of Illinois, and a 1976 graduate of Harvard Law School, initiated a national campaign to lobby Harvard to conduct a public inquiry, issue a meaningful apology, and endow a chair in the Gingers' name for the study of peace, justice, and human rights. Selected works Bill of Rights Citator 1955-1966 [1967] Holdings of Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute and ACLU 1920-1966 [1967] California Criminal Law Practice [vol. I, 1969] The Relevant Lawyers;: Conversations out of court on their clients, their practice, their politics, their life style [1972] Human Rights Case Finder, 1953—1969 The Law, the Supreme Court, and the People's Rights [1977] Jury Selection in Civil and Criminal Trials [1984] The Cold War Against Labor [1987] The National Lawyers Guild: From Roosevelt through Reagan (ed.) [Temple Univ. Press 1988] Carol Weiss King: Human Rights Lawyer (1895-52) [1993] (about mentor Carol Weiss King) Nuclear Weapons Are Illegal: The Historic Opinion of the World Court and How It Will Be Enforced [1998] (Summary) Human Rights and Peace Law in the U.S. [2003] Challenging U.S. Human Rights Violations since 9/11 [2005] (Table of Contents) Landmark Cases Left Out Of Your Textbooks (ed.) [2006] (introduction and table of contents) The Living Constitution (ed.) [2007] Undoing The Bush-Cheney Legacy: A Tool Kit for Congress and Activists (ed.) [2008] The U.N. Declaration of Human Rights Is the Law: A Guide to U.D.H.R. Articles in Treaties Ratified by the U.S. (ed.) [2009] References External links 2005 radio interview with Ann Fagan Ginger Category:American legal scholars Category:California lawyers Category:International law scholars Category:American legal writers Category:American anti-nuclear weapons activists Category:American civil rights activists Category:Women civil rights activists Category:Activists from the San Francisco Bay Area Category:1925 births Category:Living people Category:American women lawyers Category:American women non-fiction writers Category:American women legal scholars Category:People from Berkeley, California Category:21st-century American women Category:University of Michigan Law School alumni

{"Name": "Ann Fagan Ginger", "Birth date": "1925 07 11", "Education": "University of Michigan, B.A. 1945\nUniversity of Michigan Law School, LL.B. 1947\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, School of Law, LL.M. 1960", "Known For": "expert in human rights and peace law"}

Montréal-Mirabel International Airport , originally called Montréal International Airport, widely known as Mirabel and branded as YMX International Aerocity of Mirabel, is a cargo and former international passenger airport in Mirabel, Quebec, Canada, northwest of Montreal. It opened on October 4, 1975, and the last commercial passenger flight took off on October 31, 2004. The main role of the airport today is cargo flights, but it is also home to MEDEVAC and general aviation flights, and is a manufacturing base for Bombardier Aerospace and Airbus Canada, where final assembly of regional jet (CRJ700, CRJ900 and CRJ1000) aircraft and the Airbus A220 (formerly Bombardier CSeries) is conducted. The former passenger terminal apron is now a racing course, and the terminal building was demolished in 2016. Prior to the demolition of the passenger terminal, Montréal-Mirabel International Airport was classified as an airport of entry (AOE) by Nav Canada and was staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). A smaller AOE is still available at the Hélibellule FBO It is one of only two non-capital airports with fewer than 200,000 passengers a year to be part of the National Airports System. It was one of two airports in Canada with sufficient right-of-way that can be expanded to accommodate 50 million passengers per year, the other being Toronto Pearson International Airport. A lack of traffic meant that Mirabel was never expanded beyond its first phase. As a result of a controversial expropriation, Mirabel was the largest airport in the world by surface area, with a planned area of , until surpassed by King Fahd International Airport in 1999. In 1989, of the were deeded back to their original owners.History section of the Aéroports de Montréal site The airport was intended to replace the existing Dorval Airport as the eastern air gateway to Canada. Accordingly, from 1975 to 1997, all international flights to and from Montreal (except for flights to and from the United States) were required to use Mirabel. Mirabel's distant location which had to do with inadequate transport links to urban centres, plus the continued operation of domestic flights from Dorval Airport, made Mirabel very unpopular with travellers and airlines. It did not help that Montreal's economy declined relative to that of Toronto during the 1970s and 1980s, while newer long-range airliners no longer needed to refuel in Montreal prior to trans-Atlantic flights, so passenger levels never approached the levels that had been anticipated. The original plan to eventually close Dorval was discarded, and Mirabel thus turned out to be a white elephant.End of Era Near in Montreal For White-Elephant Airport, CLIFFORD KRAUSS, The New York Times, October 3, 2004 A decision was made to consolidate Montreal's passenger traffic at Dorval, with scheduled flights and charter flights being shifted in 1997 and 2004, so Mirabel was relegated to the role of a cargo airport. In 2004, Dorval Airport was renamed Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport, after the Canadian Prime Minister whose government initiated the Mirabel project, the aim of which was to close and replace the Dorval airport. During the 2000s, Dorval was renovated and expanded, which enabled it to handle the passenger levels that the Trudeau government initially claimed would require two airports. Development Background In the 1960s, Montreal experienced a tremendous economic boom. Massive construction projects, including the Montreal Metro and those linked with the hosting of Expo 67, brought the city international status. More and more visitors were arriving to the city, especially by airplane but not always by choice. The federal government required European airlines to make Montreal their only Canadian destination. That resulted in 15-20% annual growth in passenger traffic at the city's Dorval Airport. Optimistic about the city's future and its continuing ability to attract more and more visitors, government officials decided to build a new airport that would be more than able to absorb increased passenger traffic well into the 21st century. The Canadian Department of Transport studied five possible sites for Montreal's new airport: Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu ( to the southeast), Vaudreuil-Dorion ( to the west), Joliette ( to the north), St-Amable ( to the southeast), and Ste-Scholastique ( to the northwest). The federal government proposed that the airport should be located at Vaudreuil-Dorion. Not only was it well served by existing road and rail routes, but it was close enough to both Ottawa and Montreal to serve as the gateway for both cities. However, Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa, who had a frosty relationship with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, reportedly did not want such an important project to be placed so close to the Ontario border. The Bourassa government preferred that the new airport be situated in Drummondville ( to the east). Expropriation 300px|thumb|Diagram of planned transport links serving Mirabel Airport In March 1969, the federal and provincial governments reached a compromise to locate at the St. Scholastique site, and proposals were drawn up to expropriate , an area larger than the entire city of Montreal. This area is served only by a long road link via Autoroute 15 and Autoroute 50. An additional link via Autoroute 13 was planned but never completed. Also planned was the connection of Autoroute 50 to the Ottawa/Gatineau area, a goal which would not be achieved until decades later, in 2012. The federal government expropriation resulted in making Mirabel the world's largest airport by property area. The airport's operations zone, which encompassed what was eventually built plus expansion room, amounted to only , about 19% of the total area of the airport. The federal government planned to use the excess land as a noise buffer and as an industrial development zone (which was never started). This attracted the ire of the people of St. Scholastique who protested vehemently against the expropriation of their land. Nevertheless, construction started in June 1970 under the auspices of BANAIM, a government organization formed to build the airport. The architects charged with the design were Papineau, Gérin-Lajoie, LeBlanc, Edwards. High-speed rail transit (the system was to be capable of speeds from for the Montréal-Mirabel run), initially to be called TRRAMM (Transport Rapide Régional Aéroportuaire Montréal-Mirabel), was intended to be completed at a later date. However, it never got beyond the drawing board. The TRRAMM system was also intended to eventually be expanded to other parts of the Montreal region. The major stumbling block for the TRRAMM project was funding. The federal, provincial, and municipal governments never managed to find enough cash to fund the highly ambitious and expensive rapid transit project. Thus, Mirabel was forced to cope with an inadequate road system and non-existent rail transit, supplemented only by express buses. Operational history and decline thumb|Air India Boeing 747-200 at Montréal-Mirabel International Airport in 1983 thumb|The passenger terminal before its demolition Montréal-Mirabel International Airport opened for business on October 4, 1975, in time for the 1976 Summer Olympics. In the rush to get the airport open in time for the Olympics, it was decided to transfer flights to Mirabel in two stages. International flights were transferred immediately, while domestic and US flights would continue to be served by Dorval airport until 1982. The federal government predicted that Dorval would be completely saturated by 1985 as part of its justification for building Mirabel. They also projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually, with 17 million of those through Mirabel. However, three factors dramatically reduced the amount of projected air traffic into Dorval. First, Mirabel and Dorval began to decline in importance after 1974 because of the increasing use in the 1980s of longer-range jets that did not need to refuel in Montreal before crossing the Atlantic; the use of longer-range aircraft was made more attractive by national energy policies that provided Montreal refineries with feedstock at prices substantially below world prices, starting in 1975 and ending in the 1980s with the drop in world oil prices. In addition, the simultaneous operation of Mirabel (international flights) and Dorval (continental flights) (see below) made Montreal less attractive to international airlines. A European passenger who wanted to travel to another destination in Canada or fly to the United States had to transfer between airports, unnecessarily complicating their journeys. Finally, the planned but unbuilt highways and incomplete train routes from Montreal to the airport compounded the problem, as it was an hour-long bus ride from Mirabel to Dorval, which put Montreal at a significant disadvantage. The international airlines responded by shifting their routes to Toronto, which had none of these disadvantages. Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: By 1991, Mirabel and Dorval were handling only a total of 8 million passengers and 112,000 tons of cargo annually, while Toronto was handling 18.5 million passengers and 312,000 tons of cargo. Mirabel alone never managed to exceed 3 million passengers per year in its existence as a passenger airport. It soon became apparent that the additional capacity from the opening of Mirabel became redundant. Although this redundancy would have been resolved if Dorval was decommissioned as originally intended, public pressure in support of Dorval prevented its planned closure. Another obstacle of the planned transfer from Dorval to Mirabel was Air Canada's desire to keep flights in Dorval (and its proximity with AVEOS workshops) and the connections in Pearson Airport.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: thumb|The control tower, Mirabel Airport To ensure Mirabel's survival, all international flights for Montreal were banned from Dorval from 1975 to 1997. As a result, Dorval's continued existence made Mirabel comparatively expensive and unattractive to airlines and travellers alike. While Dorval was only 20 minutes away from the city core, it took 50 minutes to get to Mirabel even in ideal traffic conditions. Passengers who used Montreal in transit had to take long bus rides for connections from domestic to international flights, and Montrealers grew to resent Mirabel as they were forced to travel far out of town for international flights. Many international airlines, faced with the stark economic reality of operating two Canadian points of entry, opted to bypass Montreal altogether by landing instead in Toronto with its better domestic and US connections. The simultaneous operating of both Montreal airports resulted in Dorval being overtaken in traffic first by Toronto, then Vancouver and finally relegated to fourth by Calgary, as international airlines were slow to return to Dorval after it resumed handling international flights in 1997. Only Air Transat held out at Mirabel until the very end, operating the last commercial flight which departed to Paris on October 31, 2004. Over time, the decreasing passenger flights began to take a toll on businesses within Mirabel. Particularly notable was the 354-room Chateau Aeroport-Mirabel hotel adjacent to the terminal, which was forced to shut down in 2002 after 25 years of operation. Debate In the late 1990s, Maclean's magazine interviewed one resident, whose farm was expropriated, who said that his land was sacrificed to save the city. He was particularly critical of the Trudeau government for not closing Dorval as well as failing to recognize Mirabel's potential, as no legislation similar to the Wright Amendment in the United States was enacted that would force airlines to use Mirabel instead of Dorval. Supporters of making Mirabel the sole international airport of Montreal pointed out that it had the capacity to be expanded significantly to meeting growing future demand, unlike Dorval. They also noted that Dorval could be closed and its land be developed for prime real estate, and some of the profits could go towards improving access routes to Mirabel and/or the airport itself. The initial location of Mirabel was supposed to be a major justification for the project not only because of its expansion room but also the afforded buffer, which would significantly reduce noise pollution in urban areas. 21st century The C$716 million expansion of Dorval from 2000 to 2005 gave it the ability to serve 20 million passengers a year, accomplishing one of the goals that was to be met with the construction of Mirabel. (In the 1970s, the federal government projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually by 1985, with 17 million through Mirabel). Aéroports de Montréal financed all of these improvements itself, with no government grants.Aéroports de Montréal Provides a Progress Report on Work at Montréal-Trudeau Today, Montréal-Mirabel International Airport is used almost exclusively for cargo flights, with passenger operations having ceased on October 31, 2004, 29 years after the airport's opening and many years of limited, primarily charter service. Bombardier Aerospace launches newly constructed units from its factory at Mirabel. With very little and then no airline service, and with many empty spaces inside its terminal, Mirabel was the setting of several movies, TV series, and commercials for many years. The 2004 film The Terminal features the mezzanine overlooking the immigration desks and the baggage carousels directly behind them, the tarmac and the main terminal entrance (with a digitally added New York skyline reflection). All other terminal scenes were shot on a soundstage. In 2006, I-Parks Creative Industries, a French firm that specializes in the creation of urban tourist attractions, and Oger International SA, the global engineering company owned by the family of slain former Lebanese prime minister and entrepreneur Rafik Hariri, entered into an agreement to turn Mirabel into a theme park. The proposed concept of the park is based on the theme of water and outer space.Airport to be turned into amusement park (21 February 2006) . CTV News. Retrieved March 25, 2006.Delean, Paul (February 22, 2006). Mirabel may take off as theme park . The Montreal Gazette. By August 2008, negotiations, market research, and technical assessments were continuously delayed, and construction not started.Mirabel AeroDream Aéroports de Montréal. Retrieved February 22, 2008. In December 2006, in a move he called "correcting a historical injustice", Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced the return of 4,450 ha of farmland expropriated to build Mirabel airport. About 125 farmers, who rent their land from the federal government, were permitted to buy it back. Harper said he was pleased to finish the work started by former prime minister, Brian Mulroney, who unlocked a major parcel of expropriated land during his first term in office in 1985. In May 2007, it was reported that the International Center of Advanced Racing had signed a 25-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal to use part of the airport as a race track. At the same time, fixed-base operator Hélibellule opened a facility at the site to cater for the private jets that were expected. The company also provides a passenger service from Mirabel to destinations in Canada and the United States.Hélibellule fait revivre le transport des passagers à Mirabel They operate three different types of helicopters; Bell 222, Robinson R22 and Aérospatiale Gazelle. As of 2019, international passengers and crew can be processed at the Hélibellule FBO.Hélibellule FBO A total of 15 people can be processed from general aviation aircraft. In August 2007, AirMédic moved from its base at Montréal/Saint-Hubert Airport to Mirabel. AirMédic is a non-profit humane foundation serving the population of Quebec and its visitors with the service of air ambulances. It offers MEDEVAC flights using a Eurocopter Dauphin. In August 2008, the former Agence métropolitaine de transport said it was willing to extend its commuter rail service to the airport if passenger traffic were to return. The Deux-Montagnes station is only some from the airport. In July 2010, the ADM confirmed that I-Parks Creative Industries's long-delayed AeroDream project was dead, officially cancelling it. At present there are no plans for any alternative development at the site. From 2011, the NASCAR Canadian Tire Series, drag racing, and other forms of motorsport began running on the airport's runways and surrounding areas, on what is known as Circuit ICAR. On September 16, 2013, the Bombardier CS100 took its maiden flight for the first time, making the inaugural flight of the CSeries, from Mirabel Airport, accompanied by a Global 5000 chase plane. Demolition of terminal building thumb|Terminal demolition in progress On May 1, 2014, Aeroports de Montréal confirmed that Mirabel Airport's terminal building would be demolished, citing its high maintenance cost as a reason, as well as its facilities being unfit for commercial aviation needs and lacking any economic viability. Aéroports de Montréal had spent $30 million in maintenance over a decade, while renovations to keep it operational were estimated at $25 million. Several reports suggested that it would simply be less expensive to rebuild a new smaller budget terminal to attract the interests of ultra low cost carriers, such as Flair Airlines or Swoop, however no plans for a return to commercial air services at Mirabel ever materialized.Quoi de neuf? 01 May 2014 Aéroports de Montréal.Démantèlement de l'aérogare de Mirabel TVA Nouvelles May 1, 2014Vers la démolition de l'aérogare de Mirabel Ici Radio-Canada May 1, 2014 Mirabel Mayor Jean Bouchard was disappointed as the demolition would result in a significant loss of tax revenues for his municipality.Mirabel airport terminal, Trudeau's white elephant, to be torn down CBC News May 1, 2014 A demolition contract was awarded to Delsan on September 16, 2014, which proceeded with the demolition of the terminal building and surrounding parking structures. Demolition costs had been estimated up to $15 million and were expected to take less than a year to complete. Demolition of the terminal building began in mid-November 2014 and was completed in August 2016. The adjacent abandoned Chateau Aeroport hotel, and its connecting terminal skyway, were left standing, albeit in a deteriorating state. Renewal of airport activity Between 2008 and 2018, Mirabel airport's air traffic more than tripled. The trend rose sharply as of 2016 with the increase of use of the terminal by private passenger flights, helicopter flights and a rise in nearby flight schools. Nolinor offers daily flights abroad for employees of various companies, and many medical airplanes now use Mirabel airport as well. Consequently, the airport's air traffic control tower was refurbished and reopened with air traffic controllers specifically trained for it, following a decision in early 2019. On July 11, 2016, Aéroports de Montréal announced that Pama Manufacturing planned to build a medical supply plant on a part of the site of the former passenger terminal complex, and that Mirajet was building an airpark at the foot of the air traffic control tower with 20 hangars available for lease to civil and business aviation clients. Other tenants at the time included Bombardier Aerospace, Pratt & Whitney Canada's Mirabel Aerospace Centre, Stelia Aerospace (formerly Aerolia), L3 Communication Mas, Avianor and Nolinor, as well as specialized services, creating a total of 3,700 direct jobs at the airport. The Bombardier CSeries (now the Airbus A220 series) continues to be assembled at Mirabel. On May 9, 2019, Aéroports de Montréal announced that the airport would be renamed as 'YMX International Aerocity of Mirabel' as part of ADM's new branding. Under this brand, business will be the main focus of Mirabel while Montréal-Trudeau will be branded as a travel destination. On January 30, 2020, Mirabel airport became a Class C airspace twelve years after becoming a flight service station due to a resurgence in air traffic volume. More than 69,000 movements were reported in 2017, and 72,000 in 2018. The air traffic control service is in service 16 hours a day, from 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM local time. The Class C control zone becomes an advisory Class E — Mirabel was a Class E airspace since 2008 — when the tower isn't in operation. Architecture and layout 300px|thumb|Plan of Mirabel Airport showing built and unbuilt facilities Mirabel was designed to be eventually expanded to six runways and six terminal buildings, with a separate STOLport also planned. The expansion was supposed to occur in a number of phases and be completed by 2000, with the expectation of serving at least 60 million passengers by the year 2025. However, the airport never got beyond the first phase of construction, and by October 2005 runway 11/29 was closed leaving only runway 06/24 operational. In December 2009 runway 11/29 reopened with a length of and in April 2012 was restored to its length. From the farthest reach of the parking lot to the airplane seat, one could walk as little as . A train station was also built in the basement for the planned TRRAMM Commuter rail service by Société de transport de Montréal (CTCUM), right below the main passenger concourse (and more recently Agence métropolitaine de transport, successor to CTCUM, had planned to extend the Saint-Jérôme line to the airport.) The airport was designed by architects Papineau Gérin-Lajoie Le Blanc, who met at McGill's School of Architecture in the 1950s (under the tutelage of John Bland), founded their company in 1960, and parted ways in 1973 before the airport opened its doors after Papineau and another architect, Gordon Buchanan Edwards, left the firm. Mirabel's terminal carried over the bureau's award-winning Expo 67 Quebec pavilion design. A minimalist dark glass box sitting on top of a concrete bunker housing maintenance services, the terminal was hailed as an architectural triumph when it first opened. Passengers walked as little as going from the curb to the gate. Once there, passengers would be transported to their aircraft by Passenger Transfer Vehicles (PTVs), rather than walking through jetways. The PTVs, similar to those at Washington Dulles International Airport, ran from the terminal to the aircraft parking spot on the ramp. It was reported by Radio-Canada/Canadian Broadcasting Corporation that each of these vehicles had cost up to C$ 400,000 at the time.Mirabel looks for new role-again (28 April 2004). CBC News. Retrieved September 22, 2005. To eventually make connections between flights easier, the terminal also included a few jetways, in a smaller concourse called the Aeroquay, accessible via a tunnel and later connected directly to the main concourse. The planners were inspired by Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport's planned design scheme, which utilized a central "spine road" through the middle of the airport, bringing the main surface transport artery through the center of the airport, with decentralized terminals arranged along the spine road. This spine road was planned to have four lanes, with the capacity to expand to eight lanes, and room made in the median for an automated people mover to connect the terminals. The six planned runways were to be arranged in three pairs of parallel runways. Two pairs were to be oriented northwest-southwest (the direction redominent winds), and one pair would be oriented east-west (crosswind). These were to provide capacity for 160 takeoffs and landings every hour, allowing 630,000 annual movements. The runways' lengths would have varied, with the shortest being 3,048 meters (10,000 feet), and the longest being 4,572 meters (15,000 feet). The separate STOLport would have a 610-meter (2,000 feet) runway. The airport had provisions for large cargo areas, aircraft maintenance an area for general aviation, and an airport industrial park. Unbuilt passenger rail service (TRRAMM) TRRAMM (Transport Rapide Régional Aéroportuaire Montréal-Mirabel) was a planned airport rail link between Mirabel and downtown Montreal. It was intended to have been completed by 1980, and to eventually be expanded to serve other parts of the greater Montreal region. Trains were to reach speeds of 160 km per hour (100 miles per hour), and to travel between the airport and downtown Montreal in 30 minutes. Airlines and destinations Passenger There are no longer any scheduled public operations at the airport. As of 2019, Mirabel does have a passenger terminal for private flights as well as helicopter flights. In addition, Mirabel airport was used for daily flights transporting employees for various mining companies by the Nolinor airline company. Former passenger operations Mirabel opened with service from local airlines Air Canada, Canadian Pacific Airlines and Nordair, as well as airlines from more than fifteen countries, including Aer Lingus, Aeroflot, Air France, Alitalia, British Airways, Continental Airlines, Czechoslovak Airlines, El Al, Iberia, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest Airlines, Olympic Airways, Pan Am, Sabena, Scandinavian Airlines, Swissair and TAP Air Portugal. These airlines had their national country flags posted in front of the terminal on the inauguration of Mirabel. Other airlines that served Mirabel at some point included Aerolíneas Argentinas, Aeroméxico, Air India, Air Liberté, Business Express Airlines (operating as Northwest Airlink), Corsairfly, Cubana de Aviación, Finnair, Jaro International, Jat Airways, LAN Chile, LOT Polish Airlines, People Express Airlines, Presidential Airways, Royal Air Maroc, Royal Jordanian, TAROM, and Varig. Most gradually lost faith in Mirabel and either transferred to Dorval in 1997 or pulled out of Montreal altogether. Several charter airlines also served Mirabel, such as Wardair, Nolisair, Canada 3000 and Royal Aviation. All four have either merged or gone bankrupt. Air Transat is the only charter airline that started operations at Mirabel and stayed until the end of passenger service in 2004. Cargo Other facilities Airbus (formerly Bombardier Aerospace"Aerospace Directory." Bombardier Inc. Retrieved December 4, 2010. "10000 Helen-Bristol Street Montréal Airport, Mirabel Mirabel, Québec." Address in French: "10000, rue Helen-Bristol Aéroport de Montréal, Mirabel Mirabel (Québec) J7N 1H3 Canada.") houses its A220 assembly line on the property of Mirabel Airport. Bell Helicopter manufactures all its commercial helicopters at a plant located adjacent to the airport. It once served as the assembly plant for Bell 505 helicopters. Nolisair (Nationair), during its existence, had its head office in the Nationair Building on the airport property.The Europa World Year Book, 1989. Europa Publications, August 1, 1991. 667. Retrieved from Google Books on June 11, 2012. "Nationair Canada: Nationair Bldg, Cargo Rd Al, Montreal International Airport (Mirabel), Mirabel, Que J7N 1A5" Incidents and accidents The following accidents or notable incidents occurred either at the airport, or involved aircraft using the airport: January 21, 1995: Royal Air Maroc Flight 205, a Boeing 747-400 preparing to depart for New York City and Casablanca, was being de-iced by Canadian Airlines groundcrew, while its engines were running. Due to a communications error, the pilot believed de-icing was complete and started taxiing forward. Two deicing vehicles that were still in place in front of both horizontal stabilizers were knocked down, causing fatal injuries for three de-icing crew members and serious injuries to the two drivers. June 18, 1998: Propair Flight 420, a Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner flying from Dorval International Airport (now Montréal-Trudeau International Airport) to Peterborough Airport in Peterborough, Ontario, experienced a wing/engine fire during the initial climb. It attempted an emergency landing at Mirabel, but crashed near the beginning of the runway, in part due to a landing gear failure. The two pilots and the nine passengers on board were killed. September 11, 2001, Mirabel International Airport participated in Operation Yellow Ribbon and took in 10 diverted flights that had been bound for the closed airspace over the United States. See also List of airports in the Montreal area Mirabel Aerospace Centre Kertajati Airport — another "white elephant" airport with similar premise to Montreal Mirabel airport. Pickering Airport, a proposed second airport intended to serve Toronto, conceived around the same time that Mirabel was built Istanbul Atatürk Airport — an airport in Turkey that closed to commercial passenger flights in 2019 and now serves general aviation, cargo, and state aircraft Notes Financial Times of Canada. (1975). Mirabel. Special ed. Don Mills, ON: Financial Times of Canada. Aeroports de Montréal ADM History Durivage, Simon."Mirabel, airport of the year 2000." Montreal, Montreal. September 8, 1992. Video Archive. Radio-Canada, "De Mirabel à Dorval", May 14, 1999, Web archive References Further reading External links Page about Mirabel Airport in the Canadian Owners & Pilots Association Places to Fly Airport Directory The airport whose demise was caused by rail absence a critique of the Mirabel Airport closure Krauss, Clifford. "End of Era Near in Montreal for White-Elephant Airport." The New York Times. October 3, 2004. Sim, Cheryl. "YMX: Migration, Land, and Loss after Mirabel." A gallery installation featuring two repurposed passenger information displays from the airport terminal. Held in the Department of Communication Studies' Media Gallery, Concordia University, Montreal (Feb 28 - Mar 10 2017) and Galerie POPOP (Belgo Building, 372 rue Ste-Catherine O., Montreal), Mar 29 - Apr 13 2017. Technical notes on the information displays used in the installation.. These 'Solari' signs are now part of the Montreal Signs Project. Category:Airports established in 1975 Category:Transport in Montreal Category:Certified airports in Laurentides Category:National Airports System Category:Mirabel, Quebec Category:1975 establishments in Quebec

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Paul Krassner (April 9, 1932 - July 21, 2019) was an American writer and satirist. He was the founder, editor, and a frequent contributor to the freethought magazine The Realist, first published in 1958. Krassner became a key figure in the counterculture of the 1960s as a member of Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters and a founding member of the Yippies, a term he is credited with coining. Early life Krassner was a child violin prodigy and performed at Carnegie Hall in 1939 at age six. His parents practiced Judaism,Rosenbaum, Fred, Cosmopolitans: a Social and Cultural History of the Jews of the San Francisco Bay Area, University of California Press, 2009. . but Krassner chose to be firmly secular, considering religion "organized superstition".Krassner, P: Confessions of a Raving, Unconfined Nut: Misadventures in Counter-Culture, He majored in journalism at Baruch College (then a branch of the City College of New York) and began performing as a comedian under the name Paul Maul. He recalled: While in college, I started working for an anti-censorship paper, The Independent. After I left college I started working there full time. So, I never had a normal job where I had to be interviewed and wear a suit and tie. I became their managing editor and also did freelance stuff for Mad magazine. But Mad was aimed at a teenage audience, and there was no satirical magazine for adults. So it was a kind of organic evolution toward The Realist, which was essentially a combination of satire and alternative journalism.Loompanics: Paul Krassner During the late 1950s and early 1960s, he was active in politically edged humor and satire. Krassner was a founder of the Youth International Party (Yippies) in 1967, even credited with coining the word "Yippie," and a member of Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters, famous for prankster activism. He was a close protégé of the controversial comedian Lenny Bruce, and the editor of Bruce's autobiography, How to Talk Dirty and Influence People. With the encouragement of Bruce, Krassner started to perform standup comedy in 1961 at the Village Gate in New York. In 1963, he created what Kurt Vonnegut described as "a miracle of compressed intelligence nearly as admirable for potent simplicity, in my opinion, as Einstein's e=mc2." Vonnegut explained: "With the Vietnam War going on, and with its critics discounted and scorned by the government and the mass media, Krassner put on sale a red, white and blue poster that said FUCK COMMUNISM. At the beginning of the 1960s, FUCK was believed to be so full of bad magic as to be unprintable. ... By having FUCK and COMMUNISM fight it out in a single sentence, Krassner wasn't merely being funny as heck. He was demonstrating how preposterous it was for so many people to be responding to both words with such cockamamie Pavlovian fear and alarm.The original FUCK COMMUNISM banner Ep.tcKurt Vonnegut's Foreword to Krassner's The Winner of the Slow Bicycle Race The Realist The Realist was published on a fairly regular schedule during the 1960s, then on an irregular schedule after the early 1970s. In 1966, Krassner published The Realists controversial "Disneyland Memorial Orgy" poster, illustrated by Wally Wood, and made this famed black-and-white poster available in a digital color version. Krassner published a red, white and blue poster that read "Fuck Communism", and enclosed copies with an issue of The Realist. He also mailed one to FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover with a note that said "I hope you get a chuckle out of the enclosed patriotic poster." Krassner's hope was that he would be arrested for sending obscene material through the mail, which would allow him to get publicity for his magazine. He was disappointed when no prosecution resulted.The Realist Cartoons, edited by Paul Krassner, p. 9. Krassner's most notorious satire was the article "The Parts That Were Left Out of the Kennedy Book", which followed the censorship of William Manchester's 1967 book on the John F. Kennedy assassination, The Death of a President. At the climax of the grotesque-genre short-story, Lyndon B. Johnson is described as having sexually penetrated the bullet-hole wound in the throat of John F. Kennedy's corpse.The Parts That Were Left Out of the Kennedy Book - The Realist, Issue No. 74 - May 1967, cover page and page 18 According to Elliot Feldman, "Some members of the mainstream press and other Washington political wonks, including Daniel Ellsberg of Pentagon Papers fame, actually believed this incident to be true."Paul Krassner and The Realist by Elliot Feldman In a 1995 interview for the magazine Adbusters, Krassner commented: "People across the country believed - if only for a moment - that an act of presidential necrophilia had taken place. It worked because Jackie Kennedy had created so much curiosity by censoring the book she authorized - William Manchester's The Death Of A President - because what I wrote was a metaphorical truth about LBJ's personality presented in a literary context, and because the imagery was so shocking, it broke through the notion that the war in Vietnam was being conducted by sane men."Cat Simril Interviews Paul Krassner by CAT SIMRILin from "Adbusters Quarterly" Journal of the Mental Environment (Winter 1995 Vol. 3 No. 3). In 1966, he reprinted in The Realist an excerpt from the academic journal the Journal of the American Medical Association, but presenting it as original material. The article dealt with drinking glasses, tennis balls and other foreign bodies found in patients' rectums.Here Lies Paul Krassner Reprinted from AIGA Journal of Graphic Design, vol.18, no. 2, 2000. Some accused him of having a perverted mind, and a subscriber wrote "I found the article thoroughly repellent. I trust you know what you can do with your magazine." Krassner revived The Realist as a much smaller newsletter during the mid-1980s when material from the magazine was collected in The Best of the Realist: The 60's Most Outrageously Irreverent Magazine (Running Press, 1985). The final issue of The Realist was #146 (Spring, 2001). Books Krassner was a prolific writer. In 1971, he published a collection of his favorite works for The Realist, as How A Satirical Editor Became A Yippie Conspirator In Ten Easy Years. In 1981 he published the satirical story Tales of Tongue Fu, in which the hilarious misadventures of the Japanese-American man Tongue Fu are mixed with a wicked social commentary. In 1994, he published his autobiography Confessions of a Raving, Unconfined Nut: Misadventures in Counter-Culture. In July 2009, City Lights Publishers released Who's to Say What's Obscene?, a collection of satirical essays that explore contemporary comedy and obscenity in politics and culture. He published three collections of drug stories. The first collection, Pot Stories for the Soul (1999), is from other authors and is about marijuana. Psychedelic Trips for the Mind (2001), is written by Krassner himself and collects stories on LSD. The third, Magic Mushrooms and Other Highs (2004), is by Krassner too, and deals with magic mushrooms, ecstasy, peyote, mescaline, THC, opium, cocaine, ayahuasca, belladonna, ketamine, PCP, STP, "toad slime", and more. Other activities In 1962 Krassner published an anonymous interview with Dr Robert Spencer detailing his involvement in illegal but safe abortions. Subsequent to the publication, he received calls from women asking to be put in contact with the interviewee. Krassner was later subpoenaed to appear before grand juries investigating abortion crime. In 1965 he contributed to the Free University of New York a lecture entitled "Why the New York Times is funnier than Mad Magazine".Ferment Magazine by Roy lisker, accessed July 16, 2012 In 1968, Krassner signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War."Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" January 30, 1968 New York Post In the 1960s, Krassner was a regular contributor to several men's magazines including Cavalier and Playboy. Cavalier hired Krassner for $1,000 per month to write a column called "The Naked Emperor." In 1971, Krassner worked as a weekend radio personality and disk jockey at San Francisco's ABC-FM radio affiliate, KSFX, (subsequently KGO-FM). Under the pseudonym "Rumpelforeskin", he satirized culture and politics while espousing his atheism. He was also a contributor to early issues of Mad magazine. He often appeared as a stand-up comedian, and he was among those featured in the 2005 documentary The Aristocrats. Krassner was also a prolific lecturer and was a frequent speaker at both the Starwood FestivalFreetimes.comKates, Bill (1997). Best of the Fests: Starwood Festival in High Times, 1997 and the WinterStar Symposium.Association for Consciousness Exploration. Paul Krassner Association for Consciousness Exploration. WinterStar Symposium 1998 In 1998 he was featured at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame with Wavy Gravy during their exhibit entitled I Want to Take You Higher: The Psychedelic Era 1965-1969. He was a columnist for The Nation, AVN Online and High Times Magazine. He also blogged at The Huffington Post and The Rag Blog. Krassner wrote about the Patty Hearst trial and possible connections between the Symbionese Liberation Army and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Krassner's legs appeared in John Lennon and Yoko Ono's 1971 film Up Your Legs Forever. thumb|For the last two years of his life, Krassner served as contributing editor of The Truth Seeker, the world's oldest freethought publication. After his death, The Truth Seeker published a Sept.-Dec. 2019 Paul Krassner commemorative issue. Singer Cass Elliot greatly admired Krassner. In a 1968 interview with Rolling Stone she expressed her desire for Krassner to write the liner notes for her new solo album. "I met him with Timothy Leary," Elliott said, "and I fell instantly in love with his entire mind and body, and I would do anything for him. He's a hopeless idealist. I asked him to write my liner notes and he was delighted. He asked me what to write. I said write about the Yippies or write about anything; just write what you would like people to read, it doesn't have to do with the album." Awards Krassner is the only person to have won awards from both Playboy magazine (for satire) and the Feminist Party Media Workshop (for journalism). He was the first living man to be inducted into the Counterculture Hall of Fame, which took place at the Cannabis Cup in Amsterdam. He received an American Civil Liberties Union Uppie (Upton Sinclair) Award for dedication to freedom of expression, and, according to the FBI files, he was described by the FBI as "a raving, unconfined nut".Krassner bio at paulkrassner.comReflections on the Art of the Put-on by Michael Dooley July 3, 2007 George Carlin commented: "The FBI was right, this man is dangerous - and funny; and necessary." In 2005 he received a Grammy nomination for Best Album Notes for his essay on the 6-CD package Lenny Bruce: Let the Buyer Beware. Criticism Krassner was criticized, along with many males on the Left, in Robin Morgan's feminist manifesto, "Goodbye to All That": Goodbye to lovely "pro-Women's Liberationist" Paul Krassner, with all his astonished anger that women have lost their sense of humor "on this issue" and don't laugh any more at little funnies that degrade and hurt them: farewell to the memory of his "Instant Pussy" aerosol-can poster, to his column for the woman-hating men's magazine Cavalier, to his dream of a Rape-In against legislators' wives, to his Scapegoats and Realist Nuns and cute anecdotes about the little daughter he sees as often as any properly divorced Scarsdale middle-aged father; goodbye forever to the notion that a man is my brother who, like Paul, buys a prostitute for the night as a birthday gift for a male friend, or who, like Paul, reels off the names in alphabetical order of people in the women's movement he has fucked, reels off names in the best locker-room tradition—as proof that he's no sexist oppressor. Personal life and death In 1985, Krassner moved to Venice, California where he met his wife of 32 years, artist and videographer Nancy Cain, one of the original Videofreex and founder of Camnet. They moved to Desert Hot Springs, California in 2002. Krassner suffered for several years from a neurological disease, and died on July 21, 2019, at his home in Desert Hot Springs. He had one daughter, Holly Krassner Dawson, from a previous marriage. Writings Books 1981: Tales of Tongue Fu (And/Or Press) 1994: Confessions of a Raving, Unconfined Nut: Misadventures in the Counter-Culture (Touchstone) 2000: Sex, Drugs, and the Twinkie Murders (Loompanics Unlimited) 2005: One Hand Jerking: Reports From an Investigative Satirist, Foreword by Harry Shearer, Introduction by Lewis Black (Seven Stories Press) Collections of drug stories 1999: High Times Presents Paul Krassner's Pot Stories for the Soul. Various authors. Compiled by Krassner with a foreword by Harlan Ellison (High Times) 2001: Paul Krassner's Psychedelic Trips for the Mind (High Times Press) 2004: Magic Mushrooms and Other Highs: From Toad Slime to Ecstasy (Ten Speed Press) Articles collections books 1961: Paul Krassner's Impolite Interviews (Lyle Stuart) 1971: How a Satirical Editor Became a Yippie Conspirator in Ten Easy Years (Putnam) 1985: The Best of the Realist: The 60's Most Outrageously Irreverent Magazine (Running Press) 1996: The Winner of the Slow Bicycle Race: The Satirical Writings of Paul Krassner Introduction by Kurt Vonnegut (Seven Stories Press) 2002: Murder at the Conspiracy Convention: And Other American Absurdities introduced by George Carlin (Barricade Books, Inc.) 2009: Who's to Say What's Obscene? Politics, Culture and Comedy in America Today (City Lights Publishers) Articles "My Acid Trip with Groucho." High Times (Feb. 1981), retrieved at Sir Bacon blog. "Slaughtering Cows and Popping Cherries." New York Press, vol. 16, no. 34 (August 19, 2003). "The Trial of Vivian McPeak." High Times (February 13, 2004). "Steve Earl: Sticking to His Principles." High Times (May 19, 2004). "Lenny & the Law, Together Again." High Times (June 10, 2004). "The Nature of Protest: Then and Now." High Times (July 2, 2004). "The Blame Game." Huffington Post (August 26, 2005). "Life Among the Neo-Pagans." The Nation (August 29, 2005). "Summer of Love: 40 Years Later." San Francisco Chronicle (May 20, 2007). "Woody Allen Meets Tongue Fu" (January 11, 2008). Preface of the book Tales of Tongue Fu. "The Witch Hunt Ain't Over Yet." High Times (December 24, 2003). "Stoner Stand-ups: Pot Comics Speak Out." High Times (Oct. 2011). Interviews 1999: Paul Krassner's Impolite Interviews (Seven Stories Press) 2004: Sep 23, WBAI 99.5 FM New York City, Radio Unnameable: host Bob Fass interviews Paul Krassner 2006: RU Sirius Show #53 (7/17/2006), guest Paul Krassner (podcast, .mp3) 2006: Pranks! 2 Interview with Paul Krassner 2006: The Legacy of Timothy Leary", High Times, October 20th, 2006 2006: Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s by Jeff Kisseloff 2007: Beatdom's Interview with Paul Krassner 2009: In the Jester's Court: Paul Krassner On The Virtues Of Irreverence, Indecency, And Illegal Drugs by David Kupfer (Sun Magazine Jan. 2009) 2009: In Praise of Indecency: Paul Krassner Interviewed by Carol Queen (CarnalNation, July 27 2009) 2010: Interview With Paul Krassner from SexIs Magazine 2010-2011: Thorne Dreyer's three Rag Radio interviews with Paul Krassner. 2011: Interviewed by Marc Maron 2012: "Paul Krassner is Still Smokin' at 80" Interview by Jonah Raskin, The Rag Blog, June 7, 2012 Discography Stand-up comedy recordings: 1996: We Have Ways of Making You Laugh (Mercury Records) 1997: Brain Damage Control (Mercury Records) 1999: Sex, Drugs and the Antichrist: Paul Krassner at MIT (Sheridan Square Entertainment) 2000: Campaign In the Ass (Artemis Records) 2002: Irony Lives (Artemis Records) 2004: The Zen Bastard Rides Again (Artemis Records) Filmography 1972: Dynamite Chicken 1983: Cocaine Blues 1987: The Wilton North Report (TV series) 1990: Flashing on the Sixties: A Tribal Document 1998: Lenny Bruce: Swear to Tell the Truth 1999: The Source 2003: Maybe Logic: The Lives and Ideas of Robert Anton Wilson 2005: The Aristocrats 2006: Gonzo Utopia 2006: The U.S. vs. John Lennon 2006: Darryl Henriques Is in Show Business 2008: Sex: The Revolution (TV mini-series) 2008: Looking for Lenny 2009: Make 'Em Laugh: The Funny Business of America (PBS) See also Camp Summerlane List of peace activists References External links Art Buchwald, Barry Crimmins, Paul Krassner, Kurt Vonnegut - Beating Around the Bush: An Evening of Satire recorded on 10/06/05 at The New York Society for Ethical Culture, 63 min., mp3 format The Realist Archive Project at ep.tc The Realist website Hippie Museum Bio Excerpt from Confessions of a Raving Unconfined Nut: Misadventures in the Counter-Culture Articles by Paul Krassner at The Rag Blog Interview with Paul Krassner by Stephen McKiernan, Binghamton University Libraries Center for the Study of the 1960s, March 10, 2010 Category:1932 births Category:2019 deaths Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:American anti-Vietnam War activists Category:American male essayists Category:American male journalists Category:American psychedelic drug advocates Category:American satirists Category:American tax resisters Category:HuffPost writers and columnists Category:Jewish American writers Category:Jewish American comedians Category:Kabarettists Category:Mercury Records artists Category:New York Press people Category:People from Fire Island, New York Category:People from Greenwich Village Category:Secular Jews Category:Writers from Brooklyn Category:Yippies

{"Alt": "An elderly man reading from a lectern", "Caption": "Krassner at City Lights Bookstore in 2009", "Birth date": "1932 04 09", "Birth place": "New York City, U.S.", "Death date": "2019 07 21 1932 4 9", "Death place": "Desert Hot Springs, California, U.S.", "Occupation": "Writer, satirist, activist, comedian", "Website": "paulkrassner.com"}

The New York City Transit Authority (also known as NYCTA, the TA, or simply Transit, and branded as MTA New York City Transit) is a public-benefit corporation in the U.S. state of New York that operates public transportation in New York City. Part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, the busiest and largest transit system in North America, the NYCTA has a daily ridership of 8million trips (over 2.5billion annually). The NYCTA operates the following systems: New York City Subway, a rapid transit system serving Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens Staten Island Railway, a rapid transit line on Staten Island (operated by the subsidiary Staten Island Rapid Transit Operating Authority) New York City Bus, an extensive bus network serving all five boroughs (operated by the subsidiary MTA Regional Bus Operations) Name thumb|left|upright|Headquarters in Brooklyn As part of establishing a common corporate identity, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1994 assigned popular names to each of its subsidiaries and affiliates. The New York City Transit Authority is now known popularly as MTA New York City Transit (NYCT), (or more specifically on the vehicles, MTA New York City Bus and MTA New York City Subway), though the former remains its legal name for documents and contracts. Newer contracts and RFPs, however, have also used the popular name. The Authority is also sometimes referred to as NYCT (for New York City Transit), or simply the TA (for Transit Authority). Management structure The chairman and members of the MTA, by statute, also serve as the chairman and members of the Transit Authority, and serve as the directors of the Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority. The executive director of the MTA is, ex officio, executive director of the Transit Authority. The Transit Authority has its own management structure which is responsible for its day-to-day operations, with executive personnel reporting to the agency president. The position of president was vacant , following the resignation of Andy Byford. Sarah Feinberg and Craig Cipriano served as interim presidents until May 2, 2022, when Richard Davey was hired to assume the role on a permanent basis. History upright=0.45|thumb|1962-1968 logo Background The subway system today is composed of what once were three separate systems in competition with one another. Two of them were built and operated by private companies: August Belmont's Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) and the Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT). The third, the public Independent Subway System (IND) was owned and operated by the City of New York. The IRT and BMT systems were acquired by the city on June 1, 1940, for $317,000,000 and consolidated with the IND into the New York City Board of Transportation (NYCBOT). The buses on Staten Island had been operated by a private company operating under a franchise that expired in 1946. When it became known that the company would not renew its franchise, a group of residents in the borough organized the Isle Transportation Company, to continue operation. This group ran into financial difficulties and the city took over the company on February 23, 1947. The city then controlled all of the bus routes on Staten Island. On March 30, 1947, the City took over the bus lines of the North Shore Bus Company, which comprised half of the privately owned lines in Queens, after that company went into financial troubles. On September 24, 1948, the City acquired five bus lines in Manhattan for similar reasons. The surface operation of the BOT was a costly operation, resulting from the various equipment that was required, including trolley cars, trolley coaches, gasoline and diesel buses, of which many were obsolete and in need of replacement. During World War II, the New York City Transit System showed an operating surplus on the five-cent fare, because gasoline was rationed and auto riders had to abandon their cars for subway and bus travel. Factories began to work around the clock, and therefore business boomed. Transit repairs were kept at a minimum as basic materials were in short supply for civilian use. Operating revenues were raised and maintenance costs were reduced, but as a result, the future problems of deferred maintenance and falling ridership. In 1946, costs rose and profits turned to losses, and to obtain needed funds, the fare was raised in 1948 to ten cents on the subways and elevated, and to seven cents on the surface lines. This increase only produced a revenue surplus for a single year. In 1951 a uniform ten-cent fare was established on both the rapid transit and surface lines. Operating deficits continued to add up and public dissatisfaction with the transit system grew, as equipment was deteriorating, and train schedules being difficult to abide by. Formation of the TA In March 1953, the Board of Transportation was abolished, and was replaced by the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA). The NYCTA formally succeeded the BOT on June 15, 1953, being composed of five unsalaried members. Hugh Casey was elected as the agency's chairman at the authority's first meeting. The new Transit Authority was modeled after the existing Port of New York Authority which now calls itself the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority, the latter of which is also now part of the MTA. At this time, the city government leased the IRT, BMT, and IND subway lines and the surface system (buses and, until 1956 street cars). A major goal of the formation of the NYCTA was to remove transit policy, and especially the setting of the transit fare, from City politics. The fare was increased to fifteen cents on July 25, 1953, and a token was introduced for paying subway and elevated fares. Bus and trolley fares continued to be paid by cash only. In July 1953, the NYCTA proposed spending $1,065,000,000 over six years, expanding the city's subway system through new lines and connections between the IND and BMT Divisions. The most important new lines were a Second Avenue subway, including a Chrystie Street connection to the Williamsburg and Manhattan Bridge and a rebuilt DeKalb Avenue junction in Brooklyn, IRT Utica Avenue and Nostrand Avenue extensions into southeast Brooklyn, and the extension of subway service to the Rockaway Peninsula using the Long Island Railroad's Rockaway Beach Branch. Only the Chrystie Street connection, the rebuilt DeKalb Avenue Junction, and the Rockaway Line were built between 1954 and 1967. One provision in the 1953 law that created NYCTA demanded that by July 1955, the agency create a plan to sell its bus and trolley routes to private operators. In the beginning of 1955, it was reported that the NYCTA's surface operations cost seven million dollars more to operate annually than it collected in revenue from the fare box. By privatizing the surface operations, and as a result focusing on subways, the NYCTA could then meet its operating costs. Two Manhattan private operators, New York City Omnibus and Surface Transportation, in March 1955, expressed interest in taking control of the five-route NYCTA bus operation in that borough. In the other boroughs there was no interest in taking over the routes in Brooklyn and Staten Island, and there was little interest in Queens. In April 1955, laws were passed by the New York State legislature to change the NYCTA into a three-member salaried panel to become in effect on July 1, 1955. This allowed its members to devote their full-time to managing New York's transit system. As part of this law, the provision that required surface operations to be sold was removed. The Chairman of the NYCTA then became Charles Patterson. One major problem that the NYCTA inherited from the Board of Transportation was the age of the subway cars from the IRT and BMT. The first new cars were the R16s, numbered 200, which first appeared in January 1955 being put in service on the J train. These cars were introduced with automatic thermostats and dampers to control the heat and ventilation systems based on the air temperature outside. Additional subway cars were also ordered and delivered between 1960 and 1965; the R27s, the R30s and R32s for the IND/BMT lines, and R29s, R33s and R36s for the IRT (2,350 cars). Between 1966 and 1969, an additional 1,000 cars, split between the R38, R40, and R42 orders, were placed into service. The last of the original BMT Standard stock was retired by 1969, along with the last prewar IRT equipment. On July 5, 1966, the fare was increased to twenty cents. As with all mass transit in the United States the TA requires assistance for its capital costs and to cover operational needs, however, the very high ridership of New York City's subway system has enabled it to pay 67 percent of its operating costs from fares and advertising. Historically, the TA's capital requirements were met by the city and state jointly, but this support was withdrawn, primarily by Governor Rockefeller, in the 1960s. In 1965, mayoral candidate John Lindsay pledged to use the toll revenues from the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA) to offset the NYCTA's deficits. In January 1966, New York State, with the help of Governor Nelson Rockefeller, purchased the Long Island Rail Road from its corporate parent, the Pennsylvania Railroad, and it became part of the Metropolitan Commuter Transportation Authority (MCTA). Rockefeller saw the difficulty that John Lindsay, who had since won the mayoral election, had in his plan to use the TBTA surpluses for the NYCTA, and decided to expand the MCTA to give it oversight to the NYCTA and the TBTA. The MCTA would be renamed the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). Tied to a bill with the creation of the MTA was a $2.5billion bond issue that would be approved or disapproved by voters in November 1967. A majority of the bonds would go to the state's mass transit systems, with a majority going to New York City, and to Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester, Putnam, Dutchess, Rockland, and Orange Counties. The day prior to the election, two brand new R40 cars were displayed on the IND Sixth Avenue Line at Herald Square. The bond issue passed, and the MTA was set to take over the NYCTA in 1968. The night before December 31, 1967, the NYCTA and the TWU made an agreement to avoid a strike. The deal gave NYCTA workers the ability to retire with about half-pay after twenty years if the employee was over fifty years old. This would later cause problems, as large numbers of transit workers would retire to take advantage of these benefits. On March 1, 1968, the NYCTA, and its subsidiary, the Manhattan and Bronx Surface Transit Operating Authority (MaBSTOA), were placed under the control of, and are now affiliates of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). 2017-present: transit crisis In 2017, New York governor Andrew Cuomo declared a state of emergency for the MTA due to various incidents involving the NYCTA's subway and bus systems. At the time, only 65 percent of weekday trains reached their destinations on time, the lowest rate since a transit crisis in the 1970s. To a lesser extent, New York City buses operated by the MTA were also affected. To resolve these issues, a "Subway Action Plan" was revealed, as well as a "Bus Action Plan". COVID-19 pandemic Beginning March 25, 2020, service on buses and subways was reduced due to decreased ridership during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. In late March, NYCTA interim president Sarah Feinberg stated that a shutdown "feels misguided to me" and was "not on the table". Feinberg also spoke in favor of hazard pay for front-line workers. In April 2020, four City Council members requested that subway service be temporarily suspended due to the spread of COVID-19 in the subway system. Also that April, Feinberg called the MTA "the most aggressive transit agency in the country in acting quickly and decisively to protect our workforce". By April 22, 2020, COVID-19 had killed 83 agency employees; the agency announced that their families would be eligible for $500,000 in death benefits. Over 100 employees had died of COVID-19 . Starting in May 2020, stations were closed overnight for cleaning; the overnight closures were announced as a temporary measure that would be ended once the pandemic was over. Trains and stations were cleaned more than usual. Presidents +NYCTA presidents (1973-present) John G. DeRoos 1973-1979 John D. Simpson 1979-1984 David L. Gunn 1984-1990 Michael Steinbach 1990-1996 Lawrence G. Reuter 1996-2007 Howard Roberts 2007-2009 Thomas Prendergast 2009-2013 Carmen Bianco 2013-2015 Veronique "Ronnie" Hakim 2016-2017 Andy Byford 2018-2020 Sarah Feinberg (interim) 2020-2021 Craig Cipriano (interim) 2021-2022Richard A. DaveySince 2022 Strikes thumb|left|The original livery for NYC Transit Authority buses in the 1950s. thumb|left|Interior view of one of the buses from 1958 Employees of the New York City Transit Authority assigned to the New York City Subway and in Brooklyn, Manhattan, and the Bronx are members of the Transport Workers Union of America Local 100, with Queens and Staten Island bus personnel represented by various Amalgamated Transit Union locals. In 1949, the Transport Workers Union and the Board of Transportation, under Mayor Willian O'Dwyer signed a Memorandum of Understanding that gave the right to represent all of the system's workers to the TWU. In 1954 an NYCTA-wide representation election took place. It gave TWU exclusive collective bargaining rights for all hourly workers for the NYCTA, except for those in the Queens and Staten Island Bus Divisions, which remained a part of the Amalgamated Association of Street Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employees of America, which became the Amalgamated Transit Union in 1964. After looking at the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers as their model, NYCTA motorman formed their own union in 1954, a Motormen's Benevolent Association (MBA) to further their interests. In 1956 they went on strike on a hot June day, tying up service on the BMT Division. Its president, Theodore Loos, and its leadership were fired after the strike, but were reinstated after agreeing not to strike again. On December 16, 1957, another representation election for the TWU was scheduled, and the motormen from the MBA did not want to have a small role in the TWU, and threatened to strike, but were stopped by court injunctions. As a result, the motormen wanted to hold an election for the representation of their craft independent of the NYCTA-wide elections. The management of the NYCTA did not recognize the MBA as a bargaining unit as the TWU officially represented the motormen. A request for a separate election was denied, and as a result the motormen wanted to show their power and to acquire their own representation. As a result, on December 9, 1957, the motormen went on strike, resulting in subway service being reduced in half for eight days. Riders using the IND lines in Queens, the Bronx, and Upper Manhattan, and the southern Brooklyn lines of the BMT were the hardest hit. The leaders of the MBA were punished after going against injunctions prohibiting strikes. Afterwards, the MBA leaders were punished, and on the first morning of the strike, the MBA president Theodore Loos and three other MBA officials were arrested and sent to jail. While they were in jail, MBA executive secretary Frank Zelano was acting head of the MBA and bargained on their behalf. In 1958, the TWU and the MBA reached a settlement. The motormen became a separate United Motormen's Division within the TWU and benefitted from a fund for skilled craft workers. Theodore Loos became its head. On New Year's Day, in 1966, a 12-day strike was started with the aid of Mike Quill. This strike started after the union member's contracts had expired, and with large economic demands from the union. After the 1966 New York City transit strike, the Taylor Law was passed making public employee strikes illegal in the state of New York. Despite the Taylor Law, there was still an 11-day strike in 1980. Thirty-four thousand union members struck in order to call for increased wages. thumb|New York City Transit Learning Center, Brooklyn On December 20, 2005, another strike occurred. Workers walked off at 3 a.m. and the NYCTA stopped operating. Later that day, State Supreme Court Justice Theodore Jones warned the transit union that there would be a fine of $1million for each day the TA is shut down. Also for each day the workers missed during the strike they would be fined two days' pay. Ultimately, the Judge fined the union $2.5million, charged employees two days' wages for every day they were out on strike, and imposed individual fines on the union's officers. Most significantly, the courts indefinitely suspended the Union's dues checkoff and refused to restore it for nearly 18 months. The strike was over by December 23, after several contract negotiations; the original contract, agreed to by Local 100 and the Transit Authority as a result of the strike, was ultimately imposed on both parties by an arbitrator. More than four months after the strike ended, the courts imposed a brief jail term on Local 100 president Roger Toussaint for his role in the strike. In 2008-09, MTA management once again refused to sign off on an agreement with Local 100 for a successor to the collective bargaining agreement, which expired early in 2009. This time, the Union chose to pursue the arbitration process provided by the Taylor Law rather than strike in support of its demands. On August 11, 2009, after months of community meetings and dozens of witnesses, the state arbitration panel issued its award. However, the MTA refused to comply with the award, forcing the Union to go to court to seek to enforce it. On December 11, 2009, State Supreme Court Justice Peter Sherwood issued a decision upholding the arbitration award in all respects. The MTA had not indicated whether it appealed this decision. TripPlanner thumb|left|NYCT president and MTA chairman & CEO Thomas F. Prendergast (left) at the opening of the Court Square subway complex in 2011 In December 2006, MTA New York City Transit launched TripPlanner, its online travel itinerary service. TripPlanner offers users customized subway, bus, and walking directions within all five boroughs of New York City, as well as service alerts and service advisories for planned track work. The service was developed and is maintained by NYC Transit and its outside vendor, Trapeze Group. It is accessed through the MTA website. Similar to MapQuest, which offers driving directions, TripPlanner provides search fields for starting address and destination address, and allows end users to navigate the complexity of the subway and bus system by narrowing their options to subway, local bus or express bus only, minimizing the number of transfers or time, and adjusting the walking distance to and from the transit stop. In October 2007, NYCT launched TripPlanner On the Go! This service allows users with mobile access to the web to obtain travel itineraries while away from a desk or laptop computer. TripPlanner On the Go! was made applicable for cellular phone, PDA, or Blackberry users, and offered the same three-option travel directions along with real-time service alerts. The back end programming for On the Go! was "developed using XHTML technology and the latest Microsoft Dot Net Framework in a clustered environment." By the end of October 2007, more than 5,000 daily customers were using TripPlanner. In February 2008, NYCT announced an upgrade to the mapping system using NAVTEQ and Microsoft Virtual Earth software similar to mapping sites such as Google Maps and MapQuest. The new software offered more accurate street grids, included business and points of interest, and allowed users to view the maps in aerial, and 3-D points of view. To date, the aerial and 3D views are not available on TripPlanner's mobile service. In June 2008, NYCT announced it had reached 10,000 daily visitors to TripPlanner. Since the announcement, the number of visits to the service eclipsed the number of telephone calls to the agency's travel information hotline. The following month, Trip Planner launched as a widget application, allowing users to add it to their personalized homepage, blog, or website. The Trip Planner has since largely replaced the NYCTA call center on NYC Transit's phone number. Fare collection In November 1993, a fare system called the MetroCard was introduced, which allows riders to use cards that store value who are then charged fares equal to the amount paid at a subway station booth or vending machine. Designed and initially operated by Cubic Transportation Systems, the MetroCard was enhanced in 1997 to allow passengers to make free transfers between subways and buses within two hours; several MetroCard-only transfers between subway stations were added in 2001. With the addition of unlimited-ride MetroCards in 1998, the New York City Transit system was the last major transit system in the United States, with the exception of BART in San Francisco, to introduce passes for unlimited bus and rapid transit travel. Unlimited-ride MetroCards are available for 7-day and 30-day periods. One-day "Fun Pass" and 14-day cards were also introduced but have since been discontinued. In April 2016, MTA solicited proposals for a contactless "New Fare Payment System" to replace the MetroCard by 2022. On October 23, 2017, it was announced that the MetroCard would be phased out and replaced by OMNY, a contactless fare payment system also by Cubic, with fare payment being made using Apple Pay, Google Pay, debit/credit cards with near-field communication technology, or radio-frequency identification cards. The announcement calls for the expansion of this system to a general-use electronic fare payment system at 500 subway turnstiles and on 600 buses by late 2018, with all buses and subway stations using electronic fare collection by 2020. However, support for the MetroCard is slated to remain in place until April 2024. , the fare for a subway or local bus ride is $2.90, while the fare for an express bus ride is $7.00. See also Transportation in New York City History of transportation in New York City New York City transit fares MetroCard Service animal policy of MTA References External links New York City Transit: official site nycsubway.org: New York City Subway Resources Transport Workers Union Local 100 New York City Transit: Trip Planner site New York City Transit Authority Collective Bargaining Agreements at the Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library Category:Metropolitan Transportation Authority Category:Public benefit corporations in New York (state) Category:Government agencies established in 1953 Category:Transportation in New York City Category:Public utilities of the United States

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There Is Nothing Left to Lose is the third studio album by American rock band Foo Fighters, released on November 2, 1999, through Roswell and RCA Records. It marked the first appearance of drummer Taylor Hawkins, and is often seen as a departure from the band's previous work, showcasing a softer, more experimental sound. Vocalist and guitarist Dave Grohl has stated that the album was "totally based on melody" and that it might be "[his] favorite album that [they've] ever done."Kerrang! Legends: Foo Fighters pg.115 The album was recorded using only three musicians, Grohl, Hawkins, and bassist Nate Mendel. There Is Nothing Left to Lose won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 2001, marking the band's first ever Grammy win. The band would go on to win the Grammy for Best Rock Album for three of their next four studio releases (One by One; Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace; and Wasting Light). There Is Nothing Left to Lose is Foo Fighters' first album to be entirely released and marketed by RCA Records since their departure from Capitol Records after the release of The Colour and the Shape two years earlier. Their two previous studio albums, originally distributed by Capitol, were since then distributed by RCA. Background Prior to recording, guitarist Franz Stahl was fired, as frontman Dave Grohl felt the guitarist had not found his place in the band. At that point, Grohl decided that the band would just be a three-piece for the record, along with bassist Nate Mendel and drummer Taylor Hawkins. Having just slaved themselves in the studio making the last record The Colour and the Shape and losing two band members in the process, he decided to buy a house in Alexandria, Virginia and make the record in its basement without any record company presence during production. This was helped by the Foo Fighters' leaving Capitol Records after president Gary Gersh left the label. Grohl named his home facility Studio 606, at first saying, "It's just one of those numbers that's everywhere. Like when you wake up in the middle of the night and it's 6:06, or you see a license plate that says 606." He later told the full story of the number's significance in a July 20, 2020, Instagram post: spending the evening with his father in 1985, he received a particularly searing "what do you want to do with your life" lecture that defines the bittersweet moment he finally communicated to his father the depth of his commitment to becoming a professional musician, before sneaking out. "606" was his father's apartment number.https://www.instagram.com/p/CBsk0PxpMPA/ Dave's True Stories Instagram post: "Your Writing Has Punch, David. Punch Is Power" Grohl set up the studio with the help of Adam Kasper, who eventually co-produced the album. The biggest challenge, according to Grohl, was making the record sound good without computer programs such as Pro Tools or AutoTune. Dave Grohl notes that he had: "[...] been living in Los Angeles for about a year and a half, just being a drunk, getting fucked up every night and doing horrible shit, and I'd finally gotten sick of that new car smell. So I bought this great house in Virginia and told everyone I was building a studio in the basement. It was literally a basement with sleeping bags on the walls!" In 2006, Grohl stated that: "It was all about just settling into the next phase of your life, that place where you can sit back and relax because there had been so much crazy shit in the past three years. At that point it was me, Taylor and Nate and we were best friends. It was one of the most relaxing times of my whole life. All we did was eat chili, drink beer and whiskey and record whenever we felt like it. When I listen to that record it totally brings me back to that basement. I remember how it smelled and how it was in the Spring so the windows were open and we'd do vocals until you could hear the birds through the microphone. And more than any other record I've ever done, that album does that to me." Title and artwork The title emerged to Grohl as he talked to a friend "about when you experience these emotions after you've been through a long, difficult period and you finally give into this feeling that, quite simply, there is nothing left to lose. It can seem... positive, desperate and reckless." The frontman also said that it represented the band's mood during production: "we just wrote off and played like all bets were off. No one was forcing us to be there, so it had to be fun—and the songs had to be the best we could possibly come up with at the time." The cover art features the band's initials on the back of Grohl's neck. Release and promotion After the album was ready, the band signed with RCA Records to distribute the album. For promotion, the label focused on "getting the Foo Fighters brand out there", setting up the band's official website, and arranging appearances on broadcast television and events such as the Gravity Games. There Is Nothing Left to Lose was released in an Enhanced CD featuring the music video for the first single, "Learn to Fly", along with song lyrics and photographs. While the album was recorded as a three-piece, Grohl decided that he still needed a second guitarist for the live performances. After open auditions in which 35 musicians were tested, the band hired Chris Shiflett, whom Grohl considered the best guitarist and singer who auditioned, and "he fit in with the rest of us so well", particularly for his background in punk rock bands. In September 1999, the band performed club dates in New York and Los Angeles, to both showcase the new songs and test Shiflett's performance with the group. The There Is Nothing Left To Lose tour started in 2000. The North American leg was overlapped with the Red Hot Chili Peppers' Californication Tour. Early pressings of the disc included a temporary tattoo, similar to the one featured on the album cover. The album was also re-released in 2001 in Australia as a two-CD edition which offers a second VCD disc of four videos and one bonus track, "Fraternity." Critical reception Reviews for There Is Nothing Left to Lose were generally positive. Rolling Stones Greg Kot rated the album three-and-a-half out of five stars. He started by explaining that "the first thirty seconds [...] are a bridge to singer Dave Grohl's past." He stated further, comparing the album to the Goo Goo Dolls' "Iris", that "[Grohl's] punk background makes him allergic to string sections." However, he said that it "nonetheless marks a departure, with greater emphasis on melody and actual singing." In a retrospective review, AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine rated the album four out of five stars, explaining that "it is the first Foo Fighters album that sounds like the work of a unified, muscular band, and the first one that rocks really hard." Furthermore, he stated that it "has a stripped-down sound and an immediate attack that makes even the poppier numbers rock hard." He concluded that "[Foo Fighters] make it sound easy and fun [...] they're getting better as they're losing members and growing older, which is certainly a rarity in rock & roll." In another retrospective review, a reviewer for Sputnikmusic rated it 3.5 out of 5 points. He explained that it was "consistent and includes sufficient highlights" overall. He went on to state that "Stacked Actors" "successfully utilizes some cool guitar effects as well as the quiet/loud formula that the band has become known for." He further stated that "Breakout" "is a really satisfying mix of melody and rock that ends up a genuinely memorable tune." However, he stated that ""Headwires" [...] musically begins like a mediocre mid-80's radio-rock effort and then simply lacks the necessary grunt to salvage it later on." Comparing the album to The Colour and the Shape, he stated that while the newer album is "more consistent", "a number of tracks ... [are] rather straight-forward and lacking that certain memorable factor which so helped its predecessor." Awards Grammy Awards YearWinnerCategoryResult2001There Is Nothing Left to LoseBest Rock Album2001"Learn to Fly"Best Short Form Music Video "When we won for best rock album, which we made in my basement, I was so proud - because we made it in my basement in a crappy makeshift studio that we put together ourselves. I stood there looking out at everybody in tuxedos and diamonds and fur coats, and I thought we were probably the only band that won a Grammy for an album made for free in a basement that year." - Dave Grohl, 2012 Track listing Personnel Foo Fighters Dave Grohl - lead vocals, guitars, drums, percussion, loops, mellotron on "Next Year", talk box on "Generator", production, art direction Nate Mendel - bass, production, art direction Taylor Hawkins - drums, percussion, production, art direction Production Adam Kasper - producer, recording, mixing (tracks 1, 2, 4, 5, 8-11) Andy Wallace - mixing (tracks 3, 6, 7) John Nelson - assistant mixing engineer (tracks 1, 2, 4, 5, 8-11) Tod Reiger - assistant mixing engineer (tracks 3, 6, 7) Bob Ludwig - mastering Henry Marquez - art direction Danny Clinch - photography Management - G.A.S Entertainment Co. Charts Weekly charts +1999 weekly chart performanceChart (1999)PeakpositionEuropean Top 100 Albums (Music & Media)17 Year-end charts +1999-2000 year-end chart performance Chart (1999) Position Canadian Albums (RPM) 51UK Albums (OCC) 169 Chart (2000) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 91 UK Albums (OCC) 127 US Billboard 200 117 Certifications References External links Category:1999 albums Category:Foo Fighters albums Category:Albums produced by Adam Kasper Category:RCA Records albums Category:Grammy Award for Best Rock Album Category:Albums recorded in a home studio

{"Released": "1999 11 2", "Recorded": "March - June 1999", "Studio": "606 (Alexandria, Virginia)\n Conway (Los Angeles)", "Genre": "Alternative rock\n post-grunge\n heartland rock\n grunge", "Label": "Roswell\nRCA", "Producer": "Foo Fighters\nAdam Kasper"}

Touch is the third studio album by British pop duo Eurythmics, released on 14 November 1983 by RCA Records. It became the duo's first number-one album on the UK Albums Chart, and also peaked at number seven on the US Billboard 200. It has since been certified Platinum in both the United Kingdom and the United States. The album spawned the singles "Who's That Girl?", "Right by Your Side" and "Here Comes the Rain Again", all of which reached the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart. The album was listed 500th on Rolling Stones "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" in 2003, and again on a revised list in 2012, at number 492. Background By the time Touch was released, Eurythmics had achieved international success with their single "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" and the album of the same name. Preceded by the single "Who's That Girl?", Touch was recorded and mixed in about three weeks at Eurythmics' own London studio facility, The Church. An accompanying remix album, Touch Dance, was released in May 1984. 2005 reissue On 14 November 2005, Sony BMG repackaged and re-released Eurythmics' back catalogue as "2005 Deluxe Edition Reissues". Each of their eight studio albums' original track listings were supplemented with bonus tracks and remixes. Critical reception Accolades In 2000, Touch was voted number 221 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2012, Rolling Stone ranked Touch at number 492 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", calling the album "divine synth pop". It had originally appeared at number 500 on the 2003 version of the list. Slant Magazine placed the album at number 47 on its list of "The 100 Best Albums of the 1980s". Track listing Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Touch. Eurythmics Annie Lennox - lead vocals, backing vocals, keyboards, flute, arrangements David A. Stewart - guitars, keyboards, dulcimer, xylophone, backing vocals, drum sequencer, synthesiser sequencer, arrangements Additional musicians Dick Cuthell - trumpet, flugelhorn, cornet Dean Garcia - bass guitar Michael Kamen - string arrangements, string conducting British Philharmonic Orchestra - strings Martin Dobson - baritone saxophone on "Right by Your Side" Technical David A. Stewart - production Jon Bavin - engineering Artwork Peter Ashworth - outer sleeve photography Brian Aris - inner sleeve photography Laurence Stevens - art direction, design Charts Weekly charts + Weekly chart performance for Touch Chart (1983-1984) Peakposition Australian Albums (Kent Music Report) 4 Icelandic Albums (Tónlist) 5 Italian Albums (Musica e dischi) Select "Album" in the "Tipo" field, type "Eurythmics" in the "Artista" field and press "cerca". 23 Japanese Albums (Oricon) 71 Year-end charts + 1983 year-end chart performance for Touch Chart (1983) Position UK Albums (Gallup) 36 + 1984 year-end chart performance for Touch Chart (1984) Position Australian Albums (Kent Music Report) 12 Canada Top Albums/CDs (RPM) 13 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100) 38 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 66 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) 17 UK Albums (Gallup) 26 US Billboard 200 27 Certifications References Bibliography Category:1983 albums Category:Albums produced by David A. Stewart Category:Eurythmics albums Category:RCA Records albums Category:Albums recorded at The Church Studios

{"Released": "1983 11 14 yes", "Recorded": "Summer 1983", "Studio": "The Church (London)", "Genre": "Synth-pop\n new waveBesenyodi Adam https://www.popmatters.com/051205-eurythmics-2496104064.html This Is What the Future Sounded Like PopMatters 5 December 2005 16 October 2018 ...Touch kept them on new wave's cutting-edge.", "Label": "RCA Records", "Producer": "David A. Stewart"}

