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7 World Trade Center (7 WTC, WTC-7, or Tower 7) refers to two buildings that have existed at the same location within the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The original structure, part of the original World Trade Center, was completed in 1987 and was destroyed in the September 11 attacks in 2001. The current structure opened in May 2006. Both buildings were developed by Larry Silverstein, who holds a ground lease for the site from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.
The original Trade Center was tall, clad in red granite masonry, and occupied a trapezoidal footprint. An elevated walkway spanning Vesey Street connected the building to the World Trade Center plaza. The building was situated above a Consolidated Edison power substation, which imposed unique structural design constraints. When the building opened in 1987, Silverstein had difficulties attracting tenants. Salomon Brothers signed a long-term lease in 1988 and became the anchor tenant of .
On September 11, 2001, the structure was substantially damaged by debris when the nearby North Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. The debris ignited fires on multiple lower floors of the building, which continued to burn uncontrolled throughout the afternoon. The building's internal fire suppression system lacked water pressure to fight the fires. The collapse began when a critical internal column buckled and triggered cascading failure of nearby columns throughout, which was first visible from the exterior with the crumbling of a rooftop penthouse structure at 5:20:33 pm. This initiated progressive collapse of the entire building at , according to FEMA, while the 2008 NIST study placed the final collapse time at . The collapse made the old 7 World Trade Center the first steel skyscraper known to have collapsed primarily due to uncontrolled fires.
Construction of the new Trade Center began in 2002 and was completed in 2006. The building is tall (plus one underground floor), making it the 28th-tallest in New York. It is built on a smaller footprint than the original, and is bounded by Greenwich, Vesey, Washington, and Barclay Streets on the east, south, west, and north, respectively. A small park across Greenwich Street occupies space that was part of the original building's footprint. The current building's design emphasizes safety, with a reinforced concrete core, wider stairways, and thicker fireproofing on steel columns. It also incorporates numerous green design features. The building was the first commercial office building in New York City to receive the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification, where it won a gold rating. It was also one of the first projects accepted to be part of the council's pilot program for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design - Core and Shell Development (LEED-CS).
Original building (1987-2001)
Design and layout
left|thumb|300x300px|Transfer trusses used on the 5-7th floors to redistribute load to the foundation
The original 7 World Trade Center was a 47-story building, designed by Emery Roth & Sons, with a red granite facade. The building was tall, with a trapezoidal footprint that was long and wide. Tishman Realty & Construction managed construction of the building. The ground-breaking ceremony was hosted on October 2, 1984. The building opened in May 1987, becoming the seventh structure of the World Trade Center.
7 World Trade Center was constructed above a two-story Con Edison substation that had been located on the site since 1967. The substation had a caisson foundation designed to carry the weight of a future building of 25 stories containing . However, the final design for 7 World Trade Center was for a much larger building than originally planned when the substation was built. The structural design of 7 World Trade Center therefore included a system of gravity column transfer trusses and girders, located between floors 5 and 7, to transfer loads to the smaller foundation. Existing caissons installed in 1967 were used, along with new ones, to accommodate the building. The 5th floor functioned as a structural diaphragm, providing lateral stability and distribution of loads between the new and old caissons. Above the 7th floor, the building's structure was a typical tube-frame design, with columns in the core and on the perimeter, and lateral loads resisted by perimeter moment frames.
A shipping and receiving ramp, which served the entire World Trade Center complex, occupied the eastern quarter of the 7 World Trade Center footprint. The building was open below the 3rd floor, providing space for truck clearance on the shipping ramp. The spray-on fireproofing for structural steel elements was gypsum-based Monokote, which had a two-hour fire rating for steel beams, girders and trusses, and a three-hour rating for columns.
Mechanical equipment was installed on floors four through seven, including 12 transformers on the 5th floor. Several emergency generators installed in the building were used by the New York City Office of Emergency Management, Salomon Smith Barney, and other tenants. In order to supply the generators, 24,000 gallons (91,000 L) of diesel fuel were stored below ground level. Diesel fuel distribution components were located at ground level, up to the ninth floor. After the World Trade Center bombings of February 26, 1993, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani decided to situate the emergency command center and associated fuel tanks at 7 World Trade Center. Although this decision was criticized in light of the events of 9/11, the fuel in the building is today not believed to have contributed to the collapse of the building.See: The roof of the building included a small west penthouse and a larger east mechanical penthouse.