Nanaimo ( ) is a city of about 100,000 on the east coast of Vancouver Island, in British Columbia, Canada. "The Harbour City" was previously known as the "Hub City", which was attributed to its original layout design with streets radiating from the shoreline like the spokes of a wagon wheel, and to its relatively central location on Vancouver Island. Nanaimo is the headquarters of the Regional District of Nanaimo. Nanaimo is served by the Island Highway along the east coast, the BC Ferries system, and its regional airport. It is also on the dormant Island Rail Corridor. History The Indigenous peoples of the area that is now known as Nanaimo are the Snuneymuxw. An anglicised spelling and pronunciation of that word gave the city its current name. The first Europeans known to reach Nanaimo Harbour were members of the 1791 Spanish voyage of Juan Carrasco, under the command of Francisco de Eliza. They gave it the name Bocas de Winthuysen after naval officer Francisco Javier Winthuysen y Pineda. When the British Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) established a settlement here in 1852, they named it Colvile Town after HBC governor Andrew Colvile. In 1858 it was renamed as Nanaimo, after the local indigenous people. The city has been called "The Harbour City" since the lead-up to Expo 86. thumb|left|upright|Indigenous Nanaimo people The HBC attempted to start a coal mine at Port Rupert but the project had been unsuccessful. In 1850 Snuneymuxw Chief Che-wich-i-kan, commonly known as "Coal Tyee", brought samples of coal to Victoria. A company clerk was dispatched and eventually the governor James Douglas visited the future site of Nanaimo. While open to selling coal, the Snuneymuxw wished to retain control of it and retain the exclusive right to mine it. Chief Wun-wun-shum offered to sell coal for five barrels in exchange for one blanket. The HBC representative Joseph William McKay deemed this "impertinent". The Snuneymuxw retained their rights to the resource for a while, but gradually lost them due to other tribes and miners from the failed Port Rupert project. By 1852, the first shipment of Nanaimo coal was loaded on the Cadboro. Construction of the Nanaimo Bastion began in 1853 and was finished in 1855. On 27 November 1854, 24 coal miners and their families from England arrived at the settlement aboard the Beaver and Recovery. They had travelled seven months on the ship Princess Royal arriving at Esquimalt two days earlier. They transferred to the two smaller vessels for the trip to Colvile Town. They were greeted by Joseph William McKay and 21 Scottish miners. During World War I, the provincial government established an Internment camp for Ukrainian detainees, many of them local, at a Provincial jail in Nanaimo. It operated from September 1914 to September 1915. In the 1940s, lumber supplanted coal as the main business. Minetown Days have been celebrated in the neighbouring community of Lantzville to highlight some of the locale's history.Nanaimo Info - History In the late nineteenth century, numerous immigrants came from China and settled here. What was known as the first Chinatown in Nanaimo was founded during the gold rush years of the 1860s; it was the third largest in British Columbia."Introduction " (Archive). Nanaimo Chinatowns Project, Malaspina University-College. Retrieved on 15 February 2015. In 1884, because of mounting racial tensions related to the Dunsmuir coal company's hiring of Chinese strikebreakers, the company helped move Chinatown to a location outside city limits."Chinese Community" (Archive). Vancouver Island University. Retrieved on 15 February 2015. In 1908, when two Chinese entrepreneurs bought the site and tried to raise rents, the community and 4,000 shareholders from across Canada combined forces and bought a site for the third Chinatown, at a new location focused on Pine Street. That third Chinatown burned down on 30 September 1960 but it was by then mostly derelict and abandoned. A fourth Chinatown, also called Lower Chinatown or "new town", boomed for a while in the 1920s on Machleary Street. Location and geography thumb|Aerial photo of downtown and central Nanaimo and adjacent islands Located on the east coast of Vancouver Island, Nanaimo is about north-west of Victoria, and west of Vancouver, separated by the Strait of Georgia, and linked to Vancouver via the Horseshoe Bay BC Ferries terminal in West Vancouver and the Duke Point terminal to the Tsawwassen ferry terminal in Tsawwassen. As the site of the main ferry terminal, Nanaimo is the gateway to many other destinations both on the northern part of the island—Tofino, Comox Valley, Parksville, Campbell River, Port Alberni, Rathtrevor Beach Provincial Park—and off its coast—Newcastle Island, Protection Island, Gabriola Island, Valdes Island, and many other of the Gulf Islands. A private passenger ferry service connecting to Vancouver, named Hullo, is scheduled to begin operating in August 2023. Buttertubs Marsh is a bird sanctuary located in the middle of the city. The marsh covers approximately . Within this is the "Buttertubs Marsh Conservation Area", owned by the Nature Trust of British Columbia. Climate Like much of coastal British Columbia, Nanaimo experiences a temperate climate with mild, rainy winters and warm, dry summers. Due to its relatively dry summers, the Köppen climate classification places it at the northernmost limits of the Csb or warm-summer Mediterranean zone. Other climate classification systems, such as Trewartha, place it firmly in the Oceanic zone (Do). Nanaimo is usually shielded from the Aleutian Low's influence by the mountains of central Vancouver Island, so that summers are unusually dry for its latitude and location—though summer drying as a trend is found in the immediate lee of the coastal ranges as far north as Skagway, Alaska. Heavy snowfall does occasionally occur during winter, with a record daily total of on 12 February 1975, but the mean maximum cover is only . The highest temperature ever recorded in Nanaimo was on 16 July 1941. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 30 December 1968. Transportation Nanaimo is served by two airports: Nanaimo Airport (YCD) with services to Vancouver (YVR), Toronto (YYZ), and Calgary (YYC) and Nanaimo Harbour Water Aerodrome (ZNA) with services to Vancouver Harbour (CXH), Vancouver Airport (YVR South Terminal), and Sechelt (YHS);. Nanaimo also has three BC Ferry terminals located at Departure Bay, Duke Point, and downtown. The downtown terminal services Gabriola Island while Departure Bay and Duke Point service Horseshoe Bay and Tsawwassen respectively. A private passenger ferry operates between Nanaimo Harbour and Protection Island. A seasonal passenger ferry operates between Swy-a-Lana Lagoon and Saysutshun (Newcastle Island Marine) Park. Hullo operates a passenger-only ferry service between downtown Nanaimo and downtown Vancouver. Highways 1, 19, and 19A traverse the city. Bus service in the city is provided by Nanaimo Regional Transit. The Island Rail Corridor passes through Nanaimo and has a base of operations and yard in the downtown waterfront area. The Nanaimo Port Authority operates the inner Harbour Basin marina providing mooring for smaller vessels and the W. E. Mills Landing and Marina providing mooring for larger vessels. The Port Authority also operates two terminal facilities one at Assembly Wharf (near the downtown core) and the second at Duke Point for cargo operations. In 2011 the Authority completed the addition of a $22 million cruise ship terminal at Assembly Wharf capable of handling large cruise ships including providing Canada Border Services Agency clearance. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Nanaimo had a population of 99,863 living in 43,164 of its 45,138 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 90,504. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Nanaimo CMA had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. In 2016, the average age of a Nanaimoite is 45.5 years old, higher than the national median at 41.2. In Nanaimo, there are 40,885 private dwellings, 39,165 which are occupied by usual residents (95.8% occupancy rate). The median value of these dwellings are $359,760, which is higher than the national median at $341,556. The average (after-tax) household income in Nanaimo is $48,469, lower than the national median at $54,089. The median individual income is $34,702, which is also lower than the national median ($38,977). The unemployment rate was 7.7%. Ethnicity + Panethnic groups in the City of Nanaimo(2001-2021)Panethnicgroup20212016201120062001 European 75,815 72,560 70,455 67,275 63,540 Indigenous 7,905 6,405 5,115 4,060 3,380 East Asian 4,220 3,220 2,200 2,235 1,615 South Asian 3,095 1,900 1,525 1,855 1,265 Southeast Asian 2,670 1,715 1,090 1,210 1,335 African 1,180 625 400 380 220 Middle Eastern 740 445 195 145 95 Latin American 710 465 270 150 195 Other 685 320 310 310 175 Total responses 97,020 87,650 81,565 77,630 71,805 Total population 99,863 90,504 83,810 78,692 73,000 Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses. Language Nanaimo's population is predominantly Anglophone. As of the 2016 census 86.7% of residents claimed English as their mother tongue. Other common first languages were Chinese Languages (2.0%), French (1.3%), German (1.2%) and Punjabi (1.0%). Religion According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Nanaimo included: Irreligion (60,365 persons or 62.2%) Christianity (31,135 persons or 32.1%) Sikhism (1,330 persons or 1.4%) Islam (1,000 persons or 1.0%) Hinduism (785 persons or 0.8%) Buddhism (650 persons or 0.7%) Judaism (230 persons or 0.2%) Indigenous Spirituality (170 persons or 0.2%) Economy thumb|upright|Nanaimo waterfront The original economic driver was coal mining; however, the forestry industry supplanted it in the early 1960s with the building of the MacMillan Bloedel pulp mill at Harmac in 1958, named after Harvey MacMillan. Today the pulp mill is owned by the employees and local investors and injects well over half a million dollars a day into the local economy. The largest employer is the provincial government. The service, retail and tourism industries are also big contributors to the local economy. Technological development on Nanaimo has been growing with companies such as "Inuktun" and the establishment of government-funded Innovation Island as a site to help Nanaimo-based technological start ups by giving them access to tools, education and venture capital. The average sale price of houses in Nanaimo for 2011 was approximately $350,000. A recent surge of higher-density real estate development, centred in the Old City / Downtown area, as well as construction of a city-funded waterfront conference centre, has proven controversial. Proponents of these developments argue that they will bolster the city's economy, while critics worry that they will block waterfront views and increase traffic congestion. Concerns have also been raised about the waterfront conference centre's construction running over its proposed budget. Nanaimo has also been experiencing job growth in the technology sector. Media outlets thumb|Nanaimo Harbour Nanaimo is served by one newspaper: the Nanaimo News Bulletin (33,000 copies twice a week—audited), which is owned by Black Press. The Harbour City Star, also owned by publisher Black Press, was closed in 2016. On 29 January 2016, the 141-year-old Nanaimo Daily News, shut down. Nanaimo also hosts a bureau for CIVI-DT (CTV 2 Victoria, cable channel 12) and a satellite office for CHEK-DT (Independent, cable channel 6). Nanaimo is also served by the Jim Pattison Group's CHWF-FM (The Wolf) and CKWV-FM (The Wave), as well as CHLY-FM, an independent community campus radio station and Vista Radio's CKAY-FM (Coast FM). CBC Radio One is heard over CBU from Vancouver, with CBU-FM (CBC Music) and CBCV-FM available as HD Radio signals. Politics Federal In the House of Commons of Canada, Nanaimo is represented by Lisa Marie Barron of the NDP, representing the riding of Nanaimo—Ladysmith since the 2021 election. The city was split into two separate ridings, Nanaimo—Cowichan (Jean Crowder, New Democratic Party), which includes South Nanaimo and Cassidy, and Nanaimo—Alberni (James Lunney, Independent elected as a Conservative), which includes North Nanaimo and Lantzville, until the 2012 federal electoral redistribution. +Nanaimo federal election results Year Liberal Conservative New Democratic Green 2021 14% 6,990 26% 12,908 29% 14,373 25% 12,095 2019 14% 7,219 26% 13,056 22% 12,004 35% 17,685 Provincial In the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, Nanaimo is represented by the ridings of Nanaimo (Sheila Malcolmson, BC NDP), Nanaimo-North Cowichan (Doug Routley, BC NDP) and Parksville-Qualicum (Adam Walker, BC NDP). Leonard Krog resigned in 2018 to accept the position of Mayor of Nanaimo. In response, Sheila Malcolmson resigned from federal politics and successfully ran for the vacated position. +Nanaimo provincial election results Year New Democratic Liberal Green 2020 52% 20,726 24% 9,507 23% 9,172 2017 44% 19,034 34% 14,747 20% 8,707 Civic The mayor of Nanaimo is currently Leonard Krog, who replaced Bill Mackay in 2018. The most well-known mayor Nanaimo ever had was Frank J. Ney, who instigated Nanaimo's well-known bathtub races, which he regularly attended dressed as a pirate. There is a statue to commemorate Ney—dressed in his pirate costume—at Swy-a-Lana Lagoon, which is on the Nanaimo waterfront. Ney was also an MLA for the Social Credit party while he was also mayor. An elementary school has been named in his honour. Mark Bate became Nanaimo's first mayor in 1875. He served an additional 15 one-year terms as mayor (1875-1879, 1881-1886, 1888-1889, and 1898-1900). Open government The city's planning department has steadily produced enough municipal data to warrant a Time magazine article on open-government. Nanaimo has been dubbed "the capital of Google Earth". Working directly with Google, the city fed it a wealth of information about its buildings, property lines, utilities and streets. The result is earth.nanaimo.ca, a wealth of city data viewed through the Google Earth 3D mapping program. Their Open Data Catalogue is available at data.nanaimo.ca. Education Nanaimo has over 30 elementary and secondary schools, most of which are public and are operated by School District 68 Nanaimo-Ladysmith. Aspengrove School is a JrK-grade 12 Independent (private) school accredited as an International Baccalaureate World School and offers the IB Primary Years, IB Middle Years and IB Diploma programme and received a 10 out of 10 by the IB Organization (IBO) in 2011. The Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique operates two Francophone schools, École Océane primary school and the École secondaire de Nanaimo."Carte des écoles ". Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britanique. Retrieved on 22 January 2015. The main campus of Vancouver Island University is located in Nanaimo, which brings many international students, mostly East Asian, to the city. The Pacific Biological Station thumb|View of the Pacific Biological Station from Departure Bay Beach c. 2003 The Pacific Biological Station, located on the north shore of Departure Bay, was established in 1908. It is the oldest fisheries research centre on the Pacific coast. Operated by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, the station forms a network with eight other scientific facilities. Museums The Nanaimo Art Gallery is a public art museum located downtown at 150 Commercial Street. In addition to contemporary exhibitions by local, national and international artists, the Gallery operates Art Lab which offers year-round art-based programs for learners of all ages. The Gallery also holds a collection of artwork, operates The Gallery Store, which features work by local artists and artisans, and runs Artists in the Schools, a program that operates across three school districts. The Nanaimo Museum is a public historical museum located downtown on the traditional territory of the Snuneymuxw First Nation at 100 Museum Way. The Vancouver Island Military Museum is a public military historical museum located at 100 Cameron Road. Arts and culture The Port Theatre in downtown Nanaimo hosts many performers and shows during the year. The Nanaimo bar, which is a no-bake cookie bar with custard filling, is a Canadian dessert named after Nanaimo. Nanaimo hosts the annual Nanaimo Marine Festival. Part of the festival includes the bathtub race. The race starts in the Nanaimo Harbour downtown, goes around Entrance Island, north-west to Winchelsea Islands by Nanoose Bay and finish in Departure Bay back in Nanaimo. Until the 1990s the race alternated between racing from Nanaimo to Vancouver and from Vancouver to Nanaimo. Sports and recreation Nanaimo is home to the largest sports club on Vancouver Island, Nanaimo United Football Club. NUFC is home to over 1,700 members, and is one of the oldest sports clubs in Canada, having been formed in 1903. Nanaimo is home to North America's first legal, purpose-made bungee jumping bridge, operated by WildPlay Element Parks. Nanaimo is home to the Canadian Junior Football League's Vancouver Island Raiders, who play at Caledonia Park. Nanaimo is home to the British Columbia Hockey League's Nanaimo Clippers and to the Western Lacrosse Association's Nanaimo Timbermen, both of which play at the Frank Crane Arena. Nanaimo is home to the Nanaimo Buccaneers of the Vancouver Island Junior Hockey League, who play at the Nanaimo Ice Centre. The Nanaimo NightOwls, of the West Coast League, play at Serauxmen Stadium. Football Nanaimo plays at Pioneer Park. Nanaimo is home to the Senior A lacrosse team the Timbermen of the Western Lacrosse Association. Nanaimo is also home to the Junior A Timbermen and Junior B Timbermen. Nanaimo is home to the Nanaimo Hornets Rugby Football Club. Is part of the British Columbia Rugby Union, Established in 1888 is the second oldest Rugby Club in Western Canada, Home ground and club is situated in Pioneer Park since 1968. Notable people Terry Beech, politician Red Carr, professional ice hockey player Gene Carr, professional ice hockey player Justin Chatwin, actor Glen Clark, 31st Premier of British Columbia Jimmy Claxton, baseball pitcher who broke US baseball's racial colour barrier Raymond Collishaw, Canadian World War I flying ace Allison Crowe, singer-songwriter and pianist John DeSantis, actor Michael Edgson, swimmer Jodelle Ferland, actress David Gogo, blues guitarist Paul Gogo, keyboardist for the rock band Trooper Christopher Hart, actor and magician Al Hill, ice hockey player and scout Bob Hindmarch, professor and ice hockey coach Constance Isherwood, lawyer Ingrid Jensen, jazz trumpeter Susan Juby, author Ethan Katzberg, athlete, 2023 Hammer throw world champion Diana Krall, jazz pianist and vocalist Tim Lander, poet Marc-André Leclerc, alpinist Susan Morgan, Oregon politician Callum Montgomery, professional soccer player Phil Olsen, Olympian javelin Steve Smith, professional downhill mountain biker Shane Sutcliffe, boxer Kirsten Sweetland, triathlete May Tully, vaudeville actress, writer, director Lorna Vinden, wheelchair athlete Layla Zoe, blues and blues rock musician and songwriter Sister city Nanaimo has one sister city: Saitama City (←Iwatsuki City), Saitama Prefecture, Japan (1996)http://www.saga-saitama.or.jp/english/sister_cities/index.php See also List of coal mines and landmarks in the Nanaimo area 1887 Nanaimo mine explosion References External links Category:Cities in British Columbia Category:Mining communities in British Columbia Category:Populated places established in 1853 Category:Populated places on the British Columbia Coast Category:Port cities and towns on the Canadian Pacific coast Category:Mid Vancouver Island

{"Type": "Elected city council", "Density": "1104.1", "Urban density": "96415https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDlist=2021S05100568 Nanaimo, British Columbia [Population centre] Statistics Canada 9 February 2022 12 March 2022", "Metro density": "76.5", "DST": "-7"}

The Freedom From Religion Foundation (FFRF) is an American nonprofit organization that advocates for atheists, agnostics, and nontheists. Formed in 1976, FFRF promotes the separation of church and state, and challenges the legitimacy of many federal and state programs that are faith-based. It supports groups such as nonreligious students and clergy who want to leave their faith. History thumb|The Freedom From Religion Foundation's Freethought Hall in Madison, Wisconsin The FFRF was co-founded by Anne Nicol Gaylor and her daughter, Annie Laurie Gaylor, in 1976 and was incorporated nationally on April 15, 1978."Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc." Wisconsin Department of Financial Institutions. Retrieved August 5, 2017. The organization was supported by over 19,000 members in 2012 and operated from an 1855-era building in Madison, Wisconsin, that once served as a church rectory. In March 2011, FFRF, along with the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science, began The Clergy Project, a confidential on-line community that supports clergy as they leave their faith. In 2012, it gave its first Freedom From Religion Foundation and Clergy Project "Hardship Grant" to Jerry DeWitt, a former pastor who left the ministry to join the atheist movement. FFRF provides financial support to the Secular Student Alliance, an organization that has affiliate groups for nonreligious students on college campuses. In 2015, FFRF announced Nonbelief Relief, a related organization that obtained and later gave up its federal tax-exempt status. Nonbelief Relief was unsuccessful in a lawsuit against the IRS because it lacked standing to challenge the Form 990 exemption that applies to churches. Nonbelief Relief is a humanitarian agency for atheists, agnostics, freethinkers, and their supporters. Nonbelief Relief was created by the executive board of FFRF to remediate conditions of human suffering and injustice on a global scale, whether the result of natural disasters, human actions or adherence to religious dogma. Media and publications The FFRF publishes a newspaper, Freethought Today, ten times a year. Since 2006, as the Freethought Radio Network, FFRF has produced the Freethought Radio show, an hour-long show broadcast live on WXXM-FM Saturdays at 11 a.m. CDT. It had also been broadcast on Air America before that service ceased operation in March, 2010. The show is hosted by the co-presidents of FFRF, Dan Barker and Annie Laurie Gaylor. Regular features include "Theocracy Alert" and "Freethinkers Almanac". The latter highlights historic freethinkers, many of whom are also songwriters. The show's intro and outro make use of John Lennon's Imagine song. Annie Laurie Gaylor, co-president of the FFRF, is the author of the nonfiction book on clergy pedophilia scandals Betrayal of Trust: Clergy Abuse of Children (out of print) and the editor of Women Without Superstition: No Gods - No Masters and the anthology Woe to the Women. She edited the FFRF newspaper Freethought Today until July 2008. Her husband, Dan Barker, author of Losing Faith in Faith: From Preacher to Atheist, Godless: How an Evangelical Preacher Became One of America's Leading Atheists, The Good Atheist: Living a Purpose-Filled Life Without God, Life Driven Purpose, God: The Most Unpleasant Character in all Fiction, and Just Pretend: A Freethought Book for Children, is a musician and songwriter, a former Pentecostal Christian minister, and co-president of FFRF. Litigation and issues Social programs Social services In June 2004, the FFRF challenged the constitutionality of the White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives. The Foundation's complaint alleged that "the use of money appropriated by Congress under Article I, section 8, to fund conferences that various executive branch agencies hold to promote President Bush's 'Faith-Based and Community Initiatives conflicted with the First Amendment. The suit "contended that the defendant officials violated the Establishment Clause by organizing national and regional conferences at which faith-based organizations allegedly 'are singled out as being particularly worthy of federal funding because of their religious orientation, and the belief in God is extolled as distinguishing the claimed effectiveness of faith-based social services. The FFRF also alleged that "the defendant officials 'engage in myriad activities, such as making public appearances and giving speeches, throughout the United States, intended to promote and advocate for funding for faith-based organizations." The FFRF further asserted, "Congressional appropriations [are] used to support the activities of the defendants." In 2007 the Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that taxpayers do not have the right to challenge the constitutionality of expenditures made by the executive branch. In May 2007, the FFRF, on behalf of Indiana taxpayers, challenged the creation of a chaplaincy pilot program for the Indiana Family and Social Services Administration (FSSA). The FSSA hired Pastor Michael L. Latham, a Baptist minister, in 2006, at a salary of $60,000 a year. In September 2007, in response to the FFRF's suit, Indiana ended the program. Health care In April 2003, the FFRF, on behalf of Montana residents, sued the Montana Office of Rural Health and its executive director David M. Young along with the Montana State University-Bozeman and the Montana Faith-Health Cooperative. It was alleged that Young favored faith-based nursing parish programs for state funding. In October 2004, the Federal District Court for the District of Montana held that the state's "direct and preferential funding of inherently and pervasively religious parish nursing programs was undertaken for the impermissible purpose, and has the impermissible effect, of favoring and advancing the integration of religion into the provision of secular health care services." According to the court, the state funding of faith-based healthcare violated the First Amendment.Memorandum and Order, October 26, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2013. In April 2006, the FFRF sued to challenge the pervasive integration of "spirituality" into health care by the Department of Veteran Affairs. Specifically stating that the practice of asking patients about their religion in spiritual assessments, the use of chaplains to treat patients, and drug and alcohol treatment programs that incorporate religion violated the separation of state and church. The case was later dismissed after the Hein decision because of lack of standing. Education In 2001, the FFRF, on behalf of anonymous plaintiffs, sued the Rhea County School District. The plaintiffs alleged that weekly bible classes were being held for all students in the elementary schools. In June 2004, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a district judgment holding that it was unconstitutional for the school district to "teach the Bible as literal truth" to students, including first graders. In March 2005, the FFRF filed suit against the University of Minnesota because of its involvement with the Minnesota Faith Health Consortium, a partnership with Luther Seminary, which is affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, and Fairview Health Services, stating that state taxpayer funds are helping to fund a faith-based organization. In September 2005, the University agreed to end the partnership and to cease teaching "courses on the intersection of faith and health", with the FFRF agreeing to drop its lawsuit. In April 2005, the FFRF filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Education because of its distribution of funds to the Alaska Christian College, a Bible college run by the Evangelical Covenant Church of Alaska. The foundation stated that in the students' first year at the college, they take only religious-based courses, and finish that year with a Certificate of Biblical Studies. The college, the foundation says, "does not offer traditional college courses, such as math or English". In October 2005 the FFRF and the U.S. Department of Education settled the lawsuit, with the Department of Education agreeing not to distribute $435,000 of federal funds to the College. A December 2020 article by Hemant Mehta outlined recent FFRF efforts. FFRF argues to limit official role of Pastor Mark Thornton at Boise State. A letter sent by the FFRF Staff Attorney Chris Line included: "Boise State football players have no government-imposed burden on their religion, so there is no need - or legitimate legal reason - for Boise State to provide a chaplain for them." Legal Counsel for the University responded with the following: "We have been in communication with the Athletic Department to provide some education about this issue and to ensure measures are taken now and in the future to resolve the issue and establish appropriate constitutional boundaries. Mr. Thornton did not travel with the football team to our recent game in Wyoming and the university will no longer include a chaplain in its travel party. Written references to Mr. Thornton as the chaplain of the football team have been or are in the process of being removed and no future references will be made in writing or otherwise." Mehta continues: "None of that means students can't seek Thornton out on their own. They’ve always been free to do that. But Thornton can't - and shouldn't - have any sort of official role there." Criminal justice programs In October 2000, the FFRF brought suit, as taxpayers in the state of Wisconsin, against Faith Works located in Milwaukee. Their case stated that a faith-based addiction-treatment program should not be used as a court-ordered treatment program using taxpayer funds. In January 2002, the ruling was decided in the FFRF's favor; that receiving hundreds of thousands of dollars in public money is in violation of the Establishment Clause. The judge wrote "Because I find that the Department of Workforce Development's grant to Faith Works constitutes unrestricted, direct funding of an organization that engages in religious indoctrination, I conclude that this funding stream violates the establishment clause." On Appeal, in April 2003, the Seventh Circuit later ruled against the FFRF on the narrower issue of whether prisoners joining specific faith-based programs on their own free will are coerced by government endorsement of religion. The FFRF brought a suit against the awarding of a federal grant to MentorKids USA, a group providing mentors to children of prisoners, alleging that only Christian mentors were hired and that they were to give monthly reports on the children's religious activities. In January 2005, the court vacated HHS's funding of this group citing "federal funds have been used by the MentorKids program to advance religion in violation of the Establishment Clause". Memorandum and Order , January 11, 2005. Retrieved July 1, 2013. In May 2006, the FFRF filed suit against the Federal Bureau of Prisons alleging that its decision to fund not only multi-faith-based but also single-faith-based programs violated constitutional standards for separation of state and church. The parties later agreed to a dismissal of that claim, but additional counts within the lawsuit, alleging separate violations, continued. Complaint, May 4, 2006. Retrieved July 1, 2013. Religion in the public sphere Employment issues In 1995, the FFRF sued the state of Wisconsin for designating Good Friday as a state legal holiday. In 1996, the federal district court ruled that Wisconsin's Good Friday holiday was indeed a First Amendment violation because, in reference to Wisconsin's Good Friday holiday law, the "promotion of Christianity is the primary purpose of the law." Public funding FFRF opposed the city of Versailles, Kentucky helping a church get federal funding to create a local disaster relief center. The FFRF is filling a lawsuit on behalf of four residents against the state of South Carolina to oppose the funding to Christian Learning Centers of Greenville County to build a private religious school, and the FFRF is challenging that it is unconstitutional. Religious displays on public property In December 2007, the FFRF, on behalf of a group of concerned Green Bay residents and invoking the First Amendment rights of all of the city's residents, sued the city because of the placement of a nativity scene at Green Bay's city hall. Before the case was heard, the city removed the nativity scene. The judge then dismissed the suit, citing lack of jurisdiction. Since the nativity scene already was removed and a moratorium imposed on future such displays, there remained no basis for continued dispute. He went on to say, "the plaintiffs have already won. ... the Plaintiffs have won a concrete victory that changes the circumstances on the ground." Decision and Order Granting Defendants' Motion to Dismiss, October 7, 2008. Retrieved July 1, 2013. In 2011, in response to the refusal of the city of Warren, Michigan, to remove a nativity display in the civic center, the FFRF sought to place a winter solstice display. The mayor refused the request and the FFRF brought suit. The suit was dismissed by Judge Zatkoff of the U.S. District Court; the dismissal was upheld by the U.S. 6th Circuit Court in 2013. In September 2011, the FFRF, along with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), sued the Giles County, Virginia, school district on behalf of anonymous plaintiffs. A display of the Ten Commandments had been placed beside a copy of the U.S. Constitution at Giles County public schools. Prior to the suit, in January and June 2011, the FFRF and the ACLU had sent letters to the school board requesting removal of the display. The school superintendent ordered that the displays of the Ten Commandments be removed. The Giles County school board met in June 2011 and voted to overturn the superintendent's decision to remove the display. After the suit was filed, the school board in 2012 agreed to remove the display and to pay attorneys' fees. Complaint, 2011. Retrieved July 2, 2013. In November 2011, Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker referred to the Capitol's Christmas tree as a "Christmas tree" instead of a "holiday tree". The FFRF, which opposed prior efforts to restore the name to "Christmas tree" objected to the title. In May 2012, the FFRF, acting on a complaint from a resident, asked the city of Woonsocket, Rhode Island, to remove a Latin cross from a World War I and II memorial on public land. The city refused to do so. The FFRF states that it is currently looking for a plaintiff in the area to represent for a suit, which the FFRF have yet to do, citing the difficulty with another case that occurred with another plaintiff in the state, Jessica Ahlquist, in the case Ahlquist v. Cranston. On July 24, 2012, after receiving a letter from the FFRF, the Steubenville, Ohio, city council decided to remove the image of the Christ the King Chapel at the Franciscan University of Steubenville from its town logo. In August 2012, the FFRF, on behalf of a resident, threatened a lawsuit challenging a Latin cross that had been displayed on top of the water tower of Whiteville, Tennessee. After the FFRF wrote three initial letters, but before the lawsuit was filed, the town removed one arm of the cross. The removal cost the town $4,000, and as part of the settlement the town paid $20,000 in the FFRF's attorneys fees. The town also agreed never to replace the missing arm and not to place other crosses on public property. In August 2012, the FFRF, on behalf of a Montana resident, sued the United States Forest Service. A special use permit for the placement of a statue of Jesus on federal land was granted in 1954 at the request of the Knights of Columbus. The Forest Service continued to grant renewals of the permit until 2010. When the Service declined to renew, the Knights declined to remove the statue citing "tradition" and the "historical" value of the statue. After on-line protests the statue was allowed to stay and the permit granted. The FFRF filed suit in February 2012. Complaint, February 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2013. In June 2013, a federal judge found in favor of the defendants, allowing the statue to remain. Order, 24 June 2013. Retrieved August 29, 2013. In August 2013, the FFRF filed an appeal of the decision. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected FFRF's arguments and upheld the memorial. In 2012, the FFRF wrote several letters to Prudhommes Restaurant, in Columbia, Pennsylvania, explaining that offering a 10% discount to Sunday patrons who present a church bulletin is a violation of state and federal law, specifically the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The individual who brought the matter to the FFRF's attention has filed a discrimination complaint with the Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission. The FFRF was only involved in an advisory capacity. The Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission entered a final order allowing the restaurant to continue the church bulletin discount. A lighted cross in a public park in Honesdale, Pennsylvania, was removed by the borough in 2018 after complaints from FFRF. Not far from the park a solar-powered 28-foot cross was erected by a local resident on his own property. Prayer in government/schools In October 2008, the FFRF filed suit against the U.S. government over the statute establishing the National Day of Prayer (NDoP). In 2010, Federal judge Barbara Brandriff Crabb ruled it unconstitutional as it is "an inherently religious exercise that serves no secular function".National Day of Prayer: This ruling was appealed by the U.S. government. In April 2011, the U.S. Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the FFRF's challenge to the NDoP, holding that the FFRF did not have standing to challenge the NDoP statute or proclamations and that only the President was injured enough to challenge the NDoP statute. The FFRF, in January 2013, after receiving a complaint from a resident, asked the city council of Rapid City, South Dakota, to eliminate its practice of beginning each city council meeting with a Christian prayer. After the FFRF sent a second letter in February 2013, the mayor stated at that time that prayers would continue. Internal Revenue Service Parish exemption The FFRF filed suit against the IRS over the parish exemption that allows "ministers of the gospel" to claim part of their salary as an income-tax-free housing allowance. This was originally filed in 2009, in California, then subsequently dropped and re-filed in 2011, in Wisconsin, Complaint, September 13, 2011. Retrieved July 12, 2013. because of standing. In August 2012, a federal judge stated that the suit could go forward. In August 2013, the Justice Department argued that leaders of an atheist group may qualify for the parish exemption. Gaylor states "this is not what we are after", going on to say that the government should not give religious groups any special treatment. On November 21, 2013, a federal judge ruled in the FFRF's favor. In January 2014, the Department of Justice filed an appeal in federal court. In November 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit issued its decision, concluding that the federal tax code provision that treats church-provided housing allowances to ministers as income tax-free must stand. Electioneering In November 2012, The FFRF filed a lawsuit against the IRS for not enforcing its own electioneering laws. The FFRF cited in its suit the placement of full-page ads by the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association; the diocese requiring priests to read a statement urging Catholics to vote; and the institution of "Pulpit Freedom Sunday". The group claimed that not enforcing the federal tax codes that prohibit tax-exempt religious organizations from electioneering is a violation of the First Amendment of the Constitution. The group stated that the increasing involvement of religious institutions in politics was "blatantly and deliberately flaunting the electioneering restrictions". The IRS had filed a motion to dismiss in federal court, but in August 2013 it was decided that the lawsuit could proceed stating that the FFRF "has standing to seek an order requiring the IRS to treat religious organizations no more favorably than it treats the Foundation". In 2014, the federal judge dismissed the lawsuit after the parties reached an agreement. 990 Form In December 2012, the FFRF filed suit against the IRS for not requiring the yearly filing of a 990 Form for religious institutions, which is required for all other non-profit organizations. The case, FFRF v. Werfel, was dismissed for lack of standing. State capitol signs Florida In December 2013, the FFRF was permitted to hang a banner at the capitol after a nativity scene was placed by a private group. Illinois On December 23, 2009, William J. Kelly, conservative activist and candidate for Illinois Comptroller, attempted to remove a FFRF sign at a Christmas display. The case was dismissed on several grounds, including that the lawsuit ran afoul of the First Amendment prohibition against content-based discrimination and that the plaintiff's rights had not been violated. Washington A plaque with the same text as the Wisconsin State Capitol sign was displayed for the 2008 Christmas season at the state capitol in Olympia, Washington, next to a nativity scene. The sign was stolen and then later found and returned to the state capitol. The addition of the sign incited a large number of individuals and groups to request other additions, such as a Festivus pole, a request by the Westboro Baptist Church for a sign stating "Santa Claus will take you to hell" (among other things), a sign paying homage to the Flying Spaghetti Monster, and many others. 300px|right|thumb|Front (left) and back (right) of sign displayed at the Wisconsin State Capitol. The sign in Washington displays the same message. Wisconsin The FFRF maintains a sign in the Wisconsin State Capitol during the Christmas season, which reads: In 2013, a natural nativity featuring Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein and Mark Twain as the three wise men, the Statue of Liberty and an astronaut as angels and an African American girl baby doll to represent that "humankind was birthed in Africa" was added. Texas State Capitol In 2015, the FFRF applied to put a "secular Nativity" scene in the Texas State Capitol. The scene featured the Bill of Rights, three Founding Fathers, and the Statue of Liberty and a sign that wished everyone a "Happy Winter Solstice". The then governor of Texas, Greg Abbott, demanded it be removed. Following a series of legal challenges, in 2018, a three-judge panel of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that FFRF's rights were violated. The Court also vacated the ruling of the trial court and sent the case back for consideration of FFRF's request for an injunction. thumb|FFRF's Bill of Rights Nativity Rhode Island In 2013, the FFRF was allowed to place a sign in the rotunda, after complaints from its members, as a response to the crèches and other religious symbols that are already in place at the statehouse. Dayton, Tennessee On July 14, 2017, a statue of Clarence Darrow was unveiled in Dayton, Tennessee, on the Rhea County Courthouse lawn, funded by a $150,000 donation from the FFRF. The courthouse was the site of the historic 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial wherein Darrow unsuccessfully defended a teacher, John T. Scopes, who was found guilty of teaching evolution in a public school in violation of what was then a Tennessee state law. The statue was placed just a few feet away from a statue of William Jennings Bryan, Darrow's creationist opponent in the trial, which had been erected in 2005 by nearby Bryan College. Athens, Texas In 2011, the FFRF filed a letter of complaint regarding the placement of a nativity scene on Henderson County courthouse property. After it was decided that the nativity scene would remain, the FFRF petitioned to have its own banner placed on the site, but county officials declined to discuss its placement. The FFRF banner was placed without permission on the courthouse property, but was soon removed. The banner stated: "At this season of the winter solstice, let reason prevail. There are no Gods, no devils, no angels, no Heaven or Hell. There is only our natural world. Religion is but a myth and superstition that hardens hearts and enslaves minds". In April 2012, the county judge denied FFRF's request to place the same banner on the courthouse property. Events and activities FFRF has held conventions since 1977, one year after the group formed and one year prior to its official incorporation.History of FFRF conventions: Conventions have included speakers such as Christopher Hitchens, awards presented to recognize contributions to the advancement of the freethought community, FFRF held NonPrayer Breakfasts, with what it described as moments of bedlam instead of moments of silence, and piano music by FFRF co-president Dan Barker. The Emperor Has No Clothes Award has been awarded by FFRF since 1999 in recognition of what it called "plain speaking" on the shortcomings of religion by public figures. Past recipients include: +YearRecipient(s)1999Steven Weinberg2001Jesse Ventura; Ted Turner; Andy Rooney; Janeane Garofalo; George Carlin; Richard Dawkins; Katha Pollitt2002Robert Sapolsky; Steve Benson2003Penn & Teller; Roger, Pat and Melody Cleveland; Natalie Angier2004Steven Pinker; Ron Reagan; Peter Singer; Robyn Blumner; Anne Nicol Gaylor2005Oliver Sacks2006Julia Sweeney2007Christopher Hitchens2008Daniel C. Dennett2009Ron Reagan; Ursula K. Le Guin; William Lobdell2010Cenk Uygur; Ayaan Hirsi Ali2011Jerry Coyne; Charles Strouse2012Richard Dawkins2013Dan Savage; Juan Mendez2014Bart D. Ehrman; Sean M. Carroll; Donald Johanson2015Ernie Chambers; Taslima Nasrin2016Lawrence Krauss2018Paula Poundstone; Jared Huffman; Salman Rushdie; Adam Savage2019Trae Crowder; Anthony B. Pinn2021Ann Druyan Finances In 2013, Charity Navigator gave FFRF a four-star rating and reported that FFRF had revenues of US$3,878,938, with a net surplus (after expenses) of $1,715,563 and net assets of $11,519,770. Officer compensation for the "co-presidents", husband and wife Dan Barker and Annie Laurie Gaylor, was $88,700 and $86,500 ($175,200 combined) or approximately 10% of the net surplus. According to the 2011 IRS tax Form-990, FFRF spent just over $200,000 on legal fees and services and just under $1 million on education, outreach, publishing, broadcasting, and events. The allotment for legal fees is primarily used in cases supporting the separation of church and state that involve governmental entities. See also Irreligion Anti-clericalism Antireligion Antitheism Atheist feminism Irreligion in the United States Recovering from Religion Concepts Ceremonial deism Religious discrimination Separation of church and state in the United States Americans United for Separation of Church and State Church tax In God We Trust Criticism of religion Forced conversion Freedom of thought Organizations American Atheists Freethought Association of Canada References External links Category:1978 establishments in Wisconsin Category:Advocacy groups in the United States Category:Atheism activism Category:Atheism in the United States Category:Atheist organizations Category:Charities based in Wisconsin Category:Church-state separation advocacy organizations Category:Criticism of religion Category:Disengagement from religion Category:Educational charities based in the United States Category:Educational organizations based in the United States Category:Freethought in the United States Category:Freethought organizations Category:Government watchdog groups in the United States Category:Legal advocacy organizations in the United States Category:Nonpartisan organizations in the United States Category:Non-profit organizations based in Wisconsin Category:Nontheism Category:Organizations based in Madison, Wisconsin Category:Organizations established in 1978 Category:Politics of Wisconsin Category:Science advocacy organizations Category:Scientific organizations based in the United States Category:Scientific organizations established in 1991 Category:Scientific skepticism Category:Secular humanism Category:Separation of church and state in the United States Category:Skeptic organizations in the United States Category:Think tanks based in the United States Category:Think tanks established in 1978

{"Abbreviation": "FFRF", "Affiliations": "Nonbelief Relief Inc", "Type": "Non-profit", "Legal status": "501(c)(3) educational organization\"Freedom From Religion Foundation Inc.\" Exempt Organizations Select Check. Internal Revenue Service. Retrieved August 5, 2017.", "Headquarters": "Madison, Wisconsin, U.S."}

Cracked Rear View is the debut studio album by Hootie & the Blowfish, released on July 5, 1994, by Atlantic Records. Released to positive critical reviews, it eventually sold 10.2 million copies in the United States, becoming one of the best-selling albums of all time. Recording Don Gehman was chosen by A&R man Tim Sommer as a producer because of his previous work with John Mellencamp and R.E.M. Reception Cracked Rear View is Hootie & the Blowfish's most successful album. Cracked Rear View reached number one on the Billboard 200 five times over the course of 1995. It was the best-selling album of 1995 in the United States, selling 7 million copies. It has sold 10.2 million copies in the United States per Nielsen SoundScan as of 2012. An additional three million copies were sold through CD clubs, which are not included in SoundScan's total. The album has been certified 21x platinum (double diamond) as of 2018. It is the joint 19th-best-selling album of all time in the United States.RIAA Top 100 The album also reached number one in Canada and New Zealand. Critical reviews of Cracked Rear View were mostly positive. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine crowned the album as "the success story of 1994/1995." He also stated "Although Hootie & the Blowfish aren't innovative, they deliver the goods, turning out an album of solid, rootsy folk-rock songs that have simple, powerful hooks." Track listing All songs written by Mark Bryan, Dean Felber, Darius Rucker and Jim "Soni" Sonefeld, except where noted. "Hannah Jane" - 3:33 "Hold My Hand" - 4:15 "Let Her Cry" - 5:08 "Only Wanna Be with You" - 3:46 (Bryan, Felber, Rucker, Sonefeld, Bob Dylan) "Running from an Angel" - 3:37 "I'm Goin' Home" - 4:10 "Drowning" - 5:01 "Time" - 4:53 "Look Away" - 2:38 "Not Even the Trees" - 4:37 "Goodbye" - 4:05 Includes hidden track "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child" (Traditional) - 0:53 In 2001, the album was re-released on DVD-Audio with the disc featuring a discography, photo gallery, and video of a live performance of "Drowning". The 25th anniversary edition from 2019 includes the following bonus discs: Disc 2: B-sides, Outtakes, Pre-LP Independent Recordings "All That I Believe" "I Go Blind" (Neil Osborne, Phil Comparelli, Brad Merritt, Darryl Neudorf) "Almost Home" "Fine Line" "Where Were You" "Hey, Hey What Can I Do" (John Bonham, John Paul Jones, Jimmy Page, Robert Plant) "The Old Man and Me" - Kootchypop Version "Hold My Hand" - Kootchypop Version "If You're Going My Way" - Kootchypop Version "Sorry's Not Enough" - Kootchypop Version "Only Wanna Be with You" - Kootchypop Version "Running from an Angel" - 1991 Version "Time" - 1991 Version "Let Her Cry" - 1991 Version "Drowning" - 1991 Version "I Don't Understand" "Little Girl" "Look Away" - 1990 Version "Let My People Go" "Hold My Hand" - 1990 Version Disc 3: Live at Nick's Fat City, Pittsburgh, PA, February 3, 1995 "Hannah Jane" "I Go Blind" "Not Even the Trees" "If You're Going My Way" "Look Away" "Fine Line" "Let Her Cry" "Motherless Child" "I'm Goin' Home" "Use Me" "Running from an Angel" "Sorry's Not Enough" "Drowning" "The Old Man and Me" "Only Wanna Be with You" "Time" "Goodbye" "The Ballad of John and Yoko" (Lennon-McCartney) "Hold My Hand" "Love the One You're With" (Stephen Stills) DVD 5.1 Surround Sound mix of the original album Hi-Res 24/96 Bonus Tracks "All That I Believe" "I Go Blind" "Almost Home" "Fine Line" "Where Were You" Music videos: "Hold My Hand" "Let Her Cry" "Only Wanna Be with You" "Time" "Drowning" - Live Personnel Hootie & the Blowfish Mark Bryan - electric guitar, acoustic guitar, vocal percussion, mandolin on "Only Wanna Be with You", piano on "Not Even the Trees", Dean Felber - bass guitar, clavinet, vocals, piano on "Only Wanna Be with You" Darius Rucker - vocals, acoustic guitar, percussion Jim "Soni" Sonefeld - drums, percussion, vocals, piano on "Look Away" and "Goodbye", glasses on "Not Even the Trees" Additional musicians David Crosby - background vocals on "Hold My Hand" Lili Haydn - violin on "Look Away" and "Running from an Angel" John Nau - piano on "I'm Goin' Home", Hammond organ Production Jean Cronin - art direction Don Gehman - production, engineering, mixing Michael McLaughlin - photography Wade Norton - assistant engineering Gena Rankin - production coordination Eddy Schreyer - mastering Tim Sommer - artists and repertoire Liz Sroka - assistant mixing Charts Weekly charts Chart (1994-1995) Peakposition Canadian Albums (RPM) 1 Year-end charts Chart (1995) Position Australian Albums (ARIA) 23 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) 2 US Billboard 200 1 Chart (1996) Position New Zealand Albums (RMNZ) 19 US Billboard 200 9 Decade-end charts Chart (1990-1999)Position US Billboard 2007 Certifications Awards YearWinnerCategory1996"Let Her Cry"Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals See also List of best-selling albums in the United States References Category:1994 debut albums Category:Hootie & the Blowfish albums Category:Albums produced by Don Gehman Category:Atlantic Records albums

{"Released": "1994 07 05 yesThe Hard Report #3 Most Added Hard Report, the 1994-07-01 381 9 from the debut album Cracked Rear View out July 5", "Recorded": "November 1993 - March 1994", "Studio": "NRG Recording Studios, North Hollywood, Los Angeles, CaliforniaCracked Rear View Hootie & the Blowfish 1994 CD liner Atlantic Records 82613-2 United States", "Genre": "Roots rock heartland rock alternative rock", "Label": "Atlantic", "Producer": "Don Gehman"}

Tennessee State University (Tennessee State, Tenn State, or TSU) is a public historically black land-grant university in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1912, it is the only state-funded historically black university in Tennessee. It is a member-school of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund. Tennessee State University offers 41 bachelor’s degrees, 23 master's degrees, and eight doctoral degrees. It is classified as "R2: Doctoral Universities - High research activity". History The university was established as the Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State Normal School for Negroes in 1912. Its dedication was held on January 16, 1913. It changed its name to Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State Normal College in 1925. Two years later, in 1927, it became known as Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State College. In 1941, the Tennessee General Assembly directed the Board of Education to upgrade the educational program of the college. Three years later the first master's degrees were awarded and by 1946 the college was fully accredited the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Significant expansion occurred during the presidency of Walter S. Davis between 1943 and 1968, including the construction of "70 percent of the school's facilities" and the establishment of the graduate school and four other schools. In 1968, the college officially changed its name to Tennessee State University, and in 1979, the University of Tennessee at Nashville merged into Tennessee State due to a court mandate. In 2022, Tennessee State University was awarded a historic $250 million from the state legislature as reparations for decades of discriminatory state funding compared to fellow public Tennessee institutions of higher education. The funds will be used to upgrade facilities and academic programs on campus. Tennessee State's $250 million investment is the largest single investment into a historically black institution in the history of the country. Today, Tennessee State University is divided into eight schools and colleges and has seen steady growth since its inception. It remains the only public university in Nashville and its health science program is the largest in the state and one of the largest in the nation. Aligned with the Tennessee Board of Regents, it is currently governed by an institutional board of trustees. Campus The main campus has more than 65 buildings, and is located in a residential setting at 3500 John A. Merritt Blvd in Nashville, Tennessee. Tennessee State's main campus has the most acres of any college campus in Nashville. The Avon Williams campus is located downtown, near the center of the Nashville business and government district. Tennessee State offers on-campus housing to students. There are on-campus dorms and two apartment complexes for upperclassmen. On-campus facilities include dormitories Wilson Hall, Watson Hall, Eppse Hall, Boyd Hall, Rudolph Hall, Hale Hall, as well as the Ford Complex and New Residence Complex, TSU's two on-campus apartment complexes. Academics The university is currently accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) to award 38 baccalaureate degrees, 24 master's degrees, and doctoral degrees in seven areas (Biological Sciences, Computer Information Systems Engineering, Psychology, Public Administration, Curriculum and Instruction, Educational Administration and Supervision, and Physical Therapy), as well as two Associate of Science degree programs, one in nursing and one in dental hygiene. Tennessee State is classified as "R2: Doctoral Universities - High research activity." The university is organized into the following colleges: College of Agriculture, Human, and Natural Sciences College of Business College of Education College of Engineering College of Health Sciences College of Liberal Arts College of Life and Physical Sciences College of Public Service The University Honors College (UHC) is an exclusive academic program founded in 1964 that caters to select academically talented and highly motivated undergraduate students. The College of Business is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). It was the first institution in Nashville to earn the accreditation of both its undergraduate and graduate business programs in 1994. The Psychology program is accredited by the American Psychological Association and the Teacher Education program by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). The College of Engineering has developed corporate partnerships with NASA, Raytheon, and General Motors and is accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) and the National Association of Industrial Technology (NAIT). The College of Health Sciences (formerly the School of Allied Health) includes such programs as the Masters in Physical Therapy and the Bachelor of Health Sciences. The Master of Public Health program was accredited in 2015 by the Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH). Student activities thumb|right|200px|Tennessee State Tigers wordmark Athletics Tennessee State University sponsors seven men's and eight women's teams in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sanctioned sports. The school competes in the NCAA's Division I Football Championship Subdivision and is a member of the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC). As a member of the OVC, Tennessee State is one of three Division I HBCU athletic programs that are not members of either the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) or Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC), whose members are primarily HBCU institutions. Student organizations There are over 60 registered student organizations on campus including the Student Government Association, Aristocrat of Bands (AOB) and many fraternities and sororities. Notable alumni Aviation {{alum/start |ilist= |alist= {{Alum|name=U. L. "Rip" Gooch|year=|nota=Commercial pilot (20,000+ hours); certified flight instructor; owner/president, Aero Services, Inc.; 1993 Kansas Governor's Aviation Honor Award; inductee, Black Aviation Hall of Fame|ref=Senate Resolution No.1770: A Resolution congratulating and commending Senator Ulysses Lee "Rip" Gooch, Kansas State Senate, 2013"Gooch and Johnson honored as aviators," September 6, 2001, Wichita Business JournalGooch, U.L. "Rip" with Glen Sharp, Black Horizons: One Aviator's Experience in the Post-Tuskeegee Era,2006, Aviation Business Consultants, Wichita, KS. (Self-published autobiography, partially published online at Google Books, and distributed by Amazon.comU.L. "Rip" Gooch - Legislator, aviator and activist, website of the Kansas African American Affairs Commission, Office of the Governor, State of Kansas, September 13, 2013 (retrieved Oct.29, 2014).Noble. Horace - "Jayhawk at Skyhook 2014; Senator U.L. "Rip" Gooch attends Skyhook 2014", Sept. 2014, BPA ATIS newsletter, Black Pilots of America, Pine Bluff, Arkansas; notation that Gooch was an original member of the black aviation organization Negro Aviation International, Inc., before transferring to the BPA, and notes his attendance at Skyhook 2014, "the premier event of Black aviation." Reports his May 2014 election as Sergeant-at-Arms of the Jayhawk Chapter of the BPA."Salina bankers deny claim they discriminate against minorities,", "Salina Journal, June 6, 1971, page 8, (retrieved Oct.29, 2014 from "Newspapers.com"); includes TEXT identifying "U.L. "Rip" Gooch, president of Aero Services Co., Wichita," as one of the speakers.Chance, Carl, ed., "Kansas Governors Aviation Honor Awards: U. L. 'RIP' GOOCH,", WingsOverKansas.com, Nov. 12, 1993Campbell, Jim, ed., "Who Is Rip Gooch And Why Do We Owe Him? 80-Year Old Aviation Pioneer Feted In Wichita,"Aero-News Network online, Sep 15, 2003Weems, Robert E., Jr., "Commentary: Past and Present Wichita's Black Entrepreneurs", KMUW-FM radio (public radio station at Wichita State University), February 6, 2013}} }} Civil rights Education Entertainment Politics Science and technology Sports See also List of Tennessee State University presidents Southern Heritage Classic From the RoughReferences Further reading Lovett, Bobby L. A Touch of Greatness: A History of Tennessee State University'' (Mercer University Press, 2012) 340 pp. External links Category:Historically black universities and colleges in Tennessee Category:Land-grant universities and colleges Category:Universities and colleges in Nashville, Tennessee Category:Universities and colleges established in 1912 Category:University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee Category:Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Category:1912 establishments in Tennessee Category:Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee Category:National Register of Historic Places in Nashville, Tennessee Category:African-American history in Nashville, Tennessee Category:Public universities and colleges in Tennessee

{"Motto": "Think. Work. Serve", "Accreditation": "SACS", "Type": "Public, historically black land-grant university", "Endowment": "$91.1 million (2021)As of March 7, 2022. https://tntribune.com/hbcu-moneys-2021-top-10-hbcu-endowments/ HBCU Money's 2021 Top 10 HBCU Endowments The Tennessee Tribune March 7, 2021 May 22, 2022", "President": "Glenda Glover", "Provost": "Michael Harris (interim)", "Students": "9,218 (Fall 2022)https://www.tnstate.edu/ir/FB%202022-2023%20-%20Enrollment%20by%20Student%20Level%20and%20Classification.pdf Tennessee State Fall 2022 Enrollment", "Undergraduates": "7,678 (Fall 2022)", "Postgraduates": "1,540 (Fall 2022)", "Campus": "903 acre", "Website": "www.tnstate.edu"}

Chad Channing (born January 31, 1967) is an American musician who is best known as the former drummer of the rock band Nirvana from 1988 to 1990, during which time they recorded and released their debut album Bleach; he also appears on "Polly" in the follow-up album Nevermind. He currently sings and plays bass in the band Before Cars. Biography Early life Channing was born on January 31, 1967, in Santa Rosa, California,Strong, Martin C. (2003) The Great Indie Discography, Canongate, , p. 441 to Wayne and Burnyce Channing. Wayne was a radio disc jockey and the family was constantly moving all over the country due to different jobs being offered to him. At 13, Chad shattered his femur in an accident during gym class. Over the years of rehabilitation and surgeries, he discovered music; he started playing music with a bass guitar that his parents bought him. The bass filled Chad's time as he was unable to go to school. When he was out of his leg casts, his parents bought him a drum set to help build strength in his legs. Channing joined a band with future Nirvana guitarist Jason Everman called Stonecrow in 1985. Everman had known Channing since fifth grade, and the two had played in bands together in high school. Later, while working as a sauté cook on Bainbridge Island, Washington, Channing started the band Tick-Dolly-Row with Chris Karr, John Hurd and Ben Shepherd, also a Bainbridge Islander, who would later become the bassist for Soundgarden. Tick-Dolly-Row shared a bill with Nirvana, who at the time were going under the name Bliss. Not long after, a mutual friend introduced Channing to Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic, who were searching for a drummer. The three got together several times for jam sessions before they started playing shows. Nirvana In June 1988, a few weeks after Channing joined Nirvana, they recorded their first single "Love Buzz", also marking their Sub Pop debut. Nirvana began the recording sessions for Bleach on Christmas Eve 1988, finishing toward the end of January 1989. Everman, a friend of the band, agreed to pay money for recording. Bleach was released on June 15, 1989. Channing played drums with the exception of "Floyd the Barber" and "Paper Cuts", which featured Melvins drummer Dale Crover from sessions prior to Channing joining the band. Reissues of Bleach included the song "Downer", which also had Crover from those sessions. In April 1990, Nirvana recorded eight songs at Smart Studios with producer Butch Vig for the band's sophomore album, although the sessions were halted after Cobain lost his voice. During these sessions Cobain and Novoselic became disenchanted with Channing's drumming, and Channing expressed frustration at not being actively involved in songwriting. These creative and artistic differences culminated in Channing's departure after their April-May 1990 tour, a mutual decision within the band. Nirvana used the Smart recordings as a demo to secure a new contract with a major label and the band re-recorded the tracks for a new studio album in the fall of 1990, recruiting Dave Grohl as their new drummer who adopted many of Channing's drum parts. Although uncredited (until the Deluxe edition), the version of "Polly" used on Nevermind is the original version the band recorded with Channing on percussion, the only song carried over from the Smart sessions. Due to Nirvana's popularity and longevity, the issuing of their older work continued, both during the band's existence and following their demise. The 1992 compilation Incesticide featured the tracks "Dive", "Stain", and "Big Long Now", all crediting Channing as drummer. Live versions of "Polly" and "Breed" that included Channing appeared on From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah, a live album released in 1996. The 2004 With the Lights Out box set featured a DVD of a December 1988 Nirvana rehearsal, as well as seven songs scattered across the first two discs of the set, all with Channing on drums. Following Nirvana's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in December 2013, Channing said in an interview with the Radio.com website that he perceived the recognition as a gift for his daughter. However, Channing was later informed of his omission via text message, and was not included in the April 2014 induction, as the accolade only applied to Cobain, Novoselic and Grohl. Channing did attend the ceremony, and his replacement Dave Grohl made a point to publicly thank Channing for his contributions to the band and noted that some of Nirvana's most recognizable drum riffs, such as those on "In Bloom", were in fact written by Channing. Post-Nirvana work After leaving Nirvana, Channing formed the Fire Ants who released the Stripped EP on Dekema Records in 1992, produced by Jack Endino, who had produced Bleach. Members of the Fire Ants included Brian Wood (vocals) and Kevin Wood (guitars), brothers of the late Mother Love Bone singer Andrew Wood, and bassist Dan McDonald. Channing and McDonald collaborated again in 1998 with John Hurd and Erik Spicer, forming The Methodists who released the album Cookie. Chad stepped from behind the drum set to front his new project Before Cars, which released the single "Old Chair" in 2006. They released their debut album Walk Back in 2008, again produced by Jack Endino. Channing supplies lead vocals and bass on all tracks as well as some acoustic guitar. Discography With Tic Dolly Row Live demo (1987) With Nirvana Release Notes Bleach (1989) Does not appear on "Floyd the Barber", and "Paper Cuts", nor on "Downer" in the 1992 reissue Blew (1989) EP; appears on all tracks Nevermind (1991) Appears on "Polly" (uncredited until the Deluxe edition) Incesticide (1992) Compilation; appears on "Dive", "Stain", and "Big Long Now" From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah (1996) Live album; appears on "Polly" and "Breed" Nirvana (2002) Compilation; appears on "About a Girl" and "Been a Son" With the Lights Out box set (2004)Drums on tracks 16, 17, 21-23 (disc one), tracks 6 & 7 (disc two), and tracks 1-12 (DVD) Bleach deluxe edition (2009) Reissue with bonus Pine Street Theatre live performance; Channing appears on said performance. Channing does not appear on "Floyd the Barber", "Paper Cuts" or "Downer" on the main album Nevermind deluxe/super deluxe edition (2011) Expanded edition; appears on the Smart Studios sessions, and is officially credited for the cymbals on "Polly" on the main album With Fire Ants Ant Acid 7" (1992) Stripped EP (1992) With The Methodists Cookie (1998) With Before Cars Old Chair EP (2006) Walk Back (2008) How We Run (2013) References External links East of the Equator's website Official MySpace for Chad Channing and Before Cars Red Band MySpace Dekema Records (released Fire Ants EP "Stripped") Fire Ants MySpace The Methodists MySpace Rockstage Brasil Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:Musicians from Bainbridge Island, Washington Category:Musicians from Santa Rosa, California Category:Nirvana (band) members Category:Sub Pop artists Category:Grunge musicians Category:20th-century American drummers Category:American male drummers

{"Born": "1967 1 31", "Origin": "Santa Rosa, California U.S.", "Genres": "Hard rock grunge indie rock alternative rock punk rock hardcore punk", "Labels": "Sub Pop Dekema", "Formerly of": "Nirvana Stonecrow Redband East of the Equator Tic Dolly Row Mind Circus The Methodists Fire Ants", "Member of": "Before Cars"}

RAR is a proprietary archive file format that supports data compression, error correction and file spanning. It was developed in 1993 by Russian software engineer Eugene Roshal and the software is licensed by win.rar GmbH. The name RAR stands for Roshal Archive. File format The filename extensions used by RAR are .rar for the data volume set and .rev for the recovery volume set. Previous versions of RAR split large archives into several smaller files, creating a "multi-volume archive". Numbers were used in the file extensions of the smaller files to keep them in the proper sequence. The first file used the extension .rar, then .r00 for the second, and then .r01, .r02, etc. RAR compression applications and libraries (including GUI based WinRAR application for Windows, console rar utility for different OSes and others) are proprietary software, to which Alexander L. Roshal, the elder brother of Eugene Roshal, owns the copyright. Version 3 of RAR is based on Lempel-Ziv (LZSS) and prediction by partial matching (PPM) compression, specifically the PPMd implementation of PPMII by Dmitry Shkarin. The minimum size of a RAR file is 20 bytes. The maximum size of a RAR file is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (263-1) bytes, which is one byte less than 8 EiB. Versions The RAR file format revision history: 1.3 - the first public version, does not have the "Rar!" signature. 1.5 - changes are not known. 2.0 - released with WinRAR 2.0 and Rar for MS-DOS 2.0; features the following changes: Multimedia compression for true color bitmap images and uncompressed audio. Up to 1 MB compression dictionary. Introduces archives data recovery protection record. 2.9WinRAR 5.0 and RAR for Android refer to this format as RAR4. - released in WinRAR version 3.00. Feature changes in this version include: File extensions is changed from {volume name}.rar, {volume name}.r00, {volume name}.r01, etc. to {volume name}.part001.rar, {volume name}.part002.rar, etc. Encryption of both file data and file headers. Improves compression algorithm using 4 MB dictionary size, Dmitry Shkarin's PPMII algorithm for file data. Optional creation of "recovery volumes" (.rev files) for error correction, which can be used to reconstruct missing files in a volume set. Support for archive files larger than 9 GB. Support for Unicode file names stored in UTF-16 little endian format. 5.0 - supported by WinRAR 5.0 and later. Changes in this version: Maximum compression dictionary size increased to 1 GB (default for WinRAR 5.x is 32 MB and 4 MB for WinRAR 4.x). Maximum path length for files in RAR and ZIP archives is increased up to 2048 characters. Support for Unicode file names stored in UTF-8 format. Faster compression and decompression. Multicore decompression support. Greatly improves recovery. Optional AES encryption increased from 128-bit to 256-bit. Optional 256-bit BLAKE2 file hash instead of a default 32-bit CRC32 file checksum. Optional duplicate file detection. Optional NTFS hard and symbolic links. Optional Quick Open Record. Rar4 archives had to be parsed before opening as file names were spread throughout the archive, slowing operation particularly with slower devices such as optical drives, and reducing the integrity of damaged archives. Rar5 can optionally create a "quick open record", a special archive block at the end of the file that contains the names of files included, allowing archives to be opened faster. Removes specialized compression algorithms for Itanium executables, text, raw audio (WAV), and raw image (BMP) files; consequently some files of these types compress better in the older RAR (4) format with these options enabled than in RAR5. Notes Software Operating system support Software is available for Microsoft Windows (named WinRAR), Linux, FreeBSD, macOS, and Android; archive extraction is supported natively in ChromeOS. WinRAR supports the Windows graphical user interface (GUI); other versions named RAR run as console commands. Later versions are not compatible with some older operating systems previously supported: WinRAR v6.10 supports Windows Vista and later. WinRAR v6.02 is the last version that supports Windows XP.WinRAR Release History; RARsoft. WinRAR v4.11 is the last version that supports Windows 2000. WinRAR v3.93 is the last version that supports Windows 95, 98, ME, and NT 4.0. WinRAR 2.06 is the last version to support Windows 3.1, Windows NT 3.1, Windows NT 3.5, Windows NT 3.51 and Win32s. RAR v3.93 is the last version that supports MS-DOS and OS/2 on 32-bit x86 CPUs such as 80386 and later. It supports long file names in a Windows DOS box (except Windows NT), and uses the RSX DPMI extender. RAR v2.50 is the last version that supports MS-DOS and OS/2 on 16-bit x86 CPUs such as Intel 8086, 8088, and 80286. Creating RAR files RAR files can be created legally only with commercial software WinRAR (Windows), RAR for Android, command-line RAR (Windows, MS-DOS, macOS, Linux, and FreeBSD), and other software that has written permission from Alexander Roshal or uses copyrighted code under license from Roshal. The software license agreements forbid reverse engineering. Third-party software for extracting RAR files Several programs can unpack the file format. RARLAB distributes the C++ source code and binaries for a command-line unrar program. The license states: "The source code of UnRAR utility is freeware". The license permits its use to produce software capable of unpacking, but not creating, RAR archives, without having to pay a fee. It is not a free software license. 7-Zip, a free and open-source program, starting from 7-Zip version 15.06 beta can unpack RAR5 archives, using the RARLAB unrar code. PeaZip is a free RAR unarchiver, licensed under the LGPL, it runs as a RAR extractor on Linux, macOS, and Windows, with a GUI. PeaZip supports both pre-RAR5 .rar files, and files in the new RAR5 format.PeaZip website with info about RAR5 extraction. The Unarchiver is a proprietary software unarchiver for RAR and other formats. It runs on macOS, and the command-line version, , also runs on Windows and on Linux, and is free software licensed under the LGPL. It supports all versions of the RAR archive format, including RAR3 and RAR5.The Unarchiver Website contains unar. Accessed 5 February 2013.Free Software Foundation on The UnarchiverThe Unarchiver changes. Accessed Jun 10, 2016. On Internet Archive. UNRARLIB (UniquE RAR File Library) was an obsolete free software unarchiving library called "unrarlib", licensed under the GPL. It could only decompress archives created by RAR versions prior to 2.9; archives created by RAR 2.9 and later use different formats not supported by this library. The original development-team ended work on this library in 2007. libarchive, a free and open-source library for reading and writing a variety of archive formats, supports all RAR versions, including RAR5. The code was written from scratch using RAR's “technote.txt” format description. Microsoft announced (May 23, 2023) native support for additional archive formats in Windows 11, including tar, 7-zip, rar, gz and many others using the libarchive open-source project. Recently (July 16, 2023), there have been Insider builds that have native support. It’s said to come out in version 23H2. Other uses of rar The filename extension rar is also used by the unrelated Resource Adapter Archive file format. See also .cbr List of archive formats Comparison of archive formats Comparison of file archivers Data corruption, Bit rot, Disc rot References External links RARLAB FTP download website, current and old versions of WinRAR and RAR RAR 5.0 archive file format Category:Computer-related introductions in 1993 Category:Archive formats Category:Russian inventions

{"Name": "RAR file format", "Extension": ".rar, .rev, .r00, .r01", "Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)": "com.rarlab.rar-archive", "Magic number": "52 61 72 21 1A 07 00(RAR 1.5 to 4.0)52 61 72 21 1A 07 01 00(RAR 5+) RAR 5.0 technote", "Size limitation": "263-1 bytes (almost 8 exbibytes)", "Developed by": "Eugene Roshal", "Initial release": "1993 3http://www.compression.ru/arctest/descript/roshal.htm Interview by correspondence 1997-2002 ru 26 April 2010", "Type of format": "archive format", "Open format?": "No (decompression source code available, but not free software, due to restriction that it not be used to create RAR-compatible archives)", "Website": "http://www.rarlab.com/ rarlab.com"}

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA; pronounced ) is a branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. SAMHSA is charged with improving the quality and availability of treatment and rehabilitative services in order to reduce illness, death, disability, and the cost to society resulting from substance abuse and mental illnesses. The Administrator of SAMHSA reports directly to the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. SAMHSA's headquarters building is located outside of Rockville, Maryland. History thumb|right|221px|The front of the SAMHSA building outside of Rockville, MD SAMHSA was established in 1992 by Congress as part of a reorganization stemming from the abolition of Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA). ADAMHA had been established in 1973, combining the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The 1992 ADAMHA Reorganization Act consolidated the treatment functions that were previously scattered amongst the NIMH, NIAAA, and NIDA into SAMHSA, established as an agency of the Public Health Service (PHS). NIMH, NIAAA, and NIDA continued with their research functions as agencies within the National Institutes of Health. Congress directed SAMHSA to target effectively substance abuse and mental health services to the people most in need and to translate research in these areas more effectively and rapidly into the general health care system. Charles Curie was SAMHSA's Director until his resignation in May 2006. In December 2006 Terry Cline was appointed as SAMHSA's Director. Dr. Cline served through August 2008. Rear Admiral Eric Broderick served as the Acting Director upon Dr. Cline's departure, until the arrival of the succeeding Administrator, Pamela S. Hyde, J.D. in November 2009. She resigned in August 2015 and Kana Enomoto, M.A. served as Acting Director of SAMHSA until Dr. Elinore F. McCance-Katz was appointed as the inaugural Assistant Secretary for Mental Health and Substance Abuse. The title was changed by Section 6001 of the 21st Century Cures Act. Organization thumb|SAMHSA headquarters at 5600 Fishers Lane in Rockville, Maryland SAMHSA's mission is to reduce the impact of substance abuse and mental illness on American's communities. Four SAMHSA offices, called Centers, administer competitive, formula, and block grant programs and data collection activities: The Center for Mental Health Services (CMHS) focuses on prevention and treatment of mental disorders. The Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) seeks to reduce the abuse of illegal drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. The Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT) supports effective substance abuse treatment and recovery services. The Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality (CBHSQ) collects, analyzes, and publishes behavior health data. The Centers give grant and contracts to U.S. states, territories, tribes, communities, and local organizations. They support the provision of quality behavioral-health services such as addiction-prevention, treatment, and recovery-support services through competitive Programs of Regional and National Significance grants. Several staff offices support the Centers: Office of the Administrator Office of Policy, Planning, and Innovation Office of Behavioral Health Equity Office of Financial Resources Office of Management, Technology, and Operations Office of Communications Office of Tribal Affairs and Policy Center for Mental Health Services The Center for Mental Health Services (CMHS) is a unit of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. This U.S. government agency describes its role as: The Center for Mental Health Services leads federal efforts to promote the prevention and treatment of mental disorders. Congress created CMHS to bring new hope to adults who have serious mental illness and children with emotional disorders. Wednesday, March 4, 2020 , the director of CMHS is Paolo del Vecchio. CMHS is the driving force behind the largest US children's mental health initiative to date, which is focused on creating and sustaining systems of care. This initiative provides grants (now cooperative agreements) to States, political subdivisions of States, territories, Indian Tribes and tribal organizations to improve and expand their Systems Of Care to meet the needs of the focus population—children and adolescents with serious emotional, behavioral, or mental disorders. The Children's Mental Health Initiative is the largest Federal commitment to children’s mental health to date, and through FY 2006, it has provided over $950 million to support SOC development in 126 communities. Center for Substance Abuse Prevention The Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) aims to reduce the use of illegal substances and the abuse of legal ones.Center for Substance Abuse Prevention official page at SAMHSA.gov CSAP promotes self-esteem and cultural pride as a way to reduce the attractiveness of drugs, advocates raising taxes as a way to discourage drinking alcohol by young people, develops alcohol and drug curricula, and funds research on alcohol and drug abuse prevention. CSAP encourages the use of "evidence-based programs" for drug and alcohol prevention. Evidence-based programs are programs that have been rigorously and scientifically evaluated to show effectiveness in reducing or preventing drug use. The current director of CSAP is Frances Harding. History and legal definition CSAP was established in 1992 from the previous Office of Substance Abuse Prevention by the law called the ADAMHA Reorganization Act.ADAMHA Reorganization Act Summary Defining regulations include those of Title 42.Title 42, see §300x-32, p. 1117 Center for Substance Abuse Treatment The Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT) was established in October 1992 with a Congressional mandate to expand the availability of effective treatment and recovery services for alcohol and drug problems. CSAT supports a variety of activities aimed at fulfilling its mission: To improve the lives of individuals and families affected by alcohol and drug abuse by ensuring access to clinically sound, cost-effective addiction treatment that reduces the health and social costs to our communities and the nation. CSAT works with States and community-based groups to improve and expand existing substance abuse treatment services under the Substance Abuse Prevention and Treatment Block Grant Program. CSAT also supports SAMHSA’s free treatment referral service to link people with the community-based substance abuse services they need. Because no single treatment approach is effective for all persons, CSAT supports the nation's effort to provide multiple treatment modalities, evaluate treatment effectiveness, and use evaluation results to enhance treatment and recovery approaches. The current director of CSAT is Louis A. Trevisan, MD Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality The Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality (CBHSQ) conducts data collection and research on "behavioral health statistics" relating to mental health, addiction, substance use, and related epidemiology. CBHSQ is headed by a Director. Subunits of CBHSQ include: Office of Program Analysis and Coordination Division of Surveillance and Data Collection Division of Evaluation, Analysis and Quality The Center's headquarters are outside of Rockville, Maryland.Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality at official SAMHSA web site Regional offices CMS has its headquarters outside of Rockville, Maryland with 10 regional offices located throughout the United States: Region I - Boston, Massachusetts Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont. Region II - New York, New York New York State, New Jersey, U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Region III - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia. Region IV - Atlanta, Georgia Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee. Region V - Chicago, Illinois Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio and Wisconsin. Region VI - Dallas, Texas Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas. Region VII - Kansas City, Missouri Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. Region VIII - Denver, Colorado Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. Region IX - San Francisco, California Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Marina Islands. Region X - Seattle, Washington Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington Strategic Direction In 2010, SAMHSA identified 8 Strategic Initiatives to focus the Agency's work. Below are the 8 areas and goals associated with each category: Prevention of Substance Abuse and Mental Illness - Create prevention-prepared communities in which individuals, families, schools, workplaces, and communities take action to promote emotional health; and, to prevent and reduce mental illness, substance (including tobacco) abuse, and, suicide, across the lifespan Trauma and Justice - Reduce the pervasive, harmful, and costly public-health impacts of violence and trauma by integrating trauma-informed approaches throughout health and behavioral healthcare systems; also, to divert people with substance-abuse and mental disorders away from criminal-/juvenile-justice systems, and into trauma-informed treatment and recovery. Military Families - Active, Guard, Reserve, and Veteran - Support of our service men & women, and their families and communities, by leading efforts to ensure needed behavioral health services are accessible to them, and successful outcomes. Health Reform - Broaden health coverage and the use of evidence-based practices to increase access to appropriate and high quality care; also, to reduce existing disparities between: the availability of substance abuse and mental disorders; and, those for other medical conditions. Housing and Homelessness - To provide housing for, and to reduce the barriers to accessing recovery-sustaining programs for, homeless persons with mental and substance abuse disorders (and their families) Health Information Technology for Behavioral Health Providers - To ensure that the behavioral-health provider network—including prevention specialists and consumer providers—fully participate with the general healthcare delivery system, in the adoption of health information technology. Data, Outcomes, and Quality - Demonstrating Results - Realize an integrated data strategy that informs policy, measures program impact, and results in improved quality of services and outcomes for individuals, families, and communities. Public Awareness and Support - Increase understanding of mental and substance abuse prevention & treatment services, to achieve the full potential of prevention, and, to help people recognize and seek assistance for these health conditions with the same urgency as any other health condition. Their budget for the Fiscal Year 2010 was about $3.6 billion. It was re-authorized for FY2011. Most recently, the FY 2016 Budget requests $3.7 billion for SAMHSA, an increase of $45 million above FY 2015. See also Addiction recovery groups Self-help groups for mental health Treatment Improvement Protocols United States Department of Health and Human Services Notes References External links Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in the Federal Register Health Surveillance and Program Support account on USAspending.gov Mental Health account on USAspending.gov Substance Abuse Treatment account on USAspending.gov Substance Abuse Prevention account on USAspending.gov Category:Agencies of the United States Public Health Service Category:Addiction organizations in the United States Category:Mental health organizations in Maryland Category:1992 establishments in the United States

{"Formed": "1992 7", "Jurisdiction": "Federal government of the United States", "Headquarters": "North Bethesda, Maryland (Rockville mailing address)", "Parent department": "Department of Health and Human Services", "Website": "http://www.samhsa.gov/"}

The Punisher (Francis "Frank" Castle, born Castiglione) is an antihero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Gerry Conway and artists John Romita Sr. and Ross Andru. The Punisher made his first appearance in The Amazing Spider-Man #129 (cover-dated February 1974), originally depicted as an assassin and adversary of the superhero Spider-Man. The character is depicted as an Italian-American vigilante who employs murder, kidnapping, extortion, coercion, threats of violence, and torture in his campaign against crime. Driven by the deaths of his wife and two children, who were killed by the mob for witnessing a killing in New York City's Central Park, the Punisher wages a one-man war on crime.The Punisher's origin was first recounted in Marvel Preview #2 (July 1975). A veteran (originally of the Vietnam WarThe Punisher: Invades the 'NamPunisher #6 (Marvel Comics, 2000). and later updated alternately to the fictional Siancong War and the Iraq War)History of the Marvel Universe issue #2 (Marvel Comics 2019) U.S. Marine Corps Scout/Sniper in Force Recon, Castle is skilled in hand-to-hand combat, guerrilla warfare, and marksmanship. He is well known for the skull motif on his chest, originally envisioned by his creators as a skull-and-crossbones symbol on his right breast. Following the widespread appropriation of this logo by far-right movements, it was officially retired from active use by Marvel Entertainment in 2022, replaced by a new horned-skull motif inspired by the Japanese mythological demon Oni. The Punisher's brutal nature and willingness to kill made him an anomaly in mainstream American comic books when he debuted in 1974. By the late 1980s, the Punisher was part of a wave of psychologically troubled antiheroes. At the height of his popularity, the character was featured in four monthly publications: The Punisher, The Punisher War Journal, The Punisher: War Zone, and The Punisher Armory. An alternate future version of the character dubbed the "Cosmic Ghost Rider", created by Donny Cates and Geoff Shaw, began publication in 2018 as a Thanos supporting character, becoming a breakout character and receiving his own ongoing series, often coming into opposition with his past self. In 2017, following the 2016 Civil War II storyline, where Jim "Rhodey" Rhodes met his death at the hands of Thanos, Nick Fury, Jr. obtained the War Machine armor from a black market syndicate and persuaded Punisher to don the armor and carry on in Rhodes' name, succeeding him as the second War Machine for a short while, customizing the armor with his skull motif.Punisher #218-228 (2017-2018) Following Rhodes' resurrection alongside Tony Stark for the Marvel Legacy initiative, Castle relinquished the armor and title to him and resumed as Punisher. Despite his violent actions and dark nature, the Punisher has enjoyed some mainstream success on television, making guest appearances on series such as Spider-Man and The Super Hero Squad Show, where the depiction of his violent behavior was toned down for family viewers. In feature films, Dolph Lundgren portrayed the character in the 1989 film The Punisher, as did Thomas Jane in the 2004 film The Punisher, and Ray Stevenson in 2008's Punisher: War Zone. Jon Bernthal portrayed the character in the second season of Daredevil, the spin-off The Punisher and will reprise the role in Daredevil: Born Again, set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Publication history thumb First appearance The Punisher was conceived by Gerry Conway, then-writer of The Amazing Spider-Man, and was inspired by The Executioner, a popular book series created by author Don Pendleton, in which a Vietnam veteran, Mack Bolan, becomes a serial killer of criminals after the Mafia-related deaths of his family. Conway said in a 1987 interview that "I was fascinated by the Don Pendleton Executioner character, which was fairly popular at the time, and I wanted to do something that was inspired by that, although not to my mind a copy of it. And while I was doing the Jackal storyline, the opportunity came for a character who would be used by the Jackal to make Spider-Man's life miserable. The Punisher seemed to fit."Comics Interview #75 (1985) Conway was also involved in creating the unique outfit for the character. As Conway recalled in 2002, "In the '70s, when I was writing comics at DC and Marvel, I made it a practice to sketch my own ideas for the costumes of new characters—heroes and villains—which I offered to the artists as a crude suggestion representing the image I had in mind. I had done that with the Punisher at Marvel." Conway had drawn a character with a small death's head skull on one breast. Marvel art director John Romita, Sr. took the basic design and blew the skull up to huge size, taking up most of the character's chest.John Romita Sr., in Amazing Spider-Man penciller Ross Andru was the first artist to draw the character for publication. Stan Lee, then Marvel's editor-in-chief, recalled in 2005 that he had suggested the character's name: Appearing for the first time in The Amazing Spider-Man #129 (Feb. 1974), the Punisher was initially an antagonist of the titular hero. He was portrayed as a bloodthirsty vigilante who had no qualms about killing gangsters, something which most superheroes of the time refrained from doing. J. Jonah Jameson described him as "the most newsworthy thing to happen to New York since Boss Tweed". In this appearance, the Punisher is determined to kill Spider-Man, who is wanted for the apparent murder of Norman Osborn.The Amazing Spider-Man #129 (February 1974) The Punisher is shown as a formidable fighter, skilled marksman, and able strategist. All he reveals about himself is that he is a former U.S. Marine. He has a fierce temper but also shows signs of considerable frustration over his self-appointed role of killer vigilante. He is engaged in extensive soul-searching as to what is the right thing to do: although he has few qualms about killing, he is outraged when his then-associate, the Jackal, apparently kills an enemy by treacherous means rather than in honorable combat. Spider-Man, who is himself no stranger to such torment, concludes that the Punisher's problems made his own seem like a "birthday party". The character was a hit with readers and started to appear on a regular basis, teaming up with both Spider-Man and other heroes such as Captain America and Nightcrawler throughout the 1970s and early 1980s.The Amazing Spider-Man #135, 161-162, 174-175, 201-202, Annual #15 (August 1974; October-November 1976; November-December 1977; February-March 1980; 1981)Giant-Size Spider-Man #4 (April 1975)Captain America #241 (January 1980) Conway said the Punisher's popularity took him by surprise, as he had intended him only as a second-tier character. During his acclaimed run on Daredevil, writer and artist Frank Miller made use of the character, contrasting his attitudes and version of vigilante action to that of the more liberal character of Daredevil.Daredevil #181-184 (April-July 1982) Initial series In the early 1980s, writer and college student Steven Grant was at a comics convention in New York City over the Christmas break. At the time he was living with Duffy Vohland, an employee in Marvel's production department. Vohland encouraged Grant to pitch story ideas to Marvel, and arranged an interview with then-editor-in-chief Marv Wolfman, with whom Grant would become good friends. Grant sat at Vohland's typewriter for a day and wrote three ideas: One involved the Black Knight and one was the Punisher, since those were characters he liked that as far as Grant knew, no other Marvel writer was working with at the time. Unbeknownst to Grant, the Punisher, as it turned out, was the lead in a black-and-white magazine being written by Archie Goodwin, making the character unavailable for Grant's use. A couple of years later Grant began writing for Marvel after another friend, Roger Stern, became a Marvel editor there and asked Grant to write something for him. In 1979, Marvel began considering publishing miniseries, which Grant had been lobbying for some time. Grant began pushing for a Punisher miniseries, but this was met with disinterest from editorial, as the character was not thought of as one that readers would care about. The following year, Grant collaborated on Marvel Team-Up #94 with artist Mike Zeck. In 1984, Zeck illustrated Marvel's first Secret Wars miniseries, which raised his profile in the Marvel offices, where editors were thinking in terms of talent "stables" that worked exclusively for each editor. A new editor, Carl Potts, was looking for projects, so Grant and Zeck pitched a Punisher miniseries to him, and Potts accepted it, over much objection from Marvel management, who told him that he bore full responsibility for it.Cronin, Brian (March 6, 2015). "Comic Book Legends Revealed #513" . Comic Book Resources. The miniseries premiered with a January 1986 cover date. It was bannered on the cover as the first of four; although the series had always been intended to be five issues long, and the banner was an error that recurred throughout the entire run. The plot changed from Grant's initial story, though the basic concept remained the same. An important element of the story was a retcon that explains that many of the Punisher's more extreme actions to this point were the result of being poisoned with mind-altering drugs.The Punisher #1-5 (January-May 1986). Marvel Comics An ongoing series, also titled The Punisher, premiered the next year. Initially by writer Mike Baron and artist Klaus Janson, it eventually ran 104 issues (July 1987 - July 1995) and spun off two additional ongoing series—The Punisher War Journal (80 issues, November 1988 - July 1995) and The Punisher War Zone (41 issues, March 1992 - July 1995), as well as the black-and-white comics magazine The Punisher Magazine (16 issues, November 1989 - September 1990) and The Punisher Armory (10 issues, no cover dates, starting 1990), a fictional diary detailing "His thoughts! His feelings! His weapons!" (as stated on the cover of issue #1). The Punisher also appeared in numerous one-shots and miniseries, and made frequent guest appearances in other Marvel comics, ranging from superhero series to the Vietnam War-era comic The 'Nam. During this era, the Punisher was assisted by his then-partner, Microchip. Serving as a Q type figure, he would supply the Punisher with high-tech vehicles and equipment such as armored combat "battle vans" specially built and customized. Over the next decade, the Punisher would be shown fighting virtually every known criminal organization, including the Italian Mafia, the Russian Bratva, the Japanese Yakuza, the Colombian and Mexican drug cartels, the Aryan Brotherhood, the Chinese Triads, Jamaican Yardies, the Irish Mob, biker gangs, street gangs, gunrunning militias, muggers, killers, rapists, psychopaths, violent racists, sadists, pedophiles, and corrupt city officials. He also assaults criminal business enterprises such as drug trafficking, weapons smuggling, money laundering, and human trafficking. Due to the Punisher's homicidal nature, few of his foes became recurring antagonists, the most notable of these being the severely-scarred enforcer Jigsaw and the brutal sadistic mercenary Barracuda. The Punisher also acquired a nemesis in the form of the Kingpin,The Punisher vol. 2, #15-19 (January-May 1989) a longtime Spider-Man and Daredevil foe, and developed enmity with Daredevil himself, who likewise abhorred and fought against the Punisher's brutal methods. Villains such as the Jackal, Bushwacker, Doctor Doom,The Punisher vol. 2, #28-29 (Mid December 1989 - January 1990) the Reavers and Bullseye would be used to provide more of a challenge for the character. In addition, heroes such as Spider-Man, Captain America, Daredevil, Ghost Rider,Ghost Rider vol. 3, #5-6 (September-October 1990) the Hulk, Wolverine,Punisher War Journal #6-7 (June-July 1989) Nick Fury, and Moon KnightThe Punisher Annual vol. 2 #2 (1989) - and, on at least two occasions, the preadolescent team Power PackStrange Tales #14, Power Pack vol. 1 #46 - would appear. Often the stories would use the appearance of those heroes to provide commentary on the difference between the Punisher and those more colourful characters. During Don Daley's run on The Punisher title, his version of justice was described by the editor as "an eye for an eye".The Punisher vol. 2, #98 (January 1995): Letters page Decline In 1995, Marvel canceled all three ongoing Punisher series due to poor sales. The publisher attempted a re-launch almost immediately, with a new ongoing series Punisher, under the new Marvel Edge imprint, by writer John Ostrander, in which the Punisher willingly joined and became the boss of an organized crime family, and later confronted the X-Men and Nick Fury. The series ran for 18 issues, from November 1995 to April 1997. Writer Christopher Golden's four-issue Marvel Knights miniseries The Punisher: Purgatory (November 1998 - February 1999) posited a deceased Punisher resurrected as a supernatural agent of various angels and demons. This version of the character also appeared in a 4-issue mini-series co-starring Wolverine. Revivals A 12-issue miniseries by writer Garth Ennis and artist Steve Dillon, again titled The Punisher (April 2000 - March 2001), under the Marvel Knights imprint, revived the character's popularity. An ongoing series titled The Punisher (37 issues, August 2001 - February 2004), primarily by Ennis and Dillon, followed, succeeded in 2004 by an ongoing Ennis series under Marvel's mature-readers imprint, MAX. Returning the character to his lone vigilante roots, those series combined crime-focused stories with black humor. The look of the Punisher was modified further removing the white gloves and pairing his traditional skull imprinted shirt with combat trousers, black combat boots and a black trench coat. Castle has used this costume on occasion in mid-2000s stories before The Punisher War Journal vol. 2. MAX imprint Continuing his run on the character, Garth Ennis used the freedom of the MAX imprint to write more realistic and hard-edged stories than had previously been seen. Ennis has stated that he would "like to see less superheroes"; this desire is reflected in the gritty, realistic tone and the anti-heroic portrayals of both the title character and Nick Fury, who made two guest appearances in the series. Punisher also made it explicit that Castle's timeline was fixed, while Marvel adjusted those of its other characters, with his history never altered or moved up in time. Promotional art for the cover of Punisher vol. 6, #44 (March 2007), gave his birth date as February 16, 1950, but that was removed for the published issues. After the departure of Ennis as writer, the series was renamed Punisher: Frank Castle with issue #66. The imprint depicts the Punisher being active for almost 30 years, with Punisher vol. 6, #19 (June 2005), specifying he had killed approximately 2,000 people. Whereas the traditional Punisher stories remained within the United States and involved antagonists and settings of conventional domestic crime, stories of the MAX Punisher often focus on current events, ranging from corporate fraud to sexual slavery and the War on Terror. Many characters are past or current intelligence and military operatives from governmental agencies like the American CIA, the Soviet KGB, and the British SIS and SAS, as well as various militaries and militias from the Balkans and Middle East, including the IRA, all with agendas rooted in past conflicts like the Cold War or the Yugoslav Wars. The miniseries Born by Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson further examines Castle's roots, tracing them back to his third tour of the Vietnam War, where he undergoes a psychological and possibly supernatural transformation into the Punisher to survive a massive assault on his fortification by the combined forces of the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. The one-shot Punisher: The Tyger, by Ennis and John Severin, went even further and showed that Castle had lived with murders, deaths and criminals from his childhood. The MAX version of the Punisher ends with the character's death. After killing the Kingpin, Castle dies from his own wounds in issue #21 of PunisherMAX. He is buried in issue #22 as his death sparks a public uprising and killing of the city's criminals. Punisher War Journal (vol. 2) In November 2006, a new The Punisher War Journal series, written by Matt Fraction and penciled by Ariel Olivetti, was released. The first three issues of the book are set during Marvel's "Civil War" event. It involves Castle taking on supervillains rather than his traditional non-super-powered criminal antagonists. He has also made appearances in the main Civil War series (issues #5-7). Wearing both his traditional costume and his Marvel Knights/MAX attire, and a new costume designed to look like his costume and Captain America's combined, the series pitted the character against a series of super-powered foes while also being involved in crossover events such as "World War Hulk" and "Secret Invasion". The Punisher and Punisher: Frank Castle Marvel relaunched The Punisher War Journal in 2009 as simply Punisher, with a thematic link tied to the events of the "Dark Reign" storyline and, following the departure of writer Garth Ennis, retitled the Marvel MAX series (formerly Punisher MAX) as Punisher: Frank Castle MAX and, more recently, as Punisher: Frank Castle or Frank Castle: The PunisherPunisher: Frank Castle MAX #74 (November 2009): Page 44 (depending on the source); launching a new series called PunisherMAX by Jason Aaron and Steve Dillon. As part of his work on the character, Rick Remender wrote the one-shot title Dark Reign: The List - Punisher, which, as part of the "Dark Reign" storyline, shows the character dismembered and decapitated by Daken.Dark Reign: The List - The Punisher #1 (December 2009) Following this, the main Punisher series was renamed FrankenCastle and featured a Castle who is resurrected by Morbius and the Legion of Monsters as a patchwork, Frankenstein-like creature.Punisher vol. 7, #11 (January 2010) He joins up with the Legion of Monsters to help protect the monsters of Monster Metropolis from the Hunter of Monster Special Force.Punisher vol. 7, #12 (February 2010) At the conclusion of the series, the character was transformed back into a normal human when he acquired the mystical Bloodstone, with its healing abilities restoring his humanity. Although the stone allowed him to heal from serious wounds, he ultimately chose to discard it after his monster allies helped him recognize that reliance on the stone would result in its side-effects eventually affecting his judgment, causing him to lose the ability to recognize innocents and kill people because of what they might do. Punisher: In the Blood In 2010, a Punisher series was released titled Punisher: In the Blood. It is a five-part series that is meant to take place after FrankenCastle. In this series, the Punisher faces Jigsaw once again. The Punisher (2011) A violent gang war resulted in the murders of nearly 30 people at a wedding reception, including the groom, leaving the bride, U.S. Marine Sergeant Rachel Cole-Alves, a widow just hours after getting married. Frank had connections with one of the detectives on the case and used the information he gave him to kill members of the Exchange, the group responsible, before the police had a chance to question them. Later, the Punisher loses an eye while fighting a new version of the Vulture.The Punisher #2 (2011) The Punisher later confronts a recuperated Rachel Cole-Alves in a Hotel where members of the Exchange were meeting. Together they kill the members. It is later revealed to be part of a plan to lure the Punisher to 727 Varick level 19 suite A. Both Rachel Cole-Alves and the Punisher go to the location only to find it to be a trap. They later find out that Daredevil has the Omega Drive.Avenging Spider-Man #6 Later Rachel Cole-Alves and the Punisher find Daredevil and Spider-Man. They then work together to destroy the drive.Punisher (vol. 8) #10Daredevil (vol. 3) #11 The Punisher and Cole-Alves later succeed in killing the heads of the Exchange, but in the process, Cole-Alves accidentally kills NYPD Homicide Detective Walter Bolt. On the run from the NYPD, Cole-Alves eventually tries to commit suicide by police, only to be captured and sent to prison. Castle eludes capture.Punisher (vol. 8) #16 Cole-Alves is sentenced to death for her crimes. Meanwhile, Spider-Man confronts Castle, but he manages to escape. Spider-Man then talks to the Avengers, stating that Castle is a problem and needs to be taken care of. Wolverine, believing that lethal methods are sometimes justified, refuses to assist. Black Widow tracks Castle to South America, where they fight to a standstill before Widow gets distracted by a group of mercenaries guarding a town full of sick villagers, abandoning the fight to help them. Thor pursues Castle next, although all he wants is to talk Castle into turning himself in. Castle sneaks back into the US to try and break Cole-Alves out of prison. The Avengers set a trap, figuring Castle would target a transport unit. Castle sees through the deception, and rescues the real Cole-Alves by disguising himself as Iron Man. Wolverine was later revealed to be the source of his information, and Logan helps Cole-Alves escape while Castle stays behind to battle the Avengers and buy time. Castle ends up in a special underwater prison, while Cole-Alves resurfaces in Los Angeles, shooting a mugger while wearing the Skull insignia. Thunderbolts As part of the Marvel Now! event, the Punisher becomes a member of Red Hulk's Thunderbolts. Their first mission is to take down the civilian-murdering dictator of an island nation. The Punisher (2014) As a part of All New Marvel Now, The Punisher solo series is written by Nathan Edmondson and illustrated by Mitch Gerads. The Punisher moves to Los Angeles following a drug trail, and he is being targeted by a military hit squad. Original Sin During the Original Sin storyline, the Punisher becomes involved in the investigation of the murder of Uatu when he is recruited by an unknown agent - later revealed to be Nick Fury - to track various deceased eldritch creatures with Doctor Strange, their combined occult and firearm knowledge allowing them to determine what killed various creatures that Fury had killed in his career as 'the Man on the Wall'.Original Sin #1-8 Secret Wars During the Secret Wars storyline, the Punisher crashes the Kingpin's viewing party of the incursion between Earth-616 and Earth-1610. He informs the villains present that since he cannot take them with him, he is going to have to do something with all of his bullets.Secret Wars #1 After massacring the supervillain gathering, the Punisher is approached by the Howling Commandos, who request his aid in completing one final mission before the world ends. The Punisher agrees to help, and is airlifted to Tikrit, where he works on "punishing" the Black Dawn, a terrorist group that had been filming themselves executing American hostages, including a former associate of the Punisher's. The Punisher decimates the Black Dawn, and dies from gunshot wounds as the Earth is destroyed by the Incursions. All-New Punisher and Civil War II: Kingpin After Earth-616 has been restored, Frank Castle returns from the dead and comes back to New York City, to continue his personal war against criminal organizations and enterprises. His first target is a former mercenary outfit called Condor, that is currently selling a drug called EMC to terrorists and gang members because it gives users enhanced confidence, perception, strength and pain tolerance. During Frank's first bust on a Condor drug warehouse, he runs into his former Special Ops C.O. Ray Schroder (aka Olaf) who is currently working for Condor but gives Frank a folder of important intel on Condor's EMC operation, before departing. With his new mission to take down Condor before they can get EMC into the worst hands, the Punisher is followed by a D.E.A. Agent whose drug bust on Condor was disrupted by his, as well as a sadistic killer named Face who is also second-in-command of Condor.The Punisher #1 (2016) In the Kingpin Civil War II storyline, Castle goes to eliminate Fisk and his criminal empire. During the fight, Castle wounds Fisk's legs with his combat knife, and falls out of a window.Civil War II: Kingpin #3 (2016) Secret Empire During the Secret Empire storyline, after Steve Rogers - his history 'rewritten' by the sentient Cosmic Cube Kobik so that he believes that he has been a Hydra sleeper agent since childhood - arranges a mass coup of America,Secret Empire #0 the Punisher eventually appears targeting the former criminal Boomerang - now acting as an information broker for the underground Maria Hill - and apparently loyal to Hydra.Secret Empire #3 He then reports to Steve Rogers about his mission.Secret Empire #4 The Punisher later crashes Black Widow's attempts to take down Hydra Supreme Steve Rogers. The Punisher and Black Widow continue to battle until Black Widow stabs the Punisher in the thighs. The Punisher explains Hydra Supreme Steve Rogers's overall plan to use the Cosmic Cube is to put everything back to the way it was. Not just the Axis victory in World War II, but bringing back all of the dead as a result of Hydra like Rick Jones, Jack Flag, and Frank Castle's family. Black Widow rejects this idea and sees Miles approaching Hydra Supreme Steve Rogers causing Black Widow to stop Hydra Supreme Steve Rogers and Miles Morales.Secret Empire #7 After the real Captain America defeated his Hydra Supreme counterpart, the Punisher expresses regret for his actions in an inner monologue, calling his involvement with Hydra Supreme Rogers as probably the worst mistake of his life. He is shown atoning for his involvement with Hydra by killing every Hydra agent he can find. Upon the Punisher blowing up the abandoned warehouse where some Hydra agents were hiding, he is being observed by Nick Fury Jr. who speaks over the comms that the Punisher is ready.Secret Empire Omega #1 Marvel Legacy and Fresh Start Some time after the events of Secret Empire, Nick Fury Jr. gives The Punisher access to the War Machine armor in order to combat a rogue state using old S.H.I.E.L.D. resources.Punisher #218 During the aftermath of the operation, Frank resumes his war on crime in New York with the War Machine armor, only to surrender it after James Rhodes was revived. Despite wanting to atone for his sins for unknowingly working for Hydra, combined with the death of Natasha at the hands of a Hydra Supreme counterpart of Steve Rogers, the Punisher is still a fugitive, having gone too far in hunting the remaining Hydra remnants on his brutal crime fighting spree. After surrendering the War Machine Armor out of respect of the revived Rhodes, the Punisher surrenders to the authorities but was secretly freed by the Winter Soldier and a recently revived Natasha (the latter, now in a cloned body).Punisher #223-#228 The comic was relaunched in 2018, by writer Matthew Rosenberg and artist Riccardo Burchielli. The story ditched the War Machine armor, but kept the idea of the Punisher operating at the international level, dealing with an ill-fated battle against Baron Zemo. A new 13 issue series began in 2022 with Jason Aaron serving as the writer and art from Jesús Saiz and Paul Azaceta. It showcases Castle serving as an assassin of the ninja organization The Hand. Characterization The character has been described as being obsessed with vengeance; Garth Ennis noted that the character of the Punisher "sees the world in very black and white terms, he solves his problems with utter finality" and that "his response to any problem: when in doubt, hit back hard." The writer Steven Grant noted that: Punisher co-creator Gerry Conway stated that "He's a great Rorschach test. What's given him some sustainability is, you can put into him whatever you want, as opposed to Spider-Man, who truly is who he is and shouldn't be changed. The Punisher is a thin character on his own merits, but that allows for a lot of interpretations and different angles of approach." The Punisher's backstory initially introduced him as a veteran of the Vietnam War. In this capacity, he appeared in the comic book The 'Nam, about the conflict. However, this dated the character as the years passed and the war was increasingly in the past. Greg Rucka retconned it to the War on Terror, instead, in 2011. He explained that He also clarified that the retcon was only for the character in the main Marvel universe and not for the version in the MAX Comics, that retained the first origin. The conflict was retconned again in 2019, in History of the Marvel Universe #2, to the fictional Siancong War. Skills, weapons, and abilities The Punisher is the recipient of intense infantry training from the United States Marine Corps and special operations training by Force Recon. As a Recon Marine he went through Airborne School, Ranger School, BUDs,Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A to Z Vol 1 Issue 8 (Marvel Comics, 1983). the Q-Course, and SERE; as well as cross-training with the Australian SASR during the Vietnam War. From this training, the Punisher is proficient in not only basic infantry and special operations skills, but the use and maintenance of specialized firearms, equipment, and explosive ordnance. He is highly trained in infiltration into heavily guarded enemy territories and structures for the purpose of assassination, capture, and military intelligence. As a Scout/Sniper he is highly trained in various forms of camouflage and stealth in different environments. He is also highly proficient at hand-to-hand combat, and has been trained in multiple forms of martial arts such as Chin Na, Hwa Rang Do, Krav Maga,Deadpool vs The Punisher #3 (July 2017) Muay Thai, Nash Ryu Jujutsu, Ninjutsu, Shōrin-ryū Karate and Systema. Both Nick Fury and Tony Stark have commented on how extraordinarily high his pain tolerance is. He refuses to take painkillers, as he feels that their benefit of dulling pain is not worth the side effects of drowsiness and slowed reflexes. He maintains multiple safehouses and vehicles around the greater New York City area as well as multiple forged identities and bank accounts (most of the funds and equipment aiding him in his work being taken from the criminals he hunts). The Punisher has a Kevlar uniform which protects him from most gunfire, though he can still suffer concussive injury or penetration from sufficient or repeated impacts. The white skull emblem on his chest is used both to intimidate his enemies and to lure their fire to the more heavily protected area of his armor. The design was supposedly taken from either a Vietcong sniper, or the demon Olivier. The Punisher uses a large variety of firearms in his war on crime; including fully automatic rifles, shotguns, flame throwers, or whatever he can get his hands on. Though he has a preference for guns, the Punisher has been using technology derived from super-villains and other costumed characters, such as the Green Goblin's pumpkin bombs,Deadpool: Suicide Kings #5 (October 2009) a modified Goblin Glider,Anti-Venom: New Ways to Live #3 (February 2010) and a Doctor Octopus tentacle that he can shrink down for easy storage via Pym Particles. For a time after the death of Jim "Rhodey" Rhodes at Thanos' hands,Civil War II #1 (June 2016) the Punisher would be offered the War Machine armor by Nick Fury, Jr. to apprehend a rogue S.H.I.E.L.D. cell.Punisher #218 (November 2017) Aside from his physical prowess, the Punisher demonstrates superb intensive focus and mental discipline, providing a strong resistance against psychic and telepathic powers that are used against him. When Letha and Lascivious try to manipulate his aggression, for example, he scoffs at their attempt, saying, "It doesn't feel different from any other day". Supporting characters Despite wanting to work alone, the Punisher has a few supporting characters to help fight crime. Microchip assisted Castle by building and supplying weapons and technology and providing friendship. During the "Civil War", he was aided by Stuart Clarke for a short time. Various police officers and detectives have assisted the Punisher, most notably Lynn Michaels and Lt. Martin Soap. Lynn Michaels was a police officer who teamed up with Castle to take down a serial rapist and later quit the force to become a vigilante. Martin Soap was secretly allied with the Punisher and gave him information on his targets from the police database. In politics and popular culture Australia Military personnel Australian Special Forces units operating in Iraq and Afghanistan are known to wear Punisher iconography. 2nd Commando Regiment and SASR members have been photographed on patrol wearing 'death symbols' including the Punisher logo, Spartan helmets and skulls. This led to a ban by Chief of the Defence Force Angus Campbell beginning in 2017 and included flags, patches and stencilled logos. Significant pushback from the Veteran Community regarding the ban was received but as of 2022 Australian Defence Force standing orders continue to enforce the ban. United States Military personnel thumb|A memorial statue to Chris Kyle in Texas features the skull on his vest, as he is credited with popularizing the symbol in the US military. The Punisher's skull first became noticeably visible as a symbol during the Iraq War by US military personnel. Service members would use the skull as an unofficial service patch or paint it on equipment. This was most notably done by Navy SEALs of SEAL Team 3 during the Second Battle of Fallujah in 2004. Chris Kyle popularized the usage in his autobiography, later filmed as American Sniper: "We spray-painted it on our Hummers and body armor, and our helmets and all our guns. We spray-painted it on every building or wall we could, We wanted people to know, We're here and we want to fuck with you." Militia groups thumb|A variation of the Punisher's skull emblem that was used by protesters at the 2017 Unite the Right rally. In addition to being used by the United States military and police, the Punisher's skull emblem is used by anti-government militias, such as the 3 Percenters (a group dating back to 2008), and the symbol was seen at the 2017 Unite the Right rally. Law enforcement Since 2015, the skull emblem became popular within police officers' Blue Lives Matter movement, with many companies producing decals, stickers, and T-shirts featuring the Punisher emblem colored with the thin blue line, or atop an American flag. In 2017, the Catlettsburg Police department in Kentucky faced a public backlash after installing large decals with the Punisher's skull and "Blue Lives Matter" on the hoods of police cars, and removed the decals in response to public pressure. Citizens and police interpreted its meaning differently; the police chief said, "We're getting so many calls, and they're saying that the Punisher logo (means) we're out to kill people, and that's not the meaning behind that. That didn't cross my mind." Firefighters A variation of the Punisher's skull has been used by EMS/Firefighters. The skull is similar to the police version but the blue line is replaced with a red line. Reaction Punisher co-creator Gerry Conway has decried the use of the Punisher symbol by law enforcement, saying, "To me, it's disturbing whenever I see authority figures embracing Punisher iconography because the Punisher represents a failure of the Justice system. ... The vigilante anti-hero is fundamentally a critique of the justice system, an example of social failure, so when cops put the Punisher's skulls on their cars or members of the military wear Punisher's skull patches, they're basically siding with an enemy of the system." Conway compares it to "putting a Confederate flag on a government building." After members of the Detroit Police Department have been observed to be wearing the Punisher skull during the George Floyd protests in 2020, Conway and others have called on Marvel and its parent company Disney to take legal action to prevent law enforcement from using the logo. This controversy was addressed in Punisher Vol. 12 #13 written by Matthew Rosenberg in July 2019. In the issue, Frank comes across two police officers who are fans of his. They take a selfie with him and show they have a sticker of his logo on their car before comparing their work to his. Unimpressed, the Punisher tears up the sticker and tells them, "I'll say this once, we're not the same. You took an oath to uphold the law. You help people. I gave that up a long time ago. You don't do what I do. Nobody does. You boys need a role model? His name's Captain America, and he'd be happy to have you.... If I find out you are trying to do what I do, I'll come for you next."Punisher Vol. 12 #3 (2019) In 2020, Marvel said this was their official opinion on the use of the image. Iraq From the early 2000s, the Punisher rapidly gained popularity in Iraq. By 2015, his logo had become widely used by the Iraqi Armed Forces and Iraqi paramilitary groups. According to researcher Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, many Iraqis just thought that the logo was "cool" despite the widespread anti-Americanism in the country. Reception Critical reception David Harth of CBR.com referred to the Punisher as one of the "best anti-heroes in Marvel Comics", saying, "The Punisher made his debut fighting Spider-Man but would go on to much bigger and better things. Gaining insane popularity in the '80s, the Punisher's logo is one of the most recognizable in all comics. Even non-fans know his deal - Frank Castle fights a never-ending battle against crime, trying to avenge his family's death by killing as many bad people as he can. Just a regular guy with a lot of training and ordinance, the Punisher is still one of the most formidable vigilantes in the Marvel Universe, even able to smack around superpowered heroes. The Punisher wasn't the first gun-toting vigilante, but he would redefine that type of character for a new era." Darby Harn of Screen Rant called the Punisher one of the "best antiheroes in Marvel Comics", writing, "The Punisher takes the antihero concept much farther than Wolverine. Wolverine obeys a strict code, which Frank Castle ostensibly does, but the results differ greatly. Frank Castle hunts down and murders criminals with extreme prejudice, operating outside the law and caring very little for the consequences. Though his actions stem from a need for justice for his murdered family, his violent behavior echoes that of the people he hunts so much that the distinctions are negligible." Noel Murray of Inverse described the Punisher as one of the "greatest antiheroes of all time", asserting, "Though the character debuted in a Spider-Man comic in 1974, the Punisher became a phenomenon in the late '80s, when his no-quarter-given approach to crime-fighting synched up with the tough talk of the Reagan era. Later takes on the character have restored some moral ambiguity to an antihero whose militancy makes him a fascinating case study in what we're willing to accept in exchange for security." Empire named the Punisher one of the "greatest comic-book characters", stating, "The Punisher is now one of the most iconic characters in the entire Marvel stable. A 'Nam vet driven by his family's murder to punish all criminals by death, it's perhaps not unsurprising that the dark, disillusioned '70s was the decade that saw a brutal, uncompromising psychopath (for that's what Castle is, no debate) become a fan favourite. Although, truth be told, operating within the confines of the toothless main Marvel titles never sat well with The Punisher - in recent years, with the move to the MAX label, and Garth Ennis' soon-to-finish installation as Punisher guru, the dark heart and psychology of Frank Castle has been fully explored, giving a new insight into this grimmest and most compelling of characters." Accolades In 2008, Wizard Magazine ranked the Punisher 39th in their "Top 200 Comic Book Characters" list. In 2012, IGN ranked the Punisher 27th in their "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes" list. In 2018, GameSpot ranked the Punisher 23rd in their "50 Most Important Superheroes" list. In 2019, CBR.com ranked the Punisher 1st in their "Marvel: 10 Best Assassins In The Comics" list and 9th in their "10 Most Powerful Heroes Of Marvel Noir" list. In 2019, Empire, ranked the Punisher 19th in their "50 greatest comic-book characters" list. In 2019, ComicBook.com ranked the Punisher 42nd in their "50 Most Important Superheroes Ever" list. In 2020, Inverse ranked the Punisher 9th in their "50 greatest antiheroes of all time" list. In 2020, CBR.com ranked the Punisher 10th in their "Marvel's 10 Greatest Marksmen" list. In 2022, The A.V. Club ranked the Punisher 88th in their "100 best Marvel characters" list. In 2022, Screen Rant ranked the Punisher 1st in their "10 Best Antiheroes In Marvel Comics" list. In 2022, Screen Rant included Punisher in their "10 Best Marvel Characters Who Made Their Debut In Spider-Man Comics" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked the Punisher 3rd in their "25 Best Anti-Heroes In Marvel Comics" list, 5th in their "10 Strongest Daredevil Villains" list, 8th in their "10 Most Villainous Marvel Heroes" list, 8th in their "10 Best Members Of Marvel's Legion Of Monsters" list. Literary reception Volumes Punisher - 2004 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 20th best selling comic book in January 2004. Punisher #2 was the 24th best selling comic book in January 2004. Joey Esposito of IGN ranked the Punisher comic book series 15th in their "25 Best Comic Runs of the Decade" list, writing, "The run of Garth Ennis on Punisher stems back beyond our ten year timeline, including a 12-issue series that featured the celebrated story, "Welcome Back, Frank." But after that, Ennis rejuvenated the character most notably under Marvel's MAX imprint, which allowed not only for extreme violence and language (which suits Frank's world more than most Marvel heroes), but for the real-time aging of the character." Jared Gaudreau of CBR.com ranked the Punisher comic book series 7th in their "10 Best Punisher Comics" list, saying, "In 2004, one of the most iconic and influential comic runs of all time started with Garth Ennis' Punisher MAX. Serving as Volume 7 of the ongoing Punisher title, Punisher MAX is famous for its consistent depiction of Frank Castle as a vigilante and anti-hero. In Punisher MAX issues 30-36, Punisher is pitted against Barracuda, a mercenary with an extensive history in the US military. Facing off a number of times throughout the six-issue arc, it's made very apparent that Barracuda is not an everyday mercenary and is more than capable of matching Frank's brutality." Punisher - 2009 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 33rd best selling comic book in January 2009. Punisher #2 was the 39th best selling comic book in February 2009. Dan Phillips of IGN gave Punisher #1 a grade of 7 out of 10, asserting, "Because the main feature of the series is so simple and fast-moving, there's not much else to say about this issue other than I found it entertaining. Remender kept me at the edge of my seat, and artist Jerome Opena did a good job capturing the energy of this chase, even if his work is a little too rough around the edges in places. All in all, I'd say the premise of Punisher trying to kill Norman Osborn is an interesting one; I just don't know how long they'll be able to milk it without convincing fans that Norman could actually die in a Punisher comic." Punisher - 2011 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 25th best selling comic book in August 2011. Punisher #2 was the 30th best selling comic book in August 2011. Ryan K. Lindsay of CBR.com called Punisher #1 a "face-stomping crime comic", stating, "With a new #1, "The Punisher" relaunch under the 'Big Shots' banner is going to be a treat. It reads well, it looks just as good, and will appeal to a broad audience. It'll be interesting to see over subsequent issues how Rucka's vision for this character plays out. This issue delivers a ballet of blood that kick starts a myth of a man of death. You could almost call this 'The Ballad of Frank Castle' and you'd have the tone nailed down." Erik Norris of IGN gave Punisher #1 a grade of 8 out of 10, saying, "For those anticipating Frank Castle's return to a solo series in the main Marvel Universe, The Punisher #1 should satisfy. The book introduces new, interesting characters to the ensemble cast, shows Frank Castle doing what he does best, and maybe most exciting of all, doesn't tiptoe around the violent world that Frank Castle has succumbed to being a part of. If only Checchetto's art was more consistent, then we would have a do-not-miss slam dunk. But even so, The Punisher #1 still comes highly recommended. Welcome back, Frank." Punisher - 2014 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 18th best selling comic book in February 2014. Benjamin Bailey of IGN gave Punisher #1 a grade of 7.5 out of 10, asserting, "As a huge fan of the character, I'm just excited to have the Punisher back in a series all his own with a solid creative team telling his tales. It's only the first issue, but there's enough promise here to warrant a commitment from fans of the skull-wearing vigilante. Here's hoping for a long run, filled with bullets, blood, and action. That's all we really want and need out of a Punisher series. The Punisher brings our favorite skull-wearing vigilante back into the spotlight in a storm of bullets, violence and death. There's nothing new here, but any time Frank comes back is a good time indeed. Glad to have you back, Mr. Castle." Punisher - 2016 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 3rd best selling comic book in May 2016. Bob Franco of ComicsVerse called Punisher #1 a "must read", writing, "As a first installment, this issue sets The Punisher off to a good start. There's not a lot of explanation, but there doesn't need to be yet. It's reminiscent of the circumstances Frank surges through in the Netflix DAREDEVIL series, though Frank is mute through this first issue: not a word spoken, nor a thought given. Everything we know has been told to us, so there's real intrigue to see how this series progresses. It's a book that gives little character examination but makes one pine for more." Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave Punisher #1 a grade of 8.2 out of 10, saying, "Frank Castle is in fine form after taking a few months away from the spotlight. This new series doesn't do anything dramatically different with the franchise (not yet, at least), but it does feature a hands-off approach to the lead character and introduce some intriguing new villains to the mix. The series also proves that Steve Dillon isn't simply content to rest on his laurels after so many Punisher projects. This is a solid start to what may become a very memorable Punisher run." Punisher - 2018 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 11th best selling comic book in August 2018. Punisher #1 was the 121st best selling comic book in 2018. Jenna Anderson of ComicBook.com stated, "There's an interesting dichotomy within The Punisher #1—as things are getting smaller and more back to basics for Frank, the consequences of his actions seem to be getting larger and larger. Considering the ways the character has been interpreted over the years, that choice is a complex, but decidedly powerful one, which could bode well for the series as it continues to go on. It's anyone's guess as to how this all will resolve for Frank, or what kind of man he will be when his chickens come to roost. But there's enough within this new-ish iteration of The Punisher to make fans eager to follow along for the ride." Joshua Davison of Bleeding Cool wrote, "The Punisher #1 isn't exactly the stripped-down Frank Castle story I think many were expecting after the War Machine story, but it is Frank going back to his old methods of urban guerrilla warfare with the occasional frigging tank mixed in for good measure. It's not exactly smart or profound, but it is a fun read with great artwork and worth a recommendation. Check this one out." Punisher - 2022 According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Punisher #1 was the 15th best selling comic book in March 2022. Hannah Rose of CBR.com called Punisher #1 a "gory yet stunning premiere", asserting, "The Punisher himself has gotten a makeover beyond his sleek new outfit and updated logo, fresh for his cultish recruitment. He appears more fresh-faced than in previous recent incarnations, even romantic at moments. Considering that Punisher #1 is something of a fresh start for the character and his continuity, this new look is fitting. Punisher #1 is a major departure for Frank Castle, but this opens his character up to whole new explorations. What happens when the Punisher gets everything he wants? Punisher #1 gives the audience a few ideas and plenty of material for the next issue to work with." Other versions Punisher 2099 First version The Marvel 2099 universe follows the story of Public Eye police officer, Jake Gallows, after the murder of his mother, brother and sister-in-law. Gallows comes across Frank Castle's war journal in the Public Eye archives, and took the mantle as the new Punisher. At first he follows Frank's old code of justice, only killing those who hurt the innocent. He later loses his mind, at one point proposing murdering two people simply because they were having sex with each other. He is later named Minister of Punishment in Doctor Doom's 2099 government. He is joined by Polly, a lab-bred humanoid who becomes his partner. Marvel Knights version Marvel Knights' Punisher 2099, another take on the year 2099, featured Cassondra Castle who goes by the alias of Cossandra Natchios. She is the daughter of Frank Castle and Elektra Natchios and has a son named Franklin. When she is diagnosed with cancer, Cossandra sets out to teach her son everything he needs to know to become the next Punisher. Upon her death, Franklin chooses not to take over, allowing the Punisher title to end with his mother.The Punisher 2099 vol. 1, #1 (November 2004) Amalgam Comics In Amalgam Comics, the Punisher is merged with Steve Trevor to make Trevor Castle. In this continuity Trevor Castle lost his family when they were caught in a gang war, which led him to become the Punisher and eventually marry Diana Prince, with whom he had a son named Ryan before they separated. In Bullets and Bracelets, Ryan is kidnapped which leads to Trevor and Diana to work together to figure out who is responsible. Their search leads them to Thanoseid, who apparently kills their son. Trevor was about to kill Thanoseid's personal assassin Kanto, but was stopped by Diana who figured out Kanto was actually Ryan. Wanting revenge on Trevor for indirectly causing the death of his own son, Thanoseid sent Ryan back in time to become Kanto so that either Trevor will kill his son or Kanto would kill his father. With his plan foiled, he sent Trevor and Diana back to Earth, with the two deciding to give their relationship another chance.Bullets and Bracelets vol. 1, #1 April 1996 Frank Castle Alternative versions of the Punisher have appeared for over three decades. The earliest examples of those alternative versions can be found within the monthly What If series. Using existing Marvel stories as a starting point, the series examined scenarios in which, for example, Frank Castle's family has not died or he had killed Daredevil in their first encounter. Other "What If" stories looked at his adventures as a new Captain America or as an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. Garth Ennis wrote a one-off special entitled Punisher Kills the Marvel Universe where Frank Castle kills every superhero and supervillain in the Marvel Universe after his family are caught in the crossfire of a battle with the Brood.Punisher Kills the Marvel Universe vol. 1, #1 (November 1995) The Punisher also featured in a number of more extended looks at alternative universes and lives such as the Age of Apocalypse's Frank Castle (as a man who fled genocide to become a monk). House of M In the alternative universe House of M, Castle appears as a media vigilante nicknamed the "Punisher" and is recruited after his arrest by John Proudstar to join and be the other human in the strikeforce known as the Brotherhood.House of M: Avengers #2-3 (February 2008) A Man Called Frank The Punisher: A Man Named Frank, written by Chuck Dixon, was a western themed take on the character. Castle is a cowboy during the time of the American Old West who is out for revenge to the criminals who killed his family.The Punisher: A Man Named Frank vol. 1, #1 (June 1994) Marvel Noir In The Punisher Noir, Frank Castelione is a veteran of World War I who has a winged version of a skull tattooed on his chest. His wife died from cancer and Castelione is killed by Jigsaw, Barracuda and the Russian after a fight. His only son is the Punisher, patterning himself after a radio pulp series. This version of the Punisher wears a mask emblazoned with his trademark skull (similar to Crossbones) which is later carved into his chest by Jigsaw. The Punisher fights against a criminal conspiracy controlling the entire city, and kills Barracuda by ripping him in half. Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness In the universe of Marvel Zombies and Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness, Frank takes advantage of the fact that the heroes and law enforcement officers are busy with zombies and he hunts and shoots down the super-villain leadership of New York City, known as the Kingpin, The Owl, and Hammerhead. Along the way he allies himself with Ash Williams, who he intends to help battle the zombie threat. When Ash sees him kill the still human criminal trio he becomes disgusted and mistakenly abandons the Punisher minutes later. This leaves Frank to be attacked and infected by a squad of zombies, causing him to at first be "killed". Frank returns as a zombie and turns Ash's ally, the Scarlet Witch into one. The Punisher appears in Marvel Zombies: Evil Evolution, where he appears zombified along with other zombies attacking the Marvel Apes. Marvel Mangaverse In the alternative universe Marvel Mangaverse continuity, Sosumi Brown is Tokyo's Punisher, who fights the crime family of Skang Kee Ho. That family uses an Oni (Japanese demon) named Oni Yew to try to stop her, but her sister, Hashi Brown, finds out about her secret. In the process, she obtains a cursed weapon which she uses to slay the Oni and save her sister. MC2 In the alternative-future universe of MC2, the Punisher is still active, but has moved to South America to deal with the level of drug runners there. He returns to New York after hearing of a gang war between Black Tarantula and a Maggia don called Silverback, whom he had once crippled, but now has cybernetic implants.Spectacular Spider-Girl #1 (May 2010) He eventually dies in a final confrontation with Silverback.Spectacular Spider-Girl #4 (August 2010) Old Man Logan In the possible future timeline depicted in the Old Man Logan storyline that takes place on Earth-21923, the Punisher shows up to help fight the villains during the days the villains rose to power. He shot Electro before he was stabbed in the chest during a sneak attack from Kraven the Hunter.Old Man Logan Vol. 2 #8. Marvel Comics. He survived the attack and resumed his war on crime, killing Nuke and other criminals. 50 years later, the Punisher finds that a gang calling themselves the "Punishers" has been tarnishing his reputation by killing men and kidnapping children in light of the Hulk Gang having most of its members killed. In addition, the Punisher is shown to have a failing memory as the Punishers have stolen his war journal. This causes the Punisher to assist Old Man Logan in attacking the stronghold of the Punishers to save the kidnapped children. Fighting the Punishers' leader, Panhead, he is fatally injured. When Panhead is killed, the Punisher reclaims his war journal and looks at the picture of his late family as he peacefully dies.Old Man Logan Annual #1. Marvel Comics. On Earth-807128, a new Kingpin captures two men who have taken up the mantles of the Punisher and Daredevil after they along with Ashley Barton / Spider-Bitch apparently tried to destroy his empire. Chained to posts in a stadium and in full view of a crowd, the new Punisher and Daredevil are gruesomely dispatched by carnivorous dinosaurs as they ask after the imprisoned Ashley. After being freed by her father, Ashley kills Kingpin before attempting to kill her father, revealing that she and the new Daredevil and Punisher had actually sought to take over the former Kingpin's empire themselves, with Ashley becoming the new Kingpin of the Wastelands.Wolverine Vol. 3 #68. Marvel Comics. Ruins In the reality of Marvel Ruins, following his interview with Rick Jones at his apartment in Chicago, Phil Sheldon trips over the corpse of the Punisher in the snowfall. Venomverse On Earth-TRN651, known as Venomverse, Frank Castle led a war on crime for years, until the Kingpin organized the crime families of New York against him, Frank found himself hunted by the criminal underworld. Growing desperate, Frank made a deal with the Venom Symbiote, the symbiote would allow him to kill Fisk and 'win' his war on crime, on the condition that Frank would kill one target for the symbiote. This target was revealed to be Spider-Man, an innocent, and Frank tried to resist the symbiote as it formed a rifle in his hands. Fortunately for Frank, a Venomized Doctor Strange chose that moment to transport them into a war between Venoms and Poisons, inadvertently saving Spider-Man's life. He was unfortunately assimilated by a Poison along with his symbiote, thus creating Poison Punisher.Venomverse: War Stories #1 Later he was present in the Hive's invasion of the Prime Marvel Universe and was able to bond Spider-Man to a symbiote.Venomized #1 He continued to face off against that universe's heroes, also successfully bonding Devil Dinosaur to a symbiote, but was soon killed when Agent Anti-Venom arrived and attempted to free him from the Poison, only to find he was hollow, having been already consumed by the Poison.Venomized #3 Cosmic Ghost Rider In the alternate reality of Earth-TRN666, where Thanos conquered all the Universe, Frank Castle's early life was seemingly similar to that of the Frank Castle of the Earth-616 Universe. However, when Thanos came to Earth, the Punisher was one of the last casualties during the last stand of the heroes and his soul was subsequently sent to Hell. Willing to give anything in order to punish Thanos for slaughtering his planet, the Punisher signed a demonic deal with Mephisto and became the Ghost Rider. When he returned to Earth, however, Thanos was already gone and everything on the planet was dead. Roaming endlessly and undying with no one to kill or love, the Ghost Rider spent the next countless years alone. He eventually began to lose his mind when even Mephisto fell silent to his calls. When a badly injured Galactus arrived on Earth seeking help against Thanos, unaware that the population of Earth had already been killed by him, the Ghost Rider offered the dead planet to him in exchange for the chance of punishing the Mad Titan as his herald which the Great Devourer accepted. Bestowed with the Power Cosmic, Frank Castle became Cosmic Ghost Rider.Thanos Vol. 2 #13. Marvel Comics. Ultimate Marvel The alternative universe Ultimate Marvel version of Punisher is Frank Castle, an ex-NYPD police officer whose family was killed by corrupt police officers who knew he was going to expose them. He manages to kill the one responsible for his family's death after sympathetic cops "accidentally" place him as the man's cellmate.Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #6-8 After he unsuccessfully tried to kill Boomerang,Ultimate Spider-Man #61 he later kills corrupt cop Jeanne De Wolfe.Ultimate Spider-Man Annual #2 In Ultimate Comics: Avengers 2, the Punisher is defeated and arrested by Captain America. He is saved from the death penalty by Nick Fury orchestrating his release from custody in exchange for joining the Avengers. After being equipped with a Captain America-inspired costume, he is implanted with a chip that delivers a violent electric shock whenever he disobeys orders. Being knocked out by Hawkeye, it allowed him to escape after the fight between the two Ghost Riders. In Ultimate Avengers vs New Ultimates, he was incarcerated after assassinating the Russian criminal known as the Red Hammer and is later visited by Fury persuading him to rejoin the Avengers by offering him revenge on his fellow prisoners.Avengers vs. New Ultimates #1 While the Avengers were battling the New Ultimates, the Punisher was aiming a sniper rifle at Captain America's kneecap with the intention of immobilization. However, Spider-Man swung in and took the hit from the Punisher's bullet instead. Horrified that he had shot a kid, he begged the S.H.I.E.L.D. agents that arrived shortly afterwards to "punish him".Avengers vs. New Ultimates #3 After the Punisher and the Avengers were arrested by S.H.I.E.L.D., they took Tyrone Cash's serum and temporarily gained Hulk-like powers. They confronted the new S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Gregory Stark, but are easily defeated thanks to Stark's Nanite-based suit. The Avengers later assisted the New Ultimates against Stark's Spider in Korea.Avengers vs. New Ultimates #6 In the conflict's aftermath, the Punisher is last seen torturing the other convicts in prison. What If In What If...the Punisher's Family Had Not Been Killed in Central Park?, Castle's family does not die in the park and he joins the police force following his discharge from the Marine Corps. However, Frank tries to collect evidence on corrupt cops, but they attack Frank's house in the middle of the night, killing Frank's family and his brother-in-law. Castle returns to kill those who murdered his family, making Frank become the Punisher after all. However, a major divergence from his mainstream version's modus operandi includes providing proof of his targets' wrongdoing to the press.What If...? vol. 2, #10 (February 1990) In "What If The Punisher Had Killed Spider-Man?", an alternative version of the events depicted in The Amazing Spider-Man #129, the Jackal successfully dupes the Punisher into killing Spider-Man and abandons him to take the fall in his place. Becoming a hunted fugitive, the Punisher eventually hunts Warren down and intends to surrender him to the police. But when the NYPD is about to arrest him instead, threatening to kill him should he shoot Warren, Warren is executed (off-panel) by the Punisher after the latter gleefully concludes the story with the words: "See you on the other side, Jackal.".What If? Vol.2 #58 In What If, Captain America is seriously injured in a fight with the Red Skull (an alternative ending of Captain America #212) and converted into a cyborg, which drives him to bestow his uniform upon another candidate. Castle is eventually chosen, and although he first pursues his family's killers in his usual alter ego, after a talk with the recovered Steve Rogers and some soul-searching he becomes a new and worthy Captain America.What If? Vol.2 #51 In What If, Frank is possessed by Venom instead of Eddie Brock. With the Punisher as Venom, he goes on a rampage killing several villains including Tombstone and the Kingpin. He eventually confronts the symbiote and they work together.What If...? vol. 2, #44 (December 1992) In What If...Wolverine Had Become the Lord of Vampires?, Frank is chosen by the spirit of Doctor Strange to fight the vampires. Frank does so by killing Cyclops, Nightcrawler, Colossus, Storm, and Juggernaut, all of whom became vampires. When Frank fights Wolverine, he accidentally kills Kitty Pryde, causing Wolverine to kill him.What If...? vol. 2, #24 (April 1991) In What If features Wolverine becoming the Punisher during the 1920s.What If? Wolverine #1 (February 2006) In What If... Peter Parker Became the Punisher?, Peter Parker's history echoes his 616 counterpart, but he becomes a vigilante that kills people with specialized bullets using a wrist chaingun attached to his webshooters. His costume is a mixture of Spider-Man and the Punisher. After killing the Sinister Six and the Green Goblin, he ultimately retires the Punisher persona to avoid putting his loved ones in danger. However, this results in a local crime organization killing Frank Castle's family. While escaping the scene, Frank stumbles upon Peter's costume in the trash, suggesting he will become the next Punisher.What If? Punisher #1 (October 2018) Age of X In the X-Men crossover Age of X, another universe's General Frank Castle commands a mutant-hunting version of the Avengers.Age of X: Alpha (single-issue) (January 2011) Marvel Universe vs The Punisher In this alternate universe, an unknown pathogen transforms the entire superhuman population, as well as basic civilians, into zombie-like cannibals. Five years prior, the Punisher raided a Mafia deal in a warehouse, incidentally releasing the plague. Due to being overly exposed to the pathogen, he has gained a special immunity from the virus. He is one of the few people immune to the pathogen, the others being Hawkeye and Wolverine. During the beginning days of the outbreak, Wolverine sought out Frank after getting a tip from Reed Richards that someone with Frank's M.O. was present when the virus was released. When confronted, Frank recounted the events which occurred eighteen months prior to when the virus was released, revealing that all it did was make him sick for a few weeks. Richards, overhearing their conversation via radio, determines that Frank's overexposure to the pathogen has given him a special immunity and that he is humanity's best chance at getting a cure. After fighting to the Baxter Building, both men find that the building's emergency generator has stopped working and the security team has been slaughtered. Upon further investigation, they find a badly injured Reed, who tells them that both the Thing and Beast have turned with the latter feasting upon Hank Pym. Later, following a failed counterattack against a large cannibal army led by an infected Hulk, the Punisher, Deadpool, and Captain America save a badly injured Wolverine, who lost his arm in the battle. The four later coordinate two diversions while Mr. Fantastic and Black Panther lead a convoy of scientists out of the city so they could begin work on a cure in a safe location. Frank and Captain America launch an offensive against a large cannibal horde, though Captain America begins to succumb to the plague and begs Frank to kill him before he turns. A solemn Frank obliges and is soon confronted by Hawkeye, who witnessed the execution. Weeks later, Frank continues to fight the horde alongside other uninfected heroes. He is one of few heroes who do not accept Dr. Doom's offer of wearing a Doom Stone to prevent the infection. Frank, Hawkeye, and Black Widow end up being the last uninfected heroes in New York after the surviving heroes are forcibly turned by Doctor Doom using Doom Stones to accelerate the turning process. Though they attempt to save their fellow heroes, their attempts are in vain and Black Widow is kidnapped by Spider-Man, while Frank leaves Hawkeye and goes out in search of him. Frank later witnesses Hawkeye's murder at the hands of Thor, leaving him as the last uninfected person in New York. Five years later, the Punisher hunts for the first known infected, Spider-Man in a New York City that has been depopulated. Castle is constantly bugged by a cannibalistic Deadpool, who he has killed over 35 times. While out on patrol, Frank encounters an elderly priest and a young boy who have been surviving in the ruins of New York. While the Priest attempts to appeal to Frank's humanity in hopes that the infected can be saved, Frank coldly tells him that the only way to win is to kill them all. They are soon confronted by Spider-Man, who offers Frank and the remaining human survivors safe passage out of the city in exchange for returning his wife to him from Kingpin. The Punisher rescued a pregnant Mary Jane Parker from the hands of a flesh-eating Kingpin and his cohorts. At the end, Mary Jane looks on aghast as Castle kills Spider-Man and sends off the survivors. The Punisher stays behind on Manhattan to continue his hunt for cannibals.Jonathan Marberry: Marvel Universe Vs The Punisher: New York: Marvel Comics: 2010: Spider-Gwen In this alternate universe of Spider-Gwen, Captain Frank Castle of the NYPD is called in to take over for George Stacy in the hunt for Spider-Woman. He was a veteran of the wars in Afghanistan and the Second Gulf War, where he and Maria Walls were the only survivors of a massive firefight. The two later marry and have 2 children. He then worked as a mercenary for Tony Stark's private military company, WAR MACHINE. After that stint, he joins the NYPD, rapidly rising through the ranks. On the day he was named to take over the Spider-Woman case, he finds a note that Maria and the children have left him, and Frank finds himself now only focusing on his job. After following the Vulture on an attack on George Stacy, Castle takes on both the Vulture and Spider-Woman, the latter of whom brutally beats Castle, though Castle does see her unmasked face, he is unaware of her actual identity; Castle subsequently takes on the forces of the Hand, and the Kingpin, Matt Murdock.Spider-Gwen Vol 1 #1-2; Spider-Gwen Vol. 2 #5 In other media The character of the Punisher has appeared in many types of media. Since his first appearance in 1974, he has appeared in television, films, and video games—each on multiple occasions—and his name, symbol, and image have appeared on products and merchandise. Notes References External links Category:Characters created by Gerry Conway Category:Characters created by John Romita Sr. Category:Characters created by Ross Andru Category:Comics about the United States Marine Corps Category:Comics characters introduced in 1974 Category:Crime comics Category:Fictional American military snipers Category:Fictional characters from New York City Category:Fictional Gulf War veterans Category:Fictional gunfighters in comics Category:Fictional Italian American people Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Fictional mercenaries in comics Category:Fictional military captains Category:Fictional sole survivors Category:Fictional torturers and interrogators Category:Fictional United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance personnel Category:Fictional Vietnam War veterans Category:Marvel Comics adapted into films Category:Marvel Comics adapted into video games Category:Marvel Comics film characters Category:Marvel Comics male characters Category:Marvel Comics martial artists Category:Marvel Comics military personnel Category:Marvel Comics television characters Category:Punisher characters Category:Vigilante characters in comics

{"Publisher": "Marvel Comics", "Created by": "Gerry ConwayJohn Romita Sr.Ross Andru", "Team affiliations": "U.S. Marine Corps Force ReconnaissancePunisher: Nightmare (Marvel Comics issue #2 2013)\n Code RedHulk Vol. 2 #14\n Heroes for Hire\n Midnight Sons\n Secret Defenders\n Thunderboltshttp://www.newsarama.com/18707-thunderbolts-take-on-the-mob-and-thanos-infinity-army.html THUNDERBOLTS Take On The Mob… And Thanos' Infinity Army! Newsarama.com June 8, 2016 \n Savage Avengers", "Notable aliases": "Mr. SmithCharles FortFrank RookJohnny TowerFranken-CastleWar Machine II", "Abilities": "Abnormally high pain tolerance\nSkilled in guerrilla warfare, military tactics, close quarters combat, infiltration, marksmanship, and demolitions\nHighly skilled martial artist in armed and unarmed combat\nExpert investigator and interrogator\nExpert knowledge in methods of both criminals and law enforcement \nUSMC infantry trainingPunisher #6 (Marvel Comics, 2000).\nVarious U.S. military special operations training", "Species": "Human"}

is a 1993 platform game developed by Sega for the Sega CD. As Sonic the Hedgehog, the player attempts to protect an extraterrestrial body, Little Planet, from Doctor Robotnik. Like other Sonic games, Sonic runs through themed levels while collecting rings and defeating robots. Sonic CD introduces time travel as a game mechanic. By traveling through time, players can access different versions of stages, featuring alternative layouts, music, and graphics. Sonic CD began as a port of the Sega Genesis game Sonic the Hedgehog (1991), but developed into a separate project. Led by Sonic co-creator Naoto Ohshima, the developers sought to show off the technical capabilities of the Sega CD. Sonic CD features the debuts of the recurring Sonic characters Amy Rose and Metal Sonic, and includes animated cutscenes. Two soundtracks were composed: the one featured in the Japanese and European versions was composed by Naofumi Hataya and Masafumi Ogata, while the one in the North American version was composed by Spencer Nilsen, David Young, and Mark Crew. Sonic CD was released in late 1993. It received critical acclaim and is often called one of the best Sonic and platform games. Reviewers praised its size, music, and time travel feature, although some felt it did not fully use the Sega CD's capabilities. It sold over 1.5 million copies, making it the bestselling Sega CD game. Sonic CD was ported to Windows as part of the Sega PC label in 1996, and to the PlayStation 2 and GameCube as part of Sonic Gems Collection in 2005. A remake, developed by Christian Whitehead using the Retro Engine, was released for various platforms in 2011 and rereleased as part of the Sonic Origins compilation in 2022. Gameplay thumb|left|alt=A collage of Sonic in the four time periods in the Palmtree Panic level. Clockwise from left: past, present, good future, and bad future.|(Clockwise from top left) The past, present, good future, and bad future variants of the Palmtree Panic level Sonic CD is a side-scrolling platform game similar to the original Sonic the Hedgehog. Players control Sonic the Hedgehog as he ventures to stop his nemesis Doctor Robotnik from obtaining the magical Time Stones and conquering a Little Planet. Like previous games, Sonic can destroy enemies and objects (such as certain walls and television monitors containing power-ups) by rolling into a ball, and collects rings as a form of health. Sonic can also perform a "spin dash" and a "super peel-out", both of which increase his speed. The game has seven levels; each is split into three zones, the third of which ends in a boss fight against Robotnik. Players start with three lives, which are lost when they suffer any type of damage without rings in their possession; losing all lives results in a game over. Sonic CD is differentiated from other Sonic games through its time travel game mechanic, which allows players to access different versions of rounds set in the past, present and future. The music changes within the different time zones, as remixes of the present music. Sonic starts the first two zones in the present. The third zone is always set in the future, its timeline dependent upon whether the player destroyed both transporters. He travels through time by hitting signs labelled "past" or "future", maintaining his speed afterward. By default, future stages are neglected and littered with machinery after Robotnik has conquered the Little Planet, appropriately named "bad futures." Players are encouraged to convert each zone into a "good future", with bright colors, thriving nature, and few enemies. To achieve a good future in each zone, players must travel to the past and destroy a hidden transporter where enemy robots spawn. Achieving a good future in every zone unlocks the game's best ending. By finishing a level with more than 50 rings, Sonic can access a special stage, in which he must destroy six UFOs in a pseudo-3D environment within a time limit. Time is reduced swiftly if the player runs through water, though a special UFO which appears when time is running out grants extra time if destroyed. If the player destroys all the UFOs before the time runs out, they earn a Time Stone. Collecting all seven Time Stones automatically creates a good future in every zone, unlocking the best ending. The game also features a time attack mode, where players can replay completed levels for the fastest time possible; a "D.A. Garden", where players can listen to the music of completed zones; and a "Visual Mode", where players can view the opening and closing animations. The game also includes a save feature, which uses the back-up memory of the Sega CD. Plot Some time after his first adventure, Sonic CD opens with Sonic rushing to Never Lake, where an extraterrestrial body, Little Planet, appears in the last month of every year. His nemesis, Dr. Robotnik, has chained the planet to a mountain and begun transforming it into a giant fortress with his robot army. To execute his plan, Robotnik uses the Time Stones, seven diamonds which control the flow of time, hidden in the different zones. Sonic ventures into the planet, followed by the besotted Amy Rose, his self-proclaimed girlfriend. Robotnik dispatches his newest invention, Metal Sonic, to kidnap Amy at Collision Chaos, luring Sonic into danger. After outrunning Metal Sonic in Stardust Speedway and saving Amy, Sonic fights and defeats Robotnik in his lair, Metallic Madness. Two endings exist, depending on whether or not the player collected the Time Stones or achieved a good future in each level. In the good ending, Little Planet thanks Sonic with a shower of stars and leaves Never Lake; in the bad ending, Little Planet still leaves, but Robotnik uses the Time Stones to bring it back and the player is urged to replay the game to achieve the good ending. Development Background and conception thumb|right|alt=Naota Ohshima|Sonic CD director Naoto Ohshima at the 2018 Game Developers Conference The original Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) was developed by Sonic Team at Sega. It was a major commercial success and positioned Sega as Nintendo's main rival in the console market. The lead programmer, Yuji Naka, dissatisfied with Sega of Japan's rigid corporate policies, moved with several members of Sonic Team to the United States to develop Sonic the Hedgehog 2 with Sega Technical Institute (STI). Meanwhile, Sega planned to release the Sega CD add-on for its Genesis, and wanted a Sonic game that would demonstrate its more advanced features. Naoto Ohshima, the designer of Sonic, was Sonic CDs director; the remainder of the team comprised Sega staff who had developed The Revenge of Shinobi, Golden Axe II, and Streets of Rage. The team built Sonic CD using the original Sonic the Hedgehog code as a base. Sonic CD was conceived as an enhanced port of Sonic the Hedgehog for the Sega CD, but it gradually developed into a separate project. It was titled CD Sonic the Hedgehog first before being renamed Sonic CD. Ohshima does not consider Sonic CD a sequel to Sonic the Hedgehog or Sonic 2, although the artist Yasushi Yamaguchi said its story may be set between the two. Design Sonic the Hedgehog had a balance on speed and platforming; STI built on the speed with Sonic 2s more focused level designs. However, Ohshima's team sought to focus on the platforming and exploration aspects. Ohshima said, "our ideas were to make the world and setting larger, and to add more replayability, so it would be something you could enjoy playing for a long time". According to artist Kazuyuki Hoshino, because it was a Sega CD game, the team wanted Sonic CD to stand out compared to previous Sonic games. Visually, the game was designed to resemble CG imagery; the Sonic sprite on the title screen was based on a Sonic figurine by Taku Makino that the team photographed and scanned. Sonic CD marks the debuts of Amy Rose and Metal Sonic, both designed by Hoshino. Although Hoshino created Amy's in-game graphics, many staff members contributed ideas to her design. Her headband and trainer shoes reflected Ohshima's tastes while her mannerisms reflected the traits Hoshino looked for in women at the time. Hoshino designed Metal Sonic in response to Ohshima wanting a strong rival for Sonic. Hoshino had a clear image of Metal Sonic in his mind from the moment he was briefed, and his design emerged after only a few sketches. The character graphics were created using Sega's proprietary graphics system for the Genesis, the "Sega Digitizer MK-III", featuring a bitmap and animation editor. The team mostly used Macintosh IIcis. Graphics data was stored on 3.5-inch floppy disks, which were handed to the programmer to work into the game. Though Naka was not directly involved with Sonic CD, he exchanged design ideas with Ohshima. Ohshima cited the film Back to the Future (1985) as an influence on the time travel. The developers designed four variants of each stage (one for each time period). Ohshima hoped for the time period to change instantly with a "sonic boom" effect, but the programmers argued this was impossible and produced a loading sequence instead. Sega did not pressure the team developing Sonic CD as much as the one developing Sonic 2. Ohshima felt this was because Sonic CD is not a numbered sequel; he considered it a recreation of the original game. The total game data of Sonic CD is 21 megabytes (MB), compared to Sonic 2s 1 MB. The game includes animated cutscenes produced by Studio Junio; the team used a format that provided uncompressed imagery to the video display processor, which allowed for superior results in contrast to the Cinepak compression used for other Sega CD games. The special stages feature Mode 7-like background plane manipulation effects. Time constraints led to one of the levels being cut. Music The Japanese/European soundtrack was composed by Naofumi Hataya and Masafumi Ogata, who had worked together on the 8-bit version of Sonic the Hedgehog 2. The game features two songs: "Sonic — You Can Do Anything", often referred to as "Toot Toot Sonic Warrior", composed by Ogata and originally written for Sonic the Hedgehog 2, and "Cosmic Eternity — Believe in Yourself", composed by Hataya. Both are sung by Keiko Utoku. The composition team drew inspiration from house and techno acts including C+C Music Factory, Frankie Knuckles and the KLF. Sega of America delayed the North American release of Sonic CD for two months to have a new soundtrack written and produced by Spencer Nilsen and David Young of Sega Multimedia Studio. Select tracks were written and produced by the keyboardist Mark "Sterling" Crew and feature the percussionist Armando Peraza, both of whom had worked with Santana. According to Nilsen, Sega's American marketing division believed Sonic CD needed a more "rich and complex" soundtrack and a theme song they could use to promote it. "Sonic — You Can Do Anything" and "Cosmic Eternity — Believe in Yourself" were replaced with "Sonic Boom", composed by Nilsen and performed by the female vocal group Pastiche. The tracks in the "Past" stages could not be replaced as they were sequenced PCM audio tracks rather than streamed Mixed Mode CD audio. Release Sonic CD was released in Japan on September 23, 1993. After being delayed for the new soundtrack, it was released worldwide in North America and Europe in November 23, 1993 alongside Sonic Chaos and Sonic Spinball as part of Sega's "Sonic Three on One Day" release strategy. Sonic CD was the flagship game for Sega CD and its only Sonic game. An enhanced version of the original Sonic the Hedgehog and a Sonic-themed localization of Popful Mail were canceled. Rereleases thumb|right|alt=A Sega CD attached to a Sega Genesis.|Sonic CD was originally released for the Sega CD (seen here attached below the Genesis). Two versions of Sonic CD were released for Windows: one in 1995 for Pentium processors, and another in 1996 for DirectX. The Pentium version was only bundled with new computers and never sold in stores; Sega worked with Intel to make the game work properly. The DirectX version was released under the Sega PC label and distributed by SoftKey in North America on July 8 and in Japan on August 9. This version is mostly identical to the original release, but loading screens were added and it is only compatible with older versions of Windows. Both Windows versions use the North American soundtrack. The 1996 Windows version was ported to the GameCube and PlayStation 2 in August 2005 for Sonic Gems Collection. This port uses the original soundtrack in Japan and the North American soundtrack elsewhere. The ports introduced some graphical problems, such as a blurry anti-flicker presentation, but the opening animation is presented in a higher quality fullscreen view. In 2009, independent programmer Christian Whitehead produced a proof-of-concept video of a remastered version of the game, using his Retro Engine, running on iOS. Sega released this version in December 2011 for Android, iOS, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360, and later in January 2012 for Windows via Steam with assistance from BlitWorks in the PC and console ports. The remaster features enhancements such as widescreen graphics, fine-tuned collision detection to make time traveling more consistent, refined visuals and frame rate for Special Stages, the option for spin dash physics from Sonic the Hedgehog 2, both the Japanese and North American soundtracks, the ability to unlock Tails as a playable character, and achievement and trophy support. Whitehead designed two original stages, but they were excluded as Sega wanted to keep the game faithful to the original release. The remaster was not released on the Wii as it exceeded the WiiWare download size. It was included in the 2022 compilation Sonic Origins, which removed voice lines for Sonic and Amy. Amy herself and Knuckles also became selectable characters for the game in a later update to Origins. Reception The Sega CD version sold more than 1.5 million copies, making it the system's best-seller.Official Gallup UK Mega-CD sales chart, February 1994, published in Mega issue 17 In the United Kingdom, it was the top-selling Mega CD game in December 1993. The game received critical acclaim. The presentation, visuals, and audio were praised. Computer and Video Games wrote that, although Sonic CD did not use the Sega CD's capabilities to its fullest, the game's graphics and sound were still excellent, calling the music "from the likes of 2Unlimited and Bizarre Inc". Electronic Games said that the game looked similar to older games and used the Sega CD's special features minimally, but this did not detract from the quality. The music was singled out as making Sonic CD "stand above the crowd"; the reviewer wrote that it helped add richness to the game. The reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) praised the game's animated cinematics and sound, but noted frame rate drops during special stages. Retrospective opinions of the presentation have also been positive. IGN praised its vibrant colors and felt the game looked nice, and GamesRadar thought its music stood the test of time, writing: "What must've dated very quickly in the 1990s is somehow totally fresh today". Critics were divided over the change of soundtrack in the North American versions. GameFan, which had given the Japanese version of Sonic CD a score of 100%, lambasted the change. GameFan editor Dave Halverson called the change "an atrocity that remains the biggest injustice in localization history". The reviewer for GamesRadar said he shut his GameCube off in disgust when he realized Sonic Gems Collection used the American soundtrack. In a 2008 interview, Nilsen said "I think critics were looking for a way to bash the game... it was like we replaced the music for Star Wars after the movie had been out for a while." The gameplay was also widely praised. EGM admired the diverse levels and felt the time travel added depth. Electronic Games wrote that Sonic CD played as well as previous Sonic games, and that the time travel—coupled with large levels rich with secrets and Super Mario Kart-like special stages—added replayability. Sega Pro also noted the expanded environments and the replay value travel added by the time travel, writing that "the more you play Sonic CD the better it gets", but felt the game was too easy. In its debut issue, Sega Magazine said Sonic CD was "potentially a classic". GameSpot singled out the "interesting level design and the time-travelling gameplay" as a major selling point, saying it provided a unique take on the classic Sonic formula. Critics wrote that Sonic CD was one of the best Sega CD games. Electronic Games called it a must-have, and Sega Pro said it was "brilliant", imaginative and worth more than its price. Destructoid described it as "a hallmark of excellence", creative, strange, and exciting, and said that "to miss Sonic CD would be to miss some of the franchise's best". Reception to later versions of Sonic CD varied. GameSpot considered the 1996 Windows version inferior, criticizing its technical performance and "tedious and monotonous" gameplay. The reviewer wrote that "those who have played Sonic on a Sega game system will find nothing new here" and that it was not worth its $50 price. Reviews of the version in Sonic Gems Collection were favorable. IGN remembered Sonic CD as one of the best things about the Sega CD and called it a standout for the compilation, and a major selling point. Eurogamer wrote: "Rejoice for Sonic CD... Just don't rejoice for anything else [in Sonic Gems Collection], because it's mostly rubbish." According to Metacritic, the 2011 console version received "generally favorable reviews", while the iOS version received "universal acclaim". Sonic CD is frequently named among the best Sonic games and platform games. In 1997, EGM named it the 17th best console game of all time, citing the bonus levels and animated intro. Note: Contrary to the title, the intro to the article (on page 100) explicitly states that the list covers console video games only, meaning PC games and arcade games were not eligible. Legacy The story of Sonic CD was adapted in the twenty-fifth issue of Archie Comics' Sonic the Hedgehog comic book series. The adaptation featured some changes to the story, such as Tails being an important character and Metal Sonic having the ability to talk. British publisher Fleetway Publications published their own adaptation in Sonic the Comic. The final issue of Archie's comic, #290 (December 2016), also featured a retelling of the game's story. Two characters introduced in the game, Amy Rose and Metal Sonic, became recurring characters in the Sonic series. Metal Sonic appeared as a major antagonist in Knuckles' Chaotix (1995), the Sonic the Hedgehog Anime movie (1996), Sonic Heroes (2003), Sonic the Hedgehog 4: Episode II (2012) and Sonic Mania (2017). Amy Rose most notably appears in Sonic Adventure. The Sonic CD animated sequences were included as bonuses in the compilation Sonic Jam (1997), and "Sonic Boom" was used as one of Sonic's themes in Super Smash Bros. Brawl (2008). In 2011, for the Sonic franchise's 20th anniversary, Sega released Sonic Generations, which includes remakes of various Sonic stages. Both versions feature a re-imagined version of the boss battle against Metal Sonic. Sonic Mania, produced for the series' twenty-fifth anniversary, features updated versions of Sonic CDs Metallic Madness and Stardust Speedway levels, including a boss battle against Metal Sonic. Notes References External links Official website Sonic CD at MobyGames Category:1993 video games Category:Android (operating system) games Category:Interquel video games Category:IOS games Category:PlayStation Network games Category:Sega CD games Category:Side-scrolling video games Category:Side-scrolling platform games Category:Sonic the Hedgehog video games Category:Video games about time travel Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Xbox 360 Live Arcade games Category:Windows games Category:Video games set on fictional planets Category:Single-player video games Category:Video games scored by David Young Category:Video games scored by Naofumi Hataya Category:Video games scored by Spencer Nilsen