Each floor had of rentable office space, which made the building's floor plans considerably larger than most office buildings in the city. In all, 7 World Trade Center had of office space. Two pedestrian bridges connected the main World Trade Center complex, across Vesey Street, to the third floor of 7 World Trade Center. In addition to several acquired artworks, from artists such as Frank Stella, Roy Lichtenstein, and Ross Bleckner, the lobby of 7 World Trade Center housed a large mural by artist Al Held, titled The Third Circle.See:
Tenants
thumb|left|250px|The position of 7 WTC in relation to the other WTC buildings before September 11, 2001
In June 1986, before construction was completed, developer Larry Silverstein signed Drexel Burnham Lambert as a tenant to lease the entire 7 World Trade Center building for $3 billion over a term of 30 years.
In December 1986, after the Boesky insider-trading scandal, Drexel Burnham Lambert canceled the lease, leaving Silverstein to find other tenants.
Spicer & Oppenheim agreed to lease 14 percent of the space, but for more than a year, as Black Monday and other factors adversely affected the Lower Manhattan real estate market, Silverstein was unable to find tenants for the remaining space. By April 1988, he had lowered the rent and made other concessions.
In November 1988, Salomon Brothers withdrew from plans to build a large new complex at Columbus Circle in Midtown, instead agreeing to a 20-year lease for the top 19 floors of 7 World Trade Center. The building was extensively renovated in 1989 to accommodate Salomon Brothers, and 7 World Trade Center alternatively became known as the Salomon Brothers building. Most of the three existing floors were removed as tenants continued to occupy other stories, and more than 350 tons (U.S.) of steel were added to construct three double-height trading floors. Nine diesel generators were installed on the 5th floor as part of a backup power station. "Essentially, Salomon is constructing a building within a building - and it's an occupied building, which complicates the situation", said a district manager of Silverstein Properties. According to Larry Silverstein, the unusual task was possible because it could allow "entire portions of floors to be removed without affecting the building's structural integrity, on the assumption that someone might need double-height floors."
At the time of the September 11, 2001, attacks, Salomon Smith Barney was by far the largest tenant in 7 World Trade Center, occupying (64 percent of the building) which included floors 28-45. Other major tenants included ITT Hartford Insurance Group (122,590 sq ft/11,400 m2), American Express Bank International (106,117 sq ft/9,900 m2), Standard Chartered Bank (111,398 sq ft/10,350 m2), and the Securities and Exchange Commission (106,117 sq ft/9,850 m2). Smaller tenants included the Internal Revenue Service Regional Council (90,430 sq ft/8,400 m2) and the United States Secret Service (85,343 sq ft/7,900 m2). The smallest tenants included the New York City Office of Emergency Management, National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Federal Home Loan Bank of New York, First State Management Group Inc., Provident Financial Management, and the Immigration and Naturalization Service. The Department of Defense (DOD) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) shared the 25th floor with the IRS. (The clandestine CIA office was revealed only after the 9/11 attacks.) Floors 46-47 were mechanical floors, as were the bottom six floors and part of the seventh floor.
9/11 and collapse
thumb|7 World Trade Center on fire after the collapse of the Twin Towers on 9/11
Collapse
As the North Tower collapsed on September 11, 2001, heavy debris hit 7 World Trade Center, damaging the south face of the building and starting fires that continued to burn throughout the afternoon. The collapse also caused damage to the southwest corner between floors 7 and 17 and on the south face between Floor 44 and the roof; other possible structural damage included a large vertical gash near the center of the south face between Floors 24 and 41. The building was equipped with a sprinkler system, but had many single-point vulnerabilities for failure: the sprinkler system required manual initiation of the electrical fire pumps, rather than being a fully automatic system; the floor-level controls had a single connection to the sprinkler water riser, and the sprinkler system required some power for the fire pump to deliver water. Additionally, water pressure was low, with little or no water to feed sprinklers.