{"Title": "Sonic the Hedgehog CD", "Caption": "North American cover art", "Developer": "Sega", "Publisher": "Sega", "Director": "Naoto Ohshima", "Producer": "Minoru Kanari Makoto Oshitani", "Programmer": "Matsuhide Mizoguchi", "Artist": "Hiroyuki Kawaguchi Kazuyuki Hoshino", "Composer": "Original release: Naofumi Hataya Masafumi Ogata North America: Spencer Nilsen David Young Mark \"Sterling\" Crew", "Series": "Sonic the Hedgehog", "Released": "September 23, 1993 \nSega CDJP September 23, 1993 WW November 23, 1993\nWindowsJP August 9, 1996 NA September 26, 1996 EU October 3, 1996\nAndroid, PS3, Xbox 360WW December 14, 2011\niOSWW December 15, 2011\nApple TVWW March 31, 2016", "Genre": "Platform", "Modes": "Single-player", "Platforms": "Sega CD, Windows, Android, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, iOS, Apple TV"}

Prudhoe ( ) is a town in south Northumberland, England, about west of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and just south of the River Tyne. Situated on a steep, north-facing hill in the Tyne valley, Prudhoe had a population of 11,675 at the 2011 census. It has largely become a commuter town for nearby Newcastle. Nearby settlements include Ovingham, Ovington, Wylam, Stocksfield, Crawcrook, Hedley on the Hill and Mickley. History The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon personal name Prud (from prūd, meaning proud) and hoe or haugh, a spur of land. There has been a castle at Prudhoe since ancient times, when England was at war with Scotland. The area now known as Castlefields was a fruit orchard, and the Scots were rumoured to have burnt this orchard while attempting to capture Prudhoe Castle. The castle, originally owned by the D'Umfravilles, then the Percys and now English Heritage, is considered to be the only medieval fortification in Northumberland never to have been captured by the Scots In 1914, a Territorial Army drill hall was developed on Swalwell Close, which housed a company of the 4th Battalion of the Northumberland Fusiliers. The drill hall site (now disused) was scheduled to be redeveloped from 2018,Dispute over Prudhoe Drill Hall rumbles on Hexham Courant, 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2022 with the scheme further delayed and complicated by the jailing of the owner for eight years in 2021.Calls for action on Prudhoe Drill Hall Hexham Courant, 19 May 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022 During the Cold War, there was a Royal Observer Corps Underground Monitoring Post opposite Highfield Park; the surface features have since been demolished.Retrieved 2 July 2015 It was one of approximately 1,563 similar underground monitoring posts built all across the UK during the Cold War to monitor the effects of a nuclear strike. They were operated by the ROC, mostly civilian volunteers, who worked in groups of three inside the posts. Prudhoe ROC post was opened in June 1962 and closed in September 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union, which saw the end of the Cold War. Governance Local government services for Prudhoe are provided by Northumberland County Council. The town is in the parliamentary constituency of Hexham. Prudhoe is the primary settlement within the Civil Parish of Prudhoe, which is situated in Tynedale. The Town Council meets at The Spetchells Centre, Front Street. Traditionally Prudhoe has had more in common politically with places like Blaydon than the rest of Hexham constituency. For example, in 2013 both wards in Prudhoe returned Labour councillors, with the Conservatives only able to finish third. This contrasts with Hexham, where the Conservatives dominated, and especially other rural areas. However, in 2017, both Prudhoe wards were won by the Conservatives as they became the largest group on Northumberland County Council."http://www.andrewteale.me.uk/leap/results/2013/118/" In 2021 Prudhoe North returned to Labour when the ward was won by Angie Scott. Geography The town of Prudhoe is built on a steep, north-facing hill, with an elevation of up to 200 metres in the extreme south of the town. There is a prominent bend in the River Tyne, which the castle overlooks. To the south of Prudhoe is Prudhoe Moor, the very top of the town, and then a small valley where Prudhoe Hospital and Humbles Wood are located. As well as being steep and elevated, the land to the south of Prudhoe is heavily forested and rural. Further south are Hedley on the Hill, and then Ebchester over the County Durham border. Towards the north-east of Prudhoe Civil Parish is the steep Hagg Bank, which winds down to Hagg Bank Farm near Points Bridge on the riverside. Via West Wylam and Eastwood Park, as well as Dukeshagg and Low Guards Wood, the eastern reaches of the town border the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead, Tyne and Wear; near the A695 bypass is Stanley Burn, which flows out into the River Tyne at Wylam. Industry Prudhoe was once a coal mining town. There is still evidence of the old coal mine at West Wylam, signified by a miner's cart when driving into Castlefields up Cockshot Dean. The cart was found in brambles nearby by a former mine employee. This was the site of West Wylam Colliery. The main drift entrance of the colliery is buried under the modern road. The town has an industrial estate, called Low Prudhoe that lies alongside the A695 road, which now bypasses the town to the north. There are a few factories and several smaller businesses straddling the side of this road. Prudhoe has one large factory operated by essity. Originally built by Kimberly-Clark, the mill was bought by SCA after the Monopolies Commission forced Kimberly-Clark to sell. The factory consists of the mill, housing the paper machines, converting lines, warehousing and Unifibres and makes paper products such as tissues. The site where SCA stands was first used by ICI for producing agricultural fertiliser (sulfate and ammonium sulfate). In 1963 this plant closed leaving behind the "Spetchells" chalk hills - heaps of waste product which were subsequently turfed over. After ICI closed, the site was owned by Cleveland Engineering, which produced automobile parts, and following its closure in 1969 Kimberly-Clark opened. Health facility Once home to a 1200-patient large mental health hospital based on the Prudhoe Hall site, Prudhoe was then home to a 40-bed specialist mental health facility for children and young people, Ferndene, which is operated by Cumbria Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust. Landmarks Prudhoe Castle Prudhoe Castle is a Norman castle, which was for a long time involved in the border wars between England and Scotland. It was built by the de Umfraville family: the Norman Sir Robert de Umfraville was granted the freedom of Redesdale by William the Conqueror. For much of its history the castle was owned by the Percy family. It is now run by English Heritage. The castle is unique in being the only medieval defensive fortification in the whole of Northumbria (the modern counties of Northumberland, Tyne and Wear and County Durham to the south) to avoid capture by the Scots. The majority of the surviving building work dates from the 12th century, although the site of Prudhoe Castle has strong Norman origins. In the 14th/15th centuries, the tower was extended to provide an extra level with turrets. Only the southwest turret survives to this day. Important religious sites right|thumb|270px|Our Lady and St Cuthbert - the church that moved Prudhoe Hall (built 1868-70) and the Catholic Church of Our Lady and St Cuthbert in Prudhoe (built 1890-91, but incorporating the Cottier windows from an earlier smaller chapel built 1868-70) have some of Daniel Cottier's earliest stained glass. Matthew Liddell presumably commissioned Cottier to design the stained glass windows in both the main hall and the original chapel because his architect, Archibald Dunn, was impressed by the fact that Cottier had recently won a prize for the superb harmony of colours in his armorial window at the 1867 Paris International Exhibition. Indeed, Daniel Cottier has referred to his Paris prize in the graphite border of the large window in the main hall of Prudhoe Hall. The stained glass in the small original chapel, which was opened on 19 October 1870, was eventually incorporated in the enlarged church of 1891 and then subsequently moved again a mile into the town of Prudhoe in 1904-05, when the Liddell family moved away from the area and could no longer support the Catholic mission, which Matthew Liddell had begun in 1870. The black-and-white photographs of the first chapel at Prudhoe Hall in Fr Paul Zielinski's book, The Church That Moved, show exactly the same windows containing the Cottier glass that have been retained in the larger church that replaced it. This means that the Cottier windows have been moved twice from their original site, and this would explain the necessity for so much extra remedial lead-work within some of the panes of glass, presumably repairing damage caused by two removals and two re-installations. The small windows at Prudhoe Hall depicting idyllic naturalistic scenes of a rising sun over a river are especially beautiful, and seem to have a strong similarity to the work of Louis Comfort Tiffany. Made in about 1870, they pre-date by ten years or more the collaboration between Cottier and Tiffany in the 1880s in America. The swaying reeds in particular would seem to suggest that Cottier may well have been a significant influence on Tiffany before Tiffany returned the compliment as it were, and Cottier brought some of his ideas back into his own artistic creations in Scotland. There is a memorial stone to John Wesley set in a low wall on South Road (outside the former Prudhoe Council offices), the former main street of the town, commemorating his visits to the town. West Wylam Towards the eastern edge of Prudhoe is West Wylam, an area of largely social housing. It is home to an elderly care home, Prudhoe Town AFC, a small row of takeaways as well as a local NISA store and Eastwood Park; where several local football teams play their league games. The area also has allotments and Adderlane First School, which was opened in 1978. The last church on the estate, West Wylam Ebenezer Methodist Church, closed in 2014. Transport Road Prudhoe is linked to Newcastle upon Tyne and the A1 by the A695 which used to pass through the centre of the town along Front Street. The A695 road now bypasses the town to the north through the industrial estate at Low Prudhoe. The better transport links of the new bypass have allowed the industrial estate to expand alongside the new road to the east, named Princess Way after the royal who opened SCA Hygiene. Northumberland County Council sought a significant landmark feature adjacent to the new bypass, and commissioned the Prudhoe Badger under their 'percent for art' policy. The sculpture is 30m long, and was constructed with the help of drystone wallers in stone and marble. It was designed to integrate with the rural environment, create awareness about ecology and provide a link with the nearby Countryside Centre. The badger sculpture is sited adjacent to the roundabout on the A695 road at Low Prudhoe. Railway right|thumb|240px|Prudhoe railway station The town is served by Prudhoe railway station on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, also known as the Tyne Valley Line. The line was opened in 1838, and links the city of Newcastle upon Tyne with Carlisle. The line follows the course of the River Tyne through Northumberland. Passenger services on the Tyne Valley Line are operated by Northern only after the May 2022 timetable change. The line is also heavily used for freight. The next railway stations are those at Wylam and Stocksfield. Bus The town has direct bus links to Newcastle, Hexham and the MetroCentre. Education First schools: Prudhoe Castle First School. Prudhoe West First Academy (which celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2009). St Matthew's Catholic Primary. Middle schools: Highfield Middle School. Ovingham Middle School. Eastwood Middle School (closed in 2006 and is now home of Prudhoe Youth Football Club) High schools: Prudhoe Community High School. Religious sites Prudhoe is home to a number of churches, which form as a meeting place for the local community. The churches include: The Parish Church of Saint Mary Magdalene (Church of England) Prudhoe Methodist Church Our Lady and Saint Cuthbert's Catholic Church The Gate Church Prudhoe (formerly Prudhoe Community Church) Edgewell Christian Centre Sport Prudhoe has its own senior football club, Prudhoe Town AFC, which formerly resided at Kimberley Park, West Wylam. Recreation Tyne Riverside Country Park in Low Prudhoe lies on the southern bank of the River Tyne. The park includes the artificial chalk hills known as the "Spetchells" which have attracted some natural chalk-loving flora and fauna not normally found in the region. It has been proposed that they be made 'sites of scientific interest'. A public bridleway runs from the country park to Hagg Bank, over the Points Bridge to Wylam. Now forming a traffic-free part of National Cycle Network Route 72, it runs on the bed of a disused railway line to Newburn, Tyne and Wear, Newcastle upon Tyne, and on to the coast at Tynemouth. Prudhoe Town Football Club are currently in the Wearside Football League, in the eleventh tier of the English football league system. The future of the club has recently been in doubt following the loss of its ground, Kimberley Park, in West Wylam. Prudhoe Waterworld provides swimming and other fitness activities and is the home of Prudhoe Millennium Tapestry. The town has a skatepark, Highfield Park, which is located at the top of Prudhoe. Public services Prudhoe is home to the North East Ferret Rescue, which helps unwanted and abandoned ferrets. It is the only active ferret rescue in the North East of England. See https://web.archive.org/web/20180718132105/http://www.northeastferretrescue.co.uk/ Notable people Henry Travers (1874-1965), Oscar-nominated character actor who is perhaps best known as the angel Clarence from It's a Wonderful Life. He was born in Prudhoe, but grew up in Berwick-upon-Tweed. Gaz Beadle, star of reality TV show, Geordie Shore from 2011 to 2017. Jak Alnwick, Footballer (Goalkeeper), who currently plays for Scottish premiership team St. Mirren, and his brother Ben Alnwick, Footballer (Goalkeeper), who played for Bolton Wanderers, were born in Prudhoe. John Callender - (1903-1980), English footballer, born at West Wylam George Honeyman, Footballer (Midfielder), who currently plays for Millwall, was born in Prudhoe Steven Savile, English science fiction and fantasy novelist and game writer, lived in Prudhoe between 1985-1991 Popular culture Prudhoe is the hometown of Ruth Archer and her mother Heather Pritchard, in the long-running BBC radio serial The Archers. International links - Prudhoe is twinned with Mitry-Mory, near Paris, France. Evidence of this partnership is seen when entering the town and there are several murals depicting the twinning. - Prudhoe Bay, an area of northern Alaska containing the largest oil field in the US is named indirectly after Prudhoe. The explorer, John Franklin, who discovered the area, named it after his good friend, Baron Prudhoe of Prudhoe. See also Prudhoe Castle References Category:Towns in Northumberland Category:Civil parishes in Northumberland

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William Edward Boeing (; October 1, 1881 - September 28, 1956) was an American aviation pioneer. He founded the Pacific Airplane Company in 1916, which was renamed to Boeing a year later. The company is now the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value and among the largest aerospace manufacturers in the world. Boeing's first design was the Boeing Model 1 (or B & W Seaplane), which first flew in June 1916, a month before the company was founded. He also helped create the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (known as "United Airlines" today) in 1929 and served as its chairman. He received the Daniel Guggenheim Medal in 1934 and was posthumously inducted in to the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1966, ten years after his death. Early life thumb|Metal plaque, Lenneuferstraße 33, Hagen-Hohenlimburg William Boeing was born in Detroit, Michigan, to Marie M. Ortmann, from Vienna, Austria, and Wilhelm Böing (1846-1890) from Hohenlimburg, Germany. Wilhelm Böing emigrated to the United States in 1868 and initially worked as a laborer. His move to the United States was disliked by his father and he received no financial support. He later made a fortune from North Woods timber lands and iron ore mineral rights on the Mesabi Range of Minnesota, north of Lake Superior. In 1890, when William was eight, his father died of influenza and his mother soon moved to Europe. Marie enrolled William Jr. and his sister at Schools in Switzerland. He attended school in Vevey, Switzerland, and returned to the US for a year of prep school at St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire near Boston. William Boeing's mother remarried in 1898 and moved to Virginia. He enrolled at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut,From the PBS documentary "Pioneers in Aviation: The Race for the Moon Episode I; The Early Years" dropping out in 1903 to go into the lumber business. Career Boeing moved to Hoquiam, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest. He was successful in the venture, in part by shipping lumber to the East Coast via the then-new Panama Canal, generating funds that he would later apply to a very different business.The Panama Canal's unexpected winners, BBC Mundo, July 4, 2016 While president of Greenwood Timber Company, Boeing, who had experimented with boat design, traveled to Seattle. During the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition in 1909, he saw a manned flying machine for the first time and became fascinated with aircraft. In 1910, at the Dominguez Flying Meet, Boeing asked every pilot foreign and domestic if he could go for an airplane ride and was repeatedly denied except for French aviator Louis Paulhan. Boeing waited and Paulhan finished the meet and left never giving Boeing his ride.William Boeing; National Aviation Hall of Fame Boeing took flying lessons at Glenn L. Martin Flying School in Los Angeles and purchased one of Martin's planes.Schefke, Brian. "William Edward Boeing." In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol. 4, edited by Jeffrey Fear. German Historical Institute. Last modified June 3, 2016. Martin pilot James Floyd Smith traveled to Seattle to assemble Boeing's new Martin TA hydroaeroplane and continue to teach its owner to fly. Huge crates arrived by train and Smith assembled the plane in a tent hangar erected on the shore of Lake Union. Boeing's test pilot, Herb Munter, soon damaged the plane. When he was told by Martin that replacement parts would not be available for months, Boeing told his friend, Commander George Conrad Westervelt of the US Navy, "We could build a better plane ourselves and build it faster." Westervelt agreed. They soon built and flew the B & W Seaplane, an amphibian biplane that had outstanding performance. Boeing decided to go into the aircraft business, using an old boat works on the Duwamish River near Seattle for his factory. thumb|Replica of the B & W Seaplane Founding of Boeing Aircraft In 1916, Boeing went into business with George Conrad Westervelt as "B & W" and founded Pacific Aero Products Co. The company's first plane was the Boeing Model 1 (B & W Seaplane). When America entered the First World War on April 8, 1917, Boeing changed the name to Boeing Airplane Company and obtained orders from the US Navy for 50 planes. At the end of the war, Boeing concentrated on commercial aircraft to service airmail contracts. International airmail attempt On March 3, 1919, Willam Boeing partnered with Eddie Hubbard to make the first delivery of international airmail to the United States. They flew a Boeing C-700 seaplane for the demonstration trip from Vancouver, British Columbia, to Seattle's Lake Union, carrying a bag of 60 letters from the Canadian post office for delivery in the U.S. Boeing family In 1921, Boeing married Bertha Marie Potter Paschall (1891-1977). She had previously been married to Nathaniel Paschall, a real estate broker with whom she had two sons, Nathaniel "Nat" Paschall Jr. and Cranston Paschall. The couple had a son of their own, William E. Boeing Jr. (1922-2015). The stepsons went into aviation manufacturing as a career. Nat Paschall was a sales manager for competitor Douglas Aircraft, which later became McDonnell Douglas. Bill Jr. became a private pilot and industrial real estate developer. Bertha Boeing was the daughter of Howard Cranston Potter and Alice Kershaw Potter. Through her father, she was a descendant of the founders of Alex. Brown & Sons merchant bankers Alexander Brown, James Brown, and Brown's son-in-law and partner Howard Potter; and through her mother, the granddaughter of Charles James Kershaw and Mary Leavenworth Kershaw (a descendant of Henry Leavenworth). thumb|William Boeing's birthplace, on Woodward Avenue, Detroit, was designed by Henry T Brush. Breakup of Boeing Group thumb|right|Boeing and Fred Rentschler, 1929 In 1929, Boeing joined with Frederick Rentschler of Pratt & Whitney to form United Aircraft and Transport Corporation. The new grouping was a vertically integrated company with interests in all aspects of aviation, intending to serve all aviation markets. In a short time, it bought a host of small airlines, merging them with Boeing's pioneering airline under a holding company, United Air Lines. In 1934, the United States government accused William Boeing of monopolistic practices. The same year, the Air Mail Act forced airplane companies to separate flight operations from development and manufacturing. William Boeing divested himself of ownership as his holding company, United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, broke into three separate entities: United Aircraft Corporation, holding the former eastern US manufacturing (later United Technologies Corporation) Boeing Airplane Company, with western US manufacturing, which later became The Boeing Company United Air Lines for flight operations He began investing most of his time in his horses in 1937. Boeing Airplane Company, though a major manufacturer in a fragmented industry, did not become successful until the beginning of World War II. Later life thumb|180px|left|Portrait of Boeing Between 1935 and 1944, William Boeing and his wife Bertha set aside a large tract of land north of the Seattle city limits for subdivision, including the future communities of Richmond Beach, Richmond Heights, Innis Arden, Blue Ridge, and Shoreview. The Boeings placed racially restrictive covenants on their land to enforce segregation, forbidding properties from being "sold, conveyed, rented, or leased in whole or in part to any person not of the White or Caucasian race." Non-whites could occupy a property on the land only if they were employed as a domestic servant "by a person of the White or Caucasian race." He spent the remainder of his life in property development and thoroughbred horse breeding. Concerned about the possibility of World War II battles in the Pacific Northwest, he purchased a farm in the countryside east of Seattle, which he dubbed "Aldarra." The estate remained in the family until most of the land was developed into a golf course residential community in 2001. Several acres, however, remained in the family, including the Boeing's own and two smaller houses. His primary residence for most of his life, however, was a mansion in The Highlands community close to Seattle; the William E. Boeing House was later listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Boeing Creek running near this property bears his name. On May 14, 1954, William Boeing and his wife Bertha went back to the Boeing Airplane Company to participate in the rollout ceremony for the Boeing 367-80 prototype. William Boeing died on September 28, 1956, at the age of 74, three days before his 75th birthday. He was pronounced dead on arrival at the Seattle Yacht Club, having had a heart attack aboard his yacht, Taconite, in Puget Sound, Washington. His ashes were scattered off the coast of British Columbia, where he spent much of his time sailing. He was posthumously inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio, in 1966. In 1984, Boeing was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. . The Museum of Flight, in Seattle holds the William E. Boeing Sr. Papers; an archival collection of Boeing's textual and photographic materials. See also United States airmail service References Further reading Carl Cleveland, Boeing Trivia, (Seattle: CMC Books, 1989) Harold Mansfield, Vision: A Saga of the Sky (Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1956) Robert Serling, Legend & Legacy: The Story of Boeing and Its People (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992) External links William E. Boeing Sr. papers at The Museum of Flight (Seattle, Wash.) Peter M. Wood Boeing Family Film Collection at The Museum of Flight Digital Collections. Category:1881 births Category:1956 deaths Category:American aerospace businesspeople Category:American aviation businesspeople Category:Boeing people Category:American company founders Category:American chairpersons of corporations Category:Aviation pioneers Category:Aircraft designers Category:American racehorse owners and breeders Category:Businesspeople in aviation Category:Businesspeople from Seattle Category:Chairmen of Boeing Category:American people of Austrian descent Category:American people of German descent Category:Businesspeople from Detroit Category:Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees Category:People who died at sea Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:Burials at sea

{"Name": "William E. Boeing", "Birth name": "William Edward Boeing", "Birth date": "1881 10 01", "Birth place": "Detroit, Michigan, U.S.", "Death date": "1956 09 28 1881 10 01", "Death place": "Puget Sound, Washington, U.S.", "Nationality": "American", "Citizenship": "American", "Awards": "Daniel Guggenheim Medal (1934)", "Education": "Yale University", "Occupation": "Industrialist", "Known For": "Founder of Boeing", "Spouse(s)": "Bertha M. Potter Paschall Boeing 1921", "Children": "William E. Boeing Jr."}

People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm is the debut studio album by American hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest, released on April 10, 1990 on Jive Records. After forming the Native Tongues collective and collaborating on several projects, A Tribe Called Quest began recording sessions for People's Instinctive Travels in late 1989 at Calliope Studios with completion reached in early 1990. The album's laid back production encompassed a diverse range of samples which functioned as a template for the group's unorthodox lyrics. People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was met with acclaim from professional music critics and the hip hop community on release, and was eventually certified gold in the United States on January 19, 1996. Its recognition has extended over the years as it is widely regarded as a central album in alternative hip hop with its unconventional production and lyricism. It is also credited for influencing many artists in both hip hop and R&B. In a commemorative article for XXL, Michael Blair wrote that "People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was immensely groundbreaking, and will eternally maintain its relevance within the culture and construction of hip-hop". Background A Tribe Called Quest formed in Queens, New York, in 1985. After establishing a friendship with hip-hop act Jungle Brothers, both groups formed a collective dubbed Native Tongues, which also included De La Soul. Several years prior to recording People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm, group member Q-Tip created much of the album's production on pause tapes when he was in the 10th grade.Q-Tip Made Most Of "People's Instinctive Travels" On Pause-Tapes When He Was 16 Medium. Accessed on March 28, 2020. He would have his first studio experience while recording with Jungle Brothers on their debut album Straight out the Jungle (1988). Although this was a learning experience, he acquired more recording and producing knowledge being present at all of De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising (1989) sessions. Recording engineer Shane Faber taught Q-Tip how to use equipment such as the E-mu SP-1200 and Akai S950 samplers, and soon-after, renowned producer Large Professor taught him how to use other equipment, for which he would expand upon on People's Instinctive Travels. Initially, record labels would not sign A Tribe Called Quest due to their unconventional image and sound, but took interest after the success of 3 Feet High and Rising, which featured appearances from Q-Tip. The group hired Kool DJ Red Alert as their manager, and after shopping their demo to several major labels, they signed a contract with Jive Records in 1989. Recording Recording for the album began in late 1989, and finished three months later in early 1990, with "Pubic Enemy" and "Bonita Applebum" as the first tracks recorded. The group chose Calliope Studios as their primary studio, as it was renowned to promote artistic freedom. Jungle Brothers, Queen Latifah and Prince Paul with De La Soul and Stetsasonic, were all recording new music in separate rooms while A Tribe Called Quest recorded People's Instinctive Travels. Q-Tip later commented, "It was exciting. We were kinda left to our own devices. It was just a great environment, conductive for creating. We didn't have cell phones, we didn't have the internet, we didn't have a bunch of things to tear at us. When we got to the studio, the specific job was to make music. There was no TV in there. It was all instruments and speakers. It was just music." Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad would listen to records several seconds at a time, and re-work them in relationship with other records that would fit. Ali played all live instruments, DJ scratches and programming, while Q-Tip handled everything else with production, including sampling and mixing. Although claiming that "we all helped put the album together", Q-Tip was the only group member present at every recording session. Group member Phife Dawg later admitted, "I was being ignorant on that first album, that's why I was only on a couple of tracks. I was hardly around. I would have rather hung out with my boys on the street and got my hustle on rather than gone in the studio. I wasn't even on the contract for the first album. I was thinking me and Jarobi were more like back-ups for Tip and Ali, but Tip and Ali really wanted me to come through and do my thing". Music and lyrics People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been described as "a celebration of bohemia, psychedelia and vagabondia", as well as "laid back". Los Angeles Times critic Dennis Hunt described the album as consisting of "mostly happy hip-hop, featuring gently humorous, casual, conversational raps". Michael Blair from XXL wrote that "the innovative production on this album created an optimal platform for the group's wildly inventive relationship with their words. From a lyrical standpoint, Tribe was both sophisticated and playful in the same breath". Much of the musical landscape on the album consisted of background noises such as a child crying, frogs and Hawaiian strings. The jazz, R&B and rock samples that were used were from artists that most hip-hop producers of the time ignored, or who were unfamiliar with. For the known artists that were sampled, Q-Tip used breaks that were unique for those artists, which turned out to be highly influential for hip-hop production. Ian McCann from NME stated "They break beats from anywhere they want... and deliver them in an easy, totally sympathetic setting." Entertainment Weeklys Greg Sandow said the album "has a casual sound, something like laid-back jazz". Regarding the album's lyrics, Kris Ex from Pitchfork said "The rhymes here are at once conversational and repressed, the topics concurrently large and small. The lyrics are 25 years old. But were they released today they'd seem right on time." Critical reception People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was met with widespread acclaim from critics. Reviewing the album for NME, Ian McCann wrote that "A Tribe Called Quest put no feet in the wrong place here. This is not rap, it's near perfection". In Entertainment Weekly, Greg Sandow commented that on the album, rather than "defining Afrocentric living", the group "more or less exemplifies it with no fuss at all". Robert Tanzilo from the Chicago Tribune stated that the album "avoids the gimmickry and circus atmosphere" of the group's contemporaries, while "focusing solely on the music". The Source gave it the first "five-mic" rating in the magazine's history, describing it as a "completely musical and spiritual approach to hip-hop," as well as "a voyage to the land of positive vibrations, and each cut is a new experience". Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Dennis Hunt called the album "fascinating" and wrote "These songs lope along in a quirkly, jazz-like pace. They're intriguingly non-linear and quite provocative, even though their meaning is somewhat elusive". The Village Voices Robert Christgau said that the album, while "subtler than... necessary" at points, is "indubitably progressive" and "has more good songs on it than any neutral observer will believe without trying". Chuck Eddy from Rolling Stone was more critical, finding that "the real pleasure on People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm comes from a detailed mesh of instruments and incidental sounds", and that "the rappers of A Tribe Called Quest tend to mumble in understated monotones that feel self-satisfied, even bored". Retrospect John Bush of AllMusic said "Restless and ceaselessly imaginative, Tribe perhaps experimented too much on their debut, but they succeeded at much of it, certainly enough to show much promise as a new decade dawned". Thomas Golianopoulos of Spin wrote that "following in the ground-breaking footsteps of their Native Tongues brethren, Tribe's laid-back debut had no heavy handed political or battle raps, just youthful exuberance and playfully goofy lyrics". Praising its production and lyricism, Kris Ex, writing for Pitchfork, credited the album for showcasing the group as "whimsical yet grounded in reality" with its "clean and focused" quality. He went on to write that "all these many years later People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm is more than a nostalgia artifact. It's a worthy listen, not because of what it was, but because of what it is". Dave Heaton of PopMatters called the album "brilliant" and said it was "an introduction to Q-Tip's talent." In his 5th edition of Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin rated the album three stars and called it "eclectic and self-consciously jokey". Accolades Since its release, People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been included on numerous "best of" lists compiled by music writers and journalists. The following information is adapted from Acclaimed Music. PublicationCountryAccoladeYearRankCameron AdamsAustralia100 Must Have Albums 201311-100BestGermanyThe Best Albums of the Year 19904Hervé BourhisFrance555 Records 2007*Christophe BraultFranceTop 20 Albums by Year 1964-2004 200613Robert DimeryUS1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die2005*Ego TripUnited StatesHip Hop's 25 Greatest Albums by Year 1980-9819999Entertainment WeeklyUSThe 100 Best Albums from 1983 to 2008200818The FaceUKBest Albums of the Year19903Les InrockuptiblesFrance50 Years of Rock'n'Roll2004*Les InrockuptiblesFranceThe 100 Best Albums 1986-1996199660MixmagUKThe 100 Best Dance Albums of All Time199636Mucchio SelvaggioItaly100 Best Albums by Decade200221-50NMEUKBest Albums of the Year19907NMEUKThe 500 Greatest Albums of All Time2013420PopSwedenThe World's 100 Best Albums + 300 Complements1994101Record CollectorUK10 Classic Albums from 21 Genres for the 21st Century2000*Rock & FolkFranceThe 250 Best Albums from 1966-19911991*RockdeluxSpainThe Best Albums of the Year199023SelectUKThe Best Albums of the Year19906SoundsUKThe Best Albums of the Year199037The SourceUS100 Best Rap Albums of All Time1998*SpexGermanyThe Best Albums of the Year19903TechnikartFrance50 Albums from the Last 10 Years1997*Gilles VerlantFrance300+ Best Albums in the History of Rock 2013*The Village VoiceUSBest Albums of the Year 199018XXLUS40 Years of Hip-Hop: Top 5 Albums by Year2014*ZundfunkGermanyThe Best Albums of the 90s200024 (*) designates lists that are unordered. Legacy thumb|right|250px|On several occasions acclaimed producer and vocalist Pharrell Williams has spoken on the album's influence. People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm has been recognized for widening hip-hop's vocabulary, as well as instrumentation and samples within hip-hop music. It has also been recognized for influencing a wide range of acclaimed hip-hop and R&B artists, including Common, D'Angelo, Digable Planets, Erykah Badu, Fugees, J Dilla, Kendrick Lamar, Mos Def, Outkast, Scarface, and Kanye West. Pharrell Williams stated "I listened to 'Bonita' everyday. I'd never heard anything like that in my life. That's where I changed". On another occasion, Williams explained that People's Instinctive Travels "caused a turning point in my life, which made me see that music was art." Reviewing the album for AllMusic, John Bush called People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm "the quiet beginning of a revolution in non-commercial hip-hop." For Pitchfork, Kris Ex stated that with the album the group "created and refined a template for '90s hip-hop that was street-astute, worldly, and more inspirational than aspirational". In a commemorative article for XXL, Michael Blair wrote "What A Tribe Called Quest ultimately became the pioneers of, and was on full display throughout the production on their debut album, was a certain proficiency in illustrating and honoring a diverse array of genres that preceded them. In what is mostly attributed to Q-Tip's deep appreciation and understanding of those definitive genres, Tribe's sound was perpetually laced with elements of Jazz, Soul, R&B, and Funk". Blair concluded that "People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm was immensely groundbreaking, and will eternally maintain its relevance within the culture and construction of hip-hop". Hip-hop journalist Harry Allen described the album as a turning point in hip-hop where artists did not have to be "tough". A Tribe Called Quest member Ali Shaheed Muhammad further elaborated that "LL Cool J, Big Daddy Kane, KRS-One, N.W.A, even Public Enemy, had a tough guy image. It was this bravado at the time that all the hip-hop artists had. People's Instinctive Travels wasn't any of that. We weren't trying to be tough guys. It was about having fun, being lighthearted, being witty, being poetic. Just being good with one another. That's what we presented. Just be. Just exist. Be comfortable in your own skin. People's Instinctive Travels was about celebrating you, whoever you are". Track listing All tracks written and produced by A Tribe Called Quest. Credits from album liner notes. Partial sample credits "Push it Along" contains a sample from "Loran's Dance", as performed by Grover Washington Jr. "Luck of Lucien" contains a sample from "All You Need Is Love", as performed by The Beatles, and "Forty Days", as performed by Billy Brooks. "Footprints" contains samples from "Sir Duke", as performed by Stevie Wonder and "Think Twice", as performed by Donald Byrd. "I Left My Wallet in El Segundo" contains a sample from "Let's Get Funky", as performed by The Chambers Brothers. "Bonita Applebum" contains samples from "Daylight", as performed by RAMP, "Memory Band", as performed by Rotary Connection and "Soul Virgo", as performed by Cannonball Adderley. "Can I Kick It?" contains samples from "Spinning Wheel", as performed by Lonnie Smith and "Walk on the Wild Side", as performed by Lou Reed. "Mr. Muhammad" contains a sample from "Brazilian Rhyme (Beijo)", as performed by Earth, Wind & Fire. "Ham 'n' Eggs" contains a sample from "Nappy Dugout", as performed by Funkadelic. "Go Ahead in the Rain" contains a sample from "Slide", as performed by Slave. "Description of a Fool" contains a sample from "Running Away", as performed by Roy Ayers. "Rhythm (Devoted to the Art of Moving Butts) contains a sample from "Get Off Your Ass and Jam", as performed by Funkadelic. Personnel Q-Tip - performer, production, mixing Ali Shaheed Muhammad - scratching, programming Phife Dawg - performer Jarobi White - performer Lucien - background vocals Bob Power - engineer Shane Faber - engineer Tim Latham - engineer Bob Coulter - engineer Anthony Saunders - engineer Kool DJ Red Alert - management, executive producer Paije Hunyady - cover art Bryant Peters - cover art Ari Marcopoulos - photography Justin Herz - photography Charts Weekly charts Chart (1990)Peakposition Year-end charts Chart (1990) Position US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums (Billboard) 65 Certifications References Bibliography External links People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) Category:A Tribe Called Quest albums Category:1990 debut albums Category:Jive Records albums Category:Progressive rap albums Category:Albums produced by Q-Tip (musician)

{"Released": "April 10, 1990Rewind: A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm http://read.tidal.com/article/rewind-a-tribe-called-quest-peoples-instinctive-travels TIDAL 18 November 2015", "Recorded": "1989-1990", "Studio": "Calliope Studios, Battery Studios (New York City, New York)", "Genre": "Alternative hip hopGale Alex April 11, 2012 https://www.bet.com/music/photos/2012/04/the-evolution-of-q-tip.html#!040912-music-evolution-q-tip-tribe-called-quest-bonita-applebum The Evolution of Q-Tip BET.com July 15, 2021\nEast Coast hip hop\nprogressive rapMcStarkey Mick April 2021 https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/a-tribe-called-quest-sample-frogs-after-hours/ What's that sound? The Frogs in A Tribe Called Quest's 'After Hours' Far Out July 15, 2021\njazz rapHarrington Richard December 5, 1999 https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/1999/12/05/a-tribe-and-true-approach/69fc9967-691a-4cd5-81d2-3a2b2e5d9b1f/ A Tribe and True Approach The Washington Post July 15, 2021", "Label": "Jive, RCA Records", "Producer": "A Tribe Called Quest"}

Raúl "El Gordo" De Molina (born March 29, 1959, in Havana, Cuba) is a Cuban-American television presenter, best known as the co-host of the Univision Network entertainment news show El Gordo y la Flaca, for which he won multiple Emmy Awards. Early life and education Raúl De Molina was born in Havana, Cuba in 1959. De Molina's father was detained as a political prisoner for 24 years by the Communist Party of Cuba. De Molina's family left Havana and lived in Spain when he was 10 years old. They moved to the United States when he was 16. As a child, De Molina became interested in photography. While in high school, he took photos for the school yearbook. He later attended The Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale. He was also a graduate of Miami Photography College in North Miami. Career Photojournalism After graduating from the Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale, De Molina worked as a freelance photographer during the 1980s. He first freelanced for Associated Press, before freelancing for the Time, Newsweek, U.S. News & World Report and USA Today. He documented news and live sports events, before eventually becoming a celebrity photographer. He was known for photographing celebrities and royalty including Elizabeth II, Diana, Princess of Wales, Oprah Winfrey, Robert De Niro and Melanie Griffith. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, De Molina commented on the lengths he went to for his photographs, including dangling outside of a helicopter to photograph the wedding of Jane Fonda and Ted Turner. His candid photos appeared in publications such as Life, ¡Hola!, and Paris Match. During the United States invasion of Panama, De Molina was one of the first photographers present and took photos of the inside of Manuel Noriega's house. In addition, he was a special contributor for the Spanish edition of Travel + Leisure magazine and has been featured in National Geographic Traveler, and The New York Times Travel section. In 2005, De Molina's photography was displayed in the "Pictures of a Lifetime" exhibition at the Gary Nader Gallery in Miami. Television De Molina began appearing on various talk shows during the 1990s, including The Joan Rivers Show, Maury Povich Show, and Geraldo. These early television appearances brought him to the attention of Spanish-language channels Telemundo and Univision. He made appearances on shows like Sábado Gigante, and in 1998 became the co-host of El Gordo y la Flaca, alongside Lili Estefan. He has continued to host the show ever since, which has more viewers on its time slot than ABC, CBS, NBC and FOX combined. He has hosted and reported for programs such as Primer Impacto, Ocurrió Así, Hola América, and Club Telemundo, as well as primetime specials and his own productions. De Molina has also covered live events such as the Latin Grammy Awards in Las Vegas, and the New Year's Eve celebration in Times Square, Manhattan. While in South Africa to cover the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Molina was stranded during a safari when his car engine caught fire, and he was surrounded by lions. According to Molina, he was rescued after a passing family gave him a ride. In 2008, De Molina was chosen as one of the "Most Influential Hispanics" in the United States by People en Español. He was featured in both the "Most Beautiful" and "Best Dressed" special issues of People en Español. In October 2008, Random House published his second book La Dieta del Gordo about his own struggles with weight, and his secret to losing 70 pounds. De Molina was an inaugural contributor to the HuffPost's Food section. He continues to write regular columns on food, healthcare, sports and Hispanic culture. He is also a regular contributor to AOL News. In 2008, De Molina appeared on After Hours with Daniel Boulud. He was a judge on Iron Chef America in 2011. He was also a guest on The Chew and The Wendy Williams Show. He was also a judge in the Miss America 2012 pageant besides Kris Jenner, Mark Ballas, and Lara Spencer. In 2015, De Molina was a panelist on The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. De Molina was prominently featured in the 2020 documentary film Mucho Mucho Amor: The Legend of Walter Mercado, about the life of Puerto Rican astrologer Walter Mercado. Personal life De Molina married his wife Millie de Molina in 1994, and they have a daughter named Mia. He travels extensively and documents his journeys through photography, and frequently vacations with his family. He is a survivor of kidney cancer, and has spoken publicly about his efforts to lose weight and improve his health. De Molina is an avid watch collector and his collection has been featured in The New York Times and Hodinkee. He has also cultivated a collection of art and photography, which includes works by Hunt Slonem, José Bedia Valdés, Li Hongbo, Liu Bolin, Valérie Belin, Lalla Essaydi, Manuel Mendive and . De Molina serves on Art Basel's host committee, and his annual party is regarded as the unofficial "kick-off" event of the international exhibition show. He has an interest in cars, which he developed as a young teen living in Spain where he often watched car races. His personal car collection includes a special edition 2013 Mini Cooper GP, Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG and a 2006 Ford GT40. Philanthropy De Molina has supported various philanthropic organizations, especially those related to children's health. He sponsors Voices for Children and the Miami Children's Health Foundation. He is an ambassador and sponsor for the Nicklaus Children's Hospital. De Molina photographed the hospital's patients and employees for its 2016 benefit calendar. Awards De Molina has received several Emmy Awards, with his most recent nomination in 2016. In addition, he has won three Suncoast Regional Emmys. In 2013, he was presented with the 20 Years Career Award during the 31st TVyNovelas Awards to commemorate his career. He was awarded the "Outstanding Achievement in Hispanic Television" at the 14th Annual Hispanic Television Summit in 2016. De Molina and his co-host Lili Estefan were awarded their own stars on the Las Vegas Walk of Stars in 2009. +List of awards and nominationsYearAwardAssociationResult2016Outstanding Daytime Talent in SpanishDaytime Emmy Awards2016Outstanding Achievement in Hispanic TelevisionHispanic Television Summit2015Outstanding Daytime Talent in SpanishDaytime Emmy Awards2015Los Favoritos del Público to Best Male HostPremios TVyNovelas201320 Years Career AwardPremios TVyNovelas Filmography Television +List of television programsYearTitleCredited asNotes1998-presentEl Gordo y la FlacaCo-host2018Premio Lo Nuestro 2018SelfTV special2016Viva VivianaSelf2015The Nightly Show with Larry WilmoreGuest panelist2013The ChewGuest2013Arranque de PasiónSelf2012Iron Chef AmericaJudge2011The Wendy Williams ShowGuest2010Concierto inaugural de la Copa MundialHostTV special2008After Hours with Daniel BouludSelf2006Don Francisco Presenta: ¡Feliz 2007!SelfTV special20062006 Premios JuventudSelfTV special2005Don Francisco Presenta: ¡Feliz 2006!SelfTV special2004-2005Pa'lante con CristinaSelf20042004 Premios JuventudSelfTV special2004Noche de estrellas: Premio lo Nuestro 2004SelfTV special2004Premio lo Nuestro a la música latina 2004SelfTV special2003-2004Primer Impacto: edición nocturnaSelfTV special2003Don Francisco Presenta: ¡Feliz 2004!SelfTV special2003¡Suéltalo!Host2003República DeportivaSelf2003¡Despierta América!Self2002Don Francisco Presenta: ¡Feliz 2003!SelfTV special2001¡Pica y se extiende!Host2001¡Qué bodas!Host Film +List of film appearancesYearTitleNotes2020Mucho Mucho Amor: The Legend of Walter MercadoDocumentary feature2006National Lampoon's Pledge This!Direct-to-video2006A Wonderful Christmas: Feliz Navidad2005Selena: Noche de estrellasTelevision documentary2004Un problema gordoTelevision movie See also List of television presenters/Cuban American References External links Raúl De Molina page at Univisión Category:Cuban television presenters Category:Cuban emigrants to the United States Category:1959 births Category:Living people Category:American television hosts Category:American photojournalists

{"Name": "Raúl De Molina", "Alt": "Photo of a large man wearing a suit", "Caption": "De Molina at the 2010 Latin Grammys in Las Vegas", "Birth date": "1959 3 29 y", "Birth place": "Havana, Cuba", "Education": "The Art Institute of Fort Lauderdale", "Occupation": "Television presenter and photojournalist", "Television": "El Gordo y La Flaca", "Spouse(s)": "Millie de Molina", "Children": "1"}

The Penguin (Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly as an adversary of the superhero Batman. The character made his first appearance in Detective Comics #58 (December 1941) and was created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger.Detective Comics #58 The Penguin is one of Batman's most enduring enemies and belongs to the collective of adversaries that make up Batman's rogues gallery. The Penguin is a Gotham City mobster who fancies himself the number one "Gentleman of Crime". He is most often seen wearing a monocle, top hat, and morning suit while carrying his signature umbrella. The character appears most times as a short, fat man with a long nose. Penguin uses high-tech umbrellas as different tools. His umbrellas have been used as guns, gas, swords/knives, a mini-helicopter and many other unconventional tools. The Penguin owns and runs a nightclub called the Iceberg Lounge which provides a cover for his criminal activity. Batman sometimes uses the nightclub as a source of criminal underworld information. Unlike most of Batman's rogues gallery, the Penguin is completely sane and in full control of his actions, giving him a unique relationship with Batman. According to his creator Bob Kane, the character was inspired by the advertising mascot of Kool cigarettes in the 1940s; a penguin with a top hat and cane. However, similarities have been found between Penguin's design and the appearance of the Dick Tracy character Broadway Bates, who was introduced in 1932. Co-creator Bill Finger thought that the image of high-society gentlemen in tuxedos was reminiscent of emperor penguins. His main color is usually purple. The Penguin has repeatedly been named one of the best Batman villains and one of the greatest villains in comics. Penguin was ranked #51 in IGN's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time. The character has been featured in various media adaptations, including feature films, television series, and video games. For example, the Penguin has been voiced by Paul Williams and David Ogden Stiers in the DC Animated Universe, Tom Kenny in The Batman, Nolan North in the Batman: Arkham video game series and Elias Toufexis in Gotham Knights. His live-action portrayals include Burgess Meredith in the 1960s Batman television series and its spin-off film, Danny DeVito in Batman Returns, Robin Lord Taylor in the television series Gotham, and Colin Farrell in the film The Batman, as well as the character's upcoming eponymous television series on Max. Publication history The Penguin made his first appearance in Detective Comics #58 (December 1941) and was created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger. The character is set to receive his first solo title as a part of the Dawn of DC initiative, with the book being written by Tom King and drawn by Rafael de Latorre. Fictional character biography Golden Age Originally known only by his alias, the Penguin first appeared in Gotham City as a skilled thief, sneaking a pair of priceless paintings (valued at $250,000 in 1941 dollars) out of an art museum by hiding the rolled-up canvases in the handle of his umbrella. The Penguin later used the stolen paintings as proof of his underworld acumen to a local mob boss, who allowed him to join his crime family. With the Penguin's planning, the mob pulled off a string of ingenious heists. The "be-monocled bird" and the mobster eventually fell out, leading Cobblepot to kill him with his umbrella gun. The Penguin became the leader of the mob and attempted to neutralize Batman by framing him for the theft of a statue which Penguin, himself, had stolen. As part of the plot, Penguin actually already owned the statue and was framing Batman and Robin to commit insurance fraud. The Penguin's plans were eventually prevented, but the bandit himself escaped. Penguin was later sighted at the time when Dick Grayson was traveling on a train. Batman and Robin found out that he was getting reward money for turning in criminals that he later sprung from prison. While Batman and Robin defeated the criminals during the conflict, Penguin fell into the Mississippi River.Detective Comics #59. DC Comics. Penguin made his way to Florida where he set up a gambling operation with Joe Crow, Buzzard Benny, and Canary where the patrons would win big and then they would be followed by Penguin's henchmen so that they can rob them. Batman and Robin put an end to the gambling operation, but Penguin got away.Batman #11. DC Comics. Penguin later utilized some exotic birds to assist in his crime spree. Batman and Robin stopped this crime spree, but Penguin got away again.Detective Comics #67. DC Comics. Penguin later set himself up as an underworld advisor where he sold his foolproof plans to different criminals. When the criminals pulled off a successful heist, Penguin would kill them and steal their loot. To get to the bottom of this caper, Batman posed as a rival criminal called "Bad News Brewster". While Penguin figured out that Batman was posing as a criminal, Batman and Robin finally apprehended Penguin and brought him to justice.Batman #14. DC Comics. Penguin soon became less violent and began to obsess over birds and umbrellas. After breaking out of prison, Penguin hears that Batman doesn't consider him a threatening villain. To prove Batman wrong, Penguin built himself some gimmick guns and fishing poles. Batman was able to defeat him with an umbrella.Batman #17. DC Comics. Penguin later escaped from prison and tried to rob three eccentric millionaires. While Batman and Robin failed to catch him after the first two robberies, they catch him during the third one due to the fact that the third millionaire has been dead for a year.Batman #21. DC Comics. Penguin later escaped from prison. To catch him, Batman and Robin set up an umbrella repair shop. Despite some difficulties, Batman and Robin were finally able to catch Penguin when he tripped over an umbrella.Detective Comics #87. DC Comics. Penguin later met Joker in prison. When both of them broke out of prison, Penguin and Joker competed against each other in robberies until one where they managed to work together to pull it off. Their differences would be the advantage that Batman and Robin would use to apprehend them.Batman #25. DC Comics. Penguin took the son of a criminal under his wing and started to teach him about crime. The uninterested boy wrote a book about Penguin's crimes. This impressed Penguin to the point where he plotted to get it published. When that failed, he started to steal some publishing supplies which led to the boy attracting the attention of Batman and Robin. After Batman and Robin apprehended Penguin, the book is shown to the readers that "crime doesn't pay".Batman #27. DC Comics. Penguin later attempted to extort money from a shipping company by pretending to flash-freeze a member of its board of directors and would thaw them out once his demands are met. When Batman and Robin found that the frozen victims were all dummies, they raided Penguin's hideout and apprehended him.Detective Comics #99. DC Comics. Penguin later went on another crime spree and was stopped by Batman and Robin.Batman #30. DC Comics. Three crooks tricked Penguin into distracting Batman and Robin so that they can commit crimes. While the crooks were defeated by Batman, Penguin suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Robin.Batman #33. DC Comics. Upon his release from prison, Penguin opened a restaurant called the Penguin's Nest as part of a plot to get arrested so that he can collaborate with an incarcerated forger. Batman foiled this plot that involved getting Penguin arrested for fraud.Batman #36. DC Comics. When a fire broke out in prison, Penguin saved the prison warden. He was released on parole and tried to go straight only for him to see a cartoon that depicted and mocked penguins. Penguin went on a crime spree that revolved around that cartoon and was apprehended by Batman and Robin.Batman #38. DC Comics. After breaking out of prison, Penguin posed as an assistant to a reclusive ornithologist named Professor Boyd where he used his ornithology stage as a front for his bird-themed crime spree. Batman and Robin defeated Penguin and brought him to justice.Detective Comics #120. DC Comics. Penguin was released from prison and set up his own bird shop where he sold his birds to the prominent people of Gotham City. The birdcages had bombs that would enable Penguin to break into their houses and rob them. Batman and Robin deduced Penguin's plot and apprehended him.Batman #41. DC Comics. Penguin's next plot involved extorting the singers of Gotham City by using special microphones that released a type of gas that affected the singers' singing abilities if they don't pay him. Batman and Robin deduce the scheme and apprehend Penguin.Detective Comics #126. DC Comics. Penguin started another crime spree in order to dominate the crime sprees that were being committed by Joker and Catwoman. Even though his crime spree involved rare birds, Penguin was apprehended by Batman once again.Batman #43. DC Comics. Penguin had to improvise his next crime spree when a thunderbolt destroyed his hideout and trick umbrellas. While committing a crime spree using umbrella-shaped objects, Penguin was apprehended by Batman and Robin.Detective Comics #134. DC Comics. Penguin began to use codes in order to get information on how to break out of prison. Upon getting hold of Penguin's code book, Batman figured out Penguin's plot and apprehended him.World's Finest #35. DC Comics. Penguin broke out of prison and vowed not to use birds in his crime spree. One of those crime sprees caused Penguin to be tripped by birds. When some chicks swallowed some diamonds, he attempts to make off with them only to be apprehended by Batman and Robin.Batman #48. DC Comics. Upon being released from prison, Penguin started a sideshow attraction called Pee-Wee the Talking Penguin. This was a cover for a scheme to use the penguin costume to commit robberies to obtain the money to pay off his previously hired goons. Batman and Robin apprehend Penguin who was arrested for committing fraud a second time.Batman #51. DC Comics. Penguin got out of jail for snitching on the criminal Squeeze Miller which led to Miller's execution. He was surprised that Miller listed him in his will. To get the inheritance, Penguin had to commit a specific robbery using specific birds. Batman deduced Penguin's criminal activity and apprehended him when it turned out that Miller's inheritance was worthless.Batman #56. DC Comics. Penguin was paroled from prison where he tries to get the Bird Lovers' Society to elect the penguin the state bird. When that was turned down, Penguin began his revenge on the Bird Lovers' Society by robbing them until he was thwarted by Batman and Robin.Batman #58. DC Comics. Using the prison's workshop, Penguin made some mechanical wings that enabled him to escape from prison. He and his henchmen then committed a series of crimes using the mechanical wings which involved abducting Robin so that they can get Batman to reveal his true identity. Batman rescued Robin and defeated Penguin and his henchmen.Batman #61. DC Comics. After escaping from prison again, Penguin had a hard time finding henchmen due to the many times he was apprehended by Batman. Upon becoming inspired by a newspaper article, Penguin committed a series of crimes involving a white feather until he was apprehended by Batman and Robin.World's Finest #49. DC Comics. Penguin feigned going straight again and purchased a mansion which he converted into a museum and bird sanctuary where he started returning stolen loot to the robbery victims. Batman and Robin figure out that Penguin has planted gas bombs in a plot to re-steal the loot and were able to apprehend him.Detective Comics #171. DC Comics. On Penguin's birthday, Penguin received presents from the other criminals where the presents mocked him. Penguin began another bird-related scheme before being apprehended by Batman and Robin.World's Finest #55. DC Comics. Penguin is paroled from prison again and was asked to release his birds as a sign of good will. Penguin proceeds to open up his umbrella company called Penguin Umbrellas Inc. where he even fooled Batman into endorsing his products. This was a cover-up for his plan to rob Gotham City with the special magnets that are in the umbrellas. Following the robbery, Penguin fled to Oasis Beach Island in the Caribbean Sea where he attempted another umbrella-themed theft before being apprehended by Batman and Robin.Batman #70. DC Comics. In his final Golden Age appearance, Penguin began a scheme that involved him pretending to be a legitimate businessman where he used clever frauds of mythological birds that he passed off as the real thing. Then Penguin started to claim that Batman was associated with a Man-Bat of his own design. Batman foiled Penguin's plot and apprehended him.Batman #76. DC Comics. Silver Age Born Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot, the Penguin was bullied as a child for his short stature, weight, way of walking, and beak-like nose. Several stories relate that he was forced, as a child, to always carry an umbrella by his overprotective mother due to his father dying of bronchial pneumonia from refusing to take one while going out in the rain. His parents owned a bird shop, where Cobblepot spent most of his time with the birds, seeing them as his only friends, and lavishing them with attention. His love of birds would eventually lead him to study ornithology in college - only to find out that he knew more about birds than most of his professors did. In some versions, Cobblepot turns to crime after his mother dies and the bird shop, along with all of her birds, is repossessed to pay her debts.As first revealed in The Best of DC #10 (March 1981). DC Comics. Penguin's first fight with Batman and Robin occurred when he was behind a series of thefts and left behind eggs as clues. Penguin’s egg clue proved to be his undoing when he got bitten by a baby alligator that hatched from one of the eggs.Batman #99. DC Comics. The injury Penguin got from the alligator caused him to briefly retire from crime. After being mocked by other criminals, Penguin began to plague Batman again by committing bird-related crimes. He was foiled by Batman and Robin.Batman #155. DC Comics. Penguin tricked Batman into planning his next robbery by planting bugged umbrellas around Gotham City. He was foiled by Batman and Robin.Batman #169. DC Comics. Andrew Helm used his Corti-Conscious Machine to manipulate Penguin, Captain Cold, Mirror Master, and Shark into battling the Justice League.Justice League of America #40. DC Comics. Penguin collaborated with Joker and Riddler into turning Batman into some type of Bat-Hulk using an experimental gas. Metamorpho helped to restore Batman to normal and they apprehended all three criminals.The Brave and the Bold #68. DC Comics. At the time when Penguin was robbing a bird sanctuary in Metropolis, he nearly gets killed due to Catwoman's plot that involved her hypnotizing Lois Lane into attacking him only for it to be averted thanks to Superman's intervention.Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane #70. DC Comics. Penguin gathered his gang and armed them with weapons from the future to combat modern crime-fighting technology. While most of these plots were foiled by Batman and Robin, Penguin was knocked out by Alfred Pennyworth.Batman #190. DC Comics. While in prison, Penguin and Joker heard the news that Batman is retiring. This turned out to be a ruse.Batman #191. DC Comics. At the time when Batman was shaking off the effects from Scarecrow's fear pills, Penguin escapes from prison and ends up apprehended by Batman and Robin.Batman #200. DC Comics. Doctor Destiny manipulates Penguin, Doctor Light, Lex Luthor, Tattooed Man, Cutlass Charlie, Captain Boomerang, Floronic Man, and I.Q. into switching bodies with the Justice League. Penguin switched bodies with Batman. The Justice League managed to thwart this plot and apprehend the villains.Justice League of America #61. DC Comics. Penguin, Joker, Catwoman, the Imposter Mad Hatter, Cluemaster, Getaway Genius, and Johnny Witts get concerned about the western mob encroaching in their territory. Coming together as the Gangland Guardians, they competed with the western mob in taking out Batman first.Batman #201. DC Comics. After laying low for a short time, Penguin began his next plot that involved kidnapping a young ruler named King Peeble IV of Swawak in order to take over Swawak. Batman and Robin defeated him with help from Talia al Ghul.Batman #257. DC Comics. At the time when King Kull plotted to cause havoc on Earth-One, Earth-Two, and Earth-S, he enlists Penguin, Queen Clea of Earth-Two, Blockbuster of Earth-One, and Ibac of Earth-S for his attack on Earth-Two, where he tries to wreck Atlantis and use a cloud to sink islands. They are thwarted by Superman of Earth-One, Wonder Woman of Earth-Two, Green Arrow of Earth-One, and Spy Smasher of Earth-S.Justice League of America #135 (October 1976). DC Comics. Penguin then did a heist on treasures belonging to short rulers using robot versions of extinct birds to keep Batman busy. Batman managed to apprehend Penguin.Batman #287. DC Comics. Penguin did another little man-motive crime and was apprehended by Batman again.Batman #288. DC Comics. Penguin later participated in Hugo Strange's auction of Batman's secret identity.Detective Comics #472. DC Comics. At the time when the Gotham City council outlawed Batman and Robin, both of them had to work outside the law to apprehend Penguin during his diamond heist.Detective Comics #473. DC Comics. Penguin collaborated with Terra-Man in a plot to hypnotize Superman into thinking he's the Sundance Kid and have him attack Batman. Once Batman snapped Superman out of this hypnosis, they proceeded to apprehend Penguin and Terra-Man.World's Finest #261. DC Comics. At the time when Penguin was planning to rob a Pterodactylus egg from the museum, he was easily thwarted by Robin.Detective Comics #492. DC Comics. When four criminals plotted to testify against Penguin, he began a plot to kill them before they can do that. This plot was foiled by Batman and Black Canary.The Brave and the Bold #166. DC Comics. Using a trained falcon, Penguin captured a millionaire. It took the combined efforts of Batman, Robin, and Green Arrow to rescue the millionaire and defeat Penguin.The Brave and the Bold #185. DC Comics. Penguin later did a plot that involved having a fake Joker murder him. This was thwarted by Batman and the real Joker.The Brave and the Bold #191. DC Comics. Joker recruited Penguin, Riddler, Two-Face, Mr. Freeze, Mad Hatter, Scarecrow, Clayface II, Black Spider, Cavalier, Signalman, and Spook in a plot to take out Killer Croc. The villains were defeated by Batman, Robin, Batgirl, Catwoman, and Talia al Ghul.Detective Comics #526. DC Comics. Penguin stole an early warning system that the Pentagon developed. He planned to sell it to some Russian spies.Batman #374. DC Comics. Batman tracked Penguin down to Antarctica and defeated him. Though he did learn that Penguin was planning on double-crossing the Russian spies.Detective Comics #541. DC Comics. During the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" storyline, Penguin is among the superheroes and supervillains that were gathered by Lex Luthor of Earth-Three and Harbinger to deal with the destruction of the Multiverse at the hands of the Anti-Monitor.Crisis on Infinite Earths #5. DC Comics. After the Anti-Monitor was seemingly destroyed, Penguin was among the villains recruited by Lex Luthor to join a coalition of supervillains that plan to take control of the remaining universes. He was dispatched to Earth-S and fought with the superheroes sent to liberate Earth-S.Crisis on Infinite Earths #9. DC Comics. The Penguin made his last Silver Age appearance during the last appearance of the Earth-One Batman. After he and a multitude of Batman's enemies are broken out of Arkham Asylum and Gotham State Penitentiary by Ra's al Ghul, the Penguin carries out Ra's' plans to kidnap Batman's friends and allies. Penguin, Joker, Mad Hatter, Cavalier, Deadshot, and Killer Moth lay siege to Gotham City Police Headquarters, but are infuriated when Joker sabotages their attempt at holding Commissioner James Gordon for ransom. A standoff ensues, with Joker on one side and Penguin and Mad Hatter on the other. The Joker quickly subdues both with a burst of laughing gas from one of his many gadgets.Batman #400. DC Comics. Post-Crisis Following the rebooting the history of the DC Universe, the Penguin was relegated to sporadic appearances, until writer Alan Grant (who had earlier penned the Penguin origin story "The Killing Peck" in Secret Origins Special #1) and artist Norm Breyfogle brought him back, deadlier than ever. In this continuity, Oswald Cobblepot is an outcast in his high-society family and their rejection drives him to become a criminal. In keeping with his aristocratic origins, the Penguin pursues his criminal career while wearing formal attire such as a top hat, monocle, and tuxedo, especially of the "white-tie-and-tails" design. He is one of the relatively few villains in Batman's rogues gallery who is sane and in full control of his actions, although still ruthless and capable of extreme violence. He is also highly intelligent and can even match wits with Batman, in some cases using his access to information and business connections to assist the vigilante. Batman once admitted the Penguin is smarter than he is.Batman: Penguin Triumphant (1992). DC Comics. During their run, the Penguin forms a brief partnership with hypnotist Mortimer Kadaver, who helps him fake his own death as a ploy to strike an unsuspecting Gotham, only for Kadaver to include a post-hypnotic suggestion that will leave Penguin back in his comatose state and only able to be awoken by a command that Kadaver alone knows. The Penguin later kills Kadaver, after plugging his own ears with toilet paper so that the hypnotist no longer has power over him.Detective Comics #610-611. DC Comics. After Batman foils this particular endeavor, the Penguin embarks on one of his grandest schemes ever in the three-part story "The Penguin Affair". Finding Harold Allnut being tormented by two gang members, the Penguin takes in the technologically gifted hunchback, showing him kindness in exchange for services. Harold builds a gadget that allows the Penguin to control flocks of birds from miles away, which the Penguin utilizes to destroy radio communications in Gotham and crash a passenger plane. This endeavor, too, is foiled by Batman, who hires Harold as his mechanic. The Penguin resurfaces during Jean Paul Valley's tenure as Batman and is one of the few people to deduce that Valley is not the original Caped Crusader. To confirm his theory, he kidnaps Sarah Essen Gordon, places her in a death trap set to go off at midnight, and turns himself in, utilizing the opportunity to mock her husband Commissioner Gordon as midnight approaches. An increasingly infuriated Gordon is nearly driven to throw him off the police headquarters roof before Valley rescues Sarah moments before midnight. As Valley leaves, he says, "There's nothing the Penguin can throw at me that I haven't encountered before." The Penguin reluctantly agrees with this sentiment, accepting that he has become passé.Showcase '94 #7. DC Comics. Subsequently, the Penguin turns his attentions to a new modus operandi, operating behind the front of a legitimate restaurant and casino he calls "The Iceberg Lounge", which Batman sometimes uses as a source of criminal underworld information.Detective Comics #683. DC Comics. Though he is arrested for criminal activities several times during the course of his "reform", he always manages to secure a release from prison thanks to his high-priced lawyers. In the storyline "No Man's Land", Gotham City is nearly leveled by an earthquake. The Penguin stays behind when the U.S. government blockades the city. He becomes one of the major players in the lawless city, using his connections to profit by trading the money that nobody else in Gotham could use for goods through his contacts outside the city. One of these connections is discovered to be Lex Luthor and his company LexCorp. The Penguin's information helps Luthor to gain control of Gotham's property records, but Luthor dismisses him when the Penguin attempts to blackmail Luthor. The Penguin has swept up in the events of Infinite Crisis. In the seventh issue, he is briefly seen as part of the Battle of Metropolis, a multi-character brawl started by Alexander Luthor Jr.'s Secret Society of Super Villains which he is a member of. The Penguin, along with several other villains, is bowled over at the surprise appearance of Bart Allen. One Year Later while the Penguin is away from Gotham City, the Great White Shark and the Tally Man kill many of the villains who had worked for him, and frame the reformed Harvey Dent. The Great White Shark had planned to take over Gotham's criminal syndicate and eliminate the competition, the Penguin included. Upon his return to Gotham, the Penguin continues to claim that he has gone straight, and reopens the Iceberg, selling overpriced Penguin merchandise. He urges the Riddler to avoid crime, as their new shady but legal lifestyle is more lucrative. The Penguin was featured as a prominent figure in the Gotham Underground tie-in to the series Countdown. He fights a gang war against Tobias Whale, Intergang and the New Rogues, while supposedly running an "underground railroad" for criminals. In the end, Batman convinces the Penguin to become his informant.Gotham Underground #9. DC Comics. The Penguin later loses Batman's support after the latter's mysterious disappearance and Intergang's exploitation of the return of the Apokoliptan Gods. He appears in Battle for the Cowl: The Underground, which depicts the effects of Batman's disappearance on his enemies. The Penguin's mob is absorbed by Black Mask II, who controls his criminal activities. The Penguin, with the aid of the Mad Hatter, abducts Batman and brainwashes him to assassinate Black Mask. During the events of Brightest Day, the Birds of Prey discover the Penguin beaten and stabbed at the feet of the White Canary.Birds of Prey (vol. 2) #1. DC Comics. The Birds rescue him and flee to the Iceberg. While recovering, the Penguin expresses his attraction to the Dove.Birds of Prey (vol. 2) #2-3. DC Comics. Eventually, the Penguin reveals that his injury had been a ruse and that he is working with the White Canary in exchange for valuable computer files on the superhero community. He betrays the Birds and seriously injures both Lady Blackhawk and the Hawk before the Huntress defeats him.Birds of Prey (vol. 2) #4. DC Comics. The Huntress tapes him up with the intention of taking him with her, only to be informed by Oracle that she has to let him go due to a police manhunt for the Birds. The Huntress considers killing him with her crossbow, but ultimately leaves him bound and gagged in an alley with the promise that she would exact her vengeance on him later.Birds of Prey (vol. 2) #5. DC Comics. The Penguin is eventually attacked by the Secret Six, who kill many of his guards in an ambush at his mansion. Bane informs him that he needs information on Batman's partners, as he plans on killing Red Robin, Batgirl, Catwoman, and Azrael.Secret Six (vol. 3) #35. DC Comics. The Penguin soon betrays the team's location, which results in the Justice League, the Teen Titans, the Birds of Prey, the Justice Society, and various other heroes hunting down and capturing the criminals.Secret Six (vol. 3) #36 Around this time, a new supervillain, who calls himself the Architect, plants a bomb in the Iceberg Lounge as revenge for crimes committed by the Penguin's ancestor. Though Blackbat and Robin are able to evacuate the building, the Lounge is destroyed in the ensuing explosion.Batman: Gates of Gotham #2. DC Comics. The New 52 In 2011, The New 52 rebooted the DC universe. The Penguin is a client of a criminal named Raju who was sent to offer gold to the Dollmaker for Batman's release.Detective Comics (vol. 2) #4. DC Comics. While in his Iceberg Casino, the Penguin views a disguised Charlotte Rivers on his surveillance cameras and tells his henchwoman Lark to make sure Rivers gets "a story to die for".Detective Comics (vol. 2) #5 (January 2012). DC Comics. During the Death of the Family crossover, the Penguin puts his right-hand man Ignatius Ogilvy in charge of his operations in his temporary absence. Ogilvy, however, uses the Penguin's absence to declare him dead, taking over his gang and killing those loyal to him. Under the alias "Emperor Penguin",Detective Comics (vol. 2) #15. DC Comics Ogilvy takes over the Penguin's operations. Upon the Joker's defeat, Batman unsuccessfully attempts to imprison the Penguin in Blackgate Penitentiary, only to be forced to release him later. Upon learning of Ogilvy's betrayal, the Penguin attacks his former henchman's new empire, but Batman intervenes and arrests him. The Penguin is found not guilty, however, thanks to the machinations of his ally Mr. Combustible threatening the judge's family. Meanwhile, Ogilvy releases Kirk Langstrom's Man-Bat serum on Gotham City, turning many of the citizens into Man-Bats. Langstrom discovers a cure, returning the citizens to normal. Ogilvy then takes the serum himself which was spiced with the Venom drug and one of Poison Ivy's plant concoctions. Emperor Penguin then challenges Batman openly to a fight, defeating the masked vigilante with his newfound prowess and leaving him to be rescued by the Penguin. The pair forge a temporary alliance and defeat Ogilvy.Detective Comics (vol. 2) #20. DC Comics. The Penguin also played a role in the Black Canary's rebooted origin. In Birds of Prey (vol. 4) #0, Dinah sought to land a job at the Iceberg Lounge, knowing that a lead on the Basilisk organization which she was pursuing would soon spring up there. Unfortunately, the Penguin was not in the habit of taking job applications, so she decided to prove her worth by infiltrating the outfit by herself. When she arrived in the Penguin's bathroom, he was unimpressed. To prove her worth, she demonstrated her special ability: a sonic scream that could shake down the roof, if it were intense enough. Naturally, the scream alerted the Penguin's henchmen, and she made short work of them with her martial arts skills. Finally impressed, the Penguin hired her, and dubbed her the Black Canary in keeping with the ornithological theme.Birds of Prey (vol. 4) #0. DC Comics. During the "Forever Evil" storyline, the Penguin is among the villains recruited by the Crime Syndicate of America to join the Secret Society of Super Villains.Forever Evil #1. DC Comics. With the heroes gone, the Penguin becomes the Mayor of Gotham City and divides the different territories among the inmates of Arkham Asylum.Detective Comics (vol. 2) #23.3. DC Comics. Bane retrieves Ignatius Ogilvy (now calling himself "Emperor Blackgate") for the Penguin as part of their agreement. When Bane brings him to the Penguin, he tells Emperor Blackgate that the Arkham fighters are not scared of Bane as he does not instill fear as Batman did.Forever Evil: Arkham War #3. DC Comics. DC Rebirth In the "Watchmen" sequel Doomsday Clock, the Penguin is among the villains that attend the underground meeting held by the Riddler that talks about the Superman Theory. When the Penguin suggests that they hand Moonbow and Typhoon over to the government that supposedly created them, Typhoon attacks Penguin until the Comedian crashes the meeting.Doomsday Clock #6 (July 2018). DC Comics. Characterization Skills and abilities The Penguin is a master criminal who aspires to be wealthy, powerful and respected (or at least feared) by Gotham's high society. The Penguin's wealth gives him access to better resources than most other Batman villains, and he is able to mix with Gotham's elite, especially those he plans to target in his future crimes. He is also capable of returning to his luxurious lifestyle very easily despite his violent criminal history and prison record. He has even attempted multiple times to enter the political world, even launching expensive election campaigns. The Penguin also has strong connections with other criminal kingpins across Gotham, allowing him to hire their assassins and workers to spy on them easily. The Penguin relies on cunning, wit, and intimidation to exploit his surroundings for profit, and despite his short temper, he is normally depicted as being more rational and sane than other Batman villains, or at least relatively so. Although he often delegates the dirty work to his henchmen, he is not above taking aggressive and lethal actions on his own, especially when provoked or insulted. In spite of his appearance and stature, he is a dangerous hand-to-hand combatant with enough developed skills in judo, fencing, ninjutsu and bare-knuckle boxing to overwhelm attackers many times his size and physical bearing. The Penguin is usually portrayed as a capable physical combatant when he feels the situation calls for it, but his level of skill varies widely depending on the author; the character has been written both as a physical match for Batman and as someone the masked vigilante is capable of defeating with a solid punch. His crimes often revolve around stealing valuable bird-related items and his car and other vehicles often have an avian theme. Equipment The Penguin utilizes an assortment of umbrellas, particularly the Bulgarian umbrella. These usually contain weapons such as machine guns, sword blades, knife blades, rocket launchers, laser blasters, flamethrowers, and acid or poison gas spraying devices fired from the ferrule (however, the Penguin is able to weaponize his umbrellas in an almost unlimited variety of ways). Depending on the writer, some of his umbrellas can carry multiple weapons at once. He often carries an umbrella that can transform its canopy into a series of spinning blades: this can be used as a miniature helicopter or as an offensive weapon; he often uses this to escape a threatening situation. The canopy of the umbrella is sometimes depicted as being a bullet resistant shield, and some are patterned in different ways from a spiral capable of hypnotizing opponents to flashy signs. He can also call upon his flying birds to attack and confuse his enemies in battle.Joker's Asylum: Penguin. DC Comics. Appearance The Penguin's usual appearance is that of a short, obese human in formal wear has alternatively changed with the debut of Tim Burton's version of the character featured in the 1992 film Batman Returns. In the film, the Penguin's hands are flippers (a physical deformity caused by syndactyly), which, combined with a beak-like nose and other characteristics, made the Penguin look like a cross between an actual penguin and a man. This somewhat bizarre aspect inspired comic book artists and has influenced numerous Penguin designs in cartoons since the film's release, such as Batman: The Animated Series, for example. Currently, both the old and the new appearances of the character alternate in the comics, although there is no clear explanation or basis in reality for this to happen. Relationships The idea of the Penguin and the Joker as a team is one that is decades old, as the two villains, pop-culture wise, are arguably Batman's two most famous enemies. Their first team-up took place fairly early in Batman's career, in "Knights of Knavery".Batman #25. DC Comics. Since then, the two have teamed up countless times throughout the Golden and Silver Ages. This carried over into the 1960s television series as well; both appeared together as a team numerous times. They have even shown affection towards each other on more than one occasion; in one story, "Only Devils Have Wings", the Joker actually cries when it appears that the Penguin has been murdered, and vows to avenge the Penguin's death.The Brave and the Bold #194. DC Comics. Reception The character of the Penguin, particularly as portrayed by Burgess Meredith, has often been used as a theme to mock public figures that supposedly resemble him. Jon Stewart, host of The Daily Show, has made numerous references comparing former Vice President Dick Cheney with the Penguin, including a laugh similar to the one heard in the 1960s Batman series. In May 2006, a Republican-led PR firm, DCI Group, created an astroturfing YouTube video satirizing Al Gore's film An Inconvenient Truth. The video portrayed Gore as the Penguin using one of his trick umbrellas to hypnotize a flock of penguins into believing in the existence of global warming and climate change.Regalado, Antonio and Searcey, Dionne, "Where Did That Video Spoofing Gore's Film Come From?", Wall Street Journal, 3 August 2006, retrieved 1 August 2012 Roger Stone has also been likened to Penguin due to his manner of dress. Other versions Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles In the Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles crossover, the Penguin is first seen at the docks with the Shredder, selling him a WayneTech Resonance Engine, but the Shredder betrays him and reveals he has already taken care of most of his men and plans on taking the engine himself. The Shredder is then about to kill the Penguin, but the Penguin offers to provide him weapons and money for his plan in order to save himself. The Shredder decides to spare the Penguin, calling him "Bird Man." The Shredder then uses the Iceberg Lounge as his base, where the Penguin has engineers working on the resonance engine to power his machine. The Shredder then reveals that he plans on bringing an army through the dimensional portal and take over Gotham City. The Penguin objects, but the Shredder threatens to kill him and tells him that he belongs to the Foot Clan. As the Shredder gets ready to open the portal, Batman and the Ninja Turtles arrive to stop them, but the Shredder destroys the portal and escapes with Ra's al Ghul. During the battle, the Penguin escapes as well. The Penguin then visits Batman, the Ninja Turtles, and Commissioner Gordon and tells them about the Shredder's plans, betraying him. The Penguin, though, does not agree with the Shredder's plans and reveals that the Shredder and the Foot Clan are now working with Ra's al Ghul and the League of Assassins. Later, Robin and Casey Jones reveal that the League and the Foot are using Arkham Asylum as their base. When Batman and Robin arrive, they are greeted by the Penguin, who has been mutated into a mutant rockhopper penguin as punishment for betraying the Shredder, along with the Joker, Two-Face, Riddler, Harley Quinn, Mr. Freeze, Mad Hatter, Bane, Scarecrow, Poison Ivy, and the Ventriloquist, who have all been mutated into animals and attack Batman and Robin. Batman is captured, but Robin manages to escape. The Ninja Turtles and Splinter then arrive, where Splinter defeats the mutated villains, while Batman uses his new Intimidator Armor to defeat the Shredder and the Turtles defeat Ra's. Later, Gordon tells Batman that the police scientists have managed to turn all of the inmates at Arkham back to normal and are currently in A.R.G.U.S. custody.Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles #1-6. DC Comics/IDW. DC Comics. Batman: Earth One In the graphic novel series Batman: Earth One, Oswald Cobblepot is the corrupt mayor of Gotham City. Although he doesn't call himself the Penguin like his mainstream counterpart, he is occasionally referred to by the nickname. In the past, he was the mayoral competition for Dr. Thomas Wayne. Cobblepot holds a grudge against the Wayne family, believing the Waynes have disgraced the Cobblepot legacy, so he planned for the Waynes to be murdered, but was not ultimately responsible for their death; they are instead killed in a random mugging on election night. It is also implied that Cobblepot had James Gordon's wife murdered when the detective got too close to finding out Cobblepot's involvement with the Waynes' murder. In the present, Cobblepot runs Gotham with an iron fist, controlling all the power centers of the city and using a hired killer named Ray Salinger, also known as "The Birthday Boy". When Batman confronts Cobblepot, he sticks Batman with a trick stiletto from his umbrella then he removes Batman's cowl, finding out that Batman is Bruce Wayne. Fortunately, Alfred Pennyworth arrives on the scene and empties two barrels into Cobblepot's chest. The blast sent Cobblepot's body out of the window where he landed into the street below. After his death, his crimes were finally outed to the public.Batman: Earth One (July 2012). DC Comics. Batman: White Knight The Penguin has a minor appearance in the 2017 series Batman: White Knight. The Penguin, along with several other Batman villains, is tricked by Jack Napier (who in this reality was a Joker who had been force-fed an overdose of pills by Batman which temporarily cured him of his insanity) into drinking drinks that had been laced with particles from Clayface's body. This was done so that Napier, who was using Mad Hatter's technology to control Clayface, could also control the villains by way of Clayface's ability to control parts of his body that had been separated from him. The Penguin and the other villains are then used to attack a library which Napier himself was instrumental in building in one of Gotham City's poorer districts. Later on in the story, the control hat is stolen by the Neo-Joker (the second Harley Quinn, who felt that Jack Napier was a pathetic abnormality while the Joker was the true, beautiful personality), in an effort to get Napier into releasing the Joker persona. Penguin also appears in the sequel storyline Batman: Curse of the White Knight, being among the villains murdered by Azrael. Earth -22 In The Batman Who Laughs, the Penguin of Earth -22 is depicted as having been killed by the Joker during his penultimate act of terror against the Batman.The Batman Who Laughs #1 (January 2018). DC Comics. Elseworlds In the Elseworlds story Batman: Crimson Mist, the third part in a trilogy that turned Batman into a vampire, the Penguin is the first of many criminals to be killed by the vampiric Batman after he surrenders to his darker instincts. As the book begins, the Penguin has just escaped from Arkham again, and has apparently developed a reputation as a cop-killer. As the Penguin lures a group of cops into a trap, he impales one in the head with his umbrella, but Batman arrives in the form of a monstrous bat before the Penguin's men can claim more victims. Batman brutally tears the Penguin's throat out as he drinks his blood and subsequently kills his enemy, proceeding to kill the rest of the Penguin's gang and tear off their heads to stop them from returning as vampires.Batman: Crimson Mist. DC Comics. In Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham, an Elseworlds setting based on the works of H. P. Lovecraft, Bruce Wayne is the leader of an expedition to Antarctica of which there is only one survivor. The rescue team finds no trace of him, but it is revealed to the reader that the now half-insane Cobblepot has abandoned his humanity, and joined the albino penguins of the Elder Things' city.Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham. DC Comics. Flashpoint In the alternative timeline of Flashpoint, Oswald Cobblepot works as the security chief of Wayne Casinos, providing information about his clients and the criminal underworld to that universe's Batman, Thomas Wayne.Flashpoint: Batman - Knight of Vengeance #1 (June 2011). DC Comics. In the sequel Flashpoint Beyond, the Flashpoint reality was restarted when Batman stole the snow globe associated with it from the Time Masters. Oswald still works for Thomas and helps to raise Dexter Dent after his father Harvey Dent was killed.Flashpoint Beyond #0-6. DC Comics. Harley Quinn Rebirth In Harley Quinn Rebirth, the Penguin had been running a superhero sex club in New York City for over a year. He has been engaged in serious plans to take over Coney Island to turn it into a private resort (based on himself, of course). Unfortunately for him, Harley Quinn had been beating him up and otherwise threatening his plans in that direction. So to get her out of the way, he made an agreement with Gotham's underworld. After the death of her friend Mason at the hands of New York's corrupt mayor, Professor Hugo Strange and False Face dosed her with truth serum to increase her depression and separate her from her friends. Then when she left, Penguin kept her and all of her friends busy with various Batman villains while he threatened the land owners to give over their property and used two kaiju penguins to kill off 90% of the crime lords in New York. When Harley finally figured it out, she came back and gathered all of her friends, including Poison Ivy (who used a giant daffodil to fight the giant penguins in what was described at 'The worst kaiju battle ever!"), her Gang of Harleys, Power Girl, Killer Croc, and Scarface (who switched sides), Captain Strong, her Roller Derby team, her stalkers/friends Harley Sinn and Red Tool, and various other characters for a huge showdown with pretty much every Batman villain ranging from Batzarro to the Zebra-Man. Harley eventually made her way up to the Penguin while her friends eventually beat up his collected allies and, while beating him up, revealed she suspected it was all really about her turning down his perverted advances. In the end after the bad guys on Penguin's side were all rounded up, he was revealed to have extorted the land from everyone and the owners all got their places back so they could rebuild. Joker The Penguin (mockingly referred to as "Abner" by the Joker) appeared in Joker, a graphic novel by Brian Azzarello and Lee Bermejo. This incarnation operates the Iceberg Lounge, handles most of Joker's personal investments and deals with revenues from boxing matches.Joker. DC Comics. Superman/Batman In Superman/Batman, an amalgamation of the Penguin and Metallo, called Penguello, appears among the mercenaries recruited into Lex Joker's Brotherhood of Injustice. Thanks to Terranado, who had gone undercover within the Justice Titans, they were able to attack the Justice Tower.Superman/Batman #61 (August 2009). DC Comics. The Further Adventures of Batman Volume 2 featuring the Penguin In the short story "Vulture: A Tale of the Penguin", by Steve Rasnic, the Penguin loses weight to the point of emaciation and becomes a vigilante, calling himself the Vulture.The Further Adventures of Batman Volume 2 featuring the Penguin'', edited by Martin H. Greenberg (chapter 16). DC Comics. In other media See also List of Batman family enemies Bulgarian umbrella, a real-world weapon similar to the Penguin's umbrella gun which was used by the KGB in several assassinations in the late 1970s Syndactyly, the physical deformity which gave some versions of the Penguin his flipper-like hands References External links Penguin at DC Comics' official website Category:Action film villains Category:Villains in animated television series Category:Batman characters Category:Comics characters introduced in 1941 Category:Characters created by Bob Kane Category:Characters created by Bill Finger Category:DC Comics film characters Category:DC Comics male supervillains Category:DC Comics martial artists Category:DC Comics orphans Category:DC Comics television characters Category:Fictional boxers Category:Fictional characters with dwarfism Category:Fictional crime bosses Category:Fictional double agents Category:Fictional gunfighters in comics Category:Fictional judoka Category:Fictional hunchbacks Category:Fictional karateka Category:Fictional kidnappers Category:Fictional gangsters Category:Fictional murderers Category:Fictional socialites Category:Golden Age supervillains Category:Male characters in film Category:Male film villains Category:Male characters in television Category:Video game bosses

{"Notable aliases": "Mr. Boniface\nMatthew Richardson\nThe Gentleman of Crime\nCobblepot\nUncle Pengy\nThe King of Gotham", "Publisher": "DC Comics", "Created by": "Bill Finger (writer)Bob Kane (artist)", "Species": "Human", "Team affiliations": "Iceberg Lounge\nSuicide Squad\nSecret Society of Super Villains\nInjustice League\nSuper Foes", "Partnerships": "Edward Nygma (Riddler)", "Abilities": "Criminal mastermind\nSkilled armed/unarmed combatant\nUtilizes weaponized umbrellas and various other equipment"}

The 16"/50 caliber Mark 7 - United States Naval Gun is the main armament of the Iowa-class battleships and was the planned main armament of the cancelled . Description thumb|left|A cutaway of a turret mounting 16-inch guns Due to a lack of communication during design, the Bureau of Ordnance assumed the Iowa class would use the /50 Mark 2 guns constructed for the 1920 South Dakota-class battleships. However, the Bureau of Construction and Repair assumed that the ships would carry a compact 16-in/50 turret and designed the ships with barbettes too small to accommodate the 16-in/50 Mark 2 three-gun turret that the Bureau of Ordnance was actually working on. The lightweight 16-in/50 Mark 7 was designed to resolve this conflict. These guns were 50 calibers long, 50 times their bore diameter with barrels long, from chamber to muzzle. Each gun weighed about without the breech, and with the breech. They fired projectiles weighing from at different muzzle velocities, depending on the shell. When firing armor-piercing shells, their muzzle velocity was 2,500 feet per second (762 meters per second) with a range of up to . At maximum range the projectile spent almost minutes in flight. Each turret required a crew of 79 men to operate. The turrets cost US$1.4 million each, excluding the cost of the guns. The turrets were described as "three-gun" rather than "triple" because each barrel could be elevated independently. The ships could fire any combination of their guns, up to a broadside of all nine. The turret interiors were subdivided and designed to permit the independent loading, elevation and firing of each gun. Each turret was fitted with an optical range finder, ballistic analog computer, and a switchboard. The rangefinder and ballistic computer permitted the turret's gun captain and crew to locally engage targets should battle damage disrupt communication with the ship's primary or auxiliary fire control centers. The firing switchboard allowed any remaining fire control computer to send data to or control the firing computers of other turrets in the event of battle damage to the primary and secondary artillery plotting rooms. Contrary to popular belief, the ships did not move sideways noticeably when a broadside was fired; this was an illusion. With the enormous mass of the vessel and the damping effect of the water around the hull, the pressure wave generated by the gunfire was felt as just a slight change in lateral velocity. The sea surface on the side of the ship to which the guns are trained is roiled by the guns' muzzle blast, which creates the illusion of motion in still photos. The guns could be elevated from -5 degrees to +45 degrees, moving at up to 12 degrees per second. The turrets could rotate about 300 degrees at about 4 degrees per second and could be fired back beyond the beam, sometimes called firing "over the shoulder". A red stripe on the wall of each turret, inches from the railing, marked the limit of the gun's recoil as a safety warning to the turret's crew. Complementing the 16-in/50 caliber Mark 7 gun was a fire control computer, the Ford Instrument Company Mark 8 Range Keeper. This analog computer was used to direct the fire from the battleship's big guns, taking into account factors including the speed of the targeted ship, the projectile's travel time, and air resistance. At the time the was set to begin construction, the range keepers had gained the ability to use radar data to direct fire. The results of this advance were telling: the range keeper was able to track and fire at targets at greater range and with increased accuracy, day or night. This gave the US Navy a major advantage in the latter half of WWII, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy. With a few exceptions, such as the Japanese battleship Yamato, Japanese warships at best used basic radar sets that were not connected to fire control, still relying on optical rangefinders. Even the few Japanese warships that had radar-assisted guns did not directly link their fire control and radar, having to input the locations of targets spotted on radar into the fire control manually. The 16"/50 caliber's advanced fire control was designed to allow it to fire accurately at its maximum range. which exceeded any opposing ship's effective firing range. However, this proved not to be possible. The US soon learned that shell dispersion was not something fire control, no matter how advanced, could solve (this remains true: modern guns with more advanced radar cannot fire accurately from maximum range, being limited to a shorter accurate effective range). Several live-firing tests were conducted by Iowa-class battleships in which the 16"/50 displayed shockingly low hit rates from the extreme ranges it was designed to fight from, even with its very advanced radar. Most notably USS Iowa bombarded the former battleship target Nevada over five days, with an extremely low hit rate, failing to sink the target ship, demonstrating that a ship armed with these guns could not fire accurately at an enemy ship while remaining out of range of the enemy's guns. During their reactivation in the 1980s, the up-to-date Mark 160 Fire Control System was used to guide the fire of the Iowa-class battleship Mark 7 guns. Mark 8 "Super-heavy" shell The Mark 7 gun was originally intended to fire the Mark 5 armor-piercing shell. However, the shell-handling system for these guns was redesigned to use the "super-heavy" APCBC (Armor Piercing, Capped, Ballistic Capped) Mark 8 shell before any of the 's keels were laid down. The large-caliber guns were designed to fire either an armor-piercing round for anti-ship and anti-structure work, and a high-explosive round for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment. The and classes could also fire the 2,700-pound Mark 8 shell with the 16"/45 caliber Mark 6 gun, although with a shorter range. The Mark 6 gun was not as heavy as the Mark 7, which helped both battleship classes to conform to the limits of the Washington Naval Treaty. However, the two treaty-era battleships fired their shells at a lower muzzle velocity, which made their plunging fire superior to that of the 16"/50 caliber gun. The Mark 8 shells gave the North Carolina, South Dakota, and Iowa classes the second-heaviest broadside of all battleship classes, even though the two ships were treaty battleships, exceeded only by the Yamato-class super-battleships. Each D839 propellant (smokeless powder) grain used for full charges for this gun was long, in diameter and had seven perforations, each in diameter with a web thickness range of between the perforations and the grain diameter. A maximum charge consisted of six silk bags (hence the term "bag gun"), each filled with of propellant. thumb|right|16"/50 gun projectile with six propellant bags on display aboard the USS Iowa (BB-61) Construction thumb|right|Yard workers hoist one of nine 16"/50 Mark VII gun barrels aboard the USS Iowa during her construction in 1942. thumb|right|The 16-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns of the forward turret of the battleship fire at enemy targets ashore on the Korean Peninsula on 30 January 1952 during the Korean War. thumb|right|Employees working with the automatic 16-inch powder stacking machine at Naval Ammunition Depot Hingham, Mass. during World War II. The Mark 7 gun was a built-up gun and was constructed of liner, tube, jacket, three hoops, two locking rings, tube and liner locking ring, yoke ring and screw box liner. Some components were autofretted. Typical of United States naval weapons built in the 1940s, the bore was chromium-plated for longer barrel life. It had a Welin breech block that opened downwards and was hydraulically operated. The screw box liner and breech plug was segmented with stepped screw threads arranged in fifteen sectors of 24 degrees each. Service history Off of Truk Atoll on 16 February 1944, Iowa and New Jersey engaged the at a range of and straddled (one ship on Nowaki's port side, and the second on her starboard ) her, setting the record for the longest-ranged straddle in history (although not a single hit was claimed). Some reports indicated the near misses caused splinter damage and casualties to the crew. Nowaki was able to escape due to the range and her speed. The action against Nowaki was part of Operation Hailstone. This is the only surface engagement that Iowa-class battleships are known to have engaged in. In the action, Iowa sank the Japanese training cruiser Katori, while New Jersey helped to sink destroyer Maikaze, and the auxiliary cruiser Akagi Maru. The gun was also used as the basis for Project HARP, an experimental gun-based space-launch research program. + Gun characteristics Designation 16-in/50 caliber (406 mm × 20.3 m) Mark 7 Ship class(es) used on Iowa (BB-61) and Montana (BB-67) classes Date of design 1939 Date entered service 1943 Gun weight (including breech) (without breech) Gun length oa (breech face to muzzle) Bore length Rifling length Grooves (96) deep Lands N/A Twist Uniform RH 1 in 25 Chamber volume Rate of fire 2 rounds per minute Range with nominal powder charge Muzzle velocity with HC (High Capacity) shell and with AP (Armor Piercing) shell Muzzle energy for the light projectile and for the heavy projectile. See also List of naval guns List of World War II artillery 46 cm/45 Type 94 naval gun Armament of the Iowa class battleship List of the largest cannon by caliber 16-inch/45-caliber Mark 6 gun Weapons of comparable role, performance and era 40.6 cm SK C/34 gun German equivalent Notes References External links NavWeaps Video The 16"/50 Gun & Turret: US Navy Instructional Film USS Missouri rolling fire 16in Barrels: Construction and Maintenance Battleship New Jersey Museum Category:Naval guns of the United States Cold War Category:World War II naval weapons Category:400 mm artillery Category:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1943

{"Place of origin": "United States", "Type": "Naval gun", "Sights": "yes", "In service": "1943-1992", "Used by": "U.S. Navy", "Wars": "World War IIKorean WarVietnam WarLebanese Civil WarGulf War", "Designed": "1939", "Mass": "267904 lb kg t (including breech)", "Length": "816 in ft m", "Muzzle velocity": "AP: 2500 ft/s 0HC & Nuclear: 2690 ft/s 0", "Maximum firing range": "29 mi, (23.64 mi accurately)"}

Hasim Sharif Rahman (born November 7, 1972) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1994 to 2014. He is a two-time world heavyweight champion, having held the unified WBC, IBF, IBO and lineal titles in 2001; and the WBC title again from 2005 to 2006. He was ranked as a top 10 heavyweight by BoxRec from 2000 to 2005, and reached his highest ranking of world No.6 at the conclusion of 2004. Rahman first became known on the world stage in 2001 when he scored an upset knockout victory against Lennox Lewis to win the unified heavyweight championship. Lewis avenged the loss and regained his championship by knocking out Rahman in a rematch later that year. Rahman won the WBC title (initially the interim version) for a second time in 2005 by defeating Monte Barrett, after which the WBC elevated him to full champion status by the year's end. His reign as champion ended in 2006 via another knockout loss, this time to Oleg Maskaev in a rematch of their first fight in 1999. Professional career 1994-1997: prospect Rahman started boxing at a relatively late age, taking up the sport at the age of 20. He had just 10 amateur bouts before making his pro debut on December 3, 1994, at age 22. Rahman tried to compensate on his lack of amateur background by being busy in the pros, sometimes fighting within five days from the previous bout. Overall, Rahman had nine professional fights in 1995, and eleven - in 1996. Rahman had obvious natural boxing skills that propelled him to 11 knockout wins in his first 12 fights. He took a step up in class in March 1996 with a 10-round decision win over veteran Ross Puritty and seven months later, he repeated the feat against former world champion Trevor Berbick. In July 1997, he won the regional USBA heavyweight title, and four months later, he added another regional belt, the IBF Intercontinental heavyweight title, defending the USBA title three times and the Intercontinental belt twice. 1998-2000: heavyweight title contention On December 19, 1998, Rahman faced fellow contender David Tua in a fight to determine the IBF's mandatory contender. Rahman was using his power jab well, out boxing Tua virtually every round. At the end of the 9th round Tua staggered Rahman with a devastating punch after the bell that dazed him. At the beginning of the next round Tua hit him with several heavy shots and the referee jumped in when Rahman was bobbing and weaving. Tua won by TKO. It was argued that it should have been a DQ. Because of the controversial nature of the loss, Rahman's ranking did not suffer, but in November 1999, he was knocked out by Oleg Maskaev in the eighth round of a fight he looked to be winning. At one point during the match, Rahman was knocked through the ropes onto the floor, hitting his head on the floor. Rahman dropped out of The Ring top 10 as a result of the surprise loss. Rahman later said that he had seen Maskaev earlier in his career get knocked out in the first round by former champion Oliver McCall and he assumed he was brought in as an easy win. Rahman claimed that because of this, he did not train as hard as he should have and was beaten. 2001: first world title and Lewis rivalry thumb|Rahman in 2001 Rahman came back with three wins, including one in May 2000 over Corrie Sanders in a war in which he was dropped twice and came back to win in 7, and after that he was moved back up in the rankings. After this fight, Sanders briefly retired. Finally, on April 22, 2001, Rahman earned a shot at Lennox Lewis the WBC, IBO and IBF heavyweight champion with a win over Frankie Swindell. Rahman beat Swindell via 7th-round RTD. Swindell quit on his stool after the 7th round, informing the ringside doctor that he had suffered an eye injury. In the fight, held at Brakpan, South Africa, Lewis and Rahman traded hard blows for five rounds before Rahman, a 20-to-1 underdog, stunned the crowd by defeating Lewis via 5th-round KO. It was only the second loss of Lewis' career. His first was on September 24, 1994, when Oliver McCall defeated him via 2nd-round TKO. Lewis had an immediate-rematch clause in the contract for his defense against Hasim, and chose to invoke it. Rahman and his new promoter, Don King, made plans to defend the titles against David Izon, rather than giving Lewis his rematch. Lewis sued Rahman in U.S. federal court to enforce their contract. The judge, Neil McCluskey sided with Lewis and on November 17, 2001, in Las Vegas, the two men met again. This time, Lewis brutally knocked Rahman out in the fourth round. For the rematch, Lewis made $11 million and Rahman got $10 million. The fight generated 460,000 pay-per-view buys and $23 million in revenue. 2002-2004: comeback Rahman's comeback fight ended in disappointment, he was beaten by a technical decision by aging former champion Evander Holyfield after headbutts from Holyfield caused a massive swelling (severe hematoma) on Rahman's forehead. On March 29, 2003, Rahman faced David Tua for a second time. The fight was ruled a draw after one judge scored it for Rahman, a second for Tua and a third had the score even. Tua was knocked down a split second after the bell rang and it was not ruled an official knockdown. Rahman came in at the heaviest weight of his career. In June, Rahman was elevated to the No. 1 contender's position by the WBC. On December 13, Rahman was matched with former WBA world champion John Ruiz, in a match for an Interim WBA heavyweight title (caused by Roy Jones Jr. deciding whether he wanted to stay a heavyweight or return to Light Heavyweight). Rahman was favored, but he lost by (twelve round) unanimous decision and again was out of condition. Ruiz, who became interim titleholder with this victory, was upgraded to WBA heavyweight champion after Roy Jones Jr. vacated the title on February 20, 2004, choosing to fight Antonio Tarver for the WBC and IBO light heavyweight titles (already in 2003), rather than Ruiz. After this defeat, Rahman stepped back to a lower level of competition and defeated four journeyman fighters while working to get back into shape. His efforts paid off when he was rewarded with a fight against Kali Meehan on November 13, 2004. The fight was an elimination bout for the IBF, WBA, and WBC, with the winner being the number-one contender in more than one world-title organization. Rahman scored the victory by a fourth-round knockout at New York City's Madison Square Garden. 2005: second world title and Vitali Klitschko fight cancellation The WBC designated Rahman as Vitali Klitschko's next mandatory challenger; the fight was set for April 30, 2005. Klitschko injured his thigh while training for the fight, so it was rescheduled for June 18. As this date approached, Klitschko's camp said that the thigh had not fully healed; the WBC made July 23 the new fight date. Soon after this second postponement, Vitali's doctors reportedly discovered back injuries that they said demanded minor-yet-immediate corrective surgery. The WBC pushed Rahman's title shot back again, this time to November 12; Rahman's share of the purse following this match would reportedly be around US$4.2 million. After this third rescheduling, Rahman, fought for a WBC "Interim" heavyweight championship and defeated Monte Barrett on August 13, 2005, via unanimous decision. At this point, Klitschko would be stripped of his WBC title if his first fight back was not against Rahman. On November 7, it was announced that Klitschko had suffered severe right knee injuries during training; the WBC said it would strip him of the championship if he was unable to box within 60-90 days of a soon-to-be-announced base date. However, on November 9, Vitali Klitschko retired instead. On November 10, 2005, the WBC voted to award its heavyweight championship to Rahman, making Rahman a two-time heavyweight champion. On December 9, 2005, a U.S. Bankruptcy Court judge ended Rahman's contract with Don King and he signed instead with Top Rank Boxing. 2006: title fights vs. Toney, Maskaev On March 18, 2006, Rahman fought James Toney to a draw, in a 12-round fight in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and he retained the WBC heavyweight title. The judges scorecards read 114-114, 117-111 and 114-114. Judges Tom Kaczmarek and Nobuaki Uratani had Toney leading by one point heading into the 12th. Rahman only retained the title by winning the final round. Rahman reached his peak rankings in 2006. The April 2006 issue of the Ring ranked him the #2 heavyweight in the world after IBF champion Chris Byrd.The Ring Magazine's Annual Ratings: 2005. BoxRec retroactively ranked him #4 that year, below Nikolai Valuev, Lamon Brewster, and Chris Byrd. On August 12, 2006, Rahman lost the WBC heavyweight championship to rival Oleg Maskaev by 12th Round TKO in a mandatory defense of his title. Rahman led on the judges' scorecards for most of the close fight, with the three judges respectively scoring it 106-103 for Rahman, 103-106 for Maskaev, and 105-104 for Rahman going into 12th round; Rahman landed 250 punches throughout the bout (47% accuracy) to Maskaev's 184 (28% accuracy).BoxRec: Hasim Rahman vs. Oleg Maskaev (2nd meeting). However, Rahman was knocked down early in the 12th and eventually stumbled to the mat. Rahman was then holding on to the ropes to stay on his feet. Maskaev landed a flurry of punches with Rahman unable to defend himself. The referee stopped the bout to save Rahman from further punishment. Afterwards he said he should have followed his trainer's game plan by staying cautious in the last round to win on points, instead of rushing Maskaev, mistakenly thinking him too tired to fight back. 2007: second comeback thumb|right|250px|Rahman during training, 2008 After a 10-month layoff, Rahman resumed his career with a ten-round unanimous decision over Taurus Sykes June 14, 2007, at The Main Street Armory in Rochester, New York. Rahman then fought three times in three months defeating Dicky Ryan by second-round TKO on September 7, 2007. Hasim followed up by stopping Cerrone Fox on October 18, 2007. On November 15, 2007, Rahman then scored a 10th-round TKO for the NABF title against Zuri Lawrence. In this fight, Lawrence fell through the ropes on two occasions whilst ducking punches, once in round six and again in round nine. In round six, he landed on the floor below the ring, but beat the referee's 20-count. He received a standing ovation from the crowd when he re-entered the ring. 2008: Rahman vs. Toney II, Wladimir Klitschko Going into 2008, the 35 year old Rahman was still considered a potent fighter. He held the NABF continental title and was ranked #4 by the IBF and #8 by the WBO. BoxRec retroactively ranked him the world's 8th best heavyweight in 2007. However, his two fights in that year would both end in defeat. On July 16, 2008, Rahman was stopped by an accidental headbutt against James Toney. Toney was originally awarded a TKO victory as the referee declared Rahman had quit between rounds. A week later, the TKO victory was overturned and changed to a No Contest due to the headbutt. After three rounds, Toney was ahead on 29-28 on two of the judges cards while Rahman was ahead, 29-28 on the third card. Rahman lost to Wladimir Klitschko by TKO in the 7th round on December 13, 2008, for his WBO, IBO & IBF titles. Klitschko dominated the fight, winning every round while making good use of his left jab. Rahman seemed unable to withstand the Ukrainian's punch power. The referee called a stop to the contest in the 7th round after Rahman failed to respond to a series of shots, having been knocked down in the sixth round and left visibly disoriented. At the time of the stoppage, Klitschko was leading on all three judges scorecards, respectively 60-53, 60-53, and 60-47; Klitschko landed 178 punches (48% accuracy) to Rahman's 30 (14% accuracy), a nearly six-fold disparity.https://[boxrec.com/media/index.php/Wladimir_Klitschko_vs._Hasim_Rahman BoxRec: Wladimir Klitschko vs. Hasim Rahman.] 2009-2011: layoff and third comeback In an interview dated February 26, 2009, with DreamFighters.com, Rahman expressed his interest in crossing over into mixed martial arts. Fifteen months after the seventh round loss to Wladimir Klitschko in December 2008, Rahman made a comeback against 43-year-old journeyman Clinton Boldridge winning the fight via TKO 1. Rahman next fought on June 19, 2010, against journeyman Shannon Miller (16-4, 9 KO) in a match that took in the Niagara Falls Conference Centre, Niagara Falls, New York, United States. Rahman came into the ring at 260 pounds and won the bout by TKO in the 4th round, after sending Miller down in each of the four rounds. He then won his next three fights (all by knockout), against Damon Reed, Marcus McGee and Galen Brown. His win over Galen Brown marked Rahmans 50th professional win in his career. With this win, he ran his record to 5-0 (all wins via knock out) since his loss to Wladimir Klitschko. 2012: title shot vs. Povetkin He was elevated to the WBA number one contender to face Alexander Povetkin on September 29, 2012, for the WBA regular heavyweight championship. Povetkin beat Rahman via 2nd-round TKO. 2014: Super 8 Tournament In yet another attempt to re-enter the heavyweight scene Rahman signed up for the super 8 tournament, an elimination-style event staged in Auckland, New Zealand. But despite holding the tag as tournament favorite the ageing Rahman was outpointed by little-known club fighter Anthony Nansen in the quarter-final on June 4, 2014. Personal life Born on November 7, 1972, Rahman was raised in Baltimore, Maryland. He is a practising Muslim and was fasting in the month of Ramadan when he faced Lennox Lewis. As a teenager, Rahman was an enforcer for drug dealers, and was known for surviving several shootings. He nearly died in a car accident (which left him with permanent scarring on his cheek and ear) and once survived a shooting where five bullets entered his body. In 2001, Rahman and his family were involved in a car accident shortly after a celebration at City Hall. Rahman sustained no serious injuries and received no medical assistance, while his wife, Crystal, was hospitalized. Rahman has a son, Hasim Rahman Jr., who is a professional boxer as well. Professional boxing record ResultRecordOpponentTypeRound, timeDateLocationNotes62Loss50-9-2 Anthony NansenUD3Jun 4, 2014 61Loss50-8-2 Alexander Povetkin TKO2 (12), Sep 29, 2012 60Win50-7-2 Galen BrownTKO6 (10), Jun 11, 2011 59Win49-7-2 Marcus McGeeKO1 (8), Oct 2, 2010 58Win48-7-2 Damon ReedKO6 (10), Aug 14, 2010 57Win47-7-2 Shannon MillerTKO4 (10), Jun 19, 2010 56Win46-7-2 Clinton BoldridgeTKO1 (6), Mar 26, 2010 55Loss45-7-2 Wladimir KlitschkoTKO7 (12), Dec 13, 2008 5445-6-2 James ToneyTKO3 (12), Jul 16, 2008 53Win45-6-2 Zuri LawrenceTKO10 (10), Nov 15, 2007 52Win44-6-2 Cerrone FoxTKO1 (10), Oct 18, 2007 51Win43-6-2 Dicky RyanTKO2 (10), Sep 7, 2007 50Win42-6-2 Taurus SykesUD10Jun 14, 2007 49Loss41-6-2 Oleg MaskaevTKO12 (12), Aug 12, 2006 48Draw41-5-2 James Toney12Mar 18, 2006 47Win41-5-1 Monte BarrettUD12Aug 13, 2005 46Win40-5-1 Kali MeehanRTD4 (12), Nov 13, 2004 45Win39-5-1 Terrence Lewis KO2 (10), Jul 28, 2004 44Win38-5-1 Rob CallowayKO2 (10), Jun 17, 2004 43Win37-5-1 Mario CawleyTKO2 (8), Apr 16, 2004 42Win36-5-1 Al ColeUD10Mar 11, 2004 41Loss35-5-1 John RuizUD12Dec 13, 2003 40Draw35-4-1 David Tua12Mar 29, 2003 39Loss35-4 Evander Holyfield8 (12), Jun 1, 2002 38Loss35-3 Lennox LewisKO4 (12), Nov 17, 2001 37Win35-2 Lennox LewisKO5 (12), Apr 22, 2001 36Win34-2 Frankie SwindellRTD7 (10), Aug 4, 2000 35Win33-2 Corrie SandersTKO7 (12), May 20, 2000 34Win32-2 Marion WilsonUD10Mar 1, 2000 33Loss31-2 Oleg MaskaevKO8 (10), Nov 6, 1999 32Win31-1 Arthur WeathersKO1 (10), Apr 15, 1999 31Win30-1 Michael RushTKO5 (10), Mar 12, 1999 30Loss29-1 David TuaTKO10 (12), Dec 19, 1998 29Win29-0 Garing Lane2 (10), Jul 9, 1998 28Win28-0 Steve PannellKO2 (12), Apr 21, 1998 27Win27-0 Melvin FosterTKO2 (10)Mar 14, 1998 26Win26-0 Jesse FergusonUD12Jan 31, 1998 25Win25-0 Tui ToiaKO1 (10), Dec 4, 1997 24Win24-0 Obed SullivanMD12Nov 1, 1997 23Win23-0 Jeff WoodenTKO9 (12), Jul 15, 1997 22Win22-0 Marshall TillmanKO1 (8), Jan 9, 1997 21Win21-0 Herman DelgadoKO2 (8), Dec 17, 1996 20Win20-0 Marcos GonzálezKO1 (10)Dec 3, 1996 19Win19-0 Brian SargentTKO1 (8), Nov 8, 1996 18Win18-0 Trevor BerbickUD10Oct 15, 1996 17Win17-0 Mark YoungTKO3 (8)Aug 8, 1996 16Win16-0 Martin FosterKO2 (10), Jun 9, 1996 15Win15-0 Tim KnightTKO4 (8), Jun 4, 1996 14Win14-0 Steve EdwardsTKO2 (6), May 3, 1996 13Win13-0 Ross Puritty10Mar 26, 1996 12Win12-0 Mike MitchellKO1 (8), Mar 9, 1996 11Win11-0 Bradley RoneTKO1 (6), Feb 9, 1996 10Win10-0 Mike RobinsonKO1 (6)Dec 13, 1995 9Win9-0 James JohnsonTKO3 (6)Oct 10, 1995 8Win8-0 Matt GreenTKO2 (6)Sep 12, 1995 7Win7-0 Carl McGrewTKO1 (6)Aug 26, 1995 6Win6-0 Larry DavisTKO2 (6)Jul 13, 1995 5Win5-0 Eric ValentineKO1 (4)Jun 6, 1995 4Win4-0 Jeff Williams4Mar 28, 1995 3Win3-0 Dennis CainTKO2 (4), Jan 11, 1995 2Win2-0 Robert Jackson1 (4)Jan 6, 1995 1Win1-0 Gregory Herrington1 (4), Dec 3, 1994 References External links CBZ Profile Hasim Rahman profile at About.com Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:African-American boxers Category:World heavyweight boxing champions Category:World Boxing Council champions Category:International Boxing Federation champions Category:Shooting survivors Category:American male boxers Category:International Boxing Organization champions Category:Boxers from Baltimore Category:American Muslims Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople Category:20th-century African-American sportspeople

{"Real name": "Hasim Shariff Rahman", "Nickname(s)": "The Rock", "Weight(s)": "Heavyweight", "Height": "6 ft 2+1/2 in", "Reach": "82 in", "Born": "Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.", "Stance": "Orthodox", "Total fights": "62", "Wins": "50", "Wins by KO": "41", "Losses": "9", "Draws": "2", "No contests": "1"}

Ross James Kemp (born 21 July 1964) is an English actor, author, and television presenter. He rose to prominence in the role of Grant Mitchell in the BBC soap opera EastEnders. He is also known for his other roles in Emmerdale as Graham Lodsworth and in Birds of a Feather as Detective Inspector Monk. Kemp has received international recognition as a reporter for presenting the BAFTA Award-winning documentary television series Ross Kemp on Gangs (2004–2009). Ross has appeared on several talk shows over his career, as well as speaking live on the P&O cruise ship Ventura (in May 2023). Early life Kemp was born on 21 July 1964 in Barking, Essex. His mother Jean was a hairdresser and his father John was a detective superintendent in the Metropolitan Police. His maternal great-grandfather was a sub-organist at Chichester Cathedral for many years. He has one brother, Darren, who is a filmmaker for the BBC. Kemp attended Shenfield High School and the Webber Douglas Academy. Acting career Early career After training at Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art, Kemp received his Equity card when appearing alongside John Thaw and Richard Wilson at the Palace Theatre, Westcliff-on-Sea. Kemp went on to feature in training films for the Ministry of Defence and the ITV soap opera Emmerdale Farm (now Emmerdale) as Graham Lodsworth. Guest appearances in London's Burning and Birds of a Feather followed, before he had a minor role in the 1987 film Playing Away alongside Neil Morrissey. In 1990, Kemp appeared in an edition of the Anglia Television police drama The Chief. The episode, entitled Call Sign Bravo, saw Kemp play the role of Police Constable Dennis Scovell. Around the same time he also starred in a golf themed advert for Kellogg's Fruit & Fibre cereal.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: EastEnders Kemp's best-known role is that of hardman Grant Mitchell in the BBC soap opera EastEnders. Making his debut in February 1990, his character quickly became part of the soap’s key storylines during the 1990s, particularly troubled marriages to Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean) and then Tiffany Mitchell (Martine McCutcheon), as well as the "Sharongate" storyline, which saw brother Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) having an affair with Grant's wife, which was uncovered two years after it began. Kemp announced on 24 March 1999 that he would be leaving the soap later that year after nearly 10 years. His exit was aired in October 1999 when his character moved to Brazil after surviving a car crash. Kemp refused to rule out an eventual return to EastEnders, and various media reports over the next few years speculated that he would return to the series at some stage. In early 2005, the BBC confirmed that Kemp would be returning to EastEnders in the autumn of that year after six years away. It was co-star Barbara Windsor who convinced him to return, even though his comeback would only be a relatively brief one. His first comeback lasted just a few weeks from October 2005, but he returned again in March 2006, before departing once again in June that year. In January 2016, it was confirmed that Kemp would make a brief return to the show for the death of Grant's on-screen mother, Peggy Mitchell (played by Windsor), appearing in three episodes during May of that year. He later filmed a further three weeks and returned again for brief stints from 4 July to 9 September 2016. Other roles Following his initial departure from EastEnders, Kemp moved from the BBC to ITV for a reported £1.2 million two-year deal. Kemp's first role for ITV was in Hero of the Hour. During its filming, on 27 October 1999, Kemp required hospital treatment after being shot in the face when a stunt went wrong. He suffered cuts to his chest and face after safety glass shattered, and was also hit in the face by the discharge from a blank round. He was treated at the scene by paramedics and made a full recovery. In 2000, Kemp starred in ITV's A Christmas Carol. He took the lead roles in the television series Without Motive and In Defence in 2000, and in 2002's Ultimate Force, where he played Army Staff sergeant Henry Garvie from the British Special Air Service. He continued to appear in this role until 2006. He also played "Cirra" in the 2004 TV film, Spartacus. In 2005, Kemp appeared in an episode of BBC's Extras and in a two-part adaptation of the Gerald Seymour novel A Line in the Sand for ITV. He has also presented on The Friday Night Project and appeared as a stand in host on The Paul O'Grady Show (2007, 2008). Kemp appeared in the 4th episode of Series 14 of BBC's motoring show Top Gear. He was the "Man in Boot" of a Renault Twingo Sport being tested by Jeremy Clarkson. The test ended with Clarkson driving the car off the quayside of Belfast Harbour, after which Clarkson joked that Kemp had been killed. Kemp also appeared in Series 1, where he did a 1 minute 54 seconds (wet) in the "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" segment. In 2022, Kemp began presenting the game show Bridge of Lies, airing on weekdays on BBC One, as well as a series of celebrity specials broadcast on Saturday evenings. Kemp told the The Sunday Post: "I am the last person that should be hosting a game show, but it seems to work [...] the landscape of TV has changed significantly in the last six, seven years. Actors once upon a time didn’t do commercials, now A-listers do them. If you worked in television, you couldn’t be in movies or if you were in movies you’d never touch TV [...] that snobbery I would suggest is dissolving. And that’s got to be a good thing I guess." Documentary presenter In 2004, Kemp filmed Ross Kemp on Gangs. He followed this up with the documentaries Ross Kemp in Afghanistan, Ross Kemp in Search of Pirates, Ross Kemp: Battle for the Amazon and Ross Kemp: Extreme World. In 2022 Kemp, who had previously taken part in deep sea dives for the television channel Sky History, had planned to mark the 110th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic by recording a documentary in which he would undertake a dive to the wreckage using the submersible Titan. The project was shelved after production company Atlantic Productions deemed the submersible to be unsafe and not "fit for purpose". Writing Kemp has written several books. Initially focusing on tie-ins to his various TV documentaries, 2011 saw the publication of his first fictional story, Devil to Pay. A novel, Moving Target, was released in summer 2012. Politics In 1999, Kemp was elected as Rector of the University of Glasgow as the candidate of the Glasgow University Labour Club but did not attend local meetings. In October 2000 the Glasgow University Students' Representative Council passed a motion requesting him to resign, and within weeks he did. Kemp was the first rector in 50 years to leave the position prematurely and was succeeded by Scottish actor Greg Hemphill. In August 2014, Kemp was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue. In June 2017, Kemp endorsed the Labour Party at the 2017 UK general election, and took part in campaigning for Labour candidates. In 2022, Kemp declared his support for a "National Thank You Day" to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Personal life On 11 June 2002, Kemp married Rebekah Wade, the then editor of The Sun. In November 2005, Wade was arrested following an alleged assault on her husband. Kemp refused medical attention for a swollen lip and no action was taken. In March 2009 Kemp and Wade divorced, and in October 2010, Kemp fathered a boy with his partner, Nicola Coleman, who was his make-up artist. Kemp married Australian Renee O'Brien in 2012. They have three children. Filmography Year Show Role Notes 1986-1987 Emmerdale Graham Lodsworth 32 episodes 1987 The Moneymen Dealer Television film Playing Away Sonny 1988 London's Burning Liver Salts Episode: "Series 1, Episode 3"1989 Birds of a Feather Detective Inspector Monk Episode: "Shift" Screen Two Police Officer Episode: "The Picnic"1990 The Chief PC Dennis Scovell Episodes: "Daydreamer" & "Call Sign Bravo" The Manageress Defender Episode: "A Match for Anyone" 1990-1999, 2005-2006, 2016 EastEndersGrant Mitchell 1,090 episodes 1993 Doctor Who: Dimensions in Time Part Two 1998 EastEnders: The Mitchells - Naked Truths VHS special City Central Dilly Dally Episode: "Nothing Like a Dame" 1999 Ross Kemp: Alive in Alaska Presenter 2000 Hero of the Hour Richie Liddle Television film In Defence Sam Lucas 4 episodes A Christmas Carol Eddie Scrooge Television film 2000-2001 Without Motive DC Jack Mowbray 12 episodes 2002-2006 Ultimate Force Staff Sgt. Henry 'Henno' Garvie 21 episodes 2003 The Crooked Man Harry Fielding Television film2004 Spartacus Cinna A Line in the Sand Gavin Hughes / Frank Parry 2 episodes 2004-2009Ross Kemp on Gangs Presenter 20 episodes 2005 Extras Himself Episode: "Ross Kemp & Vinnie Jones" 2007 Robbie the Reindeer Trooper No. 2 Episode: "Close Encounters of the Herd Kind" 2008-2012Ross Kemp in Afghanistan Presenter 18 episodes2009 10 Minute Tales Liam Episode: "The Running of the Deer"Top Gear Man in Boot Episode: "Series 14, Episode 4"Ross Kemp in Search of Pirates Presenter 3 episodes Ross Kemp: Behind the Story 2010Ross Kemp: Battle for the Amazon 2 episodes 2011 Quick Slip Me a Bride Trevor That Sunday Night Show Himself 2011-2017Ross Kemp: Extreme World Presenter 37 episodes2016Ross Kemp's Britain Presenter 3 episodesRoss Kemp: The Fight Against ISIS 2017 All Round to Mrs Brown's HimselfRoss Kemp Behind Bars: Inside Barlinnie Presenter 2018Ross Kemp & the Armed Police 2019Welcome to HMP Belmarsh with Ross Kemp 2 episodes 2020Ross Kemp: On the NHS Frontline2 episodesThe Millennium Dome Heist with Ross Kemp2021Britain's Tiger Kings - On The Trail With Ross Kemp2 episodes2022Searching for Michael Jackson’s Zoo with Ross KempDocumentary 2022-presentRoss Kemp: Shipwreck Treasure Hunter2 series 2022-present Bridge Of Lies Host BBC quiz show2023BlindspotTonyUpcoming four-part series Stage credits Year Title Role Notes 2018 Ross Kemp Extreme Tales Live Himself Dates: 6, 10 and 14 February Awards Year Group Award Won Film/television series 1996 National Television Awards Most Popular Actor Nominated EastEnders 1997 National Television Awards Most Popular Actor Nominated EastEnders 1999 British Soap Awards Best Actor Won EastEnders British Soap Awards Villain of the Year Nominated British Soap Awards Best Storyline (for Tiffany discovers Grants affair with her mum) Won Inside Soap Awards Best Actor Won Inside Soap Awards Villain of the Year Nominated TV Quick and Choice Awards Best Soap Actor Won National Television Awards Most Popular Actor Nominated 2006 British Soap Awards Best Actor Won EastEnders British Soap Awards Best Storyline (for The Mitchells' Return) Nominated British Soap Awards Spectacular Scene of the year (for Phil's Close Shave) Nominated Inside Soap Awards Best Actor Nominated Inside Soap Awards Sexiest Male Nominated Inside Soap Awards Best Storyline (for The Mitchells' Return) Nominated TV Quick and Choice Awards Best Soap Actor Nominated TV Quick and Choice Awards Best Soap Storyline (for The Mitchells' Return) Nominated National Television Awards Most Popular Actor Nominated 2006 BAFTA Awards Best Factual Series Won Ross Kemp on Gangs 2008 AIB Media Excellence Awards International TV Personality Won Ross Kemp in Afghanistan 2009 BAFTA Awards Best Factual Series Nominated Ross Kemp in Afghanistan 2009 BAFTA Awards Current Affairs Nominated Ross Kemp: A Kenya Special 2014 Asian Media Awards Best Investigation Won Extreme World: India References External links Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century English male actors Category:21st-century English male actors Category:Alumni of the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art Category:BAFTA winners (people) Category:British monarchists Category:British Soap Award for Best Actor winners Category:English male film actors Category:English male soap opera actors Category:English television presenters Category:English war correspondents Category:Labour Party (UK) people Category:Male actors from Essex Category:People from Barking, London Category:Rectors of the University of Glasgow Category:Television personalities from Essex

{"Name": "Ross Kemp", "Caption": "Kemp during Extreme World filming in 2015", "Birth name": "Ross James Kemp", "Birth date": "yes 1964 07 21", "Birth place": "Barking, Essex, England", "Spouse(s)": "Rebekah Wade 11 June 2002 6 March 2009 divorced Renee O'Brien 2012", "Children": "4", "Occupation": "Actor author reporter presenter", "Years active": "1985-present"}

The Sán Dìu (also known as San Deo, Trai, Trai Dat and Man Quan Coc; ; Chữ nôm: ; Vietnamese alphabet: Người Sán Dìu) are a Yao ethnic group in northern Vietnam who speak Yue Chinese (Cantonese), a Sinitic language. They are believed to have migrated from Guangdong, China around 1600. The group's estimated population as of 2000 was 117,500; the 2019 census put the number at 183,004. They speak a variant of Cantonese, and it is suggested that some still speak Iu Mien. The major religions are Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism, with elements of animism and veneration of the dead. About 400 are adherents of the Catholic Church; a few are evangelical Protestants. This ethnic group is mainly concentrated in Thái Nguyên Province. See also List of ethnic groups in Vietnam Hoa people Ngái people References Ma Khánh Bằng (1975). "Về ý thức tự giác dân tộc của người Sán Dìu". In, Ủy ban khoa học xã hội Việt Nam: Viện dân tộc học. Về vấn đề xác định thánh phần các dân tộc thiểu số ở miền bắc Việt Nam, 365-376. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản khoa học xã hội. Ngô Văn Trụ; Nguyễn Xuân Cần. 2003. Dân tộc Sán Dìu ở Bắc Giang. Hanoi: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa dân tộc. Ngô Văn Trụ; Nguyễn Xuân Cần. 2012. Dân tộc Sán Dìu ở Bắc Giang. Hanoi: Nhà xuất bản thời đại. External links San Diu of Vietnam Category:Chinese diaspora in Asia Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam Category:Guangdong

{"Name": "Sán Dìu people", "Native name": "山 由 族Người Sán Dìu (𠊛 山 由)", "Population": "183,004", "Religions": "Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism Taoism, Catholicism and Evangelicalism", "Languages": "Yue Chinese • Mandarin Chinese • Vietnamese • Pinghua", "Related ethnic groups": "Chinese Vietnamese, Yao people"}

The Mid-Autumn Festival, also known as the Moon Festival or Mooncake Festival, is a traditional festival celebrated in Chinese culture. Similar holidays are celebrated in Japan (), Korea (), Vietnam (), and other countries in East and Southeast Asia. It is one of the most important holidays in Chinese culture; its popularity is on par with that of Chinese New Year. The history of the Mid-Autumn Festival dates back over 3,000 years. The festival is held on the 15th day of the 8th month of the Chinese lunisolar calendar with a full moon at night, corresponding to mid-September to early October of the Gregorian calendar. On this day, the Chinese believe that the Moon is at its brightest and fullest size, coinciding with harvest time in the middle of Autumn. Lanterns of all size and shapes, are carried and displayed - symbolic beacons that light people's path to prosperity and good fortune. Mooncakes, a rich pastry typically filled with sweet-bean, egg yolk, meat or lotus-seed paste, are traditionally eaten during this festival. The Mid-Autumn Festival is based on the legend of Chang'e, the Moon goddess in Chinese mythology. Etymology The festival is so-named as it is held around the autumn equinox on the 15th of the 8th lunar month in the Chinese calendar. Its name varies among Sinitic languages, with the most common one being Mid-Autumn Festival or simply Mid-Autumn (), as well as its traditional calendar date, either Fifteenth of the Eighth Month or Half of the Eighth Month, which is more regional. Other regional names include Eighth Month Festival used in places such as Northeast China, Southern Fujian, and Jianghuai; Festival of Unity (; Wugniu: doe2-yoe2-ciq7; Nanjingese: tuang2 üän2 zie5) used in Shanghai and Nanjing; as well as Mooncake Festival () in Guangzhou. (), Korean festival celebrated on the same day in the Chinese and other East Asian lunisolar calendars. , Japanese variant of the Mid-Autumn Festival celebrated on the same day in the Chinese lunisolar calendar. Moon Festival or Harvest Moon Festival, because of the celebration's association with the full moon on this night, as well as the traditions of Moon worship and Moon viewing. ( in Chữ Nôm), in Vietnam. Also known as The Children's Festival in Vietnam. Most festival songs are sung by the children. Lantern Festival, a term sometimes used in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia, which is not to be confused with the Lantern Festival in China that occurs on the 15th day of the first month of the Chinese calendar. However, 'Mid-Autumn Festival' is more widely used by locals when referring to the festival in English and 'Zhōngqiū Jié' is used when referring to the festival in Chinese. Bon Om Touk, or The Water and Moon Festival in Cambodian. The festival is held each year in November for 3 days. Meanings The festival celebrates three fundamental concepts that are closely connected: Gathering, such as family and friends coming together, or harvesting crops for the festival. It is said the Moon is the brightest and roundest on this day which means family reunion. Consequently, this is the main reason why the festival is thought to be important. Thanksgiving, to give thanks for the harvest, or for harmonious unions Praying (asking for conceptual or material satisfaction), such as for babies, a spouse, beauty, longevity, or for a good future Traditions and myths surrounding the festival are formed around these concepts, although traditions have changed over time due to changes in technology, science, economy, culture, and religion. It's about well being together. Origins and development The Chinese have celebrated the harvest during the autumn full moon since the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE). The term mid-autumn (中秋) first appeared in Rites of Zhou, a written collection of rituals of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 BCE). As for the royal court, it was dedicated to the goddess Taiyinxingjun (). This is still true for Taoism and Chinese folk religion. The celebration as a festival only started to gain popularity during the early Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). One legend explains that Emperor Xuanzong of Tang started to hold formal celebrations in his palace after having explored the Moon-Palace. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the Mid Autumn Festival has become a popular folk festival, and officially designated the 15th day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar as the Mid Autumn Festival. By the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the mid autumn festival had become one of the main folk festivals in China. The Empress Dowager Cixi (late 19th century) enjoyed celebrating Mid-Autumn Festival so much that she would spend the period between the thirteenth and seventeenth day of the eighth month staging elaborate rituals. Moon worship An important part of the festival celebration is Moon worship. The ancient Chinese believed in rejuvenation being associated with the Moon and water, and connected this concept to the menstruation of women, calling it "monthly water". The Zhuang people, for example, have an ancient fable saying the Sun and Moon are a couple and the stars are their children, and when the Moon is pregnant, it becomes round, and then becomes crescent after giving birth to a child. These beliefs made it popular among women to worship and give offerings to the Moon on this evening. In some areas of China, there are still customs in which "men do not worship the moon and the women do not offer sacrifices to the kitchen gods." In China, the Mid-Autumn festival symbolizes the family reunion and on this day, all families will appreciate the Moon in the evening, because it is the 15th day of the eighth month of the Chinese lunisolar calendar, when the moon is at its fullest. There is a beautiful myth about the Mid-Autumn festival, that is Chang'e flying to the Moon. Offerings are also made to a more well-known lunar deity, Chang'e, known as the Moon Goddess of Immortality. The myths associated with Chang'e explain the origin of Moon worship during this day. One version of the story is as follows, as described in Lihui Yang's Handbook of Chinese Mythology: In the ancient past, there was a hero named Hou Yi who was excellent at archery. His wife was Chang'e. One year, the ten suns rose in the sky together, causing great disaster to the people. Yi shot down nine of the suns and left only one to provide light. An immortal admired Yi and sent him the elixir of immortality. Yi did not want to leave Chang'e and be immortal without her, so he let Chang'e keep the elixir. However, Peng Meng, one of his apprentices, knew this secret. So, on the fifteenth of August in the Chinese lunisolar calendar, when Yi went hunting, Peng Meng broke into Yi's house and forced Chang'e to give the elixir to him. Chang'e refused to do so. Instead, she swallowed it and flew into the sky. Since she loved her husband and hoped to live nearby, she chose the moon for her residence. When Yi came back and learned what had happened, he felt so sad that he displayed the fruits and cakes Chang'e liked in the yard and gave sacrifices to his wife. People soon learned about these activities, and since they also were sympathetic to Chang'e they participated in these sacrifices with Yi. “when people learned of this story, they burnt incense on a long altar and prayed to Chang'e, now the goddess of the Moon, for luck and safety. The custom of praying to the Moon on Mid-Autumn Day has been handed down for thousands of years since that time." Handbook of Chinese Mythology also describes an alternate common version of the myth: After the hero Houyi shot down nine of the ten suns, he was pronounced king by the thankful people. However, he soon became a conceited and tyrannical ruler. In order to live long without death, he asked for the elixir from Xiwangmu. But his wife, Chang'e, stole it on the fifteenth of August because she did not want the cruel king to live long and hurt more people. She took the magic potion to prevent her husband from becoming immortal. Houyi was so angry when discovered that Chang'e took the elixir, he shot at his wife as she flew toward the moon, though he missed. Chang'e fled to the moon and became the spirit of the moon. Houyi died soon because he was overcome with great anger. Thereafter, people offer a sacrifice to Chang'e on every fifteenth day of eighth month to commemorate Chang'e's action. Celebration The festival was a time to enjoy the successful reaping of rice and wheat with food offerings made in honor of the moon. Today, it is still an occasion for outdoor reunions among friends and relatives to eat mooncakes and watch the Moon, a symbol of harmony and unity. During a year of a solar eclipse, it is typical for governmental offices, banks, and schools to close extra days in order to enjoy the extended celestial celebration an eclipse brings. The festival is celebrated with many cultural or regional customs, among them: Burning incense in reverence to deities including Chang'e. Performance of dragon and lion dances, which is mainly practiced in southern China. Lanterns A notable part of celebrating the holiday is the carrying of brightly lit lanterns, lighting lanterns on towers, or floating sky lanterns. Another tradition involving lanterns is to write riddles on them and have other people try to guess the answers (). It is difficult to discern the original purpose of lanterns in connection to the festival, but it is certain that lanterns were not used in conjunction with Moon-worship prior to the Tang dynasty. Traditionally, the lantern has been used to symbolize fertility, and functioned mainly as a toy and decoration. But today the lantern has come to symbolize the festival itself. In the old days, lanterns were made in the image of natural things, myths, and local cultures. Over time, a greater variety of lanterns could be found as local cultures became influenced by their neighbors. As China gradually evolved from an agrarian society to a mixed agrarian-commercial one, traditions from other festivals began to be transmitted into the Mid-Autumn Festival, such as the putting of lanterns on rivers to guide the spirits of the drowned as practiced during the Ghost Festival, which is observed a month before. Hong Kong fishermen during the Qing dynasty, for example, would put up lanterns on their boats for the Ghost Festival and keep the lanterns up until Mid-Autumn Festival. Mooncakes Making and sharing mooncakes is one of the hallmark traditions of this festival. In Chinese culture, a round shape symbolizes completeness and reunion. Thus, the sharing and eating of round mooncakes among family members during the week of the festival signifies the completeness and unity of families. In some areas of China, there is a tradition of making mooncakes during the night of the Mid-Autumn Festival. The senior person in that household would cut the mooncakes into pieces and distribute them to each family member, signifying family reunion. In modern times, however, making mooncakes at home has given way to the more popular custom of giving mooncakes to family members, although the meaning of maintaining familial unity remains. Although typical mooncakes can be around a few centimetres in diameter, imperial chefs have made some as large as 8 meters in diameter, with its surface pressed with designs of Chang'e, cassia trees, or the Moon-Palace. One tradition is to pile 13 mooncakes on top of each other to mimic a pagoda, the number 13 being chosen to represent the 13 months in a full Chinese lunisolar year. The spectacle of making very large mooncakes continues in modern China. According to Chinese folklore, a Turpan businessman offered cakes to Emperor Taizong of Tang in his victory against the Xiongnu on the fifteenth day of the eighth Chinese lunisolar month. Taizong took the round cakes and pointed to the moon with a smile, saying, "I'd like to invite the toad to enjoy the hú (胡) cake." After sharing the cakes with his ministers, the custom of eating these hú cakes spread throughout the country. Eventually these became known as mooncakes. Although the legend explains the beginnings of mooncake-giving, its popularity and ties to the festival began during the Song dynasty (906-1279 CE). Another popular legend concerns the Han Chinese's uprising against the ruling Mongols at the end of the Yuan dynasty (1280-1368 CE), in which the Han Chinese used traditional mooncakes to conceal the message that they were to rebel on Mid-Autumn Day. Because of strict controls upon Han Chinese families imposed by the Mongols in which only 1 out of every 10 households was allowed to own a knife guarded by a Mongolian, this coordinated message was important to gather as many available weapons as possible. Other foods and food displays Imperial dishes served on this occasion included nine-jointed lotus roots which symbolize peace, and watermelons cut in the shape of lotus petals which symbolize reunion. Teacups were placed on stone tables in the garden, where the family would pour tea and chat, waiting for the moment when the full moon's reflection appeared in the center of their cups. Owing to the timing of the plant's blossoms, cassia wine is the traditional choice for the "reunion wine" drunk on the occasion. Also, people will celebrate by eating cassia cakes and candy. In some places, people will celebrate by drinking osmanthus wine and eating osmanthus mooncakes.Li Zhengping. Chinese Wine, p. 101. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2011. Accessed 8 November 2013.Qiu Yaohong. Origins of Chinese Tea and Wine, p. 121. Asiapac Books (Singapore), 2004. Accessed 7 November 2013.Liu Junru. Chinese Food, p. 136. Cambridge Univ. Press (Cambridge), 2011. Accessed 7 November 2013. Food offerings made to deities are placed on an altar set up in the courtyard, including apples, pears, peaches, grapes, pomegranates, melons, oranges, and pomelos. One of the first decorations purchased for the celebration table is a clay statue of the Jade Rabbit. In Chinese folklore, the Jade Rabbit was an animal that lived on the Moon and accompanied Chang'e. Offerings of soy beans and cockscomb flowers were made to the Jade Rabbit. Nowadays, in southern China, people will also eat some seasonal fruit that may differ in different district but carrying the same meaning of blessing. Courtship and matchmaking The Mid-Autumn moon has traditionally been a choice occasion to celebrate marriages. Girls would pray to Moon deity Chang'e to help fulfill their romantic wishes. In some parts of China, dances are held for young men and women to find partners. For example, young women are encouraged to throw their handkerchiefs to the crowd, and the young man who catches and returns the handkerchief has a chance at romance. In Daguang, in southwest Guizhou Province, young men and women of the Dong people would make an appointment at a certain place. The young women would arrive early to overhear remarks made about them by the young men. The young men would praise their lovers in front of their fellows, in which finally the listening women would walk out of the thicket. Pairs of lovers would go off to a quiet place to open their hearts to each other. Games and activities During the 1920s and 1930s, ethnographer Chao Wei-pang conducted research on traditional games among men, women and children on or around the Mid-Autumn day in the Guangdong Province. These games relate to flights of the soul, spirit possession, or fortunetelling. One type of activity, "Ascent to Heaven" ( shàng tiāntáng) involves a young lady selected from a circle of women to "ascend" into the celestial realm. While being enveloped in the smoke of burning incense, she describes the beautiful sights and sounds she encounters. Another activity, "Descent into the Garden" ( luò huāyuán), played among younger girls, detailed each girl's visit to the heavenly gardens. According to legend, a flower tree represented her, and the number and color of the flowers indicated the sex and number of children she would have in her lifetime. Men played a game called "Descent of the Eight Immortals" (jiangbaxian), where one of the Eight Immortals took possession of a player, who would then assume the role of a scholar or warrior. Children would play a game called "Encircling the Toad" (guanxiamo), where the group would form a circle around a child chosen to be a Toad King and chanted a song that transformed the child into a toad. He would jump around like a toad until water was sprinkled on his head, in which he would then stop. Practices by regions and cultures China Xiamen A unique tradition is celebrated quite exclusively in the island city of Xiamen. During the festival, families and friends gather to play Bo Bing, a gambling sort of game involving 6 dice. People take turns in rolling the dice in a ceramic bowl with the results determining what they win. The number 4 is mainly what determines how big the prize is. Hong Kong and Macau thumb|Lantern in Senado Square, Macau In Hong Kong and Macau, the day after the Mid-Autumn Festival is a public holiday rather than the festival date itself (unless that date falls on a Sunday, then Monday is also a holiday), because many celebration events are held at night. There are a number of festive activities such as lighting lanterns, but mooncakes are the most important feature there. However, people don't usually buy mooncakes for themselves, but to give their relatives as presents. People start to exchange these presents well in advance of the festival. Hence, mooncakes are sold in elegant boxes for presentation purpose. Also, the price for these boxes are not considered cheap—a four-mooncake box of the lotus seeds paste with egg yolks variety, can generally cost US$40 or more. However, as environmental protection has become a concern of the public in recent years, many mooncake manufacturers in Hong Kong have adopted practices to reduce packaging materials to practical limits. The mooncake manufacturers also explore in the creation of new types of mooncakes, such as ice-cream mooncake and snow skin mooncake. There are also other traditions related to the Mid-Autumn Festival in Hong Kong. Neighbourhoods across Hong Kong set impressive lantern exhibitions with traditional stage shows, game stalls, palm readings, and many other festive activities. The grandest celebrations take place in Victoria Park (Hong Kong). One of the brightest rituals is the Fire Dragon Dance dating back to the 19th century and recognised as a part of China's intangible cultural heritage. The 200 foot-long fire dragon requires more than 300 people to operate, taking turns. The leader of the fire dragon dance would pray for peace, good fortune through blessings in Hakka. After the ritual ceremony, fire-dragon was thrown into the sea with lanterns and paper cards, which means the dragon would return to sea and take the misfortunes away. Before 1941, There were also some celebration of Mid-Autumn Festival held in small villages in Hong Kong. Sha Po would celebrate Mid Autumn Festival in every 15th day of the 8th Chinese lunisolar month. People called Mid Autumn Festival as Kwong Sin Festival, they hold Pok San Ngau Tsai at Datong Pond in Sha Po. Pok San Ngau Tsai was a celebration event of Kwong Sin Festival, people would gather around to watch it. During the event, someone would play the percussions, Some villagers would then acted as possessed and called themselves as "Maoshan Masters". They burnt themselves with incense sticks and fought with real blades and spears. Ethnic minorities in mainland China Korean minorities living in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture have a custom of welcoming the Moon, where they put up a large conical house frame made of dry pine branches and call it a "moon house". The moonlight would shine inside for gazers to appreciate. The Bouyei people call the occasion "Worshiping Moon Festival", where after praying to ancestors and dining together, they bring rice cakes to the doorway to worship the Moon Grandmother. The Tu people practice a ceremony called "Beating the Moon", where they place a basin of clear water in the courtyard to reflect an image of the Moon, and then "beat" the water surface with branches. The Maonan people tie a bamboo near the table, on which a grapefruit is hung, with three lit incense sticks on it. This is called "Shooting the Moon". Taiwan In Taiwan, and its outlying islands Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu, the Mid-Autumn Festival is a public holiday. Outdoor barbecues have become a popular affair for friends and family to gather and enjoy each other's company. Children also make and wear hats made of pomelo rinds. It is believed Chang'e, the lady in the moon, will notice children with her favorite fruit and bestow good fortune upon them. Similar traditions in other countries Similar traditions are found in other parts of Asia and also revolve around the full moon. These festivals tend to occur on the same day or around the Mid-Autumn Festival. East Asia Japan The Japanese moon viewing festival, (, "moon viewing"), is also held at this time. People picnic and drink sake under the full moon to celebrate the harvest. Korea (; ; [tɕʰu.sʌk̚]), literally "Autumn eve", once known as hangawi (; [han.ɡa.ɥi]; from archaic Korean for "the great middle (of autumn)"), is a major harvest festival and a three-day holiday in North Korea and South Korea celebrated on the 15th day of the 8th month of the Chinese lunisolar calendar on the full moon. It was celebrated as far back as during the Three Kingdoms period in Silla. As a celebration of the good harvest, Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns, honor their ancestors in a family ceremony (차례), and share a feast of Korean traditional food such as (), (), and rice wines such as and . Southeast Asia Many festivals revolving around a full moon are also celebrated in Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Like the Mid-Autumn Festival, these festivals have Buddhist origins and revolve around the full moon. However, unlike their East Asian counterparts they occur several times a year to correspond with each full moon as opposed to one day each year. The festivals that occur in the lunar months of Ashvini and Kṛttikā generally occur during the Mid-Autumn Festival. Cambodia In Cambodia, it is more commonly called "The Water and Moon Festival" Bon Om Touk. The Water and Moon festival is celebrated in November of every year. It is a three-day celebration, starting with the boat race that last the first two days of the festival. The boat races are colorfully painted with bright colors and is in various designs being most popular the neak, Cambodian sea dragon. Hundreds of Cambodian males take part in rowing the boats and racing them at the Tonle Sap River. When night falls the streets are filled with people buying food and attending various concerts. In the evening is the Sampeah Preah Khae: the salutation to the moon or prayers to the moon. The Cambodian people set an array of offerings that are popular for rabbits, such and various fruits and a traditional dish called Ak Ambok in front of their homes with lit incenses to make wishes to the Moon. Cambodians believe the legend of The Rabbit and the Moon, and that a rabbit who lives on the Moon watches over the Cambodian people. At midnight everyone goes up to the temple to pray and make wishes and enjoy their Ak Ambok together. Cambodians would also make homemade lanterns that are usually made into the shape of the lotus flowers or other more modern designs. Incense and candles light up the lanterns and Cambodians make prayers and then send if off into the river for their wishes and prayers to be heard and granted. Laos In Laos, many festivals are held on the day of the full moon. The most popular festival known as That Luang Festival is associated with Buddhist legend and is held at Pha That Luang temple in Vientiane. The festival often lasts for three to seven days. A procession occurs and many people visit the temple. alt=Gardens by the Bay Mid-Autumn Festival Decorations.|thumb|Mid-Autumn Festival Decorations at Gardens by the Bay, Singapore. Myanmar In Myanmar, numerous festivals are held on the day of the full moon. However, the Thadingyut Festival is the most popular one and occurs in the month of Thadingyut. It also occurs around the time of the Mid-Autumn Festival, depending on the lunar calendar. It is one of the biggest festivals in Myanmar after the New Year festival, Thingyan. It is a Buddhist festival and many people go to the temple to pay respect to the monks and offer food. It is also a time for thanksgiving and paying homage to Buddhist monks, teachers, parents and elders. Singapore Informally observed but not a government holiday. Vietnam thumb|Vietnamese children celebrating the Tết Trung Thu with traditional 5-pointed star-shaped lantern In Vietnam, children participate in parades in the dark under the full moon with lanterns of various forms, shapes, and colors. Traditionally, lanterns signified the wish for the sun's light and warmth to return after winter. In addition to carrying lanterns, the children also don masks. Elaborate masks were made of papier-mâché, though it is more common to find masks made of plastic nowadays. Handcrafted shadow lanterns were an important part of Mid-Autumn displays since the 12th-century Lý dynasty, often of historical figures from Vietnamese history. Handcrafted lantern-making declined in modern times due to the availability of mass-produced plastic lanterns, which often depict internationally recognizable characters from children's shows and video games. The Mid-Autumn Festival is known as (Chữ Nôm: ) in Vietnamese. It is also commonly referred to as the "Children's Festival". The Vietnamese traditionally believed that children, being the most innocent, had the closest connection to the sacred, pure and natural beauty of the world. The celebration of the children's spirit was seen as a way to connect to that world still full of wonder, mystery, teachings, joy, and sadness. Animist spirits, deities and Vietnamese folk religions are also observed during the festival. In its most traditional form, the evening commemorates the dragon who brings rain for the crops. Celebrants would observe the moon to divine the future of the people and the harvests. Eventually the celebration came to symbolize a reverence for fruitfulness, with prayers given for bountiful harvests, increase in livestock, and fertility. Over time, the prayers for children evolved into the celebration of children. Historical Confucian scholars continued the tradition of gazing at the Moon, but to sip wine and improvise poetry and song. However, by the early twentieth century in Hanoi, the festival had begun to assume its identity as the quintessential children's festival. Aside from the story of Chang'e (Vietnamese: Hằng Nga), there are two other popular folktales associated with the festival. The first describes the legend of Cuội, whose wife accidentally urinated on a sacred banyan tree. The tree began to float towards the Moon, and Cuội, trying to pull it back down to Earth, floated to the Moon with it, leaving him stranded there. Every year, during the Mid-Autumn Festival, children light lanterns and participate in a procession to show Cuội the way back to Earth. The other tale involves a carp who wanted to become a dragon, and as a result, worked hard throughout the year until he was able to transform himself into a dragon. One important event before and during the festival are lion dances. Dances are performed by both non-professional children's groups and trained professional groups. Lion dance groups perform on the streets, going to houses asking for permission to perform for them. If the host consents, the "lion" will come in and start dancing as a blessing of luck and fortune for the home. In return, the host gives lucky money to show their gratitude. Cakes and fruits are not only consumed, but elaborately prepared as food displays. For example, glutinous rice flour and rice paste are molded into familiar animals. Pomelo sections can be fashioned into unicorns, rabbits, or dogs. Villagers of Xuân La, just north of Hanoi, produce tò he, figurines made from rice paste and colored with natural food dyes. Into the early decades of the twentieth century of Vietnam, daughters of wealthy families would prepare elaborate center pieces filled with treats for their younger siblings. Well-dressed visitors could visit to observe the daughter's handiwork as an indication of her capabilities as a wife in the future. Eventually the practice of arranging centerpieces became a tradition not just limited to wealthy families. Into the early decades of the twentieth century Vietnam, young men and women used the festival as a chance to meet future life companions. Groups would assemble in a courtyard and exchange verses of song while gazing at the moon. Those who performed poorly were sidelined until one young man and one young woman remained, after which they would win prizes as well as entertain matrimonial prospects. South Asia India Onam is an annual Harvest festival in the state of Kerala in India.Mahabali comes calling, The Hindu, Neeti Sarkar (5 September 2014) It falls on the 22nd nakshatra Thiruvonam in the Malayalam calendar month of Chingam, which in Gregorian calendar overlaps with August-September.Onam Festival The Society for Confluence of Festivals of India (2015) According to legends, the festival is celebrated to commemorate King Mahabali, whose spirit is said to visit Kerala at the time of Onam. Onam is a major annual event for Malayali people in and outside Kerala. It is a harvest festival, one of three major annual Hindu celebrations along with Vishu and Thiruvathira, and it is observed with numerous festivities. Onam celebrations include Vallam Kali (boat races), Pulikali (tiger dances), Pookkalam (flower Rangoli), Onathappan (worship), Onam Kali, Tug of War, Thumbi Thullal (women's dance), Kummattikali (mask dance), Onathallu (martial arts), Onavillu (music), Kazhchakkula (plantain offerings), Onapottan (costumes), Atthachamayam (folk songs and dance), and other celebrations. Onam is the official state festival of Kerala with public holidays that start four days from Uthradom (Onam eve). Major festivities take place across 30 venues in Thiruvananthapuram, capital of Kerala. It is also celebrated by Malayali diaspora around the world. Though a Hindu festival, non-Hindu communities of Kerala participate in Onam celebrations considering it as a cultural festival. Sharad Purnima is a harvest festival celebrated on the full moon day of the Hindu lunar month of Ashvin (September-October), marking the end of the monsoon season. Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, a full moon day is known as Poya and each full moon day is a public holiday. Shops and businesses are closed on these days as people prepare for the full moon. Exteriors of buildings are adorned with lanterns and people often make food and go to the temple to listen to sermons. The Binara Full Moon Poya Day and Vap Full Moon Poya Day occur around the time of the Mid-Autumn Festival and like other Buddhist Asian countries, the festivals celebrate the ascendance and culmination of the Buddha's visit to heaven and for the latter, the acknowledgement of the cultivation season known as "Maha". West Asia Israel The Jewish harvest festival of Sukkot is a cognate celebration, begins on the fifteenth day of the lunar month Tishrei, which is the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar. Because of similarities between this calendar and the Chinese calendar, this often coincides with the Mid-Autumn Festival. North America Canada and the United States thumb|right|Autumn Moon Festival in San Francisco Chinatown, 2007 As late as 2014, the Mid-Autumn Festival generally went unnoticed outside of Asian supermarkets and food stores, but it has gained popularity since then in areas with significant ethnic Chinese overseas populations, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Unlike traditions in China, celebrations in the United States are usually limited to daylight hours, and generally conclude by early evening. +Mid-Autumn Festivals in America City District Since Ref. Boston Chinatown Chicago Chinatown 2005 Los Angeles Chinatown 1938 New York City Mott Street, Flushing, and Sunset Park 2019 Philadelphia Chinatown 1995 San Francisco Chinatown 1991 Toronto Cadillac Fairview shopping areas Vancouver Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese Garden Dates The Mid-Autumn Festival is held on the 15th day of the eighth month in the Han calendar—essentially the night of a full moon—which falls near the Autumnal Equinox (on a day between 8 September and 7 October in the Gregorian calendar). In 2018, it fell on 24 September. It will occur on these days in coming years: 2023: 29 September (Friday) 2024: 17 September (Tuesday) 2025: 6 October (Monday) 2026: 25 September (Friday) See also Dragon Boat Festival Agriculture in China Agriculture in Vietnam Chinese holidays Vietnamese holidays List of harvest festivals Notes References External links San Francisco Chinatown Autumn Moon Festival at Sumiyoshi-taisha, Osaka, Japan Origin and Development of the Mid-Autumn Festival Category:Autumn events in China Category:East Asia Category:Southeast Asia Category:Buddhist festivals Category:Buddhist holidays Category:Festivals in Chinese folk religion Category:Festivals in Hong Kong Category:Folk festivals in China Category:Folk festivals in Taiwan Category:Harvest festivals Category:Lunar observation Category:September observances Category:October observances Category:Observances set by the Chinese calendar Category:Public holidays in China Category:Public holidays in Hong Kong Category:Public holidays in Taiwan Category:Religious festivals in China Category:Observances held on the full moon Category:Autumn equinox