After the North Tower collapsed, some firefighters entered 7 World Trade Center to search the building. They attempted to extinguish small pockets of fire, but low water pressure hindered their efforts. Over the course of the day, fires burned out of control on several floors of 7 World Trade Center, the flames visible on the east side of the building. During the afternoon, the fire was also seen on floors 6-10, 13-14, 19-22, and 29-30. In particular, the fires on floors 7 through 9 and 11 through 13 continued to burn out of control during the afternoon. At approximately 2:00 pm, firefighters noticed a bulge in the southwest corner of 7 World Trade Center between the 10th and 13th floors, a sign that the building was unstable and might collapse. During the afternoon, firefighters also heard creaking sounds coming from the building. Around 3:30 pm, FDNY Chief of Operations Daniel A. Nigro decided to halt rescue operations, surface removal, and searches along the surface of the debris near 7 World Trade Center and evacuate the area due to concerns for the safety of personnel.
The fire expanded the girders of the building, causing some to collapse. This led to the northeast corner core column (Column 79), which was especially large, to buckle below the 13th floor. This caused the floors above it to collapse to the transfer floor at the fifth level. The structure also developed cracks in the facade just before the entire building started to fall. According to FEMA, this collapse started at 5:20:33 pm EDT when the east mechanical penthouse started crumbling. Differing times are given as to what time the building completely collapsed: at 5:21:10 pm EDT according to FEMA, and at 5:20:52 pm EDT according to NIST.
There were no casualties associated with the collapse. NIST found no evidence to support conspiracy theories such as the collapse being the result of explosives; it found that a combination of factors including physical damage, fire, and the building's unusual construction set off a chain-reaction collapse.
Reports
thumb|left|250px|Schematic view of collapse progression, with structural failure initiating on lower floors, on the east side of the building and vertical progression up to the east mechanical penthouse
In May 2002, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) issued a report on the collapse based on a preliminary investigation conducted jointly with the Structural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers under the leadership of Dr. W. Gene Corley, P.E. FEMA made preliminary findings that the collapse was not primarily caused by actual impact damage from the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC but by fires on multiple stories ignited by debris from the other two towers that continued burning unabated due to lack of water for sprinklers or manual firefighting. The report did not reach conclusions about the cause of the collapse and called for further investigation.
Subsequently, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was authorized to lead an investigation into the structural failure and collapse of the World Trade Center Twin Towers and 7 World Trade Center. The investigation, led by Dr S. Shyam Sunder, drew upon in-house technical expertise as well as the knowledge of several outside private institutions, including the Structural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers (SEI/ASCE); the Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE); the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA); the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC); the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH); and the Structural Engineers Association of New York (SEAoNY).See:
thumb|right|250px|Few photos and video clips exist that show the damage sustained to the south face of 7 World Trade Center on 9/11. An ABC News helicopter captured footage of the south face of 7 World Trade Center, including a glimpse of a gash, extending approximately 10 stories.
The bulk of the investigation of 7 World Trade Center was delayed until after reports were completed on the Twin Towers. In the meantime, NIST provided a preliminary report about 7 WTC in June 2004, and thereafter released occasional updates on the investigation. According to NIST, the investigation of 7 World Trade Center was delayed for a number of reasons, including that NIST staff who had been working on 7 World Trade Center were assigned full-time from June 2004 to September 2005 to work on the investigation of the collapse of the Twin Towers. In June 2007, Shyam Sunder explained, We are proceeding as quickly as possible while rigorously testing and evaluating a wide range of scenarios to reach the most definitive conclusion possible. The 7 WTC investigation is in some respects just as challenging, if not more so than the study of the towers. However, the current study does benefit greatly from the significant technological advances achieved and lessons learned from our work on the towers.
thumb|220px|left|BMCC's Fiterman Hall was heavily damaged from the collapse of 7 World Trade Center.
In November 2008, NIST released its final report on the causes of the collapse of 7 World Trade Center. This followed NIST's August 21, 2008, draft report which included a period for public comments, and was followed in 2012 by a peer-reviewed summary in the Journal of Structural Engineering. In its investigation, NIST utilized ANSYS to model events leading up to collapse initiation and LS-DYNA models to simulate the global response to the initiating events. NIST determined that diesel fuel did not play an important role, nor did the structural damage from the collapse of the Twin Towers or the transfer elements (trusses, girders, and cantilever overhangs). The lack of water to fight the fire was an important factor. The fires burned out of control during the afternoon, causing floor beams near column 79 to expand and push a key girder off its seat, triggering the floors to fail around column 79 on Floors 8 to 14. With a loss of lateral support across nine floors, column 79 buckled - pulling the east penthouse and nearby columns down with it. With the buckling of these critical columns, the collapse then progressed east-to-west across the core, ultimately overloading the perimeter support, which buckled between Floors 7 and 17, causing the remaining portion of the building above to fall down as a single unit. The fires, which were fueled by office contents and burned for 7 hours, along with the lack of water, were the key reasons for the collapse. At the time, this made the old 7 WTC the only steel skyscraper to have collapsed from fire.