{"Also called": "Moon Festival, Mooncake Festival", "Observed by": "Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan (similar holidays celebrated in Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia)", "Type": "Cultural, religious, Asian", "Significance": "Celebrates the end of the autumn harvest", "Next time": "15th day of the 8th lunar month", "Celebrations": "Lantern lighting, mooncake making and sharing, courtship and matchmaking, fireworks, family gathering, dragon dances, family meal, visiting friends and relatives, gift giving", "Observances": "Consumption of mooncakesConsumption of cassia wine"}

The Good Son is a 1993 American psychological thriller film directed by Joseph Ruben and distributed by 20th Century Fox. It was written by English novelist Ian McEwan. Its story follows a young boy named Mark who, after the death of his mother, is sent to stay with his aunt and uncle while his father is away on business. While there he meets his cousin Henry, who shows signs of violent and evil behavior. It stars Macaulay Culkin, Elijah Wood, Wendy Crewson, David Morse, Daniel Hugh Kelly, and Jacqueline Brookes. The film was produced by Joseph Ruben and Mary Ann Page and was released on September 24, 1993. It grossed $12.5 million during its opening weekend and $60.6 million worldwide, against a budget of $17 million. It received negative reviews from critics. Plot Twelve-year-old Mark Evans has recently experienced the death of his mother, Janice. Before leaving on a business trip to Tokyo, Mark's father, Jack, transports him from Arizona to his Uncle Wallace and Aunt Susan's house in Maine, where he will stay during winter break. Mark is reintroduced after a decade to his extended family, including his cousins Connie and Henry. Mark and Henry get along initially and Henry seems to be nice and well-mannered. However, Henry displays an abnormal fascination with death, making Mark feel uneasy. Henry begins to display psychopathic behavior, which Mark is unable to address to Wallace and Susan due to Henry's threats. One of his violent actions is throwing a dummy he calls 'Mr. Highway' off a bridge and onto a highway, causing a massive vehicle pileup. He then plans to kill Connie. Afraid something might happen to her, Mark spends the night in her room. The next morning, Mark awakens to find Henry has taken Connie ice skating. At the pond, Henry purposely throws her towards thin ice, which collapses. Connie is rescued, but ends up in a coma. Even though Susan does not initially believe Mark, she becomes suspicious and interrupts Henry's attempt to suffocate Connie in her hospital bed. Susan then finds a rubber duck that Henry has hidden in his shed — it had once belonged to Henry's younger brother, Richard, and had been with him in the bathtub the night he drowned; the duck went missing after. When Susan confronts Henry, he coldly reminds her that the toy had belonged to him first. He then flips and kindly asks for the rubber duck back. After a violent tug-of-war, he takes the toy and throws it down the well. As Susan and Mark grow closer, Henry insinuates that he will kill Susan rather than let Mark continue to develop a relationship with her. When a fight breaks out between the two boys, Wallace locks Mark in the den. Henry asks a suspicious Susan to go for a walk with him, while Mark escapes and chases after them. Susan confronts Henry, asking him if he killed Richard, to which Henry sarcastically replies, "What if I did?" Susan realizes that Mark was right about her son's true nature. She tells Henry that he needs help, but he refuses and flees. Susan gives chase and upon arriving at a cliff, Henry pushes her over the edge. As Susan dangles from a branch on the cliffside, Henry picks up a large rock to drop on her, but Mark tackles him. Susan manages to climb back up just in time to grab hold of the boys as they roll over the edge, one in each hand. Henry holds on with both hands but Mark's one-handed grip begins to slip. With only enough strength to save one of them, Susan releases Henry and he falls to his death. Susan pulls Mark up and they look down as Henry's corpse is washed away into the ocean. When Mark returns home to Arizona, he reflects upon Susan's choice to save him instead of Henry. He wonders if she would make the same choice again, but knows it is something that he will never ask her. Cast Production Following the completion of his novel The Child in Time, English novelist Ian McEwan was invited by 20th Century Fox to write a screenplay "about evil - possibly concerning children." McEwan recalled, "The idea was to make a low budget, high class movie, not something that Fox would naturally make a lot of money on." Despite being well received, the end result was deemed insufficiently commercial by the parties that commissioned it and it floated around Hollywood until being discovered by independent producer Mary Ann Page. Enthusiastic about the script, which was originally sent to her as a writing sample, Page tried to get the project off the ground for three and a half years. The film was briefly set up at Universal Studios, during which Brian Gilbert was attached as director. In 1988, Michael Klesic was originally cast in the role of Henry Evans. The film was soon after put on hold due to a lack of funding. Following the successes of Home Alone and The Silence of the Lambs, which demonstrated the box-office appeal of a movie about kids and of an "extreme thriller" respectively, Fox itself chose to revisit the project, which they now saw as viable. Director Michael Lehmann (Heathers) became attached, Laurence Mark was appointed as a co-producer and McEwan was called in for rewrites. Mary Steenburgen was cast as Susan and Jesse Bradford had replaced Klesic as Henry because he had grown too old to play the part. McEwan was optimistic about the project and by November 1991, sets were being built in Maine for a production that would cost approximately $12 million. This progress was suddenly interrupted when Kit Culkin, Macaulay Culkin's father and manager, at the time a notoriously influential force in Hollywood due to the child's stardom, wanted his son to star in the film. Wishing to prove Macaulay's capacity in a dark role, he made his son's part in The Good Son a condition for his appearing in Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. Fox agreed enthusiastically due to Culkin's bankability. As the movie was originally scheduled to shoot at the same time as Home Alone 2, the start date for The Good Son was pushed back for a year, making Steenburgen no longer available and having her replaced by Wendy Crewson but also enabling Elijah Wood's involvement. Director Lehmann and producer Mark conflicted with the imposition, leading both to leave the project. The demanding Culkin would go on to insist that Macaulay's sister, Quinn, receive a role in the film and vetted replacement director Joseph Ruben (Sleeping with the Enemy). Furthermore, the budget had risen to an estimated $20 million. McEwan found himself performing further rewrites that continued to simplify the story to satisfy Ruben's comparatively mainstream tastes and was ultimately unceremoniously removed from the project altogether when another screenwriter, Ruben's frequent collaborator David Loughery, was commissioned. Despite this, McEwan was awarded sole writing credit in arbitration when he contested a shared credit. Principal photography took place between November 1992 and February 1993. Interiors of the Evans household were filmed in Beverly, Massachusetts, while exteriors were filmed in the Manchester-by-the-Sea village in Cape Ann and the communities of Rockport, Essex, Annisquam, Danvers, and Marblehead. The climactic cliff scene was filmed at Lake Superior’s cliff, Palisade Head. Release The Good Son was theatrically released on September 24, 1993. It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1994. A DVD of the film was released on September 11, 2012. A Blu-ray release of The Good Son was announced on October 25, 2016 and was released on August 1, 2017. Elmer Bernstein's score to The Good Son was released in 1993 by Fox Music. The score was orchestrated by Emilie A. Bernstein and Patrick Russ, and featured Cynthia Millar on ondes martenot. A tie-in novel was published alongside the movie's release in 1993, written by Todd Strasser. The novel elaborates on the movie, detailing how Henry was born a sociopath, rather than being some personification of evil. In the novel, Henry's mother Susan eventually discovers that Henry is unable to understand emotions like love and sorrow, and that pleasure derived from selfish actions and the torment of others are the few things he truly feels. The book also concludes differently from the movie, ending with Mark returning to Uncle Wallace's home in Maine one year later. Mark and Susan visit Henry's grave, which includes an epitaph: "Without Darkness There Can Be No Light". Reception Box office The Good Son earned US$44,789,789 at the North American box office revenues, and another $15,823,219 in other territories, for a total worldwide box office take of $60,613,008. Critics As of August 2022, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film had an approval rating of 25% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's consensus stated: "The Good Son is never good enough to live up to its unsettling potential, failing to drum up much suspense and unable to make Macaulay Culkin a credible psychopath." As of December 2020, on Metacritic, the film had a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert, who deemed the film inappropriate for children, awarded it half a star, calling the project a "creepy, unpleasant experience". He and Gene Siskel later gave it "Two Thumbs Down". Many critics criticized the casting of Culkin because of his comedic image from Home Alone. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post stated that "the mere presence of the adorable boy star... seems to throw the whole film out of whack, making the picture play more like an inadvertent comedy than a thriller." Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote that the end sequence at the cliff "is one of its few suspenseful and original moments" and "is quite literally gripping." Paul Willinstein of The Morning Call described the film as "Home Alone meets Misery meets The Hand That Rocks the Cradle." Accolades Award Category Recipient Result MTV Movie AwardsBest VillainMacaulay Culkin Saturn AwardsBest Horror FilmThe Good SonBest Performance by a Younger ActorElijah Wood Analysis John Kenneth Muir in Horror Films of the 1990s wrote that the main difference between this and The Bad Seed was that the mother character ends Henry's bad conduct, while in the latter the mother is unable to stop Rhoda Penmark. See also The Other (1972 film) The Bad Seed References External links Category:1993 films Category:1993 drama films Category:1990s American films Category:1990s crime drama films Category:1990s English-language films Category:1990s exploitation films Category:1990s psychological thriller films Category:20th Century Fox films Category:Film controversies in the United Kingdom Category:Film censorship in the United Kingdom Category:Obscenity controversies in film Category:Film controversies Category:Censored films Category:American psychological thriller films Category:Filicide in fiction Category:Films about children Category:Films about cousins Category:Films about families Category:Films about juvenile delinquency Category:Films about mother-son relationships Category:Films about stalking Category:Films directed by Joseph Ruben Category:Films scored by Elmer Bernstein Category:Films set in Arizona Category:Films set in Maine Category:Films shot in Maine Category:Films shot in Minnesota Category:Films shot in New Hampshire Category:Films shot in Massachusetts Category:Films shot in New Mexico Category:Films shot in the Las Vegas Valley Category:Films with screenplays by Ian McEwan Category:Fratricide in fiction Category:Murder in films

{"Directed by": "Joseph Ruben", "Produced by": "Joseph RubenMary Ann Page", "Written by": "Ian McEwan", "Starring": "Macaulay Culkin\n Elijah Wood\n Wendy Crewson\n David Morse\n Jacqueline Brookes", "Music by": "Elmer Bernstein", "Cinematography": "John Lindley", "Edited by": "George Bowers", "Distributed by": "20th Century Fox", "Budget": "$17-28 million", "Box office": "$60.6 millionThe Good Son (1993) https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0107034/ May 21, 2023 Box Office Mojo February 3, 2023 https://web.archive.org/web/20230203143345/https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0107034/ live"}

Glenn Thomas Jacobs (born April 26, 1967), better known by the ring name Kane, is an American politician and professional wrestler.WWE's Kane, Glenn Jacobs, anoounces bid for county mayor - CBS News.com Jacobs has been signed to WWE since 1995 and was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2021. He has also been the Republican Mayor of Knox County, Tennessee since 2018. He began his professional wrestling career on the independent circuit in 1992, wrestling in promotions such as Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW) and the United States Wrestling Association (USWA), before joining the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1995. Jacobs played various characters until 1997, when he was repackaged as Kane, a horror-themed personification of fire and juggernaut younger half-brother of The Undertaker and son of Paul Bearer. This "hellfire and brimstone" gimmick branches from acts of arson by The Undertaker as part of their characters' youth backstory. Jacobs would alternatively feud and team with The Undertaker as The Brothers of Destruction. Following his WWF debut, Kane remained a pivotal component of the company's "Attitude Era" of the late 1990s and early 2000s, defeating the era's "poster boy" Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship in his first pay-per-view (PPV) main event at King of the Ring in June 1998. He continued to headline PPV cards through 2018's Crown Jewel, and has appeared in more PPVs than any other performer in WWF/WWE history other than Randy Orton. Within WWE, Kane is a three-time world champion (having held the WWF Championship, ECW Championship and World Heavyweight Championship once each) and a 12-time world tag team champion (having held the World Tag Team Championship, WCW Tag Team Championship and WWE Tag Team Championships with various partners). He is also a two-time Intercontinental Champion and a Money in the Bank winner, as well as the third man to complete WWE's Grand Slam. The last title Kane won was the 24/7 Championship on September 16, 2019, the only title won under his real name. Veteran wrestler Ric Flair described Kane as "the best in the world", while Big Show dubbed him "the best big man ever". Kane holds the record for the most appearances in a Royal Rumble match at 20, as well as the highest cumulative total eliminations at 46. Outside of professional wrestling, Jacobs has made numerous guest appearances in film and on television, including the lead role in the 2006 WWE Studios production See No Evil and its 2014 sequel. He is also a longtime supporter of libertarian political causes. In March 2017, Jacobs announced that he was running for the mayoral seat of Knox County, Tennessee as a Republican. He won the Republican primary election on May 1, 2018, and the general election on August 2, 2018. He was re-elected as Knox County Mayor on August 4, 2022. Early life Jacobs was born in the Spanish town of Torrejón de Ardoz to a United States Air Force family that was stationed in Spain at the time of his birth. He grew up near St. Louis, Missouri, and attended high school in Bowling Green, Missouri, where he excelled in football and basketball. He went on to earn a degree in English literature at Northeast Missouri State University, where he played both basketball and football. Professional wrestling career Early career (1992-1995) Jacobs debuted in 1992 under the ring name "Angus King", wrestling for the Hannibal, Missouri-based Central States Wrestling Association (which was owned and run by his childhood friend Mark Morton). In December 1992, Jacobs appeared with the Memphis, Tennessee-based United States Wrestling Association (USWA) as "the Christmas Creature", an "evil Christmas character" who wore a garish costume (made by Jacobs' mother) featuring a green mask, candy cane-striped sleeves, and tinsel. The Christmas Creature unsuccessfully challenged Jerry Lawler for the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship before leaving the USWA later that month. In March 1993, Jacobs made a one-off appearance with World Championship Wrestling, losing to Sting on an episode of WCW Saturday Night filmed in Macon, Georgia, under the ring name "Bruiser Mastino". Later that year, he relocated to Tampa, Florida to further his training. During his time in Florida, he wrestled a handful of matches for the International Championship Wrestling Alliance as "Sid Powers". After leaving Florida, Jacobs returned to the USWA as "Doomsday". In October 10, 1993, Jacobs wrestled a dark match for the World Wrestling Federation under his real name, defeating Mike Bell at a WWF Superstars taping in Burlington, Vermont. In December 1993, Jacobs wrestled in Japan for Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi under his real name. Jacobs began 1994 wrestling for the Central City, Kentucky-based Tri-State Wrestling promotion and the Indianapolis, Indiana-based Championship Wrestling from Indiana promotion as "Doomsday", as well as making a handful of further appearances with Pro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi in Japan. In May 1994, Jacobs relocated to Puerto Rico to wrestle for the World Wrestling Council as "Doomsday", where he feuded with Invader 1. In November and December 1994, Jacobs wrestled for the Catch Wrestling Association in Bremen, Germany as "Spartacus", competing in its Catch Cup tournament. Smoky Mountain Wrestling (1995) In January 1995, Jacobs was hired by Jim Cornette for his Morristown, Tennessee-based Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW) promotion, where he was named "Unabomb" (a reference to the Unabomber). He briefly teamed with Eddie Gilbert before forming a tag team with Al Snow named the "Dynamic Duo" and beginning a feud with the Rock 'n' Roll Express. In April 1995 at the Bluegrass Brawl III event, the Dynamic Duo defeated the Rock 'n' Roll Express in a coal miner's glove match for the SMW Tag Team Championship (Jacobs' first championship). They held the titles until July 1995, when they lost to the Thugs. Later that month, the feud between the Dynamic Duo and the Rock 'n' Roll Express culminated in a street fight at Summer Blast 1995, with the Rock 'n' Roll Express victorious. On August 4, 1995 at the SuperBowl of Wrestling event, Jacobs lost to World Wrestling Federation wrestler The Undertaker, who was making a special appearance with SMW. Jacobs made his final appearance with SMW at the following month's Fire on the Mountain 1995 event, with the Thugs defeating the Dynamic Duo in a loser leaves town match. World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE Early years (1995-1997) Jacobs appeared with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) as "Mike Unabomb" at the February 20, 1995 Raw taping, defeating Reno Riggins in a dark match. He wrestled intermittently as "Unabomb" through August. Jacobs made his first television appearance with the company as "Isaac Yankem, DDS", Jerry Lawler's private dentist, in a vignette on the June 26, 1995 episode of Raw.1995 results. The History of WWE. Retrieved December 21, 2011. Placing emphasis on Jacobs' imposing height and weight, Yankem was portrayed as a monstrous figure whom Lawler had hired for the purpose of ridding the WWF of his longtime nemesis, Bret Hart. The character's in-ring debut occurred at a Superstars taping on August 15, where Jacobs lost to Hart by count-out. At that month's SummerSlam event, Yankem was disqualified when he hung Hart by twisting him in the top and middle ropes by his neck. He lost to Hart in a steel cage match in the main event of the October 16 episode of Raw and finally in a tag team match against Hart and Hakushi, in which he was partnered with Lawler on November 6. After his initial run with Hart, Jacobs was part of an unsuccessful team in an elimination match at November's Survivor Series and participated in the 1996 Royal Rumble match in January. The remainder of Yankem's televised run through April included losses to The Undertaker, Jake Roberts, Marc Mero and The Ultimate Warrior. Jacobs was used on a series of live events in Kuwait in May, as well as a September tour of South Africa, after which the Yankem gimmick was retired.1996 results. The History of WWE. Retrieved July 14, 2011. In September 1996, play-by-play announcer Jim Ross introduced Jacobs as Diesel, and Rick Bognar as Razor Ramon, as part of a heavily criticized storyline mocking the departure of former employees Kevin Nash and Scott Hall respectively, while attempting to portray Ross as a disgruntled employee. The pair competed primarily as a tag team, losing a WWF Tag Team Championship match to titleholders Owen Hart and The British Bulldog at December's In Your House 12: It's Time. As Diesel, he lost to The Undertaker via disqualification in the main event of the December 22 edition of Superstars and defeated Marc Mero on Shotgun Saturday Night on January 11, 1997. Diesel and Ramon last appeared on television at the 1997 Royal Rumble, where Jacobs was the third-to-last participant. Jacobs continued to work sporadic live events as Diesel through April.1997 results. The History of WWE. Retrieved July 9, 2011. In May he and Razor Ramon went to Mexico to work for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide. On June 24, 1997 Jacobs lost to Razor Ramon in a Loser Leaves Town match at USWA. In July 1997, Jacobs briefly returned to the United States Wrestling Association as "Doomsday", winning the USWA Heavyweight Championship from Spillbinder. He then dropped the title to Steven Dunn on September 6. Emergence of Kane; WWF Champion (1997-1998) In April 1997, the WWF "slowly and meticulously" began building up to the debut of Jacobs' new character of Kane: a horror-themed juggernaut and hellish personification of everything fire. The character's theme and persona is rooted in malevolent acts of arson by his older half-brother, The Undertaker, that occurred during their youth. Rounding out his "Hellfire and Brimstone" gimmick, Kane was combined with a specialty match personalized to him, dubbed the "Inferno match". At In Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, The Undertaker launched a fireball into the face of his former manager, Paul Bearer, who had previously had his protégé Mankind do the same to The Undertaker prior to the event. On the May 12 edition of Raw, Mankind reintroduced Bearer, who attempted to reunite with Undertaker because of his status as WWF Champion. This was all following a long period of mutual hostility between the two. After The Undertaker's adamant refusals, Bearer used the ultimatum of revealing The Undertaker's "deepest, darkest secret" to the world in order to coerce him into being his protégé. The Undertaker begrudgingly acceded to Bearer's wishes for a few months but eventually lost his patience with Bearer's abrasive management of him and rejected all association with him. Bearer responded by publicly revealing that his long-lost brother, Kane (later revealed as Bearer's illegitimate son and the Undertaker's half-brother), was coming to the WWF to challenge him. In sharing this news, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had started a fire at his family's funeral home, in effect murdering his family. Kane, who The Undertaker thought long dead from the incident, was left physically and mentally scarred. Undertaker claimed that Kane, a "pyromaniac", was the one who started the fire and could not possibly have survived (however, in October 1998 Undertaker confessed to purposefully burning down the home in attempt to murder Kane). Jacobs made his re-debut as Kane at Badd Blood: In Your House on October 5, 1997, by using The Undertaker's signature "Tombstone Piledriver" to cost him the victory in the first Hell in a Cell match against Shawn Michaels. In keeping with the notion that Kane had been burned and scarred by the fire—and to conceal Jacobs' identity—the character wore a mask, sported long hair, and wore red and black ring attire that almost covered his entire body. Kane and The Undertaker feuded with one another over the following year, during which time their history vis-à-vis one another was expounded. Jacobs won his first match as Kane against Mankind at Survivor Series. The Undertaker initially refused to face him and adamantly so while Kane humiliated him, The Undertaker claiming he had promised his parents he would never do harm to his own "flesh and blood". After what was thought to be a brief partnership, Kane betrayed The Undertaker by costing him the WWF Championship, Kane interfering in The Undertaker's title match against Shawn Michaels at the Royal Rumble. After the match, Kane locked Undertaker in a casket and set it on fire. After a couple months of absence, Undertaker resurrected on an episode of RAW, in which he was reproduced from a coffin that was struck by lightning, in this moment furiously challenging Kane. The Undertaker defeated Kane at WrestleMania XIV on March 29. After the match, Kane and Paul Bearer attacked The Undertaker, hitting him with a steel chair and then giving a Tombstone Piledriver. On April 4, they faced each other again at Mayhem in Manchester, where the Undertaker defeated Kane again. They continued to feud until Unforgiven: In Your House on April 26, when The Undertaker defeated Kane in the first ever Inferno match. In this match, Bearer tried to help Kane by attacking Undertaker, but as Kane was retreating backstage, Vader forced Kane back towards the ring, and The Undertaker attacked them both by jumping over the ring ropes surrounded by fire before setting Kane's right arm on fire. At Over the Edge: In Your House, Kane defeated Vader in a Mask vs. Mask match. On the June 1 episode of Raw Is War, Kane defeated The Undertaker to become the number one contender to the WWF Championship. At the King of the Ring, Kane defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin in a First Blood match following interferences by Mankind and The Undertaker to win the WWF Championship. Kane lost the title back to Austin the following night on Raw Is War. The Brothers of Destruction (1998-2001) In June 1998, Kane formed a tag team with Mankind, with whom he won the WWF Tag Team Championship twice that summer. After dissension between the partners saw their second reign end at SummerSlam, Kane broke away from Mankind and allied with The Undertaker, with the duo being known as the Brothers of Destruction. At Breakdown: In Your House in September 1998, Kane, The Undertaker, and Stone Cold Steve Austin competed in a triple threat match for Austin's WWF Championship; Kane and Undertaker were prohibited from pinning each other, so they pinned Austin at the same time. The half-brothers fought one another for the vacant WWF Championship at Judgment Day: In Your House in October 1998, with the match ending in a no contest when special guest referee Austin counted a double pinfall and declared himself the winner; during the match, The Undertaker betrayed Kane for Paul Bearer, turning Kane face. At Rock Bottom: In Your House, Kane interfered in the Buried Alive match between Austin and The Undertaker, attacking Undertaker and costing him the match. As a result, The Corporation had Kane committed to an insane asylum. In December, Kane joined The Corporation to stay out of the insane asylum. During this time, Kane aligned himself with Chyna and feuded with Triple H. At WrestleMania XV, Kane was betrayed by Chyna and thrown out of The Corporation. Kane then formed a tag team with X-Pac and acquired a girlfriend, Tori. While teaming with X-Pac, Kane evolved from being mute to aided speech through an electrolarynx to speaking unaided. He also became associated with D-Generation X (DX), the faction of which X-Pac was a member. His first unaided words were the DX slogan "suck it". The duo won the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. The tag team broke apart when X-Pac turned on Kane and rejoined DX. Kane and X-Pac then engaged in a lengthy feud against each other, which was exacerbated in early 2000, when Tori betrayed Kane and joined X-Pac and DX, leading to Kane briefly reuniting with Paul Bearer. With Bearer once again by his side, Kane proceeded to terrorize DX at every opportunity he could, once forcing the group to send Rikishi after Kane to stop him. The former partners' feud eventually ended at WrestleMania 2000, where Kane teamed with Rikishi to defeat X-Pac and Road Dogg. Kane returned on the May 29 episode of Raw, when he helped The Undertaker and The Rock fight off the McMahon-Helmsley Faction. His involvement in this feud culminated in a main event match at King of the Ring against Vince and Shane McMahon, and then-champion Triple H. The Undertaker and Kane's rivalry resurfaced during the match, but they patched their relationship up soon after. Kane later turned heel by assaulting The Undertaker, leading to a match between the two at SummerSlam. The match ended when The Undertaker removed Kane's mask, causing him to flee the ring, covering his exposed face. Kane stayed in contention for the WWF Championship for the remainder of the year and ended 2000 in a feud with Chris Jericho; Kane defeated him at Survivor Series and again at Rebellion, but he ultimately lost to Jericho in a Last Man Standing match at Armageddon. Kane turned face once again by reforming his alliance with The Undertaker immediately after the Royal Rumble in which he eliminated 11 wrestlers and was the runner-up, after being eliminated by Stone Cold Steve Austin.Stone Cold (No. 27) wins the Royal Rumble Match. WWE (January 31, 2001). Retrieved on November 29, 2011. In early 2001, Kane competed for the Hardcore Championship, defeating Raven for the title at WrestleMania X-Seven in a triple threat match that also featured Big Show, later losing the title to Rhyno on an episode of SmackDown!. Kane and The Undertaker began teaming as The Brothers of Destruction, and in the course of the year they feuded with Edge and Christian, Rikishi and Haku, and The Two-Man Power Trip. At Judgment Day, Kane defeated Triple H to win the Intercontinental Championship. Kane lost the title to Albert on an episode of SmackDown! following interference from Diamond Dallas Page. During The Invasion, Kane and The Undertaker feuded with Page and Kanyon after Page began stalking The Undertaker's wife Sara. The feud culminated at SummerSlam, where they defeated Page and Kanyon in a steel cage match, resulting in them holding both the WWF Tag Team and the WCW Tag Team Championships. Kane and The Undertaker defeated KroniK at Unforgiven and both participated in the ten-man Winner-Takes-All match at Survivor Series as members of the victorious Team WWF. Unmasking (2002-2004) thumb|left|upright|Kane in 2003, wearing his half mask weeks before his unmasking on Raw On March 25, 2002, the WWF was divided into two brands, Raw and SmackDown!, with Kane being drafted to Raw. Kane shortly feuded with the New World Order (nWo) and began acting human by talking through his mask and referring to his fans as "Kanenites". Kane returned to the renamed WWE as part of the Raw roster in August 2002, with a new outfit and half-mask where his facial hair was shown. On the September 23 episode of Raw, Kane and The Hurricane won the WWE Tag Team Championship after defeating The Un-Americans (Lance Storm and Christian). The following week on Raw, Kane won the Intercontinental Championship from Chris Jericho, despite interference from Triple H and Ric Flair. On the October 7 episode of Raw, Kane successfully single-handedly defended the World Tag Team Championship in a four-team Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match, as The Hurricane had been attacked earlier that evening by Triple H and Ric Flair and was unable to compete. That match was later nominated as WWE's 2002 "Match of the Year". Kane and The Hurricane lost the World Tag Team Championship to Chris Jericho and Christian the following week on Raw. Also in October, Kane began feuding with Triple H, leading to a match at No Mercy on October 20 in which both Kane's Intercontinental Championship and Triple H's World Heavyweight Championship were at stake. In the weeks preceding the match, Triple H claimed that, several years earlier, Kane had an unrequited relationship with a woman named Katie Vick. He claimed that after Vick was killed in a car crash, Kane had sex with her. Triple H later threatened to show video footage of Kane committing the act in question; however, the footage that finally aired showed Triple H (dressed as Kane) simulating mock sex with a mannequin in a casket; Kane's tag team partner The Hurricane responded the following week by showing a video of Triple H (rather, someone wearing a Triple H series of masks) getting an enema. The angle was very unpopular with fans, and was de-emphasised before the title match. Triple H defeated Kane at No Mercy, due to Triple H and Flair cheating, unifying the two titles. On the October 28 episode of Raw, Kane defeated Triple H in a non-title Casket match to end their feud. At Survivor Series, Kane participated in the first-ever Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by Shawn Michaels. Kane then formed a tag team with Rob Van Dam, with the duo eventually winning the World Tag Team Championship from Chief Morley and Lance Storm in a triple threat elimination match (also involving The Dudley Boyz) on the March 31 episode of Raw. After they lost their World Tag Team Championship to La Résistance at Bad Blood, Triple H offered Kane a spot in his stable Evolution. Raw co-general manager Stone Cold Steve Austin offered Kane the opportunity to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship if he rejected Triple H's offer; however, co-general manager Eric Bischoff insisted that if Kane lost the match, he would unmask. Kane accepted Austin's offer and challenged Triple H the following week in Madison Square Garden. Triple H won the match following interference from his stablemates, and on the June 23, 2003, episode of Raw, Kane removed his mask and chokeslammed Van Dam, turning heel in the process. The unmasking rendered Kane emotionally unstable, and in an interview with Jim Ross on the July 14 episode of Raw, Kane attacked Ross and set him on fire. He later attacked Linda McMahon on the Raw stage the following week. This action sparked a feud between Kane and Shane McMahon, Linda's son, with Kane defeating Shane in a Last Man Standing match at Unforgiven and an ambulance match at Survivor Series. During the latter event, Kane also interfered in a Buried Alive match between Vince McMahon and The Undertaker, helping McMahon bury The Undertaker and win the match. In January 2004, Kane took part in the Royal Rumble match; he was eliminated when he heard the bell toll from The Undertaker's entrance music, distracting and distressing Kane, and enabling Booker T to eliminate him. Over the following weeks, Kane repeatedly insisted that The Undertaker was "dead", only to be met with various paranormal incidents such as a rainstorm localized over the ring in which he stood. The Undertaker finally returned at WrestleMania XX (again sporting his "Deadman" persona) with Paul Bearer at his side, defeating Kane. Storyline with Lita (2004-2005) thumb|upright|A bloodied Kane in a steel cage match against Edge After losing at WrestleMania XX, Kane fell in love with Lita, but was spurned. This led to him kidnapping Lita in May, and on the same night, Kane won a 20-man battle royal for a World Heavyweight Championship match against Chris Benoit at Bad Blood. Six days before Bad Blood in a handicap tag team match between Kane and La Resistance against Edge and Benoit, Kane pinned Benoit. However, Kane lost to Benoit at Bad Blood. Lita later announced that she was pregnant, with Matt Hardy her then-boyfriend both on- and off-screen, assuming that he was the child's father. On the June 21 episode of Raw, Kane claimed that he was the father. The next week, he explained that he had impregnated Lita to continue his legacy and justified an attack on Shawn Michaels a week earlier by claiming that Michaels had stood in the way of him winning the World Heavyweight Championship. To appease Kane, General Manager Eric Bischoff gave Kane a rematch with Benoit, instructing Benoit that he could only win by submission, whereas Kane could win the title by any means. Kane again lost to Benoit, and following the match, Lita came to the ring and low-blowed Kane, who initially went to chokeslam her in revenge, but stopped when he realized that she was trying to force him to cause her to miscarry their child. Kane and Matt Hardy faced one another in a "Till Death Do Us Part" match at SummerSlam, with Lita obliged to wed the victor. Kane defeated Hardy at SummerSlam, and "married" Lita on the August 23 episode of Raw. Although he was attacked by Hardy during the ceremony, he gained the upper hand and ultimately chokeslammed Hardy off the stage. A week after the wedding, General Manager Eric Bischoff gave Kane and Lita the wedding gift of choosing any match that Kane wanted at Unforgiven. Shawn Michaels was chosen and defeated Kane in a no-disqualification match at Unforgiven. The next night, on the September 13 episode of Raw, Kane accidentally fell on Lita during a match with the debuting Gene Snitsky, who hit him on the back with a steel chair, ostensibly causing Lita to miscarry. Kane turned face by seeking revenge against Snitsky for causing the death of his child but lost to Snitsky in a steel chain match (which was selected by the fans) at Taboo Tuesday. Kane was sidelined for several months after Snitsky crushed his larynx with a chair during the match. This storyline gave Jacobs time to complete his role in the film, See No Evil. Kane returned in January 2005, defeating Snitsky at New Year's Revolution. After WrestleMania 21, Kane and Lita reconciled with one another and began antagonizing Lita's rival Trish Stratus. This led to a match between Kane and Stratus' hired bodyguard Viscera at Backlash that was won by Kane. Lita later turned on Kane and started an on-screen relationship with her real-life boyfriend at the time Edge. This led to a feud between Kane and Edge, whom Kane defeated at Vengeance despite interference from Snitsky. The feud ended when Edge defeated Kane in a Stretcher match on the July 25 episode of Raw. Teaming with Big Show (2005-2006) thumb|left|upright|Kane with a portrait done by a fan Kane returned to WWE television on the October 17 episode of Raw, winning an 18-man battle royal. As a result of his victory, he, along with Big Show and Shawn Michaels, was featured in an Internet poll to decide who would receive a shot at the WWE Championship at Taboo Tuesday. In the weeks before Taboo Tuesday, Kane and Big Show teamed together on several occasions. The poll was won by Michaels, and Kane and Big Show teamed together to face Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch, defeating them for the World Tag Team Championship. The duo successfully retained their championship throughout the remainder of 2005, during which time they engaged in an inter-promotional feud with members of the SmackDown! brand. On the December 12 episode of Raw, Kane defeated Triple H in an Elimination Chamber qualifying match, then Kane participated in the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship at New Year's Revolution but he was eliminated by Carlito and Chris Masters. He and Big Show feuded with Carlito and Masters throughout early 2006, culminating in a successful title defense at WrestleMania 22 on April 2. The following evening, Kane and the Big Show lost the World Tag Team Championship to Spirit Squad members Kenny and Mikey. One week later, Kane and Big Show faced Spirit Squad members Johnny and Nicky in a rematch for the title, but were disqualified after Kane "snapped", ostensibly due to "voices in his head". In subsequent weeks, Kane began attacking anyone who mentioned the date May 19. During the match between Kane and Big Show at Backlash, Kane's voice began echoing throughout the arena saying "May 19th", "It's happening again" and "They're all going to know", leaving Kane visibly shaken. Big Show then struck Kane with a chair, resulting in a no contest. On May 19, Kane appeared on SmackDown! as John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL)'s hand-picked opponent for Rey Mysterio. After the aforementioned voices and mask video began playing, Kane chokeslammed JBL and Mysterio, before leaving the ring. On the following episode of Raw, he claimed that May 19 was the date on which his mother and adopted family were killed in a fire. The voices continued to the May 29 episode of Raw, when Kane was confronted by the source of the voice, an impostor Kane; wearing Kane's old mask and ring attire, he chokeslammed Kane during his match against Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship. Kane and the look-alike continued to fight one another in subsequent weeks, leading to a match between the two being scheduled for Vengeance, in which the real Kane lost to the impostor. On the June 26 episode of Raw, Kane threw the impostor out of the arena and removed his mask, saying "I believe that this is mine". Kane was absent from WWE television for two months thereafter as he toured Europe to promote See No Evil. Kane returned at SummerSlam, attacking Umaga, who was interfering in the D-Generation-X versus Mr. McMahon and Shane McMahon tag team match. Upon his return, he faced his former partner Big Show for the ECW World Championship in a losing effort. Soon after, Kane would engage in a major feud with Umaga that concluded on October 9 in a Loser Leaves Raw match, which he lost. Brothers of Destruction reunion (2006-2007) thumb|Kane was reunited with The Undertaker when he returned to SmackDown! in 2006 On the October 13 episode of SmackDown!, Kane moved to the SmackDown! brand. On the November 3 episode of SmackDown!, Kane reunited with The Undertaker as The Brothers of Destruction to defeat Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) and Mr. Kennedy. Kane continued a feud with MVP competing in several gimmick matches. The result of the feud was an Inferno match at Armageddon; Kane won by setting MVP's back on fire which resulted in first degree burns. On the SmackDown! before the Royal Rumble, Kane was involved in a six-man elimination over-the-top-rope battle royal, with King Booker, MVP, The Miz, Chris Benoit, and Finlay. This match went to a no-contest as The Undertaker interrupted after Kane had been eliminated and punished by the remaining opponents. At the Royal Rumble, Kane eliminated King Booker, but Booker re-entered the ring and eliminated Kane. On the February 2 episode of SmackDown!, while receiving the key to the city in his hometown of Houston, Booker was attacked by Kane starting a feud between the two. At No Way Out, Kane defeated King Booker. On the February 23 episode of SmackDown!, Kane lost to King Booker in a Falls Count Anywhere Money in the Bank Qualifying match after interference from The Great Khali, sparking a feud between the two. Before WrestleMania 23, Kane started to walk around with a hook, similar to the hook he used as Jacob Goodnight in See No Evil. At WrestleMania, Kane lost to Khali. During the match, in homage to Hulk Hogan slamming André the Giant twenty years earlier at WrestleMania III, Kane picked up Khali for the first time and body-slammed him to the mat. After WrestleMania, he began to feud with William Regal and Dave Taylor. The Boogeyman then joined the feud, teaming up with Kane. On the May 4 episode of SmackDown!, Kane competed in a number one contender's match for the United States Championship against MVP. Kane lost due to interference by Regal and Taylor. On the May 25 episode of SmackDown!, Kane competed in a fatal four-way number one contender's match for the World Heavyweight Championship which was won by Batista. Kane then entered a short feud with Mark Henry, losing to him in a Lumberjack match at One Night Stand due to interference from lumberjacks Kenny Dykstra and Chavo Guerrero Jr. and then took a short hiatus. On the July 6 episode of SmackDown!, General Manager Theodore Long announced that Kane would face Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship at The Great American Bash. After Edge was attacked and injured by Kane and the title was vacated, Batista faced Kane in a number one contender's match on the July 20 episode of SmackDown!. During the match, new World Heavyweight Champion The Great Khali interfered by attacking Batista; the match was ruled a no-contest and both men were ruled the number one contenders and were scheduled to face Khali in a triple threat match at The Great American Bash. Khali retained the title after pinning Kane for the win at The Great American Bash. Kane later teamed up with Batista on the August 18 Saturday Night's Main Event XXXV to defeat Khali and Finlay. Kane then entered a storyline with Finlay, which led to a match at SummerSlam, which Kane won after chokeslamming Finlay. They continued to feud, which included Kane losing to Finlay in a number one contender's tournament on the August 31 episode of SmackDown! after interference from Hornswoggle. Kane then made an appearance on the October 16 episode of ECW as the hand-chosen partner of ECW Champion CM Punk, helping him defeat John Morrison, The Miz, and Big Daddy V in a three-on-two handicap match. In retaliation, Big Daddy V attacked Kane on the October 19 episode of SmackDown!, igniting a feud between the two. The two continued to battle in the following weeks. Kane was voted to face the defending champion MVP for his United States Championship at Cyber Sunday, which Kane won by countout and thus did not win the title. After this, he continued to feud with Big Daddy V, with the two ending up on opposite teams at Survivor Series, where Kane's team won. Big Daddy V eventually began to team with Mark Henry, while Kane teamed with CM Punk. The feud concluded at Armageddon, where Kane and Punk lost to Big Daddy V and Henry after Big Daddy V pinned Punk. ECW Champion (2008-2009) thumb|left|Kane preparing for a chokeslam at a WWE Live Event in February 2008. In a battle royal before WrestleMania XXIV, Kane won by last eliminating former rival Mark Henry, earning a match for the ECW Championship against Chavo Guerrero later that night. Kane defeated Guerrero in the second fastest WrestleMania match with a record-setting eleven seconds to win the ECW Championship. Shortly after winning the championship, Kane officially joined the ECW brand. At Backlash, Kane successfully defended the ECW Championship against Guerrero. He then continued teaming with CM Punk to earn a WWE Tag Team Championship match at Judgment Day, which they lost to John Morrison and The Miz. As part of the 2008 WWE Draft, Kane was drafted to the Raw brand, making the ECW Championship exclusive to Raw. Kane lost the ECW Championship to Mark Henry at Night of Champions in a triple threat match that also involved Big Show.Andrew Rote Results:World's Strongest Extreme Champion. WWE. June 29, 2008 On the July 7 episode of Raw, Kane lost a number one contender's fatal four-way match to Batista (Batista would advance to the World Heavyweight Championship match at The Great American Bash), leading him to attack commentators Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler, thus turning heel in the process. At The Great American Bash, Kane interfered and attacked both the champion CM Punk and the challenger Batista, causing the match to end in a double disqualification. In September, Kane began a feud with Rey Mysterio that lasted through Survivor Series. On the March 2 episode of Raw, Kane pinned Mike Knox in a triple threat match, also involving Rey Mysterio, to earn a spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 25, a match ultimately won by CM Punk.Breaking the news. WWE. Retrieved on November 29, 2011. During the 2009 draft Kane beat The Brian Kendrick for a draft pick and, later in the night, was drafted to the SmackDown brand. There, Kane feuded with CM Punk and defeated him at Backlash. He then took a break to tour India and also heal injuries, returning at The Bash to assist Dolph Ziggler in his match with The Great Khali by hitting Khali with a steel chair, allowing Ziggler to win. This started a feud with Khali, whom he defeated at SummerSlam and in a Singapore Cane match at Breaking Point. Alongside Chris Jericho, Kane was co-captain for the victorious Team SmackDown at Bragging Rights. Kane then unsuccessfully challenged Jericho in a number one contender's match for an opportunity to face World Heavyweight Champion The Undertaker and Big Show in a triple threat match at Survivor Series. In November, Kane reunited with The Undertaker to feud with Big Show and Jericho, thus turning face. World Heavyweight Champion (2010-2011) At WrestleMania XXVI, during the Money in the Bank ladder match, Kane was unsuccessful in claiming the briefcase as Jack Swagger won the match. Over the next few months, Kane was involved in sporadic singles matches on episodes of SmackDown, including a loss to CM Punk in May in a qualifying match for the World Heavyweight Championship match for the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view event. On the June 4 episode of SmackDown, Kane stated he had found his brother The Undertaker in a "vegetative state" over Memorial Day weekend and vowed revenge on whoever was responsible. Due to Undertaker's injury, a battle royal was held to determine his replacement for Fatal 4-Way, which Rey Mysterio won by last eliminating Kane. Mysterio would go on to win the match at Fatal 4-Way. Kane participated in his fourth Money in the Bank ladder match at its first eponymous pay-per-view. He won the match, and cashed in his Money in the Bank contract later that night, defeating Rey Mysterio (who had just defeated Jack Swagger) to win the World Heavyweight Championship, thus making Kane the first wrestler in WWE history to win the WWE Championship, the ECW Championship, and the World Heavyweight Championship. He became the first wrestler to cash in the Money in the Bank contract on the same night it was won and also holds the record for the fastest cash in at 47 minutes. On the next SmackDown on July 23, Kane accused Mysterio of putting The Undertaker in a vegetative state; Mysterio countered the accusations, claiming that Kane himself was the perpetrator. At SummerSlam, Kane retained the World Heavyweight Championship against Mysterio, and following their match, The Undertaker appeared. Kane was revealed as The Undertaker's attacker, thus turning heel once again and reigniting their feud. He successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against The Undertaker in a No Holds Barred match at Night of Champions. On the following episode of SmackDown, a casket was brought to ringside by druids to reveal the return of Paul Bearer, supporting The Undertaker. At Hell in a Cell, Bearer turned on The Undertaker and allied himself with Kane, who retained the World Heavyweight Championship in a Hell in a Cell match with Bearer's help. At Bragging Rights, Kane defeated Undertaker in a Buried Alive match after help from The Nexus to retain the title once again, thus ending their feud. Kane then rekindled his feud with Edge, who on the October 29 episode of SmackDown was named the new challenger to Kane's World Heavyweight Championship at Survivor Series. On the November 12 episode of SmackDown, Edge kidnapped Bearer and started to play mind games with Kane, trying to psychologically wear him down before their title match. At Survivor Series, Kane retained his title after the referee determined the match a draw due to both men pinning each other at the same time. As Edge still had Bearer in his captivity, Kane agreed to a rematch at the next pay-per-view. On the December 3 episode of SmackDown, Edge defeated Kane in a non-title match to win the right to determine the stipulation for the title match; Edge chose a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match before leaving Kane with a Paul Bearer lookalike and driving away with the genuine Bearer strapped to the back of a truck. The following week, Kane accidentally injured Bearer, believing it to be another hoax by Edge, and Bearer was written out of the storyline. The week after, Kane rampaged into the stadium to hunt down Edge hoping to get back at him but the two were nearly restrained by the entire Smackdown roster. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, Kane lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Edge in a four-way Tables, Ladders and Chairs match also involving Mysterio and Alberto Del Rio. Kane received his rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship on the January 7, 2011 episode of SmackDown in a Last Man Standing match, but was unsuccessful. Kane competed in the 2011 Royal Rumble match, the largest Royal Rumble match in history, and was the 40th and final person to enter the match. Kane then competed in the 2011 Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship, eliminating Drew McIntyre and Big Show before being eliminated by Edge. The following month, Kane reunited with the Big Show against a common enemy, The Corre, thus turning face once again in the process. Kane and Big Show began challenging them for the tag team titles and saving other wrestlers from their attacks. At WrestleMania XXVII, Big Show and Kane teamed with Santino Marella and Kofi Kingston to beat The Corre. The next week, a rematch took place under two out of three falls rules, which Kane's team won. On the April 22 episode of SmackDown, the duo defeated Corre members Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater to win the WWE Tag Team Championship, their second championship as a team. Big Show and Kane then started feuding with the New Nexus. After defending the titles against CM Punk and Mason Ryan at Over the Limit, Kane and Big Show lost the championship to Michael McGillicutty and David Otunga the following night on Raw. The team disbanded after the match, as Big Show suffered an injury. Kane participated in the second annual SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match, but the match was won by Daniel Bryan. On the July 22 episode of SmackDown after losing a street fight to Randy Orton, Kane was attacked by Mark Henry, who injured his leg with a steel chair. WWE reported the attack had fractured Kane's fibula, likely to sideline him for five months. Re-masking (2011-2012) thumb|left|Kane performing his signature fire pyro at WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012. Beginning in November 2011, WWE began airing vignettes featuring Kane and a burning red mask and ending with the words "Kane Resurrected" appearing on screen. Kane returned on the December 12 episode of Raw wearing a metallic mask and new ring attire inspired by the incisions of a postmortem human body after an autopsy. He interrupted the main event between Mark Henry and John Cena, attacking Cena before removing the metallic mask to reveal a new red mask and turning heel once again. Kane continued to attack Cena in the following weeks, claiming he wanted Cena to "embrace the hate" from Cena's detractors, rather than try to "Rise Above Hate", as Cena's T-shirt proclaimed. Kane also attacked and injured Cena's ally Zack Ryder. Kane and Cena fought to a double countout at the Royal Rumble. After the match, Kane attacked Ryder with a Tombstone Piledriver and then he chokeslammed Cena. On February 19 at Elimination Chamber, Cena defeated Kane in an Ambulance match to end the feud. In March, Kane initiated a feud with Randy Orton by attacking him. Kane later explained that he needed to feel like a monster again, and believed that defeating Orton would allow him to do that. Orton retaliated in the following weeks, leading to a match at WrestleMania XXVIII, which Kane won. In a rematch on the following SmackDown, Orton defeated Kane in a No Disqualification match. After Kane attacked Orton and his father, "Cowboy" Bob Orton, the pair faced off at Extreme Rules, in a Falls Count Anywhere match, which Orton won by utilizing a steel chair. At the Over the Limit pre-show, Kane defeated Zack Ryder. Team Hell No (2012-2013) Kane then engaged in a three-way feud with WWE Champion CM Punk and Daniel Bryan after Bryan interfered in a non-title match between Kane and Punk to frame Punk for attacking Kane with a steel chair. On the June 1 episode of SmackDown, a WWE Championship match between Kane and Punk ended in a double disqualification after Bryan attacked both men. On the June 4 episode of Raw, Kane beat CM Punk in a non-title match, and on the June 22 episode of SmackDown, Kane defeated Daniel Bryan. Meanwhile, Bryan's jilted ex-girlfriend AJ Lee turned her affections to both Punk and Kane. The feud culminated in a triple threat match at No Way Out, where Punk retained the WWE Championship after AJ distracted Kane. At Raw 1000, Kane turned face once again when he was saved by his brother The Undertaker from an attack by Jinder Mahal, Drew McIntyre, Tyler Reks, Curt Hawkins, Hunico and Camacho. At SummerSlam, Kane was defeated by Bryan. thumb|Kane offering to "hug it out" with Daniel Bryan As a result of Bryan and Kane's issues, AJ enrolled them in anger management classes hosted by Dr. Shelby and they were later forced to compete in a "Hug it Out" match. At the arrangement of Dr. Shelby and AJ, the two adversaries formed a team whose constant infighting during matches inadvertently resulted in them defeating The Prime Time Players (Titus O'Neil and Darren Young) to become the number one contenders to the WWE Tag Team Championship, and defeating champions Kofi Kingston and R-Truth to win the titles at Night of Champions. Kane and Bryan made their first successful title defense the following night on Raw, defeating the former champions in a rematch. The following week on Raw, "Team Hell No" was chosen as the official team name via a Twitter poll. Team Hell No entered a feud with Team Rhodes Scholars (Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow), and successfully defended the championship against them on multiple occasions. On the November 26 episode of Raw, both Kane and Bryan were assaulted by The Shield (Dean Ambrose, Seth Rollins, and Roman Reigns). Team Hell No allied with Ryback to face The Shield, but lost a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs. Further successful title defenses against Team Rhodes Scholars and 3 MB (Drew McIntyre and Heath Slater) followed throughout December 2012 and January 2013. On the February 11 episode of Raw, Kane defeated Dolph Ziggler to earn the final spot in the number one contender Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship, but was the second man eliminated from the match at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view. On April 7 at WrestleMania 29, Team Hell No defeated Dolph Ziggler and Big E Langston in another successful title defense. Following WrestleMania, Team Hell No rekindled their rivalry with The Shield after they saved The Undertaker from The Shield. On the April 22 episode of Raw, Team Hell No and The Undertaker were defeated by the Shield in a six-man tag team match. Kane and Bryan then faced members of the stable in both tag team and singles competition, but were mainly unsuccessful. On May 19 at Extreme Rules, Kane and Bryan lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to Shield members Seth Rollins and Roman Reigns, ending their reign at 245 days. Team Hell No lost their WWE Tag Team Championship rematch against Reigns and Rollins on the May 27 episode of Raw. On the June 14 episode of SmackDown, Kane, Bryan and Randy Orton ended the Shield's unpinned/unsubmitted streak in televised six-man tag matches. Kane unsuccessfully challenged Dean Ambrose for the United States Championship two days later at Payback and the following night on Raw. On the July 8 episode of Raw, Kane beat Christian in a Money in the Bank qualifying match, then he was attacked and injured by the debuting Wyatt Family, removing him from his scheduled match at Money in the Bank. Kane returned three weeks later, losing to Bryan. Following the match, he was attacked again by The Wyatt Family, setting up a Ring of Fire match at SummerSlam against Bray Wyatt. Kane lost the match, following interference from Erick Rowan and Luke Harper, and after another attack, he was carried out of the arena by The Wyatt Family. The storyline was put in place to allow Jacobs time off to film See No Evil 2. The Authority (2013-2015) thumb|upright|Kane as The Authority's Director of Operations in 2014 Following a two-month hiatus, Kane returned at Hell in a Cell on October 27, attacking both The Wyatt Family and The Miz. The next night on Raw, Kane turned heel again as he pledged allegiance to Stephanie McMahon by handing her his mask, and reinforced his loyalty the next week by aiding members of The Authority. As part of his character change, he appeared unmasked and wore a suit and tie to fit in with the corporate ideology of The Authority, and was given a fictional role as "Director of Operations". When appearing in a suit and tie Kane was referred to as "Corporate Kane." Kane participated in the 2014 Royal Rumble, and was eliminated by CM Punk. He re-appeared later during the match, eliminating Punk to tie the record for most eliminations in the Royal Rumble match; however, his thirteen-year-old record for most eliminations in a single Rumble was broken by Roman Reigns. Kane then involved himself in The Authority's feud with Daniel Bryan, which included Kane booking himself in a match with Bryan on the February 17 episode of Raw and interfering in the WWE World Heavyweight Championship Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber (where Randy Orton was defending his championship against Bryan, John Cena, Sheamus, Cesaro, and Christian.) thumb|upright|left|Kane after his second re-masking in 2014 Following WrestleMania XXX, after Kane and The New Age Outlaws lost to The Shield, Kane was berated by Stephanie McMahon and told to find the "Big Red Monster" that he was before. He returned to his masked self that same week, attacking Big Show following the April 15 episode of Main Event. On the April 21 episode of Raw, Stephanie McMahon announced Kane as the number one contender to the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Extreme Rules, prompting Kane to attack champion Daniel Bryan and his wife Brie Bella. Kane lost his title match to Bryan at Extreme Rules. At Money in the Bank, Kane helped Seth Rollins win his Money in the Bank contract, and then he competed in a WWE World Heavyweight Championship ladder match, which was won by John Cena. At Battleground, Kane competed in a WWE World Heavyweight Championship fatal four-way match against John Cena, Randy Orton, and Roman Reigns, but Cena retained the title. On the July 28 episode of Raw, Kane was scheduled to face Roman Reigns, but Kane and Randy Orton attacked Reigns before the match began. On the August 4 episode of Raw, after Kane lost to Roman Reigns in a Last Man Standing match, he relinquished his mask and gave it to Stephanie McMahon. The following week on Raw, Kane resumed his role as The Authority's Director of Operations. At Survivor Series, Kane was part of Team Authority in the main event, and was eliminated by Dolph Ziggler, who ultimately won the match for Team Cena. After Survivor Series, he began feuding with Ryback, which led to a chairs match between the two at TLC, where Ryback emerged victorious. At Royal Rumble, Kane eliminated four superstars, thus surpassing the record for most overall eliminations in the Royal Rumble match. At Fastlane, Kane, Big Show, and Seth Rollins defeated Dolph Ziggler, Erick Rowan, and Ryback, after Kane pinned Ziggler. Kane participated in the 2nd Annual André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania 31, and was eliminated by Cesaro. At Extreme Rules, Kane served as the "gatekeeper" for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship Steel Cage match between Seth Rollins and Randy Orton, which Rollins won by escaping the cage. At Payback, Kane secured his role as Director of Operations by helping Rollins retain his title in a fatal four-way match against Dean Ambrose, Randy Orton, and Roman Reigns. At Money in the Bank, Kane participated in the Money in the Bank ladder match, which was won by Sheamus. On the July 13 episode of Raw, Kane was injured by Brock Lesnar, who smashed his ankle with the steel ring steps. Following the attack, Rollins berated Kane and kicked his injured ankle. Kane returned at Night of Champions with his mask as his "Demon" persona, preventing Sheamus from cashing in his Money in the Bank contract and attacking Seth Rollins, thus turning face in the process. Kane appeared as both his "Demon" and "Corporate" personas and continued his feud with Rollins, defeating him in a lumberjack match on the October 12 episode of Raw. "Demon" Kane lost his WWE World Heavyweight Championship match against Rollins at Hell in a Cell, and as per the stipulation, "Corporate" Kane was fired from his role as The Authority's Director of Operations. Tag team reunions (2015-2020) thumb|left|Kane reformed his alliance with Big Show during a feud with The Wyatt Family back in 2016 Following Hell in a Cell, Kane reunited with The Undertaker to feud with The Wyatt Family. At Survivor Series, The Brothers of Destruction defeated Bray Wyatt and Luke Harper in a tag team match. Kane was the seventh entrant in the 2016 Royal Rumble match, and was eliminated by Braun Strowman. At Fastlane, Kane teamed up with Big Show and Ryback to defeat The Wyatt Family. At WrestleMania 32, Kane participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, and was the runner-up, being eliminated by eventual winner Baron Corbin. On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Kane was drafted to the SmackDown brand. At Backlash in September, Kane defeated Bray Wyatt following interference by Randy Orton. At Survivor Series, Kane defeated Luke Harper on the kick-off show. A rematch between the two was made on the November 29 episode of SmackDown Live, in which Kane was once again victorious. On the October 16, 2017 episode of Raw, after ten months of inactivity, Kane made a surprise return when he came from under the ring to attack Roman Reigns, costing him a Steel Cage match against Braun Strowman and joining The Miz's team at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, thus moving to the Raw brand and turning heel in the process. At TLC on October 22, Kane, Miz, Strowman, and The Bar were originally scheduled to compete in a 5-on-3 handicap TLC match against The Shield, but Roman Reigns was sidelined due to real-life illness. Donning the signature Shield ring attire, Kurt Angle took Reigns' place in the match as an honorary member of The Shield alongside Seth Rollins and Dean Ambrose. Kane, Miz, Strowman and The Bar lost the match after Kane, Miz and The Bar betrayed Strowman. After defeating the likes of Finn Bálor and Seth Rollins, Kane engaged in a feud with Strowman. On the December 11 episode of Raw, Kane and Strowman fought to a double countout in a match to determine the number one contender to Brock Lesnar's Universal Championship. At the Royal Rumble, Lesnar retained his title in a triple threat match against both Kane and Strowman. Kane was written off television after losing a Last Man Standing match against Strowman the following night on Raw. He returned on the March 19 episode of Raw and chokeslammed John Cena after Cena called out The Undertaker. The following week on Raw, Kane lost to Cena in a no disqualification match. At WrestleMania 34, Kane participated in the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, and lasted until the final four but was ultimately unsuccessful. thumb|right|Kane alongside former Team Hell No partner Daniel Bryan in July 2018 Kane returned as a face on the June 26 episode of SmackDown Live and saved Daniel Bryan from SmackDown Tag Team Champions The Bludgeon Brothers, thus reuniting Team Hell No. At Extreme Rules, Team Hell No lost to The Bludgeon Brothers in a SmackDown Tag Team Championship match after Kane was attacked by his opponents backstage. Kane made his return on the October 1 episode of Raw and reunited with The Undertaker to feud with Triple H and Shawn Michaels. At Super Show-Down in Melbourne, Australia, Undertaker was defeated by Triple H following interference by Michaels. After the match, Kane and Undertaker attacked Michaels and Triple H, setting up a tag team match between The Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X at Crown Jewel on November 2. At Crown Jewel, despite dominating most of the match, the Brothers of Destruction lost to D-X after Triple H pinned Kane. On the September 16, 2019 episode of Raw, Kane returned after a hiatus of nearly a year this time under his real name, and he pinned R-Truth to capture the 24/7 Championship, his only championship won under his real name, but dropped the title back to Truth. Later that night, he re-emerged under his Kane persona, and saved Universal Champion Seth Rollins from The O.C. (AJ Styles, Luke Gallows, and Karl Anderson) and Raw Tag Team Champions Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode, but was subsequently attacked by "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt. Kane returned on the January 17, 2020 episode of SmackDown, where he was interrupted by The Fiend, but Daniel Bryan would attack The Fiend with a running knee and the two would subsequently have a brief reunion afterwards. At Survivor Series on November 22, he made an appearance during The Undertaker's retirement ceremony. WWE Hall of Famer (2021-present) At Royal Rumble on January 31, 2021, Kane appeared as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match, eliminating Dolph Ziggler and Ricochet before being eliminated by Damian Priest. On March 24, 2021, it was announced that Kane would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame as part of the class of 2021. Kane's induction was completed on April 1, 2021. On September 17, prior to SmackDown, Kane presented Bianca Belair with a proclamation from the Tennessee Senate. He later appeared during SmackDown during in-ring celebrations. Kane attended the 2022 WWE Hall of Fame in recognition of The Undertaker headlining the ceremony. On the April 25, 2022 episode of Raw, Kane made brief cameo appearances in two separate backstage segments involving Bianca Belair and Randy Orton. Kane made a surprise appearance at the 2022 SummerSlam event announcing the shows attendance, then delivered his signature ring pyro before leaving the ring. Professional wrestling style, persona, and legacy Upon his debut in the WWF, Jacobs portrayed a dental hygienist named Dr. Isaac Yankem; during this time he used a snap DDT as his finishing move. He later portrayed the Diesel character popularized by Kevin Nash following Nash's departure to WCW in 1996; during this time he used a release powerbomb. Upon his repackaging as Kane in 1997, Jacobs proceeded to utilize the chokeslam and the tombstone piledriver as finishers, taking after his older half-brother The Undertaker. In 2001, Jacobs adopted a falling powerbomb as a finisher, reminiscent of The Undertaker's "Last Ride". He was nicknamed "The Big Red Machine", "The (Devil's Favorite) Demon", and "The (Big Red) Monster" to emphasize his monstrous/demonic persona. His character wore a full mask before replacing it with a half mask in 2002. Kane appeared unmasked from 2003 until 2011 when he returned with a new half mask. Under his time in The Authority, Kane relinquished his mask and wore a suit and tie in a persona known as "Corporate Kane" where he also wrestled in dark slacks with elbow pads, though he later reverted to his attire and mask. In 2012, a WWE article ranked him as the 41st best wrestling villain in history. In 2019 he altered his "Big Red Machine" nickname into "Big Red Mayor" when doing a Twitter AMA. Political career thumb|left|Jacobs speaking at a political conference hosted by Campaign for Liberty in Alexandria, Virginia in 2014 Jacobs is actively involved in libertarian politics and publishes his views via a blog. Jacobs supported Texas Congressman Ron Paul for President in 2008. He is a member of the Free State Project and delivered a speech at the organization's 2009 New Hampshire Liberty Forum. He has also spoken at the Ludwig von Mises Institute,"Famed Wrestler Kane Visits the Mises Institute". an anarcho-capitalist think-tank for promoting the Austrian school of economics. In an interview with The Tom Woods Show libertarian podcast, Jacobs mentioned Woods, Harry Browne, Ron Paul, John Stossel, Peter Schiff, and Murray Rothbard as his political influences and stated he is "theoretically a Rothbardian", but does not believe that a stateless society would be achieved in his lifetime.WWE Wrestler Kane Talks Libertarianism, and His Heroes, October 30, 2013. Some Tea Party affiliated groups attempted to recruit Jacobs to run in the 2014 Republican U.S. Senate primary in Tennessee against Sen. Lamar Alexander. Mayor of Knox County thumb|right|Jacobs as Mayor speaking with attendees at Revolution 2021 in Kissimmee, Florida. In May 2016, Jacobs said he was "seriously considering" a run as a Republican for the Knox County, Tennessee mayoral seat in 2018, but would make a final decision after the 2016 presidential election. In March 2017, Jacobs announced that he was officially running for the mayoral seat of Knox County as a Republican. On May 1, 2018, Jacobs won the Republican primary election for the mayoral seat of Knox County, Tennessee by 17 votes. Jacobs got 14,633 (36.09%) votes, Brad Anders got 14,616 (36.05%), and Bob Thomas got 11,296 (27.86%). On August 2, 2018, Jacobs was elected mayor, defeating Democratic opponent Linda Haney by a vote of 51,804 (66.39%) to 26,224 (33.61%). In a 2019 interview with Fox News promoting a recently released book of his, Jacobs was critical of the impeachment inquiry into President Donald Trump, saying the Democratic Party was creating further division by pursuing it. In July 2020, Jacobs was the only member of the Knox County Board of Health to vote against a mask mandate for those inside certain buildings. He defended his vote saying, "I worry that one-size-fits-all mandates such as this set a terrible precedent for government overreach, are difficult to enforce, can cause conflict between the authorities and the public when enforced, and, as written, this order places enforcement responsibilities on private businesses". He would get into a dispute with the Board in September 2020, after he recorded a video where images of fellow members were displayed over narration of Jacobs calling them "unelected bureaucrats who cast down edicts which carry the force of law with no accountability and no recourse." He would advocate for the abolishment of the Board and later successfully pressured the Knox County Commission to move up a vote on limiting their powers from April to March 2021. In March 2021, Jacobs announced he would be seeking reelection for Knox County Mayor for a second term and would go onto defeat Democratic opponent Debbie Helsley in the general election, which was held on August 5, 2022. Electoral history Personal life Jacobs has been married to Crystal Maurisa Goins since August 23, 1995 he is the stepfather of Crystal's two daughters, named Arista and Devan, as well as two grandchildren. Outside of wrestling, Jacobs also works as an insurer and he and his wife own an Allstate agency in Knoxville, Tennessee. In a July 2015 interview for Realtor.com, the website of the National Association of Realtors, Jacobs indicated that the couple's obligations to their insurance business led them to place their Jefferson City home up for sale. The home, built in 2005, was an hour's drive from the agency and both Jacobs and his wife eventually grew tired of the commute. Other media thumb|Kane at WrestleMania 32 Axxess Jacobs made his film debut as "Jacob Goodnight" in the first production of WWE Studios, See No Evil, which was released on May 19, 2006. Jacobs has also made an appearance in the film, MacGruber, alongside fellow WWE wrestlers Montel Vontavious Porter, Chris Jericho, The Great Khali, Mark Henry, and Big Show. See No Evil 2, also starring Jacobs, was announced in August 2013 and was released on October 21, 2014. Kane appeared on a special WWE episode of The Weakest Link in March 2002, and won by beating out Bubba Ray Dudley in the final round. The money won was donated to Jacobs' chosen charity, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, in Memphis, Tennessee. He also appeared on Smallville series episode "Combat" as Titan alongside former WWE Diva Ashley Massaro. The episode was aired on March 22, 2007. Kane was also featured in a Chef Boyardee commercial in which he attempts to eat while wearing his full face mask. The Kane character was featured in the fourteen-issue Undertaker comic book produced by Chaos! Comics in 1999. The character only spoke once, in the Undertaker Halloween Special, which tied into the single issue Mankind comic book produced by the same company. A book written by Michael Chiappetta detailing the origins of Kane titled Journey into Darkness: An Unauthorized History of Kane was released in 2005. WWE released a three-disc anthology titled, The Twisted, Disturbed Life of Kane on December 9, 2008. The DVD consists of Kane's greatest feuds and rivalries during his first ten years. Jacobs hosted a podcast titled The Tiny Political Show under the pseudonym Citizen X from March 16, 2007 to March 13, 2008. Jacobs also ran a blog called The Adventures of Citizen X at AdventuresOfCitizenX.com from 2007 until July 17, 2011, though its last update was made on May 28 earlier that same year. However, the website has since been relaunched with its first update appearing on July 1, 2012. Jacobs is a contributor to LewRockwell.com. Kane has appeared in nearly every licensed WWE/F video game since 1998's WWF War Zone, with the only exception being 2001's WWF Betrayal. From the 1990s to the end of the 2010s, Kane had 222 action figures manufactured, mainly from the WWE lines by Jakks Pacific and Mattel, according to the Wrestling Figure Checklist. Filmography Film Year Title Role 2006 See No Evil Jacob Goodnight 2010 MacGruber Tanker Lutz 2014 Scooby-Doo! WrestleMania Mystery Himself See No Evil 2 Jacob Goodnight 2016 Countdown Lt. Cronin Television Year Title Role Notes 2007 Smallville Titan Episode: "Combat" Web series Year Title Role Notes 2013-2015 The JBL and Renee Show Himself Recurring role Video games WWE Video games Year Title Notes 1998 WWF War Zone Video game debut 1999 WWF Attitude WWF WrestleMania 2000 2000 WWF SmackDown! WWF Royal Rumble WWF No Mercy WWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role 2001 With Authority! Cover athlete WWF Road to WrestleMania Cover athlete WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It 2002 WWF Raw Cover athlete WWE WrestleMania X8 WWE Road to WrestleMania X8 WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth 2003 WWE Crush Hour WWE WrestleMania XIX WWE Raw 2 WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain 2004 WWE Day of Reckoning WWE Survivor Series WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2005 WWE WrestleMania 21 WWE Day of Reckoning 2 WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006 2006 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007 2007 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 2008 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 2009 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 2010 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 2011 WWE All Stars WWE '12 2012 WWE WrestleFest WWE '13 2013 WWE 2K14 2014 WWE SuperCard WWE 2K15 2015 WWE Immortals WWE 2K16 2016 WWE 2K17 2017 WWE Champions WWE Tap Mania WWE 2K18 WWE Mayhem 2018 WWE 2K19 2019 WWE 2K20 2020 WWE 2K Battlegrounds 2022 WWE 2K22 2023 WWE 2K23 Championships and accomplishments thumb|right|200px|In WWE, Kane is a former ECW Champion... right|thumb|200px|...and a former World Heavyweight Champion CBS Sports Worst Angle of the Year (2018) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Feud of the Year (2013) vs. Daniel Bryan as a member of The Authority Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2013) as a member of The Authority Tag Team of the Year (1999) with X-Pac Ranked No. 4 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2011 Ranked No. 186 of the 500 best singles wrestlers during the PWI Years in 2003 Smoky Mountain Wrestling SMW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Al Snow United States Wrestling Association USWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time) World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE WWF Championship (1 time) World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) ECW Championship (1 time) WCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with The Undertaker WWF/WWE Intercontinental Championship (2 times) WWF Hardcore Championship (1 time) WWE 24/7 Championship (1 time) WWE Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Big Show (1) and Daniel Bryan (1) WWF/WWE/World Tag Team Championship (9 times) - with Mankind (2), X-Pac (2), The Undertaker (2), The Hurricane (1), Rob Van Dam (1), and Big Show (1) Tag Team Royal Rumble (1998) Eighth Triple Crown Champion Third Grand Slam Champion WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2021) Bragging Rights Trophy (2009) - with Team SmackDown Money in the Bank (SmackDown 2010) Slammy Award (2 times) Best Family Values (2010) Beating up Jack Swagger Sr. Match of the Year (2014) Team Cena vs. Team Authority at Survivor Series WrestleCrap Gooker Award (2002) - Wrestling Observer Newsletter Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic (1996) - fake Diesel gimmick Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic (2002) - being accused of murder and necrophilia by Triple H Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic (2004) - pregnancy/wedding/miscarriage angle with Lita Most Overrated (2010, 2014, 2015) Worst Feud of the Year (2002) vs. Triple H Worst Feud of the Year (2003) vs. Shane McMahon Worst Feud of the Year (2004) vs. Matt Hardy and Lita Worst Feud of the Year (2007) vs. Big Daddy V Worst Feud of the Year (2008) vs. Rey Mysterio Worst Feud of the Year (2010) vs. Edge Worst Feud of the Year (2012) vs. John Cena Worst Feud of the Year (2013) - The Authority vs. Big Show Worst Gimmick (1996) as fake Diesel Worst Worked Match of the Year (2001) with The Undertaker vs. KroniK at Unforgiven Worst Worked Match of the Year (2018) with The Undertaker vs. Triple H and Shawn Michaels at Crown Jewel Luchas de Apuestas record Winner (wager)Loser (wager)LocationEventDateNotes Jerry Lawler (championship) Christmas Creature (mask) Memphis, Tennessee USWA live event Kane (mask) Vader (mask) Milwaukee, Wisconsin Over the Edge Triple H (championship) Kane (mask) New York City, New York Raw References External links Isaac Yankem, D.D.S. profile Category:1967 births Category:21st-century American politicians Category:American athlete-politicians Category:American libertarians Category:American male film actors Category:American male professional wrestlers Category:American men's basketball players Category:Basketball players from Missouri Category:Burn survivors in fiction Category:Contestants on American game shows Category:ECW Heavyweight Champions/ECW World Heavyweight Champions Category:Living people Category:Masked wrestlers Category:Mayors of places in Tennessee Category:Mayors of Knoxville, Tennessee Category:People from Jefferson City, Tennessee Category:People from Knoxville, Tennessee Category:Players of American football from Missouri Category:Politicians from St. Louis Category:Professional wrestling authority figures Category:Sportspeople from St. Louis Category:Tennessee Republicans Category:The Authority (professional wrestling) members Category:The Undertaker Category:Truman Bulldogs football players Category:Truman Bulldogs men's basketball players Category:Truman State University alumni Category:World Heavyweight Champions (WWE) Category:WWE 24/7 Champions Category:WWE Grand Slam champions Category:WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions Category:WWE Champions Category:WWE Hall of Fame inductees Category:WWF/WWE Hardcore Champions Category:20th-century professional wrestlers Category:21st-century professional wrestlers Category:SMW Tag Team Champions Category:WCW World Tag Team Champions Category:Money in the Bank winners Category:World Tag Team Champions (WWE)

{"Name": "Kane", "Image caption": "Jacobs in 2023", "Term start": "September 1, 2018", "Birth name": "Glenn Thomas Jacobs", "Birth date": "1967 4 26", "Birth place": "Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain", "Spouse(s)": "Crystal Goins 1995", "Education": "Northeast Missouri State University (BA)"}

Sumya Anani (born February 12, 1972) is a retired American professional female boxer nicknamed "The Island Girl." She was 5'6" and boxed as a junior welterweight. She is best known for a 1996 bout which left her opponent severely injured and may have served as an inspiration for the film Million Dollar Baby. Outside the ring, she is a yoga instructor and holistic healer. Anani was born in Minnesota and raised in Kansas. She competed as a weightlifter in 1995 and 1996. She took up boxing for self-defense and started boxing professionally because she was "short on cash." She began to box professionally in the summer of 1996. She began by boxing against relatively unknown opponents. Her fourth professional bout was in St. Joseph, Missouri against Katie Dallam, a novice welterweight who had only gotten her pro boxing license the day before — a pairing described as "an obvious mismatch." In four rounds she landed 119 blows to Dallam's head. Dallam collapsed in her dressing room afterward and required brain surgery. Anani was so upset she considered quitting boxing. She came to prominence in the boxing world on September 30, 1997, when she defeated former WIBF lightweight champion Stacy Prestage by a knockout. On March 28, 1998 she scored "the sport's biggest upset" with a unanimous six-round decision over veteran Andrea DeShong, considered "the standard bearer for the sport." On December 18, 1998, she fought boxing star Christy Martin and won the match, handing Martin her first defeat since November 1989. In 2016, Anani was inducted into the Women's International Boxing Hall of Fame in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The IWBHF was created and founded by Sue TL Fox. Professional boxing record ResultRecordOpponentTypeRound, timeDateLocationNotes29Loss25-3-1 Terri BlairTKO9 (10)May 27, 2006 28Loss25-2-1 Terri BlairTKO10 (10)Mar 25, 2006 27Win25-1-1 Belinda LaracuenteUD10Jan 22, 2005 26Win24-1-1 Stephanie JaramilloUD10Dec 4, 2004 25Win23-1-1 Lisa HolewyneUD6Apr 24, 2004 24Win22-1-1 Fredia GibbsRTD1 (8)Apr 18, 2003 23Win21-1-1 Lisa HolewyneKO5 (10)Nov 2, 2002 22Win20-1-1 Jane CouchTKO4 (10)Jun 21, 2002 21Win19-1-1 Britt Van BuskirkUD8Feb 1, 2002 20Draw18-1-1 Fredia GibbsPTS10Nov 16, 2001 19Win18-1 Britt Van BuskirkUD10Oct 20, 2001 18Win17-1 Elizabeth MuellerUD10May 11, 2001 17Loss16-1 Britt Van BuskirkSD6Sep 17, 2000 16Win16-0 Vicki WoodsUD8Jun 25, 2000 15Win15-0 Dora WebberUD10Jun 11, 1999 14Win14-0 Dora WebberUD8Mar 23, 1999 13Win13-0 Denise MoraetesUD8Mar 12, 1999 12Win12-0 Christy MartinMD10Dec 18, 1998 11Win11-0 Alicia SparksTKO1 (6)Sep 18, 1998 10Win10-0 Andrea DeShongUD6Mar 28, 1998 9Win9-0 Loretta JamesTKO1 (4)Jan 31, 1998 8Win8-0 Charlotte EsparzaKO1 (4)Nov 13, 1997 7Win7-0 Stacey PrestageKO4 (6)Sep 30, 1997 6Win6-0 Ashley NeedhamUD4Apr 2, 1997 5Win5-0 Shelley WaldenTKO4 (4)Mar 19, 1997 4Win4-0 Katherine DallamTKO4 (4)Dec 11, 1996 3Win3-0 Valerie AlmackTKO2 (4)Oct 16, 1996 2Win2-0 Jessica BreitfelderUD4Aug 26, 1996 1Win1-0 Jessica BreitfelderUD4Aug 12, 1996 See also List of female boxers References External links Sumya Anani at Awakening Fighters Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:American women boxers Category:Boxers from Minnesota Category:Boxers from Kansas Category:Welterweight boxers Category:21st-century American women

{"Nickname(s)": "Island Girl", "Weight(s)": "Welterweight", "Height": "5 ft 6 in cm onhttp://www.awakeningfighters.com/athletes/sumya-anani Sumya Anani Awakening Profile Awakeningfighters.com 2016-02-17", "Reach": "65 in cm on", "Nationality": "American", "Born": "Minnesota, U.S.", "Stance": "Orthodox", "Total fights": "29", "Wins": "25", "Wins by KO": "10", "Losses": "3", "Draws": "1", "No contests": "0", "Website": "http://www.sumya.com"}

United States Satellite Broadcasting was a Saint Paul, Minnesota-based satellite television company that ran from 1981 to 1999. It was absorbed into DirecTV in 1999. History USSB was founded in 1981 by Hubbard Broadcasting President Stanley S. Hubbard, who is widely considered to be the father of modern satellite broadcasting. Hubbard spent most of the 1980s raising awareness and money to launch a digital satellite television service. In the 1990s, he had teamed up with Thomson Consumer Electronics and Hughes Electronics to come up with a practical digital satellite service capable of 175 channels. The original name of the service was HUBTV,"Paul Rand", by Steven Heller; Phaidon Press, 2000 named after Hubbard, but was soon changed to USSB. Other key early executives were his sons Stanley E. Hubbard, II and Robert Hubbard, as well as Paul Heinersheid, and Bernard Weiss. When the service launched, USSB offered a comparatively small slate of channels, but included almost all of the major American premium channels and any channel in which Viacom had a stake at the time (which included the MTV Networks). Lacking any news channels, Hubbard instead used its in-house All News Channel, operated as a cooperative of Viacom and Hubbard-owned stations, as well as stations owned by other groups via the CONUS satellite network Hubbard operated. Hughes offered programming from most other cable television channels under the banner of DirecTV; viewers used the same satellite equipment, branded as the DSS (Digital Satellite System), to access both services (with USSB's channel lineup starting in the 900s range). Though it wasn't a requirement to subscribe to both services, many did, resulting in customers receiving two separate bills. On March 10, 1998, the Viacom channels (excluding the Showtime networks) moved to DirecTV while USSB added fXM and Showtime Extreme to its lineup. Ultimately, the service was too small to succeed, with DirecTV outpacing it in channel capacity and marketing; an additional snag came when the DSS trademark was relinquished by DirecTV in a legal dispute. The Hubbards sold USSB to Hughes in December 1998, with only some employees transferring to DirecTV's El Segundo, CA headquarters and Castle Rock, CO uplink center from USSB's headquarters and uplink facility in St. Paul, MN; the channel lineup of USSB was integrated into DirecTV's lineup by mid-1999. Channels HBO East HBO West HBO2 East HBO2 West HBO Signature HBO Family East HBO Family West Showtime East Showtime West Showtime 2 Showtime 3 Showtime Extreme Cinemax East Cinemax West MoreMax The Movie Channel East The Movie Channel West Comedy Central MTV MTV2 Nickelodeon VH1 TV Land Sundance Channel Lifetime All News Channel Flix fXM Big Events (two PPV channels) TVKO (HBO's PPV arm at the time) SET (Showtime's PPV arm) Channel 999 (previews) References 1997-1999 only Category:Direct broadcast satellite services Category:Hubbard Broadcasting Category:Technology companies disestablished in 1999 Category:Defunct telecommunications companies of the United States Category:Defunct television broadcasting companies of the United States Category:Telecommunications companies established in 1981 Category:American companies established in 1981 Category:1981 establishments in Minnesota Category:1999 disestablishments in Minnesota

{"Fate": "Absorbed into DirecTV", "Founded": "1981", "Defunct": "1999", "Headquarters": "St. Paul, Minnesota", "Industry": "Direct broadcast satellite broadcasting"}

James Francis Byrnes ( ; May 2, 1882 - April 9, 1972) was an American judge and politician from South Carolina. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in U.S. Congress and on the U.S. Supreme Court, as well as in the executive branch, most prominently as the 49th U.S. Secretary of State under President Harry S. Truman. Byrnes was also the 104th governor of South Carolina, making him one of the very few politicians to have served in the highest levels of all three branches of the American federal government while also being active in state government. Born and raised in Charleston, South Carolina, Byrnes pursued a legal career with the help of his cousin, Governor Miles Benjamin McSweeney. Byrnes won election to the U.S. House of Representatives and served from 1911 to 1925. He became a close ally of President Woodrow Wilson and a protégé of Senator Benjamin Tillman. He sought election to the U.S. Senate in 1924 but narrowly lost a runoff election to Coleman Livingston Blease, who had the backing of the Ku Klux Klan, a white-supremacist domestic-terrorist organization. Byrnes then moved his law practice to Spartanburg, South Carolina and prepared for a political comeback. He narrowly defeated Blease in the 1930 Democratic primary and joined the Senate in 1931. Historian George E. Mowry called Byrnes "the most influential Southern member of Congress between John Calhoun and Lyndon Johnson".David Robertson, Sly and Able: A Political Biography of James F. Byrnes (1994), p. 126 In the Senate, Byrnes supported the policies of his longtime friend, President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Byrnes championed the New Deal and sought federal investment in South Carolina water projects. He also supported Roosevelt's foreign policy, calling for a hard line against the Axis powers. He also opposed some of the labor laws proposed by Roosevelt, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established a minimum wage that hurt his state's competitive advantage of very low factory wages. Roosevelt appointed Byrnes to the Supreme Court in 1941 but asked him to join the executive branch after America's entry into World War II. During the war, Byrnes led the Office of Economic Stabilization and the Office of War Mobilization. He was a candidate to replace Henry A. Wallace as Roosevelt's running mate in the 1944 election, but instead Harry S. Truman was nominated by the 1944 Democratic National Convention. After Roosevelt's death, Byrnes served as a close adviser to Truman and became U.S. Secretary of State in July 1945. In that capacity, Byrnes attended the Potsdam Conference and the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947; however, relations between Byrnes and Truman soured, and Byrnes resigned from the Cabinet in January 1947. He returned to elective politics in 1950 by winning election as the governor of South Carolina. As governor, he opposed the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education and sought to establish "separate but equal" as a realistic alternative to the desegregation of schools. Though he remained a Democrat himself, he endorsed most Republican presidential nominees after 1948 and supported Strom Thurmond's switch to the Republican Party in 1964. Early life and career Byrnes was born at 538 King Street in Charleston, South Carolina, and was reared in Charleston. Byrnes's father, James Francis Byrnes, died shortly after Byrnes was born. His Irish-American mother, Elizabeth McSweeney Byrnes, was a dressmaker. In the 1880s, a widowed aunt and her three children came to live with them; one of the children was Frank J. Hogan, later president of the American Bar Association. At 14, Byrnes left St. Patrick's Catholic School to work in a law office, and became a court stenographer. Notably, he transcribed the 1903 trial of South Carolina Lieutenant Governor James H. Tillman (nephew of Senator and former governor "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman), for murdering a newspaper editor. In 1906, he married the former Maude Perkins Busch of Aiken, South Carolina; they had no children. He was the godparent of James Christopher Connor. At this time, Byrnes converted from the Catholic Church to Episcopalianism. In 1900, Byrnes's cousin, Governor Miles B. McSweeney, appointed him as a clerk for Judge Robert Aldrich of Aiken. As he needed to be 21 to take this position, Byrnes, his mother, and McSweeney changed his date of birth to that of his older sister, Leonora. He later apprenticed to a lawyer, then a common practice, read for the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1903. In 1908, he was appointed solicitor for the second circuit of South Carolina and served until 1910. Byrnes was a protégé of "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman and often had a moderating influence on the fiery segregationist Senator. In 1910, he narrowly won the Democratic primary for US Representative from South Carolina's 2nd congressional district, which was then tantamount to election. He was formally elected in the general election, and was re-elected six times, serving from 1911 to 1925. Byrnes proved a brilliant legislator, working behind the scenes to form coalitions, and avoiding the high-profile oratory that characterized much of Southern politics. He became a close ally of US President Woodrow Wilson, who often entrusted important political tasks to the capable young Representative, rather than to more experienced lawmakers. In the 1920s, he was a champion of the "Good Roads Movement", which attracted motorists and politicians to large-scale road building programs. United States Senate and Supreme Court In 1924, Byrnes declined renomination to the House and instead sought nomination for the Senate seat held by incumbent Nathaniel B. Dial though both were former allies of the now-deceased "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman. Anti-Tillmanite and extreme racist demagogue Coleman Blease, who had challenged Dial in 1918, also ran again. Blease led the primary with 42 percent. Byrnes was second with 34 percent. Dial finished third with 22 percent."Report of the Secretary of State to the General Assembly of South Carolina. Part II." Reports of State Officers Boards and Committees to the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina. Volume I. Columbia, SC: 1925, p. 59. Byrnes was opposed by the Ku Klux Klan, which preferred Blease. Byrnes had been raised as a Roman Catholic, and the Klan spread rumors that he was still a secret Catholic. Byrnes countered by citing his support by Episcopal clergy. Three days before the run-off vote, 20 Catholics who said that they had been altar boys with Byrnes published a professed endorsement of him. That group's leader was a Blease ally, and the "endorsement" was circulated in anti-Catholic areas.Pope, Thomas H. The History of Newberry County, South Carolina: 1860-1990. p. 110 Blease won the runoff 51% to 49%. After his House term ended in 1925, Byrnes was out of office. He moved his law practice to Spartanburg, in the industrializing Piedmont region. Between his law practice and investment advice from friends such as Bernard Baruch, Byrnes became a wealthy man, but he never excluded himself from a return to politics. He cultivated the Piedmont textile workers, who were key Blease supporters. In 1930, he challenged Blease again. Blease again led the primary, with 46 percent to 38 percent for Byrnes, but this time, Byrnes won the runoff 51 to 49 percent."Supplemental Report of the Secretary of State to the General Assembly of South Carolina." Reports of State Officers Boards and Committees to the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina. Volume I. Columbia, SC: 1931, p. 3. During his time in the Senate, Byrnes was regarded as the most influential South Carolinian since John C. Calhoun. He had long been friends with Franklin Roosevelt, whom he supported for the Democratic nomination in 1932, and made himself Roosevelt's spokesman on the Senate floor, where he guided much of the early New Deal legislation to passage. He won an easy re-election in 1936, promising: I admit I am a New Dealer, and if [the New Deal] takes money from the few who have controlled the country and gives it back to the average man, I am going to Washington to help the President work for the people of South Carolina and the country. Since the colonial era, South Carolina's politicians had dreamed of an inland waterway system that would not only aid commerce but also control flooding. By the 1930s, Byrnes took up the cause for a massive dam-building project, Santee Cooper, that would not only accomplish those tasks but also electrify the entire state with hydroelectric power. With South Carolina financially strapped by the Great Depression, Byrnes managed to get the federal government to authorize a loan for the entire project, which was completed and put into operation in February 1942. The loan was later paid back to the federal government with full interest and at no cost to South Carolina taxpayers. Santee Cooper has continued to be a model for public-owned electrical utilities worldwide. In 1937, Byrnes supported Roosevelt on the highly-controversial court packing plan, but he voted against the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act, as a minimum wage would potentially make the textile mills in his state uncompetitive. He opposed Roosevelt's efforts to purge conservative Democrats in the 1938 primary elections. On foreign policy, Byrnes was a champion of Roosevelt's positions of helping the United Kingdom against Nazi Germany in 1939 to 1941 and of maintaining a hard diplomatic line against Japan. In this context he denounced isolationist Charles Lindbergh on several occasions.Those Angry Days by Lynn Olson pg. 103 Byrnes played a key role in blocking anti-lynching legislation, notably the Castigan-Wagner bill of 1935 and the Gavagan bill of 1937.Walter Francis White#Anti-Lynching Legislation Byrnes said that "rape is responsible, directly and indirectly, for most of the lynching in America." Byrnes despised his fellow South Carolina Senator "Cotton Ed" Smith, who strongly opposed the New Deal. He privately sought to help his friend Burnet R. Maybank, then the Mayor of Charleston, defeat Smith in the 1938 Senate primary. During the primary, however, Olin Johnston, who was limited to one term as governor, decided to run for the Senate. Because Johnston was also a pro-Roosevelt New Dealer, he would have divided the New Deal vote with Maybank and ensured a victory for Smith. Johnston was also supportive of the New Deal's labor legislation, but Byrnes's support was limited, and a series of labor strikes in the fall of 1937 made Byrnes withdraw consideration for potentially endorsing Johnston.Simon, Bryant. A fabric of defeat: the politics of South Carolina millhands, 1910-1948, p. 208-210 Taking advice from Byrnes, Maybank decided to run for governor instead, and Byrnes made the reluctant decision to support Smith. Byrnes envisioned that Smith would retire in 1944 and that Maybank would successfully run for Smith's Senate seat and build a strong political machine in the state with him.Simon, Bryant. A fabric of defeat: the politics of South Carolina millhands, 1910-1948, p. 212 On, June 12, 1941, Roosevelt nominated Byrnes as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, and he was confirmed that same day. He served on the Court for only 15 months, from July 8, 1941 until October 3, 1942. His Supreme Court tenure is the shortest of any non-incumbent justice. World War II thumb|Potsdam Conference: Sitting (from left) Clement Attlee, Ernest Bevin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Joseph Stalin, William Daniel Leahy, James F. Byrnes and Harry S. Truman. thumb|Sitting (from left): Clement Attlee, Harry S. Truman, Joseph Stalin; behind: William Daniel Leahy, Ernest Bevin, James F. Byrnes and Vyacheslav Molotov. thumb|The Foreign Ministers: Vyacheslav Molotov, James F. Byrnes and Anthony Eden, July 1945. thumb|1946 newsreel Byrnes left the Supreme Court to head Roosevelt's Office of Economic Stabilization, which dealt with the vitally-important issues of prices and taxes. How powerful the new office would become depended entirely on Byrnes's political skills, and Washington insiders soon reported that he was fully in charge. In May 1943, he became head of the Office of War Mobilization, a new agency that supervised the Office of Economic Stabilization.Wallace, David Duncan. South Carolina: A Short History (University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 1951) p. 677. Under the leadership of Byrnes, the program managed newly constructed factories across the country that used raw materials, civilian and military production, and transportation for United States Armed Forces personnel and was credited with providing the employment that was needed to bring an official end to the Great Depression. Thanks to his political experience, his probing intellect, his close friendship with Roosevelt, and in no small part his own personal charm, Byrnes was soon exerting influence over many facets of the war effort that were not technically under his departmental jurisdiction. Many in Congress and the press began referring to Byrnes as the "Assistant President."Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, pp. 189-90, 247, 330, Random House, New York, NY. . Many expected that Byrnes would be the Democratic nominee in 1944 for vice president in Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1944 reelection campaign, replacing Henry A. Wallace, who was strongly felt by party officials to be too eccentric to replace an ailing president who would likely die before his next term ended. Roosevelt refused to endorse anybody other than Wallace. He had a personal preference for US Supreme Court justice William O. Douglas. Byrnes was on Roosevelt's list but was hardly his first choice. In a July meeting at the White House, the party bosses pressed hard for Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri, and Roosevelt issued a statement saying he would support either Truman or Douglas. Byrnes was regarded as too conservative for organized labor; some big city bosses opposed him as an ex-Catholic who would offend Catholics; and blacks were wary of his opposition to racial integration. In short, Byrnes never had a serious chance at being nominated for vice-president, and the nomination went instead to Truman. Roosevelt brought Byrnes to the Yalta Conference in early 1945 in which he seemed to favor Soviet plans. Written in shorthand, his notes comprise one of the most complete records of the "Big Three" Yalta meetings. At the same time, Byrnes did not participate in the foreign ministers' meetings or the direct meetings between Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin. After the Conference, he was influential in convincing the U.S. Congress and the general public to accept the terms of the agreement.Reynolds, David (2009). Summits: Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century. New York: Basic Books. pp. 146-147. . . Secretary of State Upon his succession to the presidency after Roosevelt's death, on April 12, 1945, Truman relied heavily on Byrnes's counsel, Byrnes having been a mentor to Truman from the latter's earliest days in the Senate. Cited in reliance on citation in Gar Alperovitz, "The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb" (New York: Vintage Books, 1996) Indeed, Byrnes was one of the first people seen by Truman on the first day of his presidency. It was Byrnes who shared information with the new president on the atomic bomb project (until then, Truman had known nothing about the Manhattan Project). When Truman met Roosevelt's coffin in Washington, he asked Byrnes and former Vice President Wallace, the two other men who might well have succeeded Roosevelt, to join him at the train station. Truman originally intended for both men to play leading roles in his administration to signal continuity with Roosevelt's policies. Truman quickly fell out with Wallace but retained a good working relationship with Byrnes and increasingly turned to him for support. Truman appointed Byrnes as US Secretary of State on July 3, 1945."A revealing moment during Byrnes' swearing-in ceremony as secretary of state offers insight into the relationship [between President Harry S. Truman and Byrnes]: The diary of Byrnes' friend and assistant Walter Brown records that 'when the oath was completed, the President said, "Jimmy, kiss the Bible." He did and then handed it over to the President and told him to kiss it, too. The President did so as the crowd laughed l ..." Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb and the Architecture of an American Myth (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995, p. 197). Despite personally objecting to any guarantees of retaining Hirohito, Byrnes remained ambiguous on that point in a draft reply to Japan's offer of surrender of August 10. As Secretary of State, he was first in line to the Presidency since there was no Vice President during Truman's first term. He played a major role at the Potsdam Conference, the Paris Peace Conference, and other major postwar conferences. According to historian Robert Hugh Ferrell, Byrnes knew little more about foreign relations than Truman. He made decisions after consulting a few advisors, such as Donald S. Russell and Benjamin V. Cohen. Byrnes and his small group paid little attention to the State Department experts and similarly ignored Truman. thumb|300x300px|Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on 18 July 1945. From left to right, first row: Stalin, Truman, Soviet Ambassador Gromyko, Byrnes, and Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov. Second row: Truman confidant Vaughan, Russian interpreter Bohlen, Truman naval aide Vardaman, and Ross (partially obscured). Because Byrnes had been part of the US delegation at Yalta, Truman assumed that he had accurate knowledge of what had transpired. It would be many months before Truman discovered that not to be the case. Nevertheless, Byrnes advised that the Soviets were breaking the Yalta Agreement and that Truman needed to be resolute and uncompromising with them. Byrnes and British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin issued a joint statement announcing that they were combining the U.S. zone of Germany and the British zone of Germany into one new territory called "West Germany." General Lucius D. Clay, who had been a top aide to Byrnes in 1944, heavily influenced Byrnes' famous September 1946 speech in Stuttgart, Germany. The speech, "Restatement of Policy on Germany," marked the formal transition in American occupation policy away from the Morgenthau Plan of economic dismantlement to one of economic reconstruction.Curtis Franklin Morgan Jr, James F. Byrnes, Lucius Clay and American Policy in Germany, 1945-1947 (Edwin Mellen Press, 2002). Truman was rapidly moving toward a hardline position on Soviet intentions in Eastern Europe and Iran, but Byrnes was much more conciliatory. The distance between them grew and ties of personal friendship weakened. In late 1945, Byrnes argued with Soviet Foreign Minister Viacheslav Molotov over Soviet pressures on Bulgaria and Romania. Byrnes sent Mark Ethridge, a liberal journalist, to investigate; Ethridge found conditions were indeed bad. Ethridge wrote a damning report, but Byrnes ignored it and instead endorsed a Soviet offer. Truman read Ethridge's report and decided that Byrnes's softline approach was a failure and that the US needed to stand up to the Kremlin. Personal relations between the two men grew strained, particularly when Truman felt that Byrnes was attempting to set foreign policy by himself and to inform the President only afterward. An early instance of the friction was the Moscow Conference in December 1945. Truman considered the "successes" of the conference to be "unreal" and was highly critical of Byrnes's failure to protect Iran, which was not mentioned in the final communiqué. "I had been left in the dark about the Moscow conference," Truman told Byrnes bluntly.Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, Vol. 1: Years of Decision (1955), p.547, 550, cited in George Lenczowski, American Presidents and the Middle East, p.10 In a subsequent letter to Byrnes, Truman took a harder line in reference to Iran: "Without these supplies furnished by the United States, Russia would have been ignominiously defeated. Yet now Russia stirs up rebellion and keeps troops on the soil of her friend and ally— Iran. .. Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language another war is in the making. Only one language do they understand.... I do not think we should play compromise any longer.... I am tired of babying the Soviets".Truman, Memoirs, Vol. 1: Years of Decision (1955), p.551-552, cited in Lenczowski, American Presidents, p.11 That led to the Iran crisis of 1946 in which Byrnes took an increasingly hardline position in opposition to Stalin, culminating in a speech in Germany on September 6, 1946. The "Restatement of Policy on Germany," also known as the "Speech of Hope", set the tone of future US policy by repudiating the Morgenthau Plan, an economic program that would permanently deindustrialize Germany. Byrnes was named TIME Man of the Year. Truman and others believed that Byrnes had grown resentful that he had not been Roosevelt's running mate and successor and so was showing disrespect to Truman. Whether or not that was true, Byrnes felt compelled to resign from the Cabinet in 1947 with some feelings of bitterness. Governor of South Carolina Byrnes was not yet ready to give up public service. At 68, he was elected Governor of South Carolina in the 1950 gubernatorial election and served from 1951 to 1955. Supporting segregation in education, the Democratic governor stated in his inaugural address: Byrnes was initially seen as a relative moderate on race issues. Recognizing that the South could not continue with its entrenched segregationist policies much longer but fearing that Congress would impose sweeping change upon the South, he opted for a course of change from within. To that end, he sought to fulfill at last the "separate but equal" policy that the South had put forward in Supreme Court civil rights cases, particularly in regard to public education. Byrnes poured state money into improving black schools, buying new textbooks and new buses, and hiring additional teachers. He also sought to curb the power of the Ku Klux Klan by passing a law that prohibited adults from wearing a mask in public on any day other than Halloween; he knew that many Klansmen feared exposure and would not appear in public in their robes unless their faces were hidden as well. Byrnes hoped to make South Carolina an example for other Southern states to follow in modifying their "Jim Crow" policies. Nonetheless, the NAACP sued South Carolina to force the state to desegregate its schools. Byrnes requested Kansas, a Midwestern state that also segregated its schools, to provide an amicus curiae brief in supporting the right of a state to segregate its schools. That gave the NAACP's lawyer, Thurgood Marshall, the idea to shift the suit from South Carolina over to Kansas, which led directly to Brown v. Board of Education, a decision that Byrnes vigorously criticized. The South Carolina Constitution then barred governors from immediate re-election and so Byrnes retired from active political life after the 1954 election. Later political career In his later years, Byrnes foresaw that the American South could play a more important role in national politics. To hasten that development, he sought to end the region's nearly-automatic support of the Democratic Party, which Byrnes believed had grown too liberal and took the "Solid South" for granted at election time but otherwise ignored the region and its needs. Byrnes endorsed Dwight Eisenhower in 1952, segregationist candidate Harry Byrd in 1956, Richard Nixon in 1960 and 1968, and Barry Goldwater in 1964. He gave his private blessing to US Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina to bolt the Democratic Party in 1964 and to declare himself a Republican, but Byrnes himself remained a Democrat. In 1965, Byrnes spoke out against the "punishment" and the "humiliation" of South Carolina US Representative Albert Watson, who had been stripped of his congressional seniority by the House Democratic Caucus after endorsing Goldwater for president. Byrnes openly endorsed Watson's retention in Congress as a Republican in a special election held in 1965 against Democrat Preston Callison. Watson secured $20,000 and the services of a Republican field representative in what he termed "quite a contrast" to his treatment from Democratic House colleagues.Billy Hathorn, "The Changing Politics of Race: Congressman Albert William Watson and the South Carolina Republican Party, 1965-1970", South Carolina Historical Magazine Vol. 89 (October 1988), p. 230Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, Vol. 23 (June 18, 1965), p. 1185; Bernard Cosman and Robert J. Huckshorn, eds., Republican Politics: The 1964 Campaign and Its Aftermath for the Party (New York: Praeger, 1968), pp. 147-148 Following Byrnes's death at the age of 89, he was interred in the churchyard at Trinity Episcopal Church in Columbia, South Carolina. Legacy Byrnes is memorialized at several South Carolina universities and schools: The James F. Byrnes Building, housing the Byrnes International Center at the University of South Carolina. The James F. Byrnes Professorship of International Studies at USC, its first endowed professorship. Byrnes Auditorium at Winthrop University. Byrnes Hall, a dormitory at Clemson University, where Byrnes was a Life Trustee. James F. Byrnes High School in Duncan, South Carolina. In 1948, Byrnes and his wife established the James F. Byrnes Foundation Scholarships, and since then, more than 1,000 young South Carolinians have been assisted in obtaining a college education. His papers are in Clemson University's Special Collections Library. In the 2023 film Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan, Byrnes was portrayed by actor Pat Skipper. Electoral history See also List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3) United States Supreme Court cases during the Stone Court Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States, Episodes 2 and 3 Footnotes References Annotated bibliography for James Byrnes from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues () Messer, Robert L. (1982). The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of the Cold War. Robertson, David (1994). Sly and Able: A Political Biography of James F. Byrnes Primary sources Byrnes, James (1947). Speaking Frankly. Byrnes, James (1958). All in One Lifetime. Further reading Abraham, Henry J., Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court. 3d. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). . Anderson, David L. "Byrnes, James Francis (02 May 1882-09 April 1972), U.S. senator and secretary of state" American National Biography (1999) Burns, Richard. "James Byrnes." in Norman A. Graebner, ed. An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the Twentieth Century (1961). pp 223-44. Clements, Kendrick A., ed., James F. Byrnes and the Origins of the Cold War (1982) Curry, George. James F. Byrnes (1965) online, a scholarly biography Cushman, Clare, The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789-1995 (2nd ed.) (Supreme Court Historical Society), (Congressional Quarterly Books, 2001) ; . Hopkins, Michael F. "President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State: Stettinius, Byrnes, Marshall and Acheson." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 6.3 (2008): 290-304. Messer, Robert L. The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of the Cold War (1982) Morgan, Jr., Curtis F. James F. Byrnes, Lucius Clay and American Policy in Germany, 1945-1947. (Edwin Mellen Press, 2002). Robertson, David. Sly and Able: A Political Biography of James F. Byrnes (1994) Ward, Patricia Dawson. The Threat of Peace: James F. Byrnes and the Council of Foreign Ministers, 1945-1946 (1979) External links Excerpts from Speaking Frankly on the subjects of: (Yalta Conference), (Potsdam Conference) ("Flash Player" is required) Text of the famous "Stuttgart speech", September 6, 1946 The speech marked the change in U.S. occupation policy in Germany towards reconstruction. Time Magazine, September 16, 1946. "Journey to Stuttgart" SCIway Biography of James Francis Byrnes NGA Biography of James Francis Byrnes Annotated bibliography from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues James F. Byrnes Papers at Clemson University Special Collections Library A collection of various works by James F. Byrnes |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- Category:1882 births Category:1972 deaths Category:20th-century American judges Category:20th-century American politicians Category:American Episcopalians Category:American people of Irish descent Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Benjamin Tillman Category:Burials in South Carolina Category:People involved with the civil rights movement Category:Clemson University trustees Category:Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina Category:Democratic Party governors of South Carolina Category:Democratic Party United States senators from South Carolina Category:Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States Category:Lawyers from Charleston, South Carolina Category:Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Category:South Carolina state solicitors Category:Time Person of the Year Category:Truman administration cabinet members Category:United States federal judges admitted to the practice of law by reading law Category:United States federal judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt Category:United States Secretaries of State Category:University of South Carolina trustees Category:Civilian recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States) Category:Neo-Confederates

{"Name": "James F. Byrnes", "Term start": "January 16, 1951", "Term end": "January 18, 1955", "Office 2": "Director of the Office of War Mobilization", "President 2": "Franklin D. Roosevelt (1943-1945) Harry S. Truman (1945)", "Predecessor 2": "Position established", "Successor 2": "John Wesley Snyder", "Birth name": "James Francis Byrnes", "Birth date": "1882 5 2", "Birth place": "Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.", "Death date": "1972 4 9 1882 5 2", "Death place": "Columbia, South Carolina, U.S.", "Spouse(s)": "Maude Busch 1906"}

Virtual PC is an x86 emulator for PowerPC Mac hosts and a virtualization app for Microsoft Windows hosts. It was created by Connectix in 1997 and acquired by Microsoft in 2003. The Mac version was discontinued in 2006 following the Mac transition to Intel, while the Windows version was discontinued in 2011 in favour of Hyper-V. Until version 4, Virtual PC only supported Classic Mac OS hosts. Version 4 was released in 2000 for both Mac OS and Windows, and version 5 (2001) added support for Mac OS X hosts. After Microsoft acquired Virtual PC from Connectix in 2003, the program was renamed Microsoft Virtual PC. In July 2006, Microsoft released the Windows version free of charge. In August 2006, Microsoft announced the Mac version would not be ported to Intel-based Macs, effectively discontinuing the product as PowerPC-based Macs would no longer be manufactured. In 2009, Microsoft released Windows Virtual PC, which is only compatible with Windows 7 hosts, and is the technical foundation for the latter's Windows XP Mode. Windows Virtual PC does not officially support MS-DOS or operating systems older than Windows XP Professional SP3 as guests. History Connectix Virtual PC, Microsoft Virtual PC 2004, Microsoft Virtual PC 2007, and Windows Virtual PC are successive versions of the same software. Windows Virtual PC only runs on Windows 7. The earlier Microsoft versions which run on older versions of Windows were still available and support operating systems older than Windows XP. Starting in Windows 8, Microsoft replaced Virtual PC with Hyper-V. Virtual PC by Connectix thumb|Connectix Virtual PC version 3 in Mac OS 9, running a Brazilian Portuguese edition of Windows 95 Virtual PC was originally developed as a Macintosh application for System 7.5 and released by Connectix in June 1997. The first version of Virtual PC designed for Windows-based systems, version 4.0, was released in June 2001. Connectix sold versions of Virtual PC bundled with a variety of guest operating systems, including Windows, OS/2, and Red Hat Linux. As virtualization's importance to enterprise users became clear, Microsoft took interest in the sector and acquired Virtual PC and Virtual Server (unreleased at the time) from Connectix in February 2003. Virtual PC 4 requires Mac OS 8.5 or later on a G3 or G4 processor, but running Windows Me, Windows 2000 or Red Hat Linux requires Mac OS 9.0 or later. Virtual PC 4 was the first version with expandable drive images. Virtual PC 5 requires Mac OS 9.1 or newer or Mac OS X 10.1 or later. For USB support, Mac OS X is recommended. To run Virtual PC 5 in Mac OS X, a 400 MHz or faster processor is required. Earlier versions of Virtual PC supported the following features: (now removed in Microsoft Virtual PC 2004, 2007, and Windows Virtual PC): Older versions of Virtual PC (v5.0 or earlier) may have the hard disk formatted after creating the Virtual Hard Disk file. Newer versions must partition and format the Virtual Hard Disk file manually. A Virtual Switch available in Virtual PC version 4.1 or earlier allows adding multiple network adapters. Older operating systems are supported with Virtual Machine additions. Older versions of Virtual PC for Macintosh can run on Mac OS 9.2.2 or earlier. Support of Apple System 7.5 are dropped in version 3. Under agreement with Connectix, Innotek GmbH (makers of VirtualBox, now part of Oracle) ported version 5.0 to run on an OS/2 host.Innotek/Connectix Virtual PC This version also included guest extensions (VM additions) for OS/2 guests, which could run on Windows, OS/2 or Mac OS X hosts using Virtual PC versions 5, 6 or 7. A new version of the guest extensions was later included with Microsoft's Virtual PC 2004. Microsoft Virtual PC thumb|Virtual PC 6.1 for Macintosh thumb|right|Virtual PC 2007 running the Live CD OS Knoppix On July 12, 2006, Microsoft released Virtual PC 2004 SP1 for Windows free of charge, however the Mac version remained a paid software. The equivalent version for Mac, version 7, was the final version of Virtual PC for Mac. It ran on Mac OS X 10.2.8 or later for PowerPC and was a proprietary commercial software product. Virtual PC 2007 was released only for the Windows platform, with public beta testing beginning October 11, 2006, and production release on February 19, 2007. It added support for hardware virtualization, "undo disks", transfer statistic monitor for disk and network, and viewing virtual machines on multiple monitors and support for Windows Vista as both host and guest. The Windows Aero interface is disabled on Windows Vista guests due to limitations of the emulated video hardware; however, Aero effects can be rendered by connecting to the guest via Remote Desktop Services from an Aero-enabled Windows Vista host, provided that the guest is running Windows Vista Business or a higher edition. "Undo disks" make it possible to revert virtual machines' state to an earlier point by storing changes into a separate .vud file since the last save to the main .vhd file, which can be used for experimenting. The VHD file acts as a snapshot. The undo disk file (.vud) incrementally stores changes made by the virtual machine compared to the main Virtual hard disk drive (VHD) image, which can be applied or discarded by the user. If deactivated, changes are directly written to the VHD file. On May 15, 2008, Microsoft released Virtual PC 2007 Service Pack 1, which added support for both Windows XP SP3 and Windows Vista SP1 as guest and host OSes, as well as Windows Server 2008 Standard as a guest OS. A hotfix rollup for Virtual PC 2007 SP1, released February 20, 2009, solved networking issues and enhanced the maximum screen resolution to 2048×1920 (32-bit), enabling 16:9 resolutions such as 1920×1080. A security update was released on July 14, 2009 to address an elevation of privilege vulnerability in guest operating systems. Microsoft Virtual PC (2004 and 2007) does not work at all on Windows 10 64-bit, and even on 32-bit platforms lack internet connectivity due to the lack of the VPC driver. This also impacts Windows Mobile emulators. + Release dates of Microsoft Virtual PC 2007 Date Version Description 2006-10-11 6.0.122 Beta 2007-01-02 6.0.142 Release Candidate 1 2007-02-22 6.0.156 Release to Manufacturing 2008-05-15 6.0.192 Service Pack 1 2009-02-20 6.0.210 Update 2009-07-14 Security Update MS09-33 Windows Virtual PC Windows Virtual PC entered public beta testing on April 30, 2009, and was released alongside Windows 7. Unlike its predecessors, this version supports only Windows 7 host operating systems. It originally required hardware virtualization support but on March 19, 2010, Microsoft released an update to Microsoft Virtual PC which allows it to run on PCs without hardware support. Windows Virtual PC is available free of charge for certain editions of Windows 7, either pre-installed by OEMs or via download from the Microsoft website. New features New features include: USB support and redirection - connect peripherals such as flash drives and digital cameras, and print from the guest to host OS printers. However, USB isochronous transfer mode is not supported Other methods involve simply just treating an active drive letter from a USB flash drive as a virtual hard drive. Seamless application publishing and launching - run Windows XP Mode applications directly from the Windows 7 desktop Support for multithreading - run multiple virtual machines concurrently, each in its own thread for improved stability and performance Smart card redirection - use smart cards connected to the host Integration with Windows Explorer - manage all VMs from a single Explorer folder (%USERPROFILE%\Virtual Machines) Removed features The Virtual Machine console is replaced by an integrated Virtual Machines shell folder. Several options from the console have been removed such as Restore at start, CPU time performance settings, muting sound in inactive virtual machines, full-screen resolution related options, configuring the host key, mouse capture options and settings for requiring administrator permissions. Official guest support for operating systems earlier than Windows XP Professional Drag-and-drop file sharing between the guest and the host Direct sharing of folders between host and guest operating system (Only volumes may be shared between operating systems) Ability to commit changes in undo disks upon turning off virtual machines (Doing so is now only possible through virtual machine Settings dialog box) Ability to use physical and virtual Parallel ports User interface controls for using virtual floppy disks (Virtual floppy disk functionality, however, is still supported and may be accessed using a script) Virtual PC additions for guest operating systems no longer supported have been removed. However, installing Virtual Machine Additions from an older Microsoft virtualization product works for some guest OSes. Properties of the virtual machine, like guest OS, processor, processor features, video mode, video RAM, code cache, IDE controller reads and writes, Ethernet reads and writes, video frame rate and command line options can no longer be viewed. System requirements System requirements for Windows Virtual PC: Computer running Windows 7 (all editions except Starter) 15 GB of hard disk space per virtual Windows environment Optional: if the processor supports hardware-assisted virtualization technology such as AMD-V or Intel-VT, it will be used. Before March 19, 2010, such a processor was mandatory. Windows XP Mode thumb|right|Internet Explorer versions 6, 7, and 8 running concurrently on a Windows 7 Release Candidate desktop using Windows XP Mode. Windows XP Mode (XPM) is a virtual machine package for Windows Virtual PC containing a pre-installed, licensed copy of Windows XP Professional with Service Pack 3 as its guest OS. Previously, both the CPU and motherboard of the host had to support hardware virtualization, but an update in early 2010 eliminated this requirement. Pre-installed integration components allow applications running within the virtualized environment to appear as if running directly on the host, sharing the native desktop and start menu of Windows 7 as well as participating in file type associations. Windows XP Mode applications run in a Terminal Services session in the virtualized Windows XP, and are accessed via Remote Desktop Protocol by a client running on the Windows 7 host. Applications running in Windows XP Mode do not have compatibility issues, as they are actually running inside a Windows XP virtual machine and redirected using RDP to the Windows 7 host. Windows XP Mode may be used to run 16-bit applications; it includes NTVDM, however it is impossible to run 16-bit applications that require hardware acceleration, as Windows Virtual PC does not have hardware acceleration for such applications. Windows XP Mode is available free of charge to users of Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate. Users of other editions of Windows 7 are not eligible to download and use it. This restriction does not apply to Windows Virtual PC itself. Windows XP Mode can also be run with VMware Player and VMware Workstation. However, like with Windows Virtual PC itself, VMware products only import Windows XP Mode on Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, or Ultimate versions in order to adhere with Microsoft licensing requirements. Emulated environment Virtual PC emulates the following environments: Intel Pentium II (32-bit) processor (but virtualizes the host processor on Windows versions) with an Intel 440BX chipset. Standard SVGA VESA graphics card (S3 Trio 32 PCI with 4 MB video RAM, adjustable in later versions up to 16 MB by manually editing a virtual machine's settings file). System BIOS from American Megatrends (AMI). Creative Labs Sound Blaster 16 ISA PnP. (When Windows Vista is installed as both the host (main) and guest (virtual) operating systems, settings are synchronized with the host and audio configuration is not required.) DEC 21041 (DEC 21140 in newer versions) Ethernet network card. Programs using undocumented features of hardware, exotic timings, or unsupported opcodes may not work. Implementation: The Macintosh version of Virtual PC uses dynamic recompilation to translate the x86 code used by PCs into equivalent PowerPC code for Macs. The Windows version of Virtual PC also uses dynamic recompilation, but only to translate x86 kernel mode and real mode code into x86 user mode code; original user mode and virtual 8086 mode code run natively. Guest call traps are used, especially for guest extensions, to accelerate emulation or offer additional features, such as integration with the host environment. Virtual PC and Virtual Server encapsulate virtual hard disks in the Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) file format, for which Microsoft has made all documentation available under the Open Specification Promise. Earlier versions of Virtual PC supported the following features: (now removed in Microsoft Virtual PC 2004, 2007, and Windows Virtual PC): Older versions of Virtual PC (v5.0 or earlier) may have the hard disk formatted after creating the Virtual Hard Disk file. Newer versions must partition and format the Virtual Hard Disk file manually. A Virtual Switch available in Virtual PC version 4.1 or earlier allows adding multiple network adapters. Older operating systems are supported with Virtual Machine additions. Older versions of Virtual PC for Macintosh can run on Mac OS 9.2.2 or earlier. Support of Apple System 7.5 was dropped in version 3. Virtual machine integration components Windows Virtual PC may enable guest operating systems running inside virtual machines to interact with their host operating system beyond what is feasible between two physical computers, such as sharing physical hardware components or exchanging data. To do so however, integration components must be installed on the guest operating systems. When no integration component is installed, the only mean of communicating between two machines (either virtual or physical) is through a virtual network interface. Even the mouse cursor can only be controlled by one operating system (either real or virtual) at any given time. However, once the Integration Components are installed on the guest operating systems, the following features are automatically activated: Mouse cursor sharing: Mouse cursor can be moved freely between the machines. Host-initiated shutdown: Virtual machine can be shut down, restarted or put into standby or hibernation via a set of API functions. Time synchronization: The virtual machine's clock will be automatically synchronized with the host operating system's clock. Process responsiveness monitoring: Host operating system will be able to detect whether the software on the guest operating system is responsive or hung. Dynamic screen resolution: The screen resolution of the guest operating system can be changed by simply resizing the window in which it is running. However, the VM can be configured to allow only standard resolutions. In addition to features described above, guest operating systems may also take advantage of the following integration features but only when the administrator activates them: Audio sharing: Audio played on the guest operating system may be brought to the host operating system and played on it. Clipboard sharing: Contents such as text, picture or everything that is cut or copied to Windows Clipboard maybe pasted in other machines. Printer sharing: Guest operating systems may print on the host operating system's printer. This feature should not be confused with File and Printer Sharing over an emulated network connection. Smart card sharing: Smart cards connected to host operating system may be accessed on guest operating systems. File sharing: Windows Virtual PC can also share disk partitions and disk drives of the host operating system with guest operating systems. This includes USB mass storage devices that are connected later. In Windows Virtual PC, enabling integration features automatically makes the virtual machine user account accessible using Remote Desktop Connection. Supported host and guest operating systems Virtual PC allows multiple guest operating systems to run virtualized on a single physical host. Although a number of popular host and guest operating systems lack official Microsoft support, there are sometimes few, if any, technical obstacles impeding installation. Instead, a configuration may be unsupported due to Microsoft's own licensing restrictions, or a decision to focus testing and support resources elsewhere, especially when production use of a legacy product fades. A program manager on Microsoft's core virtualization team explains what official support entails: As a product positioned for desktop use, Virtual PC provides official support for a different set of operating systems than its server-oriented counterpart, Microsoft Virtual Server and the more advanced Hyper-V. While the latter products support a range of server operating systems, Virtual PC 2007 supports only one variety as host and another as guest; its successor, Windows Virtual PC, supports none. And, whereas Virtual Server and Hyper-V have officially supported select Linux guests since 2006 and 2008, respectively, , no Microsoft release of Virtual PC has officially supported Linux. Nonetheless, a number of Linux distributions (Also links to individual posts on installing various Linux distributions in Virtual PC 2007.) do run successfully in Virtual PC 2007, and can be used with the Virtual Machine Additions from Virtual Server (see below). Lastly, while 64-bit host support was introduced with Virtual PC 2007, release has been able to virtualize a 64-bit guest; Microsoft has thus far reserved this functionality for Hyper-V, which runs only on 64-bit (x64) editions of Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2012, Windows Server 2012 R2, Windows Server 2016, Windows 8/8.1 Pro and Enterprise, and Windows 10 Pro, Enterprise, and Education. Table of supported operating systems In the following table and notes, "support" refers to official Microsoft support, as described above. Operating system version Virtual PC 2004 See also download details . Virtual PC 2007 See also download details . See also download details . Windows Virtual PC See also download details . (Contains a more precise and complete list of supported operating systems than the Requirements page on Microsoft.com.) Host Guest Host Guest Host Guest 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit 32-bit 64-bit 32-bit Windows 11 No No No Windows 10 No Windows 8.1 No Windows 8 Windows 7 Ultimate No No No No Windows 7 Enterprise No No No Windows 7 Professional No No No Windows 7 Home Premium No No No Windows 7 Home Basic No No No Windows 7 Starter No No No No No No Windows Server 2008 Standard No No No No No No No No Windows Vista UltimateNo No Windows Vista Enterprise Windows Vista Business Windows Vista Home Premium No Windows Vista Home Basic No Windows Vista Starter No No No No No Windows Server 2003 Standard No No No No Windows XP Professional No No No Windows XP Tablet PC Edition No Windows XP Media Center Edition No No No No No Windows XP Home Edition No No Windows XP Starter Edition No No No Windows 2000 Server No rowspan="2" No rowspan="2" No rowspan="2" No Windows 2000 Professional No No No Windows Me No No No No No Windows 98 Second Edition No rowspan="2" No rowspan="2" No rowspan="2" No Windows 98 (original release) No Windows 95 No No No No No Windows NT 4.0 Workstation No rowspan="3" No rowspan="3" No No rowspan="3" No Windows NT 3.51 Workstation No No Windows NT 3.1 | NT 3.5 No No IBM OS/2 (select editions) No No No No Operating system version 16-bit Windows 3.1 No No (Microsoft manager Ben Armstrong reports that Windows 3.11 installs without a problem in Virtual PC 2004.) No No No Windows 3.0 No No No No No MS-DOS 6.22 No No No No LEGEND Microsoft support Supported No Not supported Version nonexistent Notes - details of Microsoft support Notes - not supported installations Linux guests Installing a Linux-based guest environment in Virtual PC is possible. RedHat and SuSe Linux guests are supported. Linux additions are supported in Microsoft Virtual Server, and these additions should also work in Virtual PC. Some Linux distributions must be installed in text mode, as they do not support Microsoft Virtual PC's emulated graphics chip. Ubuntu 8.10 "Intrepid Ibex" must be installed in SafeMode, but does not require other changes. Some websites specialize in listing operating systems that run successfully as Virtual PC guests, to help users avoid issues when installing Linux distributions or other operating systems lacking official Microsoft support. Intel-based Mac support Microsoft announced on August 7, 2006, that Virtual PC for Mac would not be ported to the Intel Mac platform. Microsoft stated, "Alternative solutions offered by Apple and other vendors, combined with a fully packaged retail copy of Windows, will satisfy this need." Similar products available or announced at the time were Parallels Desktop and VMware Fusion. See also About Microsoft virtualization technology Features new to Windows 7: Virtual hard disks Windows 365 About virtualization Virtual disk image x86 virtualization Comparison of platform virtualization software References External links Virtual PC Guy blog on MSDN Windows XP Mode, TechNet Category:1997 software Category:2009 software Category:Classic Mac OS emulation software Category:Freeware Category:MacOS emulation software Category:Microsoft software Category:Virtualization software Category:Windows 7 Category:X86 emulators

{"Successor": "Hyper-V", "Developer(s)": "Microsoft", "Initial release": "2009 09 19", "Type": "Virtual machine", "Size": "32-bit: 9.1 MB64-bit: 16.3 MB", "License": "Freeware"}

was a Japanese industrialist. He was largely responsible for bringing Toyota Motor Corporation to profitability and worldwide prominence during his tenure as president and later, as chairman. He was succeeded as the president of Toyota by Shoichiro Toyoda. Career Toyoda studied mechanical engineering at Tokyo Imperial University from 1933 to 1936. During this time his cousin Kiichiro established an automobile plant at the Toyoda Automatic Loom Works in the city of Nagoya in central Japan. Toyoda joined his cousin in the plant at the conclusion of his degree and throughout their lives they shared a deep friendship. In 1938, Kiichiro asked Eiji to oversee construction of a newer factory about 32 km east of Nagoya on the site of a red pine forest in the town of Koromo, later renamed Toyota City. Known as the Honsha ("headquarters") plant, to this day it is considered the "mother factory" for Toyota Motor production facilities worldwide. Toyoda visited Ford River Rouge Complex at Dearborn, Michigan, during the early 1950s. He was awed by the scale of the facility but dismissive of what he saw as its inefficiencies. Toyota Motor had been in the business of manufacturing cars for 13 years at this stage, and had produced just over 2,500 automobiles. The Ford plant in contrast manufactured 8,000 vehicles a day. Due to this experience, Toyoda decided to adopt American automobile mass production methods but with a qualitative twist. Toyoda collaborated with Taiichi Ohno, a veteran loom machinist, to develop core concepts of what later became known as the 'Toyota Production System', such as the Kanban system of labeling parts used on assembly lines, which was an early precursor to bar codes. They also fine-tuned the concept of Kaizen, a process of incremental but constant improvements designed to cut production and labor costs while boosting overall quality. As a managing director of Toyota Motor, Toyoda failed in his first attempt to crack the U.S. market with the underpowered Toyota Crown sedan in the 1950s, but he succeeded with the Toyota Corolla compact in 1968, a year after taking over as president of the company. During the car's development phase, Toyoda, as executive vice-president, had to overcome the objections of then-president Fukio Nakagawa to install a newly developed 1.0-liter engine, air conditioning and automatic transmissions in the Corolla. Appointed the fifth president of Toyota Motor, Toyoda went on to become the company's longest serving chief executive thus far. In 1981, he stepped down as president and assumed the title of chairman. He was succeeded as president by Shoichiro Toyoda. In 1983, as chairman, Eiji decided to compete in the luxury car market, which culminated in the 1989 introduction of Lexus. Toyoda stepped down as chairman of Toyota in 1994 at the age of 81. Later years and death In his later years, Toyoda was hospitalised for hip problems, and needed to use a wheelchair for a time, yet remained affable and enjoyed tackling sudoku puzzles. He spent most of his last years undergoing treatment at the Toyota Memorial Hospital in Toyota City, Japan, close to company headquarters. Five days after his 100th birthday, Toyoda died of heart failure in the Toyota Memorial Hospital on 17 September 2013. Paying tribute to Toyoda, David Cole, former chairman of the Center for Automotive Research, said "He was a real visionary and inspirational leader who understood what it would take to make Toyota a successful company." Leslie Kendall, curator of the Petersen Automotive Museum, described Toyoda as the Japanese equivalent of Henry Ford. Honours Japanese April 1971 - Medal of Honor with Blue Ribbon November 1983 - Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure November 1990 - Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun Non-Japanese March 1985 - Commander of the Order of Prince Henry of Portugal (ComIH) December 1990 - Knight Commander of the Order of the White Elephant of Thailand April 1991 - Grand Officer of the Order of the Crown of Belgium April 1992 - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Thailand September 1993 - Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) 1994 - Automotive Hall of Fame, USA May 2001 - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Direkgunabhorn of Thailand Family tree Born into a family of textile manufacturers, Eiji Toyoda is the son of Heikichi Toyoda, the brother of Toyoda Loom Works founder Sakichi Toyoda. The descendants of Sakichi Toyoda have long dominated the upper management of Toyota Motors, which was incorporated in 1937. Eiji Toyoda died in September 2013. With his wife, Kazuko Toyoda (died 2002), he had three sons (Kanshiro, Tetsuro and Shuhei) and many grandchildren. See also Kiichiro Toyoda Sakichi Toyoda Shoichiro Toyoda Taiichi Ohno Footnotes External links Category:1913 births Category:2013 deaths Category:People from Aichi Prefecture Category:Japanese chief executives Category:Chief executives in the automobile industry Category:Toyota people Eiji Category:Japanese Buddhists Category:Japanese automotive pioneers Category:Japanese centenarians Category:Men centenarians Category:Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class Eiji Toyoda Category:Commanders of the Order of Prince Henry Category:Grand Officers of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of Australia Category:University of Tokyo alumni Category:Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics Category:Japanese industrial engineers Category:Japanese industrialists Category:Presidents of the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

{"Name": "Eiji Toyoda豊田 英二", "Birth date": "1913 9 12 y", "Birth place": "Nagoya, Empire of Japan", "Death date": "2013 9 17 1913 9 12 y", "Death place": "Toyota, Aichi, Japan", "Education": "Tokyo Imperial University", "Occupation": "President (1967-1981) and Chairman (1981-1994)Toyota Motor Corporation", "Nationality": "Japanese"}

VMware, Inc. is an American cloud computing and virtualization technology company with headquarters in Palo Alto, California. VMware was the first commercially successful company to virtualize the x86 architecture. VMware's desktop software runs on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. VMware ESXi, its enterprise software hypervisor, is an operating system that runs on server hardware. In May 2022, Broadcom Inc. announced an agreement to acquire VMware in a cash-and-stock transaction valued at $61 billion. History right|thumb|Original logo from 1998 to 2009. Early history In 1998, VMware was founded by Diane Greene, Mendel Rosenblum, Scott Devine, Ellen Wang and Edouard Bugnion. Greene and Rosenblum were both graduate students at the University of California, Berkeley. Edouard Bugnion remained the chief architect and CTO of VMware until 2005, and went on to found Nuova Systems (now part of Cisco). For the first year, VMware operated in stealth mode, with roughly 20 employees by the end of 1998. The company was launched officially early in the second year, in February 1999, at the DEMO Conference organized by Chris Shipley. The first product, VMware Workstation, was delivered in May 1999, and the company entered the server market in 2001 with VMware GSX Server (hosted) and VMware ESX Server (hostless). In 2003, VMware launched VMware Virtual Center, vMotion, and Virtual Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP) technology. 64-bit support was introduced in 2004. EMC acquisition On January 9, 2004, under the terms of the definitive agreement announced on December 15, 2003, EMC (now Dell EMC) acquired the company with $625 million in cash. On August 14, 2007, EMC sold 15% of VMware to the public via an initial public offering. Shares were priced at per share and closed the day at . On July 8, 2008, after disappointing financial performance, the board of directors fired VMware co-founder, president and CEO Diane Greene, who was replaced by Paul Maritz, a retired 14-year Microsoft veteran who was heading EMC's cloud computing business unit. Greene had been CEO since the company's founding, ten years earlier. On September 10, 2008, Mendel Rosenblum, the company's co-founder, chief scientist, and the husband of Diane Greene, resigned. On September 16, 2008, VMware announced a collaboration with Cisco Systems. One result was the Cisco Nexus 1000V, a distributed virtual software switch, an integrated option in the VMware infrastructure. In April 2011, EMC transferred control of the Mozy backup service to VMware. On April 12, 2011, VMware released an open-source platform-as-a-service system called Cloud Foundry, as well as a hosted version of the service. This supported application deployment for Java, Ruby on Rails, Sinatra, Node.js, and Scala, as well as database support for MySQL, MongoDB, Redis, Postgres, RabbitMQ. In August 2012, Pat Gelsinger was appointed as the new CEO of VMware, coming over from EMC. Paul Maritz went over to EMC as Head of Strategy before moving on to lead the Pivotal spin-off. In March 2013, VMware announced the corporate spin-off of Pivotal Software, with General Electric making an investment in the company. Most of VMware's application- and developer-oriented products, including Spring, tc Server, Cloud Foundry, RabbitMQ, GemFire, and SQLFire were transferred to this organization. In May 2013, VMware launched its own IaaS service, vCloud Hybrid Service, at its new Palo Alto headquarters (vCloud Hybrid Service was rebranded vCloud Air and subsequently sold to cloud provider OVH), announcing an early access program in a Las Vegas data center. The service is designed to function as an extension of its customer's existing vSphere installations, with full compatibility with existing virtual machines virtualized with VMware software and tightly integrated networking. The service is based on vCloud Director 5.1/vSphere 5.1. In September 2013, at VMworld San Francisco, VMware announced the general availability of vCloud Hybrid Service and expansion to Sterling, Virginia, Santa Clara, California, Dallas, Texas, and a service beta in the UK. It announced the acquisition Desktone in October 2013. Dell acquisition In January 2016, in anticipation of Dell's acquisition of EMC, VMware announced a restructuring to reduce about 800 positions, and some executives resigned. The entire development team behind VMware Workstation and Fusion was disbanded and all US developers were immediately fired. On April 24, 2016, maintenance release 12.1.1 was released. On September 8, 2016, VMware announced the release of Workstation 12.5 and Fusion 8.5 as a free upgrade supporting Windows 10 and Windows Server 2016. In April 2016, VMware president and COO Carl Eschenbach left VMware to join Sequoia Capital, and Martin Casado, VMware's general manager for its Networking and Security business, left to join Andreessen Horowitz. Analysts commented that the cultures at Dell and EMC, and at EMC and VMware, are different, and said that they had heard that impending corporate cultural collisions and potentially radical product overlap pruning, would cause many EMC and VMware personnel to leave; VMware CEO Pat Gelsinger, following rumors, categorically denied that he would leave. In August 2016 VMware introduced the VMware Cloud Provider website. Mozy was transferred to Dell in 2016 after the merger of Dell and EMC. In April 2017, according to Glassdoor, VMware was ranked 3rd on the list of highest paying companies in the United States. In Q2 2017, VMware sold vCloud Air to French cloud service provider OVH. On January 13, 2021, VMware announced that CEO Pat Gelsinger would be leaving to step in at Intel. Intel is where Gelsinger spent 30 years of his career and was Intel's first chief technology officer. CFO Zane Rowe became interim CEO while the board searched for a replacement. On April 15, 2021, it was reported that Dell would spin off its remaining stake in VMware to shareholders and that the two companies would continue to operate without major changes for at least five years. The spinoff was completed on November 1, 2021. On May 12, 2021, VMware announced that Raghu Raghuram would take over as CEO. In May 2022, VMware announced that the company had partnered with Formula One motor racing team, McLaren Racing. Broadcom acquisition On May 26, 2022, it was announced that Broadcom will acquire VMware for approximately $61 billion in cash and stock in addition to assuming $8 billion of VMware's net debt, and that Broadcom Software Group would rebrand and operate as VMware. The transaction is expected to close during Broadcom's fiscal year 2023. In November 2022, the UK's Competition and Markets Authority regulator announced it would investigate whether the Broadcom Inc. acquisition of VMware Inc. would "result in a substantial lessening of competition within any market or markets in the United Kingdom for goods or services". Log4Shell vulnerability Beginning in January 2022, hackers infiltrated servers using the Log4Shell vulnerability at organizations who failed to implement available patches released by VMware according to PCMag. ZDNet reported in March 2022 that hackers utilized Log4Shell on some customers' VMware servers to install backdoors and for cryptocurrency mining. In May 2022, Bleeping Computer reported that the Lazarus Group cybercrime group, which is possibly linked to North Korea, was actively using Log4Shell "to inject backdoors that fetch information-stealing payloads on VMware Horizon servers", including VMware Horizon. Acquisitions Announcement date Company Description References Asset Optimization Group Specialized in capacity planning. Akimbi Systems Specialized in lab management. Propero London-based VDI provider. Dunes Technologies VMware acquired the Switzerland-based company for an undisclosed sum. October 2007SciantVMware acquired the Bulgaria-based outsourcing company for an undisclosed sum.January 2, 2008FoedusVMware acquired the New Hampshire (U.S.) based professional services company for an undisclosed sum. B-hive Networks VMware acquired the Israel-based start-up for an undisclosed sum. Following the acquisition VMware opened an R&D center in Israel, based initially on B-Hive's facilities and team in Israel. Trango Virtual Processors Was a Grenoble-based ARM hypervisor developer. Blue Lane Technologies Virtual firewall. Was integrated into vCloud networking but ultimately replaced by the much broader NSX virtual networking capabilities. Tungsten Graphics Core expertise in 3D graphics driver development. SpringSource Inventors of Spring Java open source, the most popular enterprise Java app framework for building web apps and microservices. The acquisition expanded VMware's education services to include SpringSource University and its authorized training partners such as Spring People in India. Spring became part of the Pivotal Software spin-out, spin-in. Zimbra (software) Open source email system looking to challenge Exchange et al. Acquired from Yahoo and (later sold in July 2013 to Telligent Systems). GemStone Systems A highly scalable, distributed in-memory database. The Java product was included in the Pivotal spin-out and ultimately open sourced as Apache Geode. The Smalltalk product was bought by GemTalk Systems. Jan 2011NeoAccel IncIncorporated into NSX. SlideRocket A startup which developed a SaaS application for building business presentations that are stored online. Through a Web-based interface, users can handle all parts of the process, from designing slides and compiling content, to reviewing documents and publishing and delivering them. VMware subsequently sold SlideRocket to ClearSlide on March 5, 2013. May 31, 2011 Socialcast "Like Facebook, but private and for your own employees". Enterprise Social Networking and Collaboration. PacketMotion User Activity Monitoring startup. Its PacketSentry product was planned to be incorporated into VMware vCloud Networking and Security but then it was discontinued by the end of 2012. Wanova DynamicOps A cloud management system originally spun out of Credit Suisse. VMware rebranded products as Automation and vRealize Orchestrator, and ultimately incorporated into the Suite—now branded as VMware Aria Automation. Nicira Software for network virtualization, rebranded as VMware NSX. Acquired for $1.2 billion. Nicira was founded in 2007 by Martin Casado, Nick McKeown and Scott Shenker. Virsto Desktone Desktop-as-a-service provider AirWatch and Wandering WiFi System for managing the security, audit and configuration of mobile devices in enterprises. Acquired for . ThirdSky ITIL/ITSM Consulting. CloudVolumes (formerly SnapVolumes) Real-time application delivery and virtualization to virtual desktop infrastructure Continuent Database clustering and replication software October 2014MomentumSIAustin, TX based professional services firm specializing in cloud migration and DevOps expertise June 13, 2016Arkin Net Network Insight - Discover, Optimize and Troubleshoot App Security and Network Connectivity April 12, 2017 Wavefront Cloud-based metrics and monitoring (now VMware Tanzu Wavefront Observability) May 15, 2017 Apteligent Mobile application performance. December 12, 2017 VeloCloud Networks Software-defined wide area network (SD-WAN). February 18, 2018 CloudCoreo Cloud configuration-management February 22, 2018 CloudVelox Hybrid cloud automation and orchestration software March 28, 2018 E8 Security Software for protecting employee devices from online threats. May 14, 2018 Bracket Computing Security virtualization technology. August 27, 2018 CloudHealth Technologies Cloud cost, usage, security, and governance management platform. Nov 6, 2018 Heptio Kubernetes Software and Services. February 2019 Aetherpal Remote support capabilities for the Workspace ONE platform. May 15, 2019BitRockCross platform installer creation tool. July 2019 Avi Networks Cloud application services, including Load Balancer, WAF, and Service Mesh. July 18, 2019 Bitfusion computing, artificial intelligence and machine learning. August 20, 2019 Intrinsic application and serverless security. October 8, 2019 Carbon Black Cloud-native endpoint security software that is designed to detect malicious behavior and to help prevent malicious files from attacking an organization. December 30, 2019 Pivotal Software Cloud-native platform provider of digital transformation technology and services. July 31, 2020LastlineCyber security and breach detection platform provider.September 29, 2020SaltStackAutomation and configuration management software. Litigation In March 2015, the Software Freedom Conservancy announced it was funding litigation by Christoph Hellwig in Hamburg, Germany against VMware for alleged violation of his copyrights in its ESXi product. Hellwig's core claim is that ESXi is a derivative work of the GPLv2-licensed Linux kernel 2.4, and therefore VMware is not in compliance with GPLv2 because it does not publish the source code to ESXi. VMware publicly stated that ESXi is not a derivative of the Linux kernel, denying Hellwig's core claim. VMware said it offered a way to use Linux device drivers with ESXi, and that code does use some Linux GPLv2-licensed code and so it had published the source, meeting GPLv2 requirements. The lawsuit was dismissed by the court in July 2016 and Hellwig announced he would file an appeal. The appeal was decided February 2019 and again dismissed by German court, on the basis of not meeting "procedural requirements for the burden of proof of the plaintiff." Current products VMware's most notable products are its hypervisors. VMware became well known for its first type 2 hypervisor known as GSX. This product has since evolved into two hypervisor product lines: VMware's type 1 hypervisors running directly on hardware and their hosted type 2 hypervisors. VMware software provides a completely virtualized set of hardware to the guest operating system. VMware software virtualizes the hardware for a video adapter, a network adapter, and hard disk adapters. The host provides pass-through drivers for guest USB, serial, and parallel devices. In this way, VMware virtual machines become highly portable between computers, because every host looks nearly identical to the guest. In practice, a system administrator can pause operations on a virtual machine guest, move or copy that guest to another physical computer, and there resume execution exactly at the point of suspension. Alternatively, for enterprise servers, a feature called vMotion allows the migration of operational guest virtual machines between similar but separate hardware hosts sharing the same storage (or, with vMotion Storage, separate storage can be used, too). Each of these transitions is completely transparent to any users on the virtual machine at the time it is being migrated. VMware's products predate the virtualization extensions to the x86 instruction set, and do not require virtualization-enabled processors. On newer processors, the hypervisor is now designed to take advantage of the extensions. However, unlike many other hypervisors, VMware still supports older processors. In such cases, it uses the CPU to run code directly whenever possible (as, for example, when running user-mode and virtual 8086 mode code on x86). When direct execution cannot operate, such as with kernel-level and real-mode code, VMware products use binary translation (BT) to re-write the code dynamically. The translated code gets stored in spare memory, typically at the end of the address space, which segmentation mechanisms can protect and make invisible. For these reasons, VMware operates dramatically faster than emulators, running at more than 80% of the speed that the virtual guest operating system would run directly on the same hardware. In one study VMware claims a slowdown over native ranging from 0-6 percent for the VMware ESX Server. Desktop software VMware Workstation, introduced in 1999, was the first product launched by VMware. This software suite allows users to run multiple instances of x86 or x86-64-compatible operating systems on a single physical personal computer. The current version, 17.0, was released on November 17, 2022. VMware Fusion provides similar functionality for users of the Intel Mac platform, along with full compatibility with virtual machines created by other VMware products. VMware Workstation Player is freeware for non-commercial use, without requiring a license, and available for commercial use with permission. It is similar to VMware Workstation, with reduced functionality, such as "UEFI Secure Boot Support". Server software VMware ESXi, an enterprise software product, can deliver greater performance than the freeware VMware Server, due to lower system computational overhead. VMware ESXi, as a "bare-metal" product, runs directly on the server hardware, allowing virtual servers to also use hardware more or less directly. In addition, VMware ESXi integrates into VMware vCenter, which offers extra services. Cloud management software VMware Suite - a cloud management platform purpose-built for a hybrid cloud. VMware Go is a web-based service to guide users of any expertise level through the installation and configuration of VMware vSphere Hypervisor. VMware Cloud Foundation - Cloud Foundation provides an easy way to deploy and operate a private cloud on an integrated SDDC system. VMware Horizon View is a virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) product. vSphere+ and vSAN+ - activates add-on hybrid cloud services for business-critical applications running on-premises, including disaster recovery and ransomware protection Application management The VMware Workspace Portal was a self-service app store for workspace management. Storage and availability VMware's storage and availability products are composed of two primary offerings: VMware vSAN (previously called VMware Virtual SAN) is software-defined storage that is embedded in VMware's ESXi hypervisor. The vSphere and vSAN software runs on industry-standard x86 servers to form a hyper-converged infrastructure (or HCI). However, network operators need to have servers from HCL (Hardware Compatibility List) to put one into production. 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Kṣitigarbha (, , Wylie: sa yi snying po) is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism and usually depicted as a Buddhist monk. His name may be translated as "Earth Treasury", "Earth Store", "Earth Matrix", or "Earth Womb". Kṣitigarbha is known for his vow to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six worlds between the death of Gautama Buddha and the rise of Maitreya, as well as his vow not to achieve Buddhahood until all hells are emptied. He is therefore often regarded as the bodhisattva of hell-beings, as well as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. Usually depicted as a monk with a halo around his shaved head, he carries a staff to force open the gates of hell and a wish-fulfilling jewel to light up the darkness. Overview thumb|Ceramic statue of Kṣitigarbha in the Nguyễn dynasty, 19th century Kṣitigarbha is one of the four principal bodhisattvas along with Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokiteśvara in East Asian Mahayana Buddhism. At the pre-Tang dynasty grottos in Dunhuang and Longmen, he is depicted in a classical bodhisattva form. After the Tang, he became increasingly depicted as a monk carrying Buddhist prayer beads and a staff. His full name in Chinese is Dayuan Dizang Pusa (), or "Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva of the Great Vow," pronounced Daigan Jizō Bosatsu in Japanese, Jijang Bosal in Korean, Đại Nguyện Địa Tạng Vương Bồ Tát in Vietnamese. This name is a reference to his pledge, as recorded in the sutras, to take responsibility for the instruction of all beings in the six worlds in the era between the parinirvana of the Buddha and the rise of Maitreya. Because of this important role, shrines to Kṣitigarbha often occupy a central role in temples, especially within the memorial halls or mausoleums. Sources As a Brahmin maiden The story of Kṣitigarbha was first described in the Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra, one of the most popular Mahayana sutras. This sutra is said to have been spoken by the Buddha towards the end of his life to the beings of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven as a mark of gratitude and remembrance for his beloved mother, Maya. The Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra begins, "Thus have I heard. Once the Buddha was abiding in Trayastrimsas Heaven in order to expound the Dharma to his mother." The Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra was first translated from Sanskrit into Chinese between 695 and 700 CE, during the Tang dynasty, by the Tripiṭaka master Śikṣānanda, a Buddhist monk from Khotan who also provided a new translation of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. However, some scholars have suspected that instead of being translated, this text may have originated in China, since no Sanskrit manuscripts of this text have been found. Part of the reason for suspicion is that the text advocates filial piety, which was stereotypically associated with Chinese culture. It stated that Kṣitigarbha practised filial piety as a mortal, which eventually led to making great vows to save all sentient beings. Since then, other scholars such as Gregory Schopen have pointed out that Indian Buddhism also had traditions of filial piety.Schopen, Gregory. Filial Piety and the Monk in the Practice of Buddhism: A Question of 'Sinicization' Viewed from the Other Side. Currently there is no definitive evidence indicating either an Indian or Chinese origin for the text. In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra, the Buddha states that in the distant past eons, Kṣitigarbha was a maiden of the Brahmin caste by the name of Sacred Girl.Frederic, Louis. Buddhism: Flammarion Iconographic Guides. 1995. pp. 184-185Edkins, Joseph. Chinese Buddhism. 2003. pp. 225-226 This maiden was deeply troubled upon the death of her mother - who had often been slanderous towards the Three Jewels. To save her mother from the great tortures of hell, the girl sold whatever she had and used the money to buy offerings that she offered daily to the Buddha of her time, known as the Buddha of the Flower of Meditation and Enlightenment. She prayed fervently that her mother be spared the pains of hell and appealed to the Buddha for help. While she was pleading for help at the temple, she heard the Buddha telling her to go home, sit down, and recite his name if she wanted to know where her mother was. She did as she was told and her consciousness was transported to a Hell realm, where she met a guardian who informed her that through her fervent prayers and pious offerings, her mother had accumulated much merit and had already ascended to heaven. Sacred Girl was greatly relieved and would have been extremely happy, but the sight of the suffering she had seen in Hell touched her heart. She vowed to do her best to relieve beings of their suffering in her future lives for kalpas. As a Buddhist monk thumb|Kṣitigarbha painting, Goryeo, late 14th century There is a legend about how Kṣitigarbha manifested himself in China and chose his bodhimaṇḍa to be Mount Jiuhua, one of the Four Sacred Mountains of China. During the reign of Emperor Ming of Han, Buddhism started to flourish, reaching its peak in the Tang and eventually spreading to Korea. At the time, monks and scholars arrived from those countries to seek the dharma in China. One of these pilgrims was a former prince from Silla named Kim Gyo-gak, who became a monk under the Chinese name Dizang "Kṣitigarbha," pronounced Jijang in Korean. He went to Mount Jiuhua in present-day Anhui. After ascending, he decided to build a hut in a deep mountain area so that he could cultivate the dharma. According to records, Jijang was bitten by a poisonous snake but he did not move, thus letting the snake go. A woman happened to pass by and gave the monk medicines to cure him of the venom, as well as a spring on her son's behalf. For a few years, Jijang continued to meditate in his hut, until one day, a scholar named Chu-Ke led a group of friends and family to visit the mountain. Noticing the monk meditating in the hut, they went and took a look at his condition. They had noticed that his bowl did not contain any food, and that his hair had grown back. Taking pity on the monk, Chu-Ke decided to build a temple as an offering to him. The whole group descended the mountain immediately to discuss plans to build the temple. Mount Jiuhua was also property of a wealthy person called Elder Wen-Ke, who obliged to build a temple on his mountain. Therefore, Wen-Ke and the group ascended the mountain once more and asked Jijang how much land he needed. Jijang replied that he needed a piece of land that could be covered fully by his kasaya. Initially believing that a piece of sash could not provide enough land to build a temple, they were surprised when Jijang threw the kasaya in the air, and the robe expanded in size, covering the entire mountain. Elder Wen-Ke had then decided to renounce the entire mountain to Jijang, and became his protector. Sometime later, Wen-Ke's son also left secular life to become a monk. Jijang lived in Mount Jiuhua for 75 years before passing away at the age of 99. Three years after his nirvana, his tomb was opened, only to reveal that the body had not decayed. Because Jijang led his wayplace with much difficulty, most people had the intuition to believe that he was indeed an incarnation of Kṣitigarbha. Jijang's well-preserved, dehydrated body may still be viewed today at the monastery he built on Mount Jiuhua. Iconography thumb|200px|right|Depicted with a crown, staff, and jewel (cintamani). Fo Guang Shan Buddhist Temple, London. Traditional iconography In Buddhist iconography, Kṣitigarbha is typically depicted with a shaven head, dressed in a monk's simple robes (unlike most other bodhisattvas, who are dressed like Indian royalty). In his left hand, Kṣitigarbha holds a tear-shaped jewel or cintamani (Chinese: 如意寶珠; Pinyin: Rúyì bǎozhū; Romaji: Nyoihōju) in his right hand, he holds a Khakkhara (Chinese: 錫杖; Pinyin: Xīzhàng; Rōmaji: Shakujō), which is used to alert insects and small animals of his approach, so that he will not accidentally harm them. This staff is traditionally carried by Buddhist monks. Like other bodhisattvas, Kṣitigarbha usually is seen standing on a lotus base, symbolizing his release from rebirth. Kṣitigarbha's face and head are also idealised, featuring the third eye, elongated ears and the other standard attributes of a buddha. In the Chinese tradition, Kṣitigarbha is sometimes depicted wearing a crown like the one worn by Vairocana. His image is similar to that of the fictional character Tang Sanzang from the classical novel Journey to the West, so observers sometimes mistake Kṣitigarbha for the latter. In China, Kṣitigarbha is also sometimes accompanied by a dog. This is in reference to a legend that he found his mother reborn in the animal realm as a dog named Diting, which the Bodhisattva adopted to serve as his steed and guard. In Japan, Kṣitigarbha's statues are often adorned with bibs, kerchiefs or kasa hat on his head, and sometimes dressed with a haori. Tōsen-ji in Katsushika, Tokyo, contains the "Bound Kṣitigarbha" of Ōoka Tadasuke fame, dating from the Edo period. When petitions are requested before Kṣitigarbha, the petitioner ties a rope about the statue. When the wish is granted, the petitioner unties the rope. At the new year, the ropes of the ungranted wishes are cut by the temple priest. Kṣitigarbha as Lord of the Six Ways thumb|left|Painting of Kṣitigarbha as the Lord of the Six Ways from Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang Another category of iconographic depiction is Kṣitigarbha as the Lord of the Six Ways, an allegorical representation of the Six Paths of Rebirth of the Desire realm (rebirth into hell, or as pretas, animals, asuras, men, and devas). The Six Paths are often depicted as six rays or beams radiating from the bodhisattva and accompanied by figurative representations of the Six Paths. Many of these depictions in China can be found in Shaanxi province, perhaps a result of Sanjiejiao teachings in the area. A Japanese variation of this depiction is the Six Kṣitigarbhas, six full sculptural manifestations of the bodhisattva. An example of this can be found in Konjikidō, the ‘Hall of Gold,’ in the Chūson-ji temple. In Buddhist traditions Chinese traditions Mount Jiuhua in Anhui is regarded as Kṣitigarbha's bodhimaṇḍa. It is one of the Four Sacred Buddhism Mountains in China, and at one time housed more than 300 temples. Today, 95 of these are open to the public. The mountain is a popular destination for pilgrims offering dedications to Kṣitigarbha. In certain Chinese Buddhist legends, the arhat Maudgalyayana, known in Chinese as Mùlián (目連), acts as an assistant to Ksitigarbha in his vow to save the denizens of hell. As a result, Mùlián is usually also venerated in temples that enshrine Ksitigarbha. In folk beliefs, the mount of Ksitigarbha, Diting, is a divine beast that can distinguish good from evil, virtuous and foolish. In iconographic form, it is often enshrined at the side of Ksitigarbha, or portrayed with Ksitigarbha riding on its back as a mount. In some areas, the admixture of traditional religions has led to Kṣitigarbha being also regarded as a deity in Taoism and Chinese folk religion. Kṣitigarbha Temples (Chinese: 地藏庵; Pinyin: Dìzàng'ān) are Taoist temples that usually enshrine Kṣitigarbha as the main deity, along with other gods typically related to the Chinese netherworld Diyu, such as Yanluo Wang and Heibai Wuchang. Believers usually visit these temples to pray for the blessings of the ancestors and the souls of the dead. The 30th day of the seventh month of the Chinese calendar is celebrated as his birthday. Japanese traditions thumb|left|Kṣitigarbha (or in Japanese, Jizō) statue at Osorezan (Mt. Osore), Aomori In Japan, Kṣitigarbha, known as Jizō, or respectfully as Ojizō-sama, is one of the most loved of all Japanese divinities. His statues are a common sight, especially by roadsides and in graveyards. Children's limbo legend In the common tradition associated with the or the banks of the Sanzu River, Kṣitigarbha is portrayed as the protector of the souls of children, who are condemned to stack piles of stones vainly, for these towers are repeatedly toppled. In a later version such as the one recorded by Lafcadio Hearn, the oni demons wreck the stone piles, and torment the children, and the children seek haven with Kṣitigarbha who hides them inside his garment and comforts them. In an earlier version, found written in the , c. 1600 or earlier when the dead children pile stones at the Sai no Kawara ("Children’s Riverbed Hell"), winds and flames are the agents knocking down the stone tower, and the flame reduce the children into cremated bones, to be revived back to whole by the Jizō Bodhisattva (or by demons). via j-texts.com, From Nihon bungaku taikei 19 Otogizōshi, 1925. thumb|Sentai-Jizō or 1000 Jizō Statues at Nasu, Tochigi. This landscape is compared to Sai no Kawara. This concept of Sai no Kawara, or children's limbo first appeared in the Otogizōshi of the Muromachi Period, and note 10. and in fact, the "Tale of the Fuji Cave" related above is one such work from the Otogizōshi. So the notion was developed quite late, in the post-medieval era, although it has been associated with the priest Kūya (10th century). The Kṣitigarbha and the Sai no Kawara legend was connected with the Kūya and his wasan, or chantings probably some time in the 17th century, creating the Jizō wasan. Also, as to the identification of certain geographic features as Sai no Kawara on Osorezan mountain in northern Japan, the establishment of the Kṣitigarbha cult there is of late-Tokugawa Period vintage, early to mid 18th century, despite temple pamphlets (engi, or account of the founding of temples) purporting origins dating back to the 9th century, with the priest Ennin alleged to have established the place of worship for the Kṣitigarbha at Mt. Osore (in olden times styled "Mount Usori"). Lost pregnancies Kṣitigarbha has been worshipped as the guardian of the souls of mizuko, the souls of stillborn, miscarried, or aborted fetuses in the ritual of . Offerings thumb|150px|A small shrine of Kosodate-Jizō or Childcare-Kṣitigarbha at Nishi-Shinjuku, Tokyo Kṣitigarbha statues are sometimes accompanied by a little pile of stones and pebbles, put there by people in the hope that it would shorten the time children have to suffer in the underworld. (The act is derived from the tradition of building stupas as an act of merit-making.) Traditionally, he is seen as the guardian of children, and in particular, children who died before their parents. The statues can sometimes be seen wearing tiny children's clothing or bibs, or with toys, put there by grieving parents to help their lost ones and hoping that Kṣitigarbha would specially protect them. Sometimes the offerings are put there by parents to thank Kṣitigarbha for saving their children from a serious illness. His features are commonly made more baby-like to resemble the children he protects. Roadside god As Kṣitigarbha is seen as the saviour of souls who have to suffer in the underworld, his statues are common in cemeteries. He is also believed to be one of the protective deities of travellers, the dōsojin, and roadside statues of Kṣitigarbha are a common sight in Japan. Firefighters are also believed to be under his protection. thumb|Korean painting of Kṣitigarbha as supreme ruler of the Underworld, late 18th century Southeast Asian traditions thumb|200px|Statue of Phra Malai from the Phra Malai Manuscript of Thailand, c. 1860-1880 In Theravada Buddhism, the story of a bhikkhu named Phra Malai with similar qualities to Kṣitigarbha is well known throughout Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand and Laos. Legend has it that he was an arhat from Sri Lanka who achieved great supernatural powers through his own merit and meditation. He is also honoured as a successor to Mahāmoggallāna, the Buddha's disciple foremost for his supernatural attainments. In the story, this pious and compassionate monk descends to Hell to give teachings and comfort the suffering hell-beings there. He also learns how the hell-beings are punished according to their sins in the different hells. Mantra thumb|First page of Vietnamese Mahayana sutra Kṣitigarbha (Địa tạng Bồ Tát bản nguyện kinh), written in chữ Nho which was printed 300+ years ago. In mainstream Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Shingon Buddhism, the mantra of Kṣitigarbha comes from the "Treasury of Mantras" section of the Mahavairocana Tantra. The effect of this mantra is producing the "Samadhi Realm of Adamantine Indestructible Conduct." This mantra is the following:Giebel, Rolf. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra. Berkeley: Numata Center, 2005 Other mantras Mantra of Eliminating Fixed Karma: In Chinese, this mantra is called in pinyin (). It reads: In Chinese Buddhism, the following mantra is associated with Kṣitigarbha: In Korean Buddhism, the following mantra is associated with Kṣitigarbha: In Tibetan Buddhism, the following mantra is associated with Kṣitigarbha: In Shingon Buddhism, a mantra used in public religious services is: In Sanskrit: Om! Ha ha ha! O wondrous one! svāhā! Haiku & Senryū thumb|Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha in Hsiang-Te Temple, Taiwan In popular culture The Saviour Monk is a 1975 Hong Kong film starring David Tang wei as Dizang-wang (Ksitigarbha king), and Doris lung Chun-Erh. The film was directed by Liang Che-Fu. By 2020, the movie has been digitally restored by the Hong Kong Embassy In The Philippines and the University of the Philippines Film Institute. The vandalism of a Kṣitigarbha statue is the central theme of The Locker, a 2004 Japanese horror and thriller film directed by Kei Horie. In the 1988 video game Super Mario Bros. 3, Mario and Luigi gain the ability to turn into Kṣitigarbha statues. This ability returns in the 2011 video game Super Mario 3D Land. Additionally, multiple Kṣitigarbha statues appear in Super Mario Odyssey. In the 2004 video game Ninja Gaiden, a defaced Kṣitigarbha statue can be found in the hero's village, with its head knocked off. If you replace the head, the statue's cintamani becomes a "Life of the Gods" item that can extend your maximum health. In 2004 Hong Kong drama, My Date with a Vampire III Ksitigarbha was portrayed by Ricky Chan, also known as Ma Siu-Fu, Ma Siu-Ling's twin brother. He starts a romance with Chang'e and is unaware that she has actually been going around killing people when she cannot control her vampire bloodlust. Later in the series, he is revealed to be the reincarnation of the bodhisattva Ksitigarbha (地藏王; Dìzàng Wáng), who presides over the Underworld and relentlessly tries to help the souls of the damned get out of Hell. He helps the protagonists in their quest to stop Yaochi Shengmu and Fuxi from fighting and ending the world. In the 2022 video game Ghostwire: Tokyo, praying to Kṣitigarbha statues (referenced as Jizo statues in-game) allows the player to carry more ether, which is used to attack enemies. See also Karuṇā (Brahmavihara) Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra Maliyadeva Phra Malai Kham Luang Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra & Manjusri King Yama & Yanluo Wang Mount Jiuhua & Kim Gyo-gak Diting Mizuko kuyō Butsu Zone, a manga in which Kṣitigarbha is a main character Explanatory notes References Bibliography French, Frank G. (ed); Shi, Daoji (trans.)(2003). The Sutra of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha's Fundamental Vows (地藏經), Sutra Translation Committee of the U.S. and Canada/The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation Taipei, Taiwan, 2nd ed. Moto-Sanchez, Milla Micka (2016). Jizō, Healing Rituals, and Women in Japan, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 43 (2), 307-331 Visser, Marinus Willem de (1914). The Bodhisattva Ti-Tsang (Jizo) in China and Japan, Berlin: Oesterheld External links Jizo Bodhisattva - Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhism Dizang text from Dunhuang The Sutra of the Past Vows of Earth Store Bodhisattva Category:Bodhisattvas Category:Buddhism and abortion Category:Buddhism and children Category:Buddhism in China Category:Buddhism in Japan Category:Childhood gods Category:Chinese gods Category:Psychopomps Category:Stillbirth