When 7 WTC collapsed, debris caused substantial damage and contamination to the Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall building, located adjacent at 30 West Broadway, to the extent that the building was not salvageable. A revised plan called for demolition in 2009 and completion of the new Fiterman Hall in 2012, at a cost of $325 million.See: The Verizon Building, an art deco building located directly to the west, had extensive damage to its eastern facade from the collapse of 7 World Trade Center, though it was later restored at a cost of US$1.4 billion.
thumb|Aerial view of WTC remains and neighboring buildings on September 23, 2001, with the original footprints of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC outlined
Files relating to numerous federal investigations had been housed in 7 World Trade Center. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission estimated over 10,000 of its cases were affected. Investigative files in the Secret Service's largest field office were lost, with one Secret Service agent saying, "All the evidence that we stored at 7 World Trade, in all our cases, went down with the building." Copies of emails in connection with the WorldCom scandal that were later requested by the SEC from Salomon Brothers, a subsidiary of Citigroup housed in the building, were also destroyed.
The NIST report found no evidence supporting the conspiracy theories that 7 World Trade Center was brought down by controlled demolition. Specifically, the window breakage pattern and blast sounds that would have resulted from the use of explosives were not observed. The suggestion that an incendiary material such as thermite was used instead of explosives was considered unlikely by NIST because of the building's structural response to the fire, the nature of the fire, and the unlikelihood that a sufficient amount of thermite could be planted without discovery. Based on its investigation, NIST reiterated several recommendations it had made in its earlier report on the collapse of the Twin Towers. It urged immediate action on a further recommendation: that fire resistance should be evaluated under the assumption that sprinklers are unavailable; and that the effects of thermal expansion on floor support systems be considered. Recognizing that current building codes are drawn to prevent loss of life rather than building collapse, the main point of NIST's recommendations was that buildings should not collapse from fire even if sprinklers are unavailable.
New building
The new 7 World Trade Center has 52 stories and is tall.See: The building has 42 floors of leasable space, starting at the 11th floor, and a total of of office space. The first ten floors house an electrical substation which provides power to much of Lower Manhattan. The office tower has a narrower footprint at ground level than did its predecessor, so the course of Greenwich Street could be restored to reunite TriBeCa and the Financial District. The original building, on the other hand, had bordered West Broadway on the east, necessitating the destruction of Greenwich Street between Barclay Street and the northern border of the World Trade Center superblock.
Design
Facade
David Childs of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill worked in conjunction with glass artist and designer James Carpenter to create a design that uses ultra-clear, low-iron glass to provide reflectivity and light. There are stainless-steel spandrels behind the glass to help reflect sunlight. The window panes themselves contain ceramic frits at their tops, which were intended to reduce heat gain without decreasing the transparency of the glass. Stainless steel used in the facade is molybdenum-containing Type 316, which provides improved resistance to corrosion. The new 7 World Trade Center, like its predecessor, was built above the Con Edison substation and several service ramps. When the current building was constructed, the ten transformer vaults were rearranged into stacks on the northern and southern portions of the building's base.
To enclose the power substation and improve its aesthetics, the base of the building has a curtain wall with stainless steel louvers that provide ventilation for the machinery. There is a cable-net glass wall on the eastern elevation of the facade, just above the Greenwich Street entrance; this cable-net wall measures across. During the day, the curtain wall reflects light, while at night it is illuminated with blue LED lights. The curtain wall around the lobby uses heavily laminated, heat-strengthened glass that meets high standards for blast resistance. At night, a large cube of light above the lobby also emanates blue light, while during the day it provides white light to the lobby, and at dusk, it transitions to violet and back to blue.
Features
Inside the main lobby, artist Jenny Holzer created a large light installation with glowing text moving across wide plastic panels. The entire wall, which is wide and tall, changes color according to the time of day. Holzer worked with Klara Silverstein, the wife of Larry Silverstein, to select poetry for the art installation. The wall is structurally fortified as a security measure.
7 World Trade Center is equipped with Otis destination elevators to reduce dwell times and travel times. After pressing their destination floor number on a keypad in the lobby, passengers are directed to specific elevators that will stop at the selected floor; the elevator cabs do not contain buttons. The elevator system is integrated with the lobby key-card system, which can identify the floor on which an employee works, then automatically call an elevator for that floor. Nearly 30 percent of structural steel used in the building consists of recycled steel. Rainwater is collected and used for irrigation of the park and to cool the building. Along with other sustainable design features, the building is designed to allow in plenty of natural light, power is metered to tenants to encourage them to conserve energy, the heating steam is reused to generate some power for the building, and recycled materials are used for insulation and interior materials. WSP Cantor Seinuk served as structural engineer on the project, while Jaros, Baum & Bolles was the MEP engineer.
The building was promoted as the safest skyscraper in the U.S. upon its completion According to Silverstein Properties, it "incorporate[s] a host of life-safety enhancements that will become the prototype for new high-rise construction." The building has reinforced-concrete and fireproofed elevator and stairway access shafts. The original building used only drywall to line these shafts. The stairways are wider than in the original building to permit faster egress.
Construction
thumb|200px|right|7 World Trade Center construction in October 2004
The construction phase of the new 7 World Trade Center began on May 7, 2002, with the installation of a fence around the construction site. Tishman Construction Corporation of New York began work at the new 7 World Trade Center in 2002, soon after the site was cleared of debris. Restoring the Con Ed substation was an urgent priority to meet power demands of Lower Manhattan. Because 7 World Trade Center is separate from the main World Trade Center site, Larry Silverstein required approval from only the Port Authority, and rebuilding was able to proceed quickly.
Once construction of the power substation was completed in October 2003, work proceeded on building the office tower. An unusual approach was used in constructing the building; erecting the steel frame before adding the concrete core. This approach allowed the construction schedule to be shortened by a few months. Construction was completed in 2006 at a cost of $700 million. Though Silverstein received $861 million from insurance on the old building, he owed more than $400 million on its mortgage. Costs to rebuild were covered by $475 million in Liberty Bonds, which provide tax-exempt financing to help stimulate rebuilding in Lower Manhattan and insurance money that remained after other expenses.
A triangular park was created between the extended Greenwich Street and West Broadway by David Childs with Ken Smith and his colleague, Annie Weinmayr, of Ken Smith Landscape Architect. The park comprises an open central plaza with a fountain and flanking groves of sweetgum trees and boxwood shrubs. At the center of the fountain, sculptor Jeff Koons created Balloon Flower (Red), whose mirror-polished stainless steel represents a twisted balloon in the shape of a flower.
Completion and early years
2000s
The building was officially opened at noon on May 23, 2006, with a free concert featuring Suzanne Vega, Citizen Cope, Bill Ware Vibes, Brazilian Girls, Ollabelle, Pharaoh's Daughter, Ronan Tynan (of the Irish Tenors), and special guest Lou Reed. Prior to opening, in March 2006, the new 7 World Trade Center frontage and lobby were used in scenes for the movie Perfect Stranger with Halle Berry and Bruce Willis.
After the building opened, several unleased upper floors were used for events such as charity lunches, fashion shows, and black-tie galas. Silverstein Properties allowed space in the new building to be used for these events as a means to draw people to see the building. From September 8 to October 7, 2006, the work of photographer Jonathan Hyman was displayed in "An American Landscape", a free exhibit hosted by the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation at 7 World Trade Center. The photographs captured the response of people in New York City and across the United States after the September 11, 2001, attacks. The exhibit took place on the 45th floor while space remained available for lease.
thumb|left|250px|New York Academy of Sciences office (lobby) on the 40th floor
By March 2007, 60 percent of the building had been leased. In September 2006, Moody's signed a 20-year lease to rent 15 floors of 7 World Trade Center.See: Other tenants that had signed leases in 7 World Trade Center, as of May 2007, included ABN AMRO, Ameriprise Financial Inc., law firm Wilmer Hale, publisher Mansueto Ventures, and the New York Academy of Sciences. Silverstein Properties also has offices and the Silver Suites executive office suites in 7 World Trade Center, along with office space used by the architectural and engineering firms working on 1 World Trade Center, 150 Greenwich Street, 175 Greenwich Street, and 200 Greenwich Street.See: After AMN AMRO was acquired by the Royal Bank of Scotland, forex services provider FXDD subleased some of the Royal Bank of Scotland's space in 2009.
The space occupied by Mansueto Ventures has been designed to use the maximum amount of natural light and has an open floor plan. The space used by the New York Academy of Sciences on the 40th floor, designed by H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture, works with the parallelogram shape of the building. Keeping with the green design of the building, the NYAS uses recycled materials in many of the office furnishings, has zoned heating and cooling, and motion-detecting lights, which activate automatically when people are present, and adjust according to incoming sunlight.
2010s to present
The building became fully leased in September 2011 after MSCI agreed to occupy on the top floor. Following this, Silverstein announced in 2012 that he would refinance the building with a $452.8 million Liberty bond issue and a $125 million commercial mortgage-backed security loan. At the time, the building was valued at $940 million, in large part because it was fully occupied. FXDD subleased its space to engineering company Permasteelisa in 2015 and artificial intelligence firm IPsoft in 2016. The building was 94.8 percent occupied by 2017. At the time, roughly three-quarters of the space was occupied by four tenants, including Moody's, the Royal Bank of Scotland, and Wilmer Hale.
Wedding planning company Zola and the building's own architecture firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill both leased space at 7 WTC in early 2019. This was followed in July 2019 by luxury drink brand Moët Hennessy and media company AccuWeather. After publisher Mansueto Ventures and three other firms took space at 7 WTC in April 2022, the building was 97 percent occupied. Shortly afterward, Silverstein Properties refinanced the property with a $458 million loan from Goldman Sachs.
See also
List of tallest buildings in New York City
World Trade Center in popular culture
References
External links
7 World Trade Center at SilversteinProperties.com
7 World Trade Center on CTBUH Skyscraper Center
Category:1987 establishments in New York City
Category:2001 disestablishments in New York (state)
Category:2006 establishments in New York City
Category:Buildings and structures demolished in 2001
Category:Emery Roth buildings
Category:Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design gold certified buildings
Category:Office buildings completed in 1987
Category:Office buildings completed in 2006
Category:Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
Category:Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan
Category:World Trade Center | {"Status": "complete", "Construction started": "May 7, 2002", "Location": "250 Greenwich StreetManhattan, New York City 10006, United States", "Coordinates": "40.7133 -74.0120 region:US-NY_type:landmark inline,title", "Type": "Office"} |
Josef Kammhuber (August 19, 1896 - January 25, 1986) was a career officer in the Luftwaffe and post-World War II German Air Force. During World War II, he was the first general of night fighters in the Luftwaffe.
Kammhuber created the night fighter defense system, the so-called Kammhuber Line, but the detailed knowledge of the system provided to the Royal Air Force by British military intelligence allowed them to render it ineffective. Personal battles between him and Erhard Milch, director of the Reich Air Ministry, led to his dismissal in 1943. After the war, he joined the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of West Germany.
Career
Josef Kammhuber was born in Tüßling, Bavaria, the son of a farmer. At the outbreak of World War I Kammhuber was 18 and joined a Bavarian engineer battalion. He participated in the Battle of Verdun in 1916 and was promoted to Second Lieutenant in 1917. He remained in Germany's post-war army, and in 1925 was promoted to First Lieutenant. Between October 1926 and September 1928, he received division-level leadership training. From 1 May to 30 September 1930, he was sent to the USSR for pilot training at the Lipetsk fighter-pilot school. On his return, Kammhuber joined the staff of General Walter Wever, chief of staff of the Luftwaffe prior to World War II.
Kammhuber returned to active duty in February 1939 and was assigned as chief-of-staff of Luftflotte 2. On January 11, 1940, he was reprimanded by Adolf Hitler personally because of the Mechelen Incident. He was then transferred to the Western Front where he became commander of KG 51. On 3 June 1940, he flew with the wing (possibly on Operation Paula). He was shot down and briefly became a prisoner of war. Kammhuber was released upon the Armistice of 22 June 1940. In July 1940 he was placed in command of coordinating flak, searchlight and radar units at Luftwaffe's General Staff. The result was the XII. Fliegerkorps (12th Air Corps), a new dedicated night-fighting command, created on 1 August 1940. He reached the rank of Generalleutnant by October 1941 and General der Flieger on 1 January 1943.
Defence of the Reich
He organised the night fighting units into a chain known to the British as the Kammhuber Line, in which a series of radar stations with overlapping coverage. The stations were layered three deep from Denmark to the middle of France, each covering a zone about long (north-south) and wide (east-west). Each control centre was known as a Himmelbett (four-poster bed) zone, consisting of a Freya radar with a range of about , a number of searchlights spread through the cell, and one primary and one backup night fighter assigned to the cell. Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers flying into Germany or France would have to cross the line at some point and the radar would direct a searchlight to illuminate the aircraft. Once this had happened, other manually controlled searchlights would also pick up the aeroplane and the night fighter would be directed to intercept the illuminated bomber. Demands by Bürgermeisters in Germany led to the recall of the searchlights to the major cities.Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot, "Kammhuber Line." The Oxford Companion to World War II, 2001; Retrieved March 27, 2010 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com
thumb|left|Slot Zeist, Kammhubers headquarters.
Later versions of the Himmelbett added two Würzburg radars, with a range of about . Unlike the early-warning Freya radar, Würzburgs were accurate (and complex) tracking radars. One would be locked onto the night fighter as soon as it entered the cell. After the Freya picked up a target the second Würzburg would lock onto it, thereby allowing controllers in the Himmelbett center to get continual readings on the positions of both aircraft, controlling them to a visual interception. To aid in this, a number of the night fighters were fitted with a short-range infrared device known as 'Spanner anlage' but these proved almost useless in practice.Murawski, Morek; Air Defense of the Third Reich, Agency Publishing, 1999, pp. 50-56
thumb|Kammhuber (left) and Helmut Lent in a Nazi propaganda photograph, France, 1942
Another tactic that proved effective was to send their own planes to England while the raids were taking off or landing. Radio operators listening to the RAF bomber frequencies were able to recognize the start of a raid and the raiding force of about 30 night fighters would be sent over the RAF airbases to shoot down the bombers as they took off or landed. By the beginning of October the night intruder force had claimed a hundred kills but on October 13, Hitler ordered the force sent to the Mediterranean, despite their success.
British intelligence soon discovered the nature of the Kammhuber Line and started studying ways to defeat it. RAF Bomber Command sent aircraft one at a time to force the defenses to be spread as far apart as possible, meaning that any one aircraft would have to deal with little concentrated flak. The Himmelbett centers were only dealing with perhaps one or two planes at a time, making their job much easier. At the urging of R. V. Jones, Bomber Command planned attacks against a target at a time, sending all of the bombers in a "bomber stream", carefully positioned to fly down the middle of a cell. The Himmelbett centers were faced with hundreds of bombers, countering with only a few aircraft of their own. So successful was this tactic that the success rate of the night fighters dropped almost to zero.
Technological battle
Kammhuber started looking for solutions, and the result was the two-prong concept of Wilde Sau ("wild boar") and Zahme Sau ("tame boar"). In the former, day fighters would be sent up and look for the enemy aircraft from the light of flares dropped from light bombers, searchlights set to a wide beam or illuminating lower clouds, or the fires on the ground below. The Wilde Sau force scored their most notable success during Operation Hydra (the British operation against the V-weapon centre), at Peenemünde on 17 August 1943. De Havilland Mosquito bombers had dropped target marker flares over Berlin and most of the night fighter force was sent there. When it was realized what was really happening, most of these aircraft were too far away and too slow to intercept the raid. However, the Focke-Wulf Fw 190s being flown by the Wilde Sau forces were able to reach them, and about 30 planes entered the third and last wave of the stream and shot down 29 of the 40 Avro Lancaster bombers lost on that raid.Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot; "Wilde Sau." The Oxford Companion to World War II. 2001. Retrieved March 27, 2010 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com
Zahme Sau envisioned freeing the night fighters (now equipped