{"Chinese": "地藏菩萨, 地藏菩薩Pinyin: Dìzàng pú sà", "Cyrillic": "Кшитигарбха", "Japanese": "じぞうぼさつ\nRomaji: Jizō Bosatsu", "Korean": "지장보살\nRR: Jijang Bosal", "Thai": "พระกษิติครรภโพธิสัตว์", "Tibetan": "ས་ཡི་སྙིང་པོ་THL: Sa Yi Nyingpo", "Vietnamese": "Địa Tạng Bồ Tát", "Venerated by": "Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna"}

The Saab 9000 is an automobile produced by the Swedish company Saab from 1984 to 1998. Representing the company's foray into the executive car scene, it was developed as a result of the successes of the turbocharged 99 and 900 models. The 9000 remained in production until May 1998 and it was replaced by the Saab 9-5 in late 1997, although some final cars were produced into 1998. The Saab 9000 was only available with petrol engines, in two different 5-door hatchback designs or as a 4-door notchback. Saab designed the 9000 as part of the Type Four platform in conjunction with the Italian automaker Fiat Automobiles. Fiat retailed similar derivative versions as the more basic Fiat Croma, the luxury-themed Lancia Thema, and the sports-oriented Alfa Romeo 164. Unlike the 164, which shares only the chassis, the Croma and Thema are outwardly similar to the 9000. As such, much of the bodywork appeared interchangeable between the 9000, Croma and Thema; for example, the doors. However, because Saab fitted heavier side impact protection they will not fit.Lund (2009), p. 77. Also the front of the Saab is radically different from the Italian siblings due to the much improved crash protection. Only seven parts are actually interchangeable. The 9000's body was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro and Saab designer Björn Envall. Despite being shorter overall than the 900 which was still produced in parallel, the 9000 has a longer wheelbase and greater interior space with 123-cu.ft. of interior space (23.5-cu.ft. in the trunk, 56.5-cu.ft. with rear seats folded), qualifying as an EPA-rated “large car", a distinction shared only with the contemporary Rolls-Royce in America. This was achieved by installing the engine transversely to the direction of travel in the Saab 9000 (instead longitudinally as in the Saab 900). Unlike the 900 the 9000 kept the ignition switch in the more conventional steering column position rather than between the front seats. The inspiration for the seats was taken by Björn Envall from The Muppet Show's Pigs in Space, a sketch by the late puppeteer Jim Henson. In total, 503,087 Saab 9000s were manufactured.Lund (2009), p. 78. These are divided into: 216,385 Saab 9000 CC (MY 1985-1991) 174,525 Saab 9000 CS (MY 1992-1998) 112,177 Saab 9000 CD (MY 1988-1997) History The 9000 was launched to the motoring press at a conference at Kolmården Game Park on 24 May 1984 and 1985 in the European market. This original model called "Saab 9000 Turbo 16" and was a five-door liftback, only available with manual gearbox and the 2.0 turbo engine with 16 valves (producing 129 kw/173 hp DIN without cat and already known from the Saab 900). Drag resistance for the original model is Cd 0.34, very competitive for the time.Renaux, p. 25 The Saab 9000 was awarded Best Prestige Car 1985 by the French magazine L’Action Automobile. At the end of 1985 (with cars of MY 1986) the 9000 was rolled out (with the 2.0 Turbo and an exhaust gas purification via catalytic converter, producing 118 kw/160 hp DIN) in the most important foreign market for Saab: the US. Saab also introduced during the model year at all markets the fuel injected non-turbo engine for the Saab 9000 (producing 125 hp DIN with catalytic converter, 128 hp DIN without), based on the same engine as the turbo version and with four valves per cylinder, electronic ignition and a knock sensor. In the autumn of 1986, Saab organised a record attempt with the Saab 9000, which received much attention in the US and internationally, at the Alabama International Motor Speedway at Talladega, now the Talladega Superspeedway. "Saab Turbo--In The Long Run" took place over 20 days and 20 nights. "The main purpose of the Long Run project is to test the endurance of our cars as part of our ongoing testing program," explained Olle Granlund, head of Saab's engine and transmission department and the person in charge of this project. All three 9000 Turbo 16s passed the 100,000 [KM] mark in 21 days, the lead car breaking 21 international and two world speed records in the process. In memory of this event. Saab was to sell special models under the name "Talladega" in the prospective years, not only for the Saab 9000 but also for other model series. Furthermore, the event was repeated 10 years later in 1996 with models of the "NG 900". For MY 1987 a modern ZF automatic with four stages became available (and remained the only available automatic version until the end of production). In 1987 for model year 1988, Saab released a 4-door sedan variant of the 9000 known as the CD. The front of the Sedan was different (more modern) and more streamlined than the hatchback version. This involved smoothing the edges of the headlamps and grille, and sloping the front outwards. Saab adapted the design of the sedan to the current facelift of the Saab 900, which had already received a similar new front for the MY 1987. This re-design marked a departure from the more upright front styling of the 1984 original, which was also similar to the old design of the Saab 900 from 1978 to 1986. The fact that the older medium class model Saab 900 had received the facelift first seems curiously, also that the 9000 hatchback 5-door model still retained the old front design. But it can be explained by the fact that in the 1980s the bulk of sales in the US were still through the classic 900. From 1988, all 9000 variants were equipped with a Saab Information Display (SID) which showed fuel consumption, distance to an empty fuel tank, alternator output voltage, outside temperature, and lowest battery voltage during vehicle start.Saab 9000 Service manual, vol 3, pp 381-2 to 381-3. If the outside temperature fell to , the temperature display is automatically selected to warn of possible "black ice" road conditions. A separate pictogram monitored door and hatch opening and exterior light bulb condition.Saab 9000 Service manual, model year 1997, p, 11. 1988 also marked the introduction of pyrotechnic seat belt tensioners for the front seats. Saab Direct Ignition was also introduced 1988 with the 9000 CD and its B202 turbo engine. The same engine in the CC got the DI with MY 1989. Since then all new engine releases for the 9000 got the DI from beginning (except the later V6 engine, which came from General Motors). The output of both engines increased slightly through optimisation, from DIN for the catalyzed turbo model, from DIN for the catalyzed, naturally aspirated engine, and from DIN in the uncatalyzed model. For MY 1990 Saab introduced the new developed larger B234 2.3-litre engine, providing in the normally aspirated engine. For MY 1991, the B234 became available also with a turbocharger, producing and an impressive torque. Unlike the other engines, each of which was also used in the classic Saab 900, the B234 was only used in the Saab 9000 (and later in other model series). For model years 1991 (Europe) and 1992 (US), Saab also adopted the sloping front of the CD for the hatchback (CC). With this, the classic flat front of the Saab 90, 99, 900 and the early 9000 was finally over. But this design existed only for a single year on the CC in most markets (the CD notchback retained its old design until the 1994 model year). Because the next bigger facelift for the Saab 9000 5-door hatchback was followed by release of a partially redesigned body for the 1992 model year in Europe (for MY 1993 in the US), known as the CS. At the release of the CS, the original liftback variant from MY 1985-1991/1992 was retrospectively designated CC to differentiate it from the newer version. The "old" CC was continued to sell out of stock alongside in some markets as an entry-level model and particularly in the US, where the new CS was not available until 1993. A new turbocharger management system, Trionic 5 and later Trionic 7, was equipped from the 1993 model year onwards (the Trionic system used resistor spark plugs to detect for engine knock in place of the knock sensors incorporated into the engine block in the previous APC system). For MY 1993 the model range was revised to provide some uniformity to the model designations on all markets. They became CS/CSE and CD/CDE: the CS / CD with basic equipment (generally better equipped than the German competitors offered at the time) the CSE / CDE came with most available equipment from factory In principle, both equipment lines could be combined with the engines available in the respective MY. This means that even a "simple" CS could be ordered with the 200 hp turbo engine, for example. End of production: As the four-door CD/E and the sporty Aero were discontinued after MY 1997, only 1,400 of the Saab 9000 were produced for the final 1998 model year, and of these only 400 were exported to the United States, the main foreign market for Saab. Saab was already focused on the successor of the Saab 9000, the Saab 9-5. 9000 CC (liftback) Originally known simply as the 9000, the original liftback variant was later given the CC identifier, standing for "Combi Coupe", to differentiate it from the CD ("Corps Diplomatique") sedan and later CS liftback. Saab also uses this different identifier for the Saab 900 versions. While originally equipped with an upright front design, this was replaced by the sloped version in MY 1990 that had earlier debuted on the 9000 CD (sedan) in 1988. The original MY 1985 CC model (for this MY only available in Europe) was powered by an air-cooled, turbocharged, double overhead camshaft, 16-valve inline-four engine, providing 175 bhp without and 160 bhp with catalysator.Saab 9000 Service manual, vol 0, p 022-1. Earlier on in the development, the PRV engine had also been considered. The 9000 became available in the US for MY 1986, and since MY 1987 onwards the turbo-charger became water-cooled. For MY 89 the CC with B202 turbo got the famous DI system which Saab introduced in the CD version one year before, raising the performance to 163 PS (161 hp) with cat. As with the Saab 900 CC, the Saab 9000 CC had some special series in some countries, such as the "Saab 9000 turbo 16 SP" in France (SP stands for "Sport and Performance") with 185-204 hp with the B202 turbo engine, supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection. In Germany and Switzerland there were also a special edition named "Saab 9000 Turbo 16 S", with an airflow kit and the B202 turbo with catalytic converter tuned up to 195 hp (for MY 1990), and for MY 1991 and 1992 (also available as CD with the new 195 hp B234 Turbo. But the most popular special series is the so-called "Talladega" (US and most parts of Europe) or "Carlsson"(UK), both models available as CC and CD (sedan) versions. The “Carlsson” takes its name from legendary Swedish rally ace Erik Carlsson, who secured numerous wins for Saab in the Sixties. In markets outside the UK, it was known as the Talladega in honour of the 19 endurance records set by three standard turbocharged 9000s at Talladega Speedway in the US in 1986. Since MY 1988 it was available both with and without catalytic converter. Saab had scared the power to 175 PS (160 original) in the catalytic converter engine and 192 PS (175 original) in non-cat. The pressure was around 1.0 bar. Furthermore, a new "black box" (APC) had been installed in the "Talladegas" which allows higher power. In the UK, however, it carried on the tradition of the Saab 900 Carlsson and took its moniker from Swedish rally legend Erik Carlsson. 9000 Carlsson models were produced with a paint-matched airflow body kit, only with a manual transmission, spoiler, and specially tuned turbocharged engine producing 195 PS (185PS with catalytic converter) with the B202 turbo in MY 1990 up to in MY 1991-92 with the B234 turbo. The "Carlsson" was produced from MY 1990 to 1992 (changing from CC to CS design) with engine output up to 225 PS and can be described as the precursor of the further Aero, which was introduced in MY 1993 with the CS design. A number of the Carlsson editions fitted with the B202 turbocharged engine were sold into the Australian market. All four series, the "SP 16" (France), "Turbo 16 S" (Germany, Switzerland), "Talladega" (Europe, US) and "Carlsson" are rare items sought today from Saab fans around the world. Unfortunately many of the few remaining specimens are often not in good condition. Total production numbers as 5 door variant Saab 9000 CC: 216,385 Saab 9000 CC (MY 1985-1991) (43% of all produced Saab 9000) 9000 CD (sedan) The Saab 9000 CD Sedan model was presented in Nice in January 1988. The CD was the four-door sedan body style with from beginning a slightly more aerodynamic nose which the CC get not until MY 1991. Just as in the launch of the CC variant, the 9000 CD was initially available only with the B202 turbo engine, but Saab combined it right from the start with its new "DI ignition system" At the Birmingham Motor Show in September 1988, Saab premiered the non-turbo model of the CD with the naturally aspirated 2.0-litre inline-four. For MY 1990 Saab introduced the 2.3-litre B234 normally aspirated engine for both body shapes, the CC and CD. Since then the CD was available with the same basic engines as the CC for all MY (except the 225 PS "Aero" engine). The CD kept its old front and back till MY 1994. For MY 95 Saab redesigned the CD for the first time since its start, now wearing the front and back similar to the CS. The sedan was phased out in both the US and Europe after MY 1997. From the beginning, Saab had placed the CD above the hatchback model in terms of equipment and price. This was in keeping with the spirit of the times, which saw an expensive notchback model more as a car for business people (with or without a chauffeur) who did not need the cargo space of the CC. This is why Saab never offered the CD with a folding rear seat, which would have been at the expense of stability and peace and quiet in the interior. With the introduction of the Saab 9000 2.3 Turbo CD "Griffin" for MY 1992 as the top model of the 9000 series, Saab finally placed itself in the luxury class. The Griffin in the limited edition of 400 pieces was only available in the form of the CD and only with the 2.3 Turbo engine. In 1995, a 3.0-litre B308 V6 engine with was introduced as standard for the CDE sedan and optional for the CSE liftback. The V6 was discontinued in the United States after one year along with the CDE model, but continued on in Europe until 1997. In some European markets, Saab revived the special model "Griffin" for MY 1995 onwards. It was only available with the V6 engine, automatic transmission and with numerous luxury appointments, such as an optional second air conditioning unit in the boot for the rear occupants and with all available electric options, special eucalyptus green paint, a separate rear-seat air conditioning system, walnut trim and rear window blinds. Total production numbers of the 4-door Saab 9000 CD/CDE: 112,177 Saab 9000 CD (MY 1988-1997) (22.3% of all produced Saab 9000) 9000 CS (liftback) Saab presented the 9000 CS (Combi Sedan), an updated version of the former CC liftback body variant, in Europe in autumn 1991 for the 1992 model year (in the US the CS starts in MY 1993). This replaced the CC. Featuring a lowered front fascia with new headlights, new grille, some minor changes at the doors and a substantially redesigned rear-end. Although the interior design remained basically the same, there were some changes in detail. Here is an overview over the different versions of the different engine types used in the Saab 9000 CS Versions. thumb|1995 Saab 9000 CS Aero (US) After the old B202 engine phased out after MY 1993, there were in summary 9 different engine versions for the CS available in the upcoming years. After the 1995 model year, both the naturally aspirated four-cylinder engines were discontinued in the United States. A limited edition Anniversary model was introduced 1997 to mark Saab's 50th anniversary, featuring leather seats embossed with the classic, aircraft-inspired Saab logo and a colour-keyed body kit. The engine type was freely selectable from the available turbo engines of MY 1997 except the Aero engine with 225 PS. The "Anniversary" could be ordered until the end of the 9000 production in 1998. In the last MY 1998 the "Anniversary" could be also ordered with the 225 PS engine. The Saab 9000 CS Aero was introduced in MY 1993. The predecessor was (in some European markets) the "Saab 9000 CS 2.3 16 S" in MY 1992 with the "normal" B234 turbo engine and 195 PS, but with special textile/leather seats, sporty styling and generous equipment. Revealed at the Paris Salon in October 1992 for MY 1993, then the new 9000 Aero was the fastest Saab to date and an exclusive interior and exterior. It was powered by a version of Saab's 2.3-litre B234 engine, with more power courtesy of a larger Mitsubishi TD04 turbocharger. Automatic transmission-equipped Aeros were limited to and kept the regular turbocharged models' Garrett AiResearch T25 turbocharger. Aeros were equipped with paint-matched body kit and spoiler, eight-way Recaro-designed heated sports seats, a sport suspension, and 16-inch Super Aero wheels. The Aero's in-gear acceleration was strongly emphasised, and period advertising boasted, “The 5-speed Saab 9000 Aero will streak from 50 to 75 mph faster than a Ferrari Testarossa or a Porsche Carrera 4.” The Aero was discontinued after model year 1997, so in the last MY 1998 the 225 PS engine was available for all Saab 9000. Total production numbers of the Saab 9000 CS/CSE type: 174,525 Saab 9000 CS (MY 1992-1998) (34,7% of all produced Saab 9000) Convertible (prototype) thumb|upright|Convertible prototype A convertible version was constructed by Finnish Valmet, the prototype version is currently on display at the Uusikaupunki car museum near the Valmet factory. Other experiments included fitting of the Yamaha developed V6 engine most famously fitted to the Ford Taurus SHO. This was vetoed by Saab-Scania, Saab's owner at the time, as was the fitting of a VM Motori diesel engine which had been executed with the aim of increasing Saab's sales in central and southern Europe. A station wagon was never truly under consideration due to the expenses involved, not in the least out of concern for the often tiny Saab importers who were thereby saved the trouble of having to keep a larger inventory.Lund (2009), p. 83. Prometheus (prototype) In 1993, Saab experimented with steer-by-wire technology as part of the pan-European programme "Prometheus" (Programme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety). Their contribution to the programme consisted of a modified 9000 with the steering wheel replaced with a center-mounted joystick. This setup removed the risk of body and facial injury in the event of an accident. It also provided easier and cheaper airbag installation, as well as improved instrument panel visibility. This prototype was tested by Jeremy Clarkson in an episode of Top Gear; the segment was revisited in Series 18, Episode 5 of the current Top Gear series, where Clarkson and James May paid tribute to the fallen automotive marque. MPV (prototype) At a visit to the American Sunroof Company, who helped design the Saab 900 convertible, the engineers spotted the building of a minivan based on the Chrysler's K-car (later launched as Chrysler Voyager). Gunnar Larsson thought it was a neat idea and when he came home he asked the head of bodyworks Dick Ohlsson if they could do something like that based on the Saab 9000. "No problem", was the reply and a small team started working on it in secret. They used the 9000 platform but lengthened and with higher roof and room for seven persons (even if the rear seat was mostly suitable for children). The full-scale model was finished in May 1985, two months after the idea was first mooted. Saab 9000 Limousine British coachbuilder Coleman & Milne extended several Saab 9000s into stretch limousine versions. Also, motoring presenter James May created a stretch limousine from a Saab 9000 and its Alfa Romeo 164 relative, as part of a challenge for an episode of BBC's Top Gear. Engines The Saab 9000 was available with a big variety of naturally-aspirated and turbocharged engines. The range consisted mostly of the Saab 2.0 and 2.3 litre engines, but there was also the 3.0-liter V6 made by Isuzu. One model was fitted with a prototype Saab V8 engine. After the facelift in MY 1992 and as of MY 1993 (in most markets) the new introduced two equipment series CS/CD and CSE/CDE could be combined with all available engines in the respective MY. This means that even a "simple" equipped CS could be ordered with the most powerful 200 HP turbo engine. The face lifted CS models and furthermore "old fashioned" CD were available in MY 1992 in most countries with the same four engines which had also powered the former CC: - the old B202 with and without turbo, both known from the classic Saab 900 - the B234 with and without turbo This changed for MY 1993: on most international markets a 2.0l light pressure turbo (LPT), called B204 engine with also two balance shafts (like in the B234), became available on both CS and CD models giving 150 hp. In these markets, this LPT engine gradually replaced the 2.3l engine without turbo. Because Saab did not introduce the 2.0l LPT in the U.S., the LPT concept did not enter the U.S. market until 1994 with the 2.3 LPT (delivering 170 hp), based on a re-designed B234 engine. Since then, the Saab 9000 has only been available in the U.S. with the three 2.3l turbo engines: 2.3l LPT: 170 hp 2.3l FPT: 200 hp 2.3l Aero: 225 hp The Saab 9000 with this LPT engine had the best fuel economy of any large car in the U.S. in MY 1995."Twentieth Annual Report to Congress", page 39, https://books.google.com/books?id=ugg6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP3 The background of the new B204 and re-designed B234 engine was that Saab needed a suitable engine for the upcoming new Saab 900/2. Since Saab was always under high cost pressure, the new B204 were designed to fit both the new Saab 900/2 and the Saab 9000. So the new B234 without turbo (150 hp) and the B204 without turbo (133 hp) and as LPT (154 hp) and FPT (185 hp) was used in both the Saab 9000 and Saab 900 NG. So worth paying attention to there were two generations of B234 engine in the Saab 9000, one made from MY 1990-1993 (called "long block"), the other from 1994 to 1998 ("short block"). The later motors had a revised oil sump system, head, timing cover, and different bell housing pattern. Therefore, over the years three different engine types developed from Saab itself were available for the 9000: B202/B204/B234 (with the old B202 phased out on all markets for at the latest MY 1994). The B204 and B234 both came as non-turbos and turbo variants which additionally split in so called LPT (low pressure turbo) and FPT (full pressure turbo). Till MY 1995 the LPT had the designation "Ecopower" on the cylinder head in some markets. From MY 1996 Saab used this designation "EcoPower" for all turbo engines and in general for the Saab turbo concept.Saab Ecopower Press Release, https://www.saabnet.com/tsn/models/1996/5449.html Both systems used the same Garrett T25 turbocharger with a base boost pressure of , but the FPT is equipped with a boost control valve that is manipulated by the ECU. This allows the boost pressure to be increased as the ECU sees fit. Maximum stock boost on a full pressure turbo varies from depending on the year and transmission. This is also the reason why every LPT can also be subsequently made into an FPT or even higher performances can be achieved. There are official tuning kits for this purpose as well as do-it-yourself instructions (recommended for experienced mechanics only!). For MY 1995 a 210 hp three-litre V6, originating from General Motors and also found on the Opel (and Vauxhall) Omega, was introduced. For MY 1996 the name “Ecopower” was now applied to all turbo engines regardless of FPT or LPT variants. The 2.3 litre injection engine (without turbo) phased out. +PerformanceModelCodeTypeDisplacementPowerTorque0-100 km/h (0-62 mph)Top speedModel yearDescription2.0iB202I41,985 cc173 Nm (128 lb⋅ft)11.0 s190 km/h (118 mph)1986-1993MY 85-88: 125 hp DIN (128 without cat); since MY 89: 128 hp DIN (133 without cat) always without DI; this engine was also used in the Saab 900TurboB202I41,985 cc260 Nm (191 lb·ft)8.9 s210 km/h (137 mph)1985-1988catalytic converter, without DI; also used in the Saab 900 Turbo 16, but never used in the 9000 CD ; there was an official tuning kit supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection to achieve 175 PS/173 hp DINTurboB202I41,985 cc265 Nm (195 lb·ft)8.9 s1988-1991/1993Catalytic converter, with DI, phased out in some main markets already before MY 1992 ; there was an official tuning kit supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection to achieve 175 PS/173 hpTurboB202I41,985 cc270 Nm (199 lb·ft)8.3 s220 km/h (137 mph)1985-1991B202 turbo without catalytic converter; with and without DITurboB202LI41,985 cc273 Nm (201 lb·ft)......1988-1991B202 Turbo with an official tuning kit supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection, available for engines with & without cat, installed in some sports models in some marketsTurboB202LI41,985 cc290 Nm (214 lb·ft)......1988B202 Turbo in special models; with & without catalytic converter, supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection, installed in some sports models in some marketsTurboB202XLI41,985 cc290 Nm (214 lb·ft)7.0 s245 km/h (152 mph)1989-1990B202 Turbo in special models f.e. French SP, UK Carlsson; no catalytic converter2.0i-16B204iI41,985 cc173 Nm (128 lb⋅ft)11.0 s (14.0 s)190 km/h (118 mph)1994-1996new engine, called "short block" with balance shafts2.3i-16B234iI42,290 cc212 Nm (156 lb⋅ft)10.5 s (12.5 s)205 km/h (127 mph)1990-1993 1994-1995"long block", always with balance shafts "short block"; always with balance shafts2.0tB204EI41,985 cc219 Nm (162 lb⋅ft)......1994-1998LPT (Low Pressure Turbo), EcoPower, with balance shafts2.3tB234EI42,290 cc......1994-1998LPT, EcoPower, with balance shafts2.3TB234LI42,290 cc323 Nm (243 lb⋅ft)8.0 s230 km/h (146 mph)1991-1993 1994-1998FPT (Full Pressure Turbo) "long block" with balance shafts FPT "short block" with balance shafts2.3TB234LI42,290 cc296 Nm (218 lb⋅ft)8.5 s225 km/h (146 mph)1991-1993 1994-1998FPT automatic with reduced torque2.3 Turbo Carlsson/TalladegaB234RI42,290 cc334 Nm (246 lb·ft)7.4 s250 km/h (155 mph)1992special model, manual transmission only2.3 Turbo AeroB234RI42,290 cc342 Nm (252 lb ft) 294 Nm (217 lb·ft)6.7 s, 8.5 s250 km/h (155 mph); 235 km/h (146 mph)1993-1997manual transmission; automatic transmission with reduced torque2.0T (Aero)B204LI41,985 cc185 hp (138 kW)263 Nm (194 lb⋅ft) 1994-1998FPT, official only available in some countries, where the B234L/R was not offered, f.e. Italy ("Italo Aero")3.0 V6 (GM)B308V62,962 cc270 Nm (199 lb·ft)8.0 s1995-1997 Production figures Calendar year Production 1984 470 1985 13,721 1986 34,816 1987 49,081 1988 52,199 1989 49,556 1990 45,648 1991 45,533 1992 45,906 1993 37,384 1994 32,196 1995 36,844 1996 32,992 1997 24,201 1998 2,540 Total 503,087 References Bibliography External links 9000 Category:Cars introduced in 1984 Category:1990s cars Category:Executive cars Category:Flagship vehicles Category:Front-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Hatchbacks Category:Sedans Category:Cars discontinued in 1998

{"Manufacturer": "Saab", "Production": "1984 - 6 May 1998", "Assembly": "Sweden: TrollhättanFinland: Uusikaupunki (1984-1991)", "Designer": "Björn EnvallGiorgetto Giugiaro at Italdesign", "Class": "Executive car (E)", "Body style": "4-door saloon (CD)5-door liftback (CC, CS)", "Platform": "Type Four platformhttp://fiat-tipo-portugal.com/curiosidades.htm Curiosidades Tipo https://web.archive.org/web/20120305183446/http://fiat-tipo-portugal.com/curiosidades.htm 5 March 2012 Fiat Tipo Portugal 30 December 2013", "Related": "Alfa Romeo 164Fiat CromaLancia Thema", "Layout": "Transversehttps://www.hemmings.com/magazine/hsx/2007/02/Saab-9000-Aero/1409203.html Saab 9000 Aero 2020-05-09 front-engine, front-wheel drive", "Transmission": "4-speed 4HP18 automatic5-speed F25 manual", "Length": "CC: 4620 mm in 1 onCD 4782 mm in 1 onCS: 4761 mm in 1 on", "Width": "1763 mm in 1 on", "Height": "1420 mm in 1 on", "Successor": "Saab 9-5"}

Amorphis is a Finnish extreme metal band founded by Jan Rechberger, Tomi Koivusaari, and Esa Holopainen in 1990. Initially, the band was a death metal act, but on later albums they evolved into playing other genres, including progressive metal, and folk metal. They frequently use the Kalevala, the epic poem of Finland, as a source for their lyrics. History Disment of Soul and The Karelian Isthmus Jan Rechberger played in a thrash metal band called Violent Solution, which Tomi Koivusaari had left in 1990 to form the death metal band Abhorrence, with Koivusaari being replaced by Esa Holopainen. Violent Solution slowly dissolved with Jan Rechberger and Esa Holopainen deciding to continue working with each other to form their own death metal band, Amorphis. With Rechberger having ties with Koivusaari, in early 1990, Koivusaari became the vocalist and the band also got Oppu Laine to become their bassist. During that time, Koivusaari also performed rhythm guitar, leading to the band dumping all original compositions and starting over again. Koivusaari's other band, Abhorrence, split up and he found himself with more time to put into Amorphis. A demo tape, Disment of Soul, was recorded in 1991 by Timo Tolkki at TTT studios. It was meant to be Dismemberment of soul but they forgot the word "member" and so it was Disment. thumb|left|250px|Amorphis in 1992 with Jukka Kolehmainen of Abhorrence After the band recorded their first studio demo tape, Relapse Records offered Abhorrence a recording contract. Since Abhorrence was no longer active, they sent their own demo in the return mail and were signed to a worldwide recording deal. Soon after getting signed, they released their death metal debut, The Karelian Isthmus, under the new name Amorphis and later released the Privilege of Evil EP. The EP featured Abhorrence's original vocalist, Jukka Kolehmainen, on vocals on the Abhorrence cover song, "Vulgar Necrolatry". Tales from the Thousand Lakes In 1994, Amorphis released their second studio album, Tales from the Thousand Lakes, a concept album based on the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala. This 1994 release, while still rooted in death metal, was their first step toward a new direction as melodic clean vocals were added, provided by Ville Tuomi. Tales from the Thousand Lakes won the band a fan base thanks to its innovative sound and fusion of death metal with traditional folk, psychedelia, and progressive elements. This album went on to influence the signature Amorphis sound. Elegy During the subsequent tours, Martenson (keyboards) left the band, to be replaced by Kim Rantala. Rechberger was replaced by Pekka Kasari (ex-Stone), and a sixth member was recruited, singer Pasi Koskinen. The third album, Elegy, was released in 1996. Lyrics were again adapted from Finnish mythology, in this case, the Kanteletar, a collection of ancient folk poetry. Pasi and Tomi shared the vocals on an equal basis, with Pasi providing only clean parts. After a year and a half of touring following the release of Elegy, the band members took a hiatus. Tuonela and Story: 10th Anniversary Their next offering, 1999's Tuonela, was a mellow guitar album, although toward the end of the studio sessions, Santeri Kallio of Kyyria was brought in to add some keyboard tracks to the songs. New instruments were introduced (Tomi playing sitar in the song "Greed", Sakari Kukko on saxophone and flute providing a foreign accent) and the death growls were reduced, as all vocals were performed by Pasi. The band experienced another line-up change. Following the breakup of Kyyria, Santeri joined Amorphis as a full-time member. Bassist Oppu was replaced by another ex-Kyyria member, Niclas Etelävuori, to tour with Amorphis on their third United States tour. The tenth-anniversary compilation Story was released. Am Universum Am Universum was released in 2001, and included more emphasis on keyboards and saxophone work, the latter contributed by Sakari Kukko. It was an experimental album and Amorphis' most psychedelic to date. Far from the Sun and Chapters In 2002, the band contributed to the soundtrack for the movie Menolippu Mombasaan. The commissioned piece was a cover version of a 1976 Finnish pop hit "Kuusamo", and is currently the band's only song in their native language. The same year they started to record the band's last album with Relapse Records, Far from the Sun. In 2003, Relapse released the retrospective Chapters, which included a DVD featuring the band's videos from "Black Winter Day" to "Alone". Far from the Sun was produced by the band itself, which had been rejoined by original drummer Jan Rechberger after Pekka Kasari had quit to concentrate on family duties. Pasi left the band in 2004 after nine years. Eclipse While searching for a new vocalist Amorphis received over a hundred demo tapes from prospective vocalists but none of them became the new frontman of the band. Eventually Tomi Joutsen got an audition through word of mouth and he became their next singer in 2005. Joutsen, best known for his work with metal band Sinisthra, urged Amorphis to return to the use of contrasting vocal styles for their next album. His first album with the band, Eclipse, was released in 2006. It was a critical and commercial success, hailed as a return to form by some critics, and achieving gold certification in Finland for the first time in their history. Just after Joutsen joined, Amorphis performed under name Amorjens ("aHello" in Finnish) to perform at least one gig in Finland. Silent Waters Amorphis followed Eclipse with gigs and festival appearances throughout Europe, all the while writing new material for the follow-up. They released their next album, Silent Waters, on 3 September 2007, achieving gold certification in Finland for the second time. The album marked the first time in the history of the band that an album was recorded with the same personnel as the previous one. In support of Silent Waters, Amorphis launched their third headlining tour in North America alongside supporting acts Samael and Virgin Black. Skyforger and Magic & Mayhem - Tales from the Early Years thumb|left|250px|Amorphis playing at Tuska 2009 In November 2008, Amorphis entered Sonic Pump Studios to begin recording their 9th album. The result of those studio sessions, Skyforger, was released in Finland on 27 May 2009, throughout Europe two days later, and in the United States on 16 June. Initial presses of the album had mastering errors, which prompted Nuclear Blast to issue replacement CDs. The album was certified gold in Finland on 7 July 2011, making it the third Amorphis album in a row to do so. On 20 November 2009, while touring in support of Skyforger, Amorphis filmed a show at Club Teatria in Oulu, Finland for their first-ever live DVD. The show was released alongside another show from Summer Breeze Open Air 2009 and a documentary, titled Tales from the 20 Years, as a part of the CD/DVD set Forging the Land of Thousand Lakes on 25 June 2010. On 15 September 2010, Amorphis released Magic & Mayhem - Tales from the Early Years, a re-working of a dozen tracks from their first three albums with slightly different arrangements, better audio quality and featuring the band's current lineup, plus a cover of "Light my Fire" as a bonus track. During the tour that followed, the band briefly reunited with Pasi Koskinen and other past members (such as keyboard player Kim Rantala) on stage, to perform some of the older songs. The Beginning of Times thumb|upright|Santeri Kallio at Metal Frenzy Festival 2017 in Gardelegen On 30 September 2010, Nuclear Blast announced that Amorphis had started work on a new album. On 24 January 2011, the band revealed that recording was almost finished, except for vocals which would be completed at the home of producer Marko Hietala. The album The Beginning of Times was released on 27 May 2011 in Europe and 7 June 2011 in the United States, and features cover art by longtime collaborator Travis Smith. Circle On 21 August 2012, Amorphis announced on their website that a new album was in the works. On 17 January 2013, the band announced the title and release date for their next record. Circle was released on 19 April in Europe and 30 April in North America. Tomi Joutsen said about the new album, "Circle represents integrity. Back in the days, when there was something special to talk about, wise men used to sit in circle. Not everyone was invited to join them. But in this story, the protagonist was invited among the wise men's circle." On 16 September 2013, Circle won Metal Hammer's "Album of the Year" award. Esa Holopainen said about the award, "For us, Album of the Year award is a great recognition for the work done so far. Especially when we got it from our 11th studio album." On 4 August 2014, Amorphis announced on their website and through social media that they would be playing a number of special Tales from the Thousand Lakes 20th anniversary shows where their 1994 album would be performed in its entirety. The shows included festivals such as Wacken Open Air, Maryland Deathfest, and 70000 Tons of Metal, with many other tour dates and festivals included. Under the Red Cloud The band began demoing new songs at the start of 2015, and on 4 March, it was announced that Amorphis would begin to record a new album in April, at Fascination Street Studio, Örebro, Sweden with Jens Bogren, and with an album release date sometime in September 2015. The lyrics would be written once again by Pekka Kainulainen, who says, "Like 'Kalevala', they are descriptions of natural phenomena, seasons and the human mind. Reoccurring situations where hope and uncertainty alternate. Attempting to gain advice from higher powers. The poems do not form a complete story per se, but they are drawn together by a certain theme. We live under a red cloud and once again, time weighs us." The release of the new album was to be followed by a world tour, starting with shows in the band's home country of Finland, then other parts of Europe with Nightwish and Arch Enemy in November 2015. On 15 June 2015, the band announced the upcoming twelfth album titled Under the Red Cloud, with the artwork and track list revealed and with a release date of 4 September 2015. Queen of Time thumb|Singer Tomi Joutsen at Rockharz Open Air 2018 On 22 February 2018, Amorphis announced they had finished recording their thirteenth studio album Queen of Time, which was released on 18 May 2018 via Nuclear Blast Records. The album recording process featured the band's former bass player Olli-Pekka 'Oppu' Laine replacing Amorphis' longtime bassist Niclas Etelävuori, who left in April 2017 after their North American tour due to disagreements with the band's management, making this the first time since Tales from the Thousand Lakes that all the original band members had played on an album together. On 23 March 2018, the band released the first single, "The Bee", off the record. Halo On 24 February 2022, Amorphis released its 14th studio album, Halo, marking the band's 30th anniversary since the release of its 1992 debut record, The Karelian Isthmus. The band struggled with various complications related to the Covid-19 pandemic while recording the album. This album is also more guitar-driven and "heavier" than Queen of Time. The album has been received well by both fans and critics, landing on top of the charts in Finland and in top-10 charts in many other countries. As of March 2022, two songs from the album have been released with full music videos ("The Moon" and "On the Dark Waters"). The album continues to draw heavily on Finnish folklore, with references to Tuonela, the underworld realm of Finnish and Estonian mythology. Musical style Amorphis began as a death metal and death-doom band, and later incorporated other styles, such as progressive metal, melodic death metal, folk metal, and power metal. Members Current members Esa Holopainen - lead guitar (1990-present) Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1990-present), harsh vocals (1990-1998) Jan Rechberger - drums (1990-1996, 2002-present), studio keyboards (1990-1993) Olli-Pekka Laine - bass guitar, backing vocals (1990-2000, 2017-present) Santeri Kallio - keyboards (1998-present) Tomi Joutsen - lead vocals (2005-present) Former members Bass Niclas Etelävuori (2000-2017) Drums Pekka Kasari (1996-2002) Keyboards Kasper Mårtenson (1993-1996) Kim Rantala (1996-1998) Janne Puurtinen (1998) Lead vocals Ville Tuomi (1994-1995, 2010) Marko Waara (1995) Pasi Koskinen (1995-2004) Juha-Pekka Leppäluoto (2004) Jukka Routila - live session backing vocals (2012-2013) Other instruments Sakari Kukko - live session saxophone and flute (2012-2014) {| class="toccolours" border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="float: right; width: 375px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #E2E2E2;" |+ Amorphis lineups |- ! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (1990-1993)Disment of SoulThe Untitled Amorphis EPThe Karelian IsthmusPrivilege of Evil | Tomi Koivusaari - vocals, rhythm guitar Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Jan Rechberger - drums, keyboards Olli-Pekka Laine - bass |- ! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (1993-1996)Tales from the Thousand LakesBlack Winter Day | Tomi Koivusaari - vocals, rhythm guitar Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Olli-Pekka Laine - bass Jan Rechberger - drums Kasper Mårtenson - keyboards |- ! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (1996-1998)ElegyMy Kantele | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, harsh vocals Olli-Pekka Laine - bass Pasi Koskinen - lead vocals Pekka Kasari - drums Kim Rantala - keyboards |- ! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (1998-2000)Divinity / Northern LightsTuonela | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals Olli-Pekka Laine - bass Pasi Koskinen - lead vocals Pekka Kasari - drums Santeri Kallio - session keyboards |- ! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (2000-2002)AloneAm Universum | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals Pasi Koskinen - lead vocals Pekka Kasari - drums Santeri Kallio - keyboards Niclas Etelävuori - bass |- |! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (2002-2004)Day of Your BeliefsFar from the SunEvil Inside | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals Pasi Koskinen - lead vocals Santeri Kallio - keyboards Niclas Etelävuori - bass Jan Rechberger - drums |- |! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (2005-2016)House of SleepEclipseThe SmokeSilent Waters (Single)Silent Waters (LP)Silver BrideSkyforgerFrom the Heaven of My HeartForging the Land of Thousand LakesYou I NeedThe Beginning of TimesHopeless DaysThe WandererCircleUnder the Red Cloud | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals Santeri Kallio - keyboards Niclas Etelävuori - bass Jan Rechberger - drums Tomi Joutsen - lead vocals |- |! style="background:#e7ebee;"| (2017-present)Queen of TimeHalo | Esa Holopainen - lead guitar Tomi Koivusaari - rhythm guitar, backing vocals Santeri Kallio - keyboards Jan Rechberger - drums Tomi Joutsen - lead vocals Olli-Pekka Laine - bass, backing vocals |} Timeline DiscographyStudio albums' The Karelian Isthmus (1992) Tales from the Thousand Lakes (1994) Elegy (1996) Tuonela (1999) Am Universum (2001) Far from the Sun (2003) Eclipse (2006) Silent Waters (2007) Skyforger (2009) The Beginning of Times (2011) Circle (2013) Under the Red Cloud (2015) Queen of Time (2018) Halo'' (2022) References External links Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines Category:1990 establishments in Finland Category:Finnish folk metal musical groups Category:Finnish gothic metal musical groups Category:Finnish progressive metal musical groups Category:Finnish heavy metal musical groups Category:Finnish melodic death metal musical groups Category:Finnish rock music groups Category:Musical groups established in 1990 Category:Nuclear Blast artists Category:Relapse Records artists

{"Origin": "Helsinki, Finland", "Genres": "Progressive metal\n melodic death metal\n folk metal\n power metal\n death metal (early) \n death-doom (early)", "Labels": "Virgin (2003)\n EMI\n Relapse\n Nuclear Blast\n Mojo\n Mystic\n Victor (JVC)\n Spinefarm\n Atomic Fire", "Website": "amorphis.net"}

Gippsland is a rural region that makes up the southeastern part of Victoria, Australia, mostly comprising the coastal plains to the rainward (southern) side of the Victorian Alps (the southernmost section of the Great Dividing Range). It covers an elongated area of located further east of the Shire of Cardinia (Melbourne's outermost southeastern suburbs) between Dandenong Ranges and Mornington Peninsula, and is bounded to the north by the mountain ranges and plateaus/highlands of the High Country (which separate it from Hume region in Victoria's northeast), to the southwest by the Western Port Bay, to the south and east by the Bass Strait and the Tasman Sea, and to the east and northeast by the Black-Allan Line (the easternmost section of the Victoria/New South Wales state border). The Gippsland region is generally divided by the Strzelecki Ranges and tributaries of the Gippsland Lakes into five statistical sub-regions — namely the West Gippsland, South Gippsland, Latrobe Valley, Central Gippsland and East Gippsland. As at the 2016 Australian census, Gippsland had a population of , with the principal population centres of the region, in descending order of population, , Warragul, Drouin, Bairnsdale, , Sale, , Wonthaggi, , and Phillip Island. Gippsland is best known for its primary production such as mining, power generation and farming as well as its tourist destinations — Phillip Island, Wilsons Promontory, the Gippsland Lakes, Walhalla, the Baw Baw Plateau, and the Strzelecki Ranges. History The traditional owners are Indigenous Australians of the Gunai nation and in part of West Gippsland the Bunurong nation. Before permanent European colonisation, the area was visited by sealers and wattle bark gatherers who did not settle. Samuel Anderson (1803-1863),The Andersons of Westernport "Horton and Morris" 1983 a Scottish immigrant from Kirkcudbright, agriculturist and explorer, arrived in Hobart, Tasmania, in 1830, and in 1835 established a squatter agricultural settlement on the Bass River in Gippsland, the third permanent colonial settlement in Victoria (then called the Port Phillip District). His business partner Robert Massie joined him in 1837. Both had worked for the Van Diemen's Land Company at Circular Head, Tasmania. Samuel's brothers Hugh (1808-1898) and Thomas (1814-1903) arrived at Bass shortly after, where they established a successful farming venture. Further European colonisation followed two separate expeditions to the area. During his expedition to the South (December 1839 - May 1840) in March 1840, Polish explorer Paweł Edmund Strzelecki led an expedition across Gunai country, and gave his own names to many of their natural landmarks and places. Following these expeditions, the name "Gippsland" stuck, a name chosen by Strzelecki in honour of the New South Wales Governor, George Gipps, his sponsor.Wells, J. (2003), "Colourful Tales of Old Gippsland", p. 92. Angus McMillan led the second European expedition between 1840, naming Gunai country "Caledonia Australis". The naming of this geographical region, however, remained the name given by P. E. Strzelecki - Gippsland The township of Bass was surveyed and colonised in the early 1860s. The intensive colonisation of south Gippsland began late in the 1870s. A story of that process is told in, The land of the Lyre Bird (1920).The land of the Lyre Bird: a story of early settlement in the Great South Forest of South Gippsland; being a description of the big scrub in its virgin state with its birds and animals, and of the adventures and hardships of its early explorers and prospectors also accounts by the settlers of clearing, settlement and development of the country, Gordon & Gotch for the Committee of the South Gippsland Pioneers Association, Melbourne, 1920 (reprinted 1966). Before the cancellation of the 2026 Commonwealth Games, Gippsland was set to serve as one of its hosts in regional Victoria. Geography thumb|Old growth forests in East Gippsland Gippsland is traditionally subdivided into four or five main subregions or districts: West Gippsland (roughly equivalent to the Baw Baw Shire) South Gippsland (Bass Coast and South Gippsland Shires) the Latrobe Valley (Latrobe City and areas of Baw Baw to the north) East Gippsland (Shires of Wellington and East Gippsland). Sometimes a fifth region, Central Gippsland (corresponding approximately to the Shire of Wellington), is added to refer to the drier zone between the Gippsland Lakes and Yarram. Gippsland Plains Grassy Woodland is an endangered vegetation community within the region. Climate thumb|On the Avon River near Stratford The climate of Gippsland is temperate and generally humid, except in the central region around Sale, where annual rainfall averages around .Australia, Bureau of Meteorology, Summary statistics EAST SALE, http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_085072.shtml, retrieved 02/07/2020 In the Strzelecki Ranges annual rainfall can be as high as , while on the high mountains of East Gippsland it probably reaches similar levels - much of it falling as snow. In lower levels east of the Snowy River, mean annual rainfall is typically about and less variable than in the coastal districts of New South Wales. Mean maximum temperatures in lower areas range from in January to in July. In the highlands of the Baw Baw Plateau and the remote Errinundra Plateau, temperatures range from a maximum of to a minimum of . However, in winter, mean minima in these areas can be as low as , leading to heavy snowfalls that often isolate the Errinundra Plateau between June and October. Natural resources thumb|Potato farming in the Thorpdale region The soils in Gippsland are generally very infertile, being profoundly deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. Apart from frequently flooded areas, they are classed as Spodosols, Psamments and Ultisols. Consequently, heavy fertilisation is required for agriculture or pastoral development. Despite this, parts of Gippsland have become highly productive dairying and vegetable-growing regions: the region supplies Melbourne with most of its needs in these commodities. A few alluvial soils (chiefly near the Snowy) have much better native fertility, and these have always been intensively cultivated. In the extreme northeast is a small section of the Monaro Tableland used for grazing beef cattle. Gippsland possesses very few deposits of metallic minerals (gold rushes in the nineteenth century around Foster, Buchan petered out quickly). However, the deep underground gold mines operated at Walhalla for a fifty-year period between 1863 and 1913. Gippsland has no deposits of major industrial nonmetallic minerals, but it does feature the world's largest brown coal deposits and, around Sale and offshore in the Bass Strait, some of the largest deposits of oil and natural gas in Australia. Like the rest of Australia, the seas around Gippsland are of very low productivity as there is no upwelling due to the warm currents in the Tasman Sea. Nonetheless, towns such as Marlo and Mallacoota depended for a long time on the fishing of abalone, whose shells could fetch very high prices because of their use for pearls and pearl inlays. Administration Political representation For Australian federal elections for the House of Representatives, the electoral divisions of Flinders, Monash, and Gippsland lay entirely or partly in the Gippsland region. Flinders and McMillan are currently held by the Liberal Party, while Gippsland is held by the Nationals. For elections for the Victorian Legislative Assembly, the electoral districts of Bass, Narracan, Morwell, Gippsland South and Gippsland East lay entirely or partly in the Gippsland region. Bass is held by Labor, Narracan is held by the Liberals while Gippsland East and Gippsland South are held by the Nationals. The remaining seat, Morwell, is held by Russell Northe, an independent who was originally elected as a Nationals MP. Local government areas Gippsland contains six local government areas: + Gippsland region LGA populations Local government area Area Population(2011 census) Source(s) Population(2016 census) Source(s) km2 sq mi Bass Coast Shire Shire of Baw Baw Shire of East Gippsland Latrobe City South Gippsland Shire Shire of Wellington Totals Environmental protection The Gippsland region contains the Alfred National Park, Baw Baw National Park, Coopracambra National Park, Croajingolong National Park, Errinundra National Park, Gippsland Lakes Coastal Park, Lind National Park, Mitchell River National Park, Morwell National Park, Snowy River National Park, Tarra-Bulga National Park, The Lakes National Park, and Wilsons Promontory National Park. There are also large areas of State forest that contribute towards conservation objectives. Notable people Ricky Megee (born 1970/1971), outback survivor See also Geography of Victoria Regions of Victoria Giant Gippsland earthworm Gippsland massacres White woman of Gippsland Old Gippstown Gippsland Art Gallery Notes References *

{"Type": "region", "Name": "Gippsland Region", "State Abbreviation": "vic", "Image 2 Caption": "John Longstaff's Gippsland, Sunday night, 20 February 1898, depicting the \"Red Tuesday\" bushfires that ravaged Gippsland", "Coordinates": "37 51 S 147 35 E inline,title", "Locator Map Pushpin Caption": "The location of Bairnsdale, a town in Gippsland", "Locator Map Set to Relief Map": "yes", "Population Year": "2016", "Population Footnotes": "Population figure is the combined population of all LGAs in the region", "Area": "41556", "Time Zone": "AEST", "UTC Time": "+10", "Summer Time Zone (DST)": "AEDT", "Summer UTC Time (DST)": "+11", "Distance 1": "120", "Direction 1": "E", "Location 1": "Melbourne", "Local Government Area (LGA)": "(by population)\n Latrobe\n Baw Baw\n East Gippsland\n Wellington\n Bass Coast\n South Gippsland", "State Government": "Bass\n Gippsland East\n Gippsland South\n Morwell\n Narracan", "Federal Government": "Flinders (part)\n Gippsland\n Monash", "North Near Grid": "Hume", "Northeast Near Grid": "New South Wales", "East Near Grid": "Tasman Sea", "Southeast Near Grid": "Bass Strait", "South Near Grid": "Bass Strait", "Southwest Near Grid": "Bass Strait", "West Near Grid": "Greater Melbourne", "Northwest Near Grid": "Hume"}

Xhafer bey Ypi ( January 12, 1880, Starje - December 17, 1940) was an Albanian politician. A member of the Ypi family of Albania, he was educated at a university in Istanbul. In 1920-1921 he was Minister of Internal Affairs and Minister of Justice. He also held the position of Minister of Public Instruction. As the leader of the Popular Party, in late December 1921 he formed a government where Fan S. Noli was the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Ahmed Zogu was the Minister of Internal Affairs. Until December 4, 1922, Ypi was Prime Minister; in 1922, after Noli's resignation, he was also acting Minister of Foreign Affairs. From December 2, 1922, to January 31, 1925, Ypi was a member of the High Council (the collegial Head of State, formally for William of Wied). In June 1924 he left Albania because of Noli's revolt, but he kept holding the post formally. During Zogu's reign, Ypi was Chief Inspector of the Royal Court. After King Zog had fled after Italian occupation, from April 9 to April 12 Ypi was Chairman and Plenipotentiary for Justice of the Provisional Administration Committee, and as such acting head of state. From April 12, he was the Minister of Justice in Shefqet Verlaci's government. He was killed near his hometown by an aerial bomb during the Greco-Italian War. His great-granddaughter is the Albanian philosopher and writer Lea Ypi. See also History of Albania Sources O.S. Pearson, Albania and King Zog, I.B. Tauris. 2005 (). References Category:1880 births Category:1940 deaths Category:People from Kolonjë Category:Albanian Sufis Category:Albanian Fascist Party politicians Category:Government ministers of Albania Category:Prime Ministers of Albania Category:Albanian collaborators with Fascist Italy Category:Albanian diplomats Category:Bektashi Order Category:Second Congress of Manastir delegates Category:Justice ministers of Albania Category:Interior ministers of Albania Category:State auditors of Albania Xhafer

{"Name": "Xhafer Ypi", "Image size": "160px", "Birth date": "January 12, 1880", "Birth place": "Starje, Albania", "Death date": "December 17, 1940 (aged 60)", "Death place": "Starje, Albania"}

Warragul is a town in Victoria, Australia, south-east of Melbourne. Warragul lies between the Strzelecki Ranges to the south and the Mount Baw Baw Plateau of the Great Dividing Range to the north. As of the , the town had a population of 19,856 people. Warragul forms part of a larger urban area that includes nearby Drouin that had an estimated total population of 42,827 as of the . Warragul is the main population and service centre of the West Gippsland region and the Shire of Baw Baw. The surrounding area is noted for dairy farming and other niche agriculture and has long been producing gourmet foods. Naming Warragul (or warrigal, worrigle, warragal) is a New South Wales Indigenous word from the Darug language meaning wild dog or dingo. The town name is accepted to mean wild dog and various businesses in the town use the words 'Wild Dog' in their name. However, the word was recorded as being used by settlers of Gippsland in the 1840s and 1850s to mean wild Aboriginal or a Gunai/Kurnai person. The traditional land of the Gunai/Kurnai people includes the town of Warragul, then intersects with Kulin territory to the west of the town. In a local history book, Graeme Butler wrote that the name of Warragul station was derived from an Indigenous word just meaning wild. British botanist Daniel Bunce recorded warrigal as belonging to a Kulin language and meaning wild, ferocious and enemy, but P D Gardner suggests Bunce was correct in translation, but incorrect in origin, since the word comes from Darug. The word is also used for the naming of Warrigal Creek in South Gippsland to refer to the inhabitants of the area. History The town of Warragul began as a construction camp on McLeod's Track, now Brandy Creek Road, at the point where the surveyed railway line linked to the coach road. John Lardner surveyed the townships along the line in 1877 and noted that the early arrivals in the area were squatters, who had erected their shops and dwellings on Crown land. The squatters' blocks were not offered for the first sale of town land on 2 March 1878, but were available to purchase on the second sale later that month. In November 1873, The Victorian Parliament passed an Act approving the construction of a railway linking Oakleigh to Sale. The construction of Gippsland railway line began simultaneously from both directions. The Warragul railway station opened on 1 March 1878 and the first train ran through in the same month. In May 1890 Warragul railway station became a junction station when a branch line was opened to Rokeby (later extended to Neerim South and Noojee). The first Warragul post office opened on 16 March 1877 at the general store operated by James Biram, who became the first postmaster. A contract to build an official post office was made on 4 April 1887 and a foundation stone was laid on 4 June 1887. The building was completed and occupied the following year. Warragul's modern post office was opened on 3 April 1967, after the old post office closed on 18 September 1965 and was demolished in 1966. Existing roads were renamed Princes Highway after the visit to Australia in 1920 of the then Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII). The highway was officially opened on 10 August 1920 at a ceremony in Warragul. Warragul's Petersville Milk Products Factory in Queen Street supplied the famous Peters Ice Cream brand's factory in Mulgrave with all the dairy raw material (fresh cream and concentrated skim milk) for 35 years. The plant also manufactured skim milk powder under the famous Dutch Jug brand and butter under the Iceberg brand. It exported butter, butter oil and milk powders to Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Warragul was voted Premier Town in Victoria, 1970-1973. The Warragul Magistrates' Court closed on 1 January 1990. Geography Warragul is located on hills that extend north from the Strzelecki Ranges near Ellinbank, joining to the Baw Baws in the Neerim District. This range is historically referred to as the Warragul Hills. The range effectively separates the flatlands of the Koo-Wee-Rup swamp (starting near Longwarry) in the west and the Moe Swamp on the eastern side (starting near Darnum). Warragul contains the Linear Park Arts Discovery Trail, a trail covering several adjacent parks in the town. It features painted bollards, mosaics and murals. The trail joins up with the Drouin to Warragul Two Towns Trail. Events Warragul is the major township closest to Lardner, the home of the Gippsland Field Days. Three major events are held at Lardner Park each year—the Farm World agricultural show, Trucks in Action, and Harvest of Gippsland. The Farm World agricultural show is a major drawcard for the Warragul area. Every year in late March, Warragul plays host to these Field Days at Lardner Park. The Field Days are Australia's premier mixed farming Field Days and they include one of Australia's most diverse ranges of beef cattle, dairying and horticulture exhibits. Warragul is also home to the annual Warragul Show, which is held on the first Friday of March each year. It is traditionally a farming and livestock show, but includes rides, stalls, games, fireworks and showbags. It is held at the Warragul showgrounds. Education For a town of its size, Warragul has a large education industry with four primary schools, three secondary schools and two tertiary institutions. Primary schools Both Warragul Primary (opened in 1879) and Warragul North Primary (opened c.1954) are state primary schools, St. Joseph's Catholic Primary Warragul and St. Angela's of the Cross are Catholic schools, and St. Paul's Anglican Grammar School is an Anglican Church of Australia (formerly Church of England) primary school. Warragul & District Specialist School is a junior school that focuses on educating children aged 5 to 10 years of age. The school uses a series of teaching tools such as PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) and AUSLAN. Secondary schools There are three secondary schools in Warragul, these include Warragul Regional College, Marist-Sion College and St Paul's Anglican Grammar School. Warragul Regional College was formed in 1994 from the merger of Warragul High School and Warragul Secondary College. Marist-Sion College was formed in 1975 as a result of the merger between the Marist Brothers Boys College and the Our Lady of Sion Girls College.Marist-Sion College (2007), History of the College , viewed 4 May 2007. St. Paul's Anglican Grammar School was formed in 1982 with just nineteen year 7 students and has grown quite significantly in recent years. Tertiary institutions The Central Gippsland Institute of TAFE has a campus located to the south of the CBD adjacent to the railway station. The Education Centre Gippsland has recently taken over the courses previously provided by the McMillan Institute of Land and Food Resources, a former campus of the University of Melbourne.University of Melbourne (2007), McMillan Campus , viewed 21 May 2007.Education Centre Gippsland (2007), McMillan Information, viewed 21 May 2007. The courses offered encompass the areas of agriculture, equine management, harness racing, horticulture and conservation and land management. Transport Warragul railway station is a staffed V/Line station located to the south of the Warragul CBD. The railway station is situated on the Gippsland railway line, which services the towns between Bairnsdale and Melbourne Southern Cross. Warragul has a modest bus network consisting of four routes within the town's boundaries. Each route has a frequency of three services a day. There are also bus services to neighbouring towns. The Warragul bus network was recently upgraded with the Myki technology, fitted to all town buses. This ticketing system has been implemented on the V/Line Train services during 2014-15. Sport Warragul United Soccer Clubhttp://warragulsoccerclub.com.au was founded in 1963 and represent the town in Association Football, playing in the Victorian State League Division 1 South East. The Warragul Warriors are the representative teams of the Warragul and District Amateur Basketball Association. They have a long history of success, most recently winning the Gippsland and State titles in the Country Basketball League. The town has an Australian Rules football team competing in the major Gippsland Football League, the Warragul Football Club and another, the Warragul Industrials, competing in the Ellinbank & District Football League. The Warragul & District Junior Football League caters for younger Australian Rules footballers, with three teams based in Warragul, the Colts, Warranor (at Eastern Park) & the Blues (at Marist-Sion College ). The WDJFL has three competitions, consisting of the under-10s, under-12s and the Under-14½s. The Warragul Little Athletics Centre meets on Saturdays throughout the summer season at the Geoff Watt Memorial Track, Burke Street, Warragul. It caters for young athletes in age groups ranging from Under 6 through to Under 17. As well as competing locally, athletes are able to contest Regional and State Championships in Track & Field as well as Relay Championships and Multi-Events. Warragul's Wild Dog Triathlon Club also meets on Saturdays throughout the summer season for a swim/cycle/run event. The club caters for all ages and abilities with Junior, Under 14, Fun Tri, Super-Sprint, A Grade and B Grade categories. Weekly competition commences at the clubrooms opposite the indoor pool in Burke Street, Warragul. Warragul Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the town. The Warragul Greyhound Racing Club holds regular greyhound racing meetings at the Logan Park Showgrounds. The track opened on 14 September 1956. Golfers play at the course of the Warragul Country Club on Sutton Street. Warragul possesses one of the best outdoor velodromes in the state and is serviced by the Warragul Cycling Club (WCC), which runs road races most Saturdays on the outskirts of the town. The club hosts the Baw Baw Classic road race, held early each April. This race features one of the hardest climbs in the country and has been won by riders such as 2000 Cyclist of the year, Dave McKenzie, Tour de France Stage Winner, Simon Gerrans and 2009 Australian Road Champion, Peter McDonald. Local media Newspapers Warragul has two weekly local newspapers, The Warragul and Drouin Gazette and a free publication, The West Gippsland Trader. According to the Warragul Regional Newspapers website,Warragul Regional Newspapers (2007), Warragul and Drouin Gazette Circulation, viewed 4 May 2007. The Gazette and The Trader are distributed to locations from as far as Pakenham to Moe and from Poowong to Noojee, covering over 40,000 readers. Warragul also has a free twice-monthly print and online newspaper, the Warragul & Baw Baw Citizen. The Warragul Citizen was established in 2011 as a quarterly print paper before becoming bi-monthly in 2012, covering Warragul, Drouin and Yarragon. The paper's online news offering started in late 2011 and covers all of Baw Baw. The paper moved to being online-only in 2013, printing the last physical edition of its original run in February. In 2014 the paper announced it would return to print with monthly editions from 11 July, changing the name to Warragul & Baw Baw Citizen in the process. The West Gippsland Gazette was published from 1898 to 1930 in Warragul; it has been digitised and is available on Trove. Radio Warragul has two commercial radio stations, 531 3GG and 94.3 Triple M Gippsland. 3GG commenced in 1937, then known as 3UL. It changed its name to 3GG in 1989. Triple M Gippsland commenced broadcasting in 2002. Initially known as Sea FM and later Star FM and Hit FM. Warragul also receives the Drouin-based West Gippsland Community Radio, 103.1 3BBR FM. The radio reception available in Warragul includes many of the Melbourne commercial stations (such as 105.1 Triple M, Smooth 91.5, 3AW 693, Nova 100), ABC Broadcasters (774 ABC Melbourne, 96.7 Triple J and 100.7 ABC Gippsland) and Gippsland commercial stations based further east in Traralgon (99.5 TRFM and Gold 1242). Military history During World War II, Warragul was the location of RAAF No.2 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 and closed on 14 June 1944. Usually consisting of four tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the Royal Australian Air Force and the United States Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000). Notable people Gary Ayres - Former coach of the Adelaide Crows Football Club and former Hawthorn premiership player Robert Baldry - Former Victoria cricket team cricket player Jason Bargwanna - V8 Supercar driver and 2000 Bathurst 1000 winnerJason Bargwanna (2009), Jason Bargwanna v8supercars.com.au, viewed 16 August 2009. William Kinsey Bolton (1860-1941) - Soldier Travis Demsey - Former drummer of The Living End Andrew Dent - Doctor and humanitarian worker Smacka Fitzgibbon - Jazz musician Graeme Gahan - Former Richmond footballer Chris Godsil - Professor of Mathematics at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canadahttp://quoll.uwaterloo.ca/me/life.html Edward 'Carjie' Greeves - First Brownlow Medallist and Geelong footballer John Guy - Leading British historian and biographer Trent Hotton - Former Collingwood and Carlton AFL footballer Craig Hutchison - TV personality on the Nine Network and Triple M radio personality Margaret Jackson (1953-present) - Australian corporate executive (former Chairman of QANTAS) Walter Langcake - woodcarver and sculptor Robert Murphy - Former player & captain of the Western Bulldogs in the AFL Alan Noonan - Former VFL footballer for the Essendon Football Club and the Richmond Football ClubBaw Baw Shire Council (2007), Baw Baw Shire Sporting Walk of Fame Inductees, viewed 26 May 2007. Andrew T. O'Connor - Australian novelist Luke O'Dea - Soccer player with Melbourne Victory in the Hyundai A-League Mark Ridgway - Former Tasmanian Tigers cricket player Lionel Rose (1948-2011) - Former bantamweight world boxing champion (honoured by life-size bronze statue in Queen Street Park) Barry Round - Footscray (Western Bulldogs) and Sydney Swans Brownlow Medallist Jayden Warn - Wheelchair rugby gold medallist at the 2016 Rio Paralympics Geoff Watt - Former long-distance runner and namesake of the local athletics track Kathy Watt - Australia's first cycling gold medallist at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics in the women's road race. She also won a silver medal in the 3000m individual pursuit event at these Olympic gamesAustralian Olympic Committee (2007) Kathy Watt, viewed 4 May 2007. References External links Baw Baw Shire Warragul Climate Statistics Category:Towns in Victoria (state) Category:Shire of Baw Baw

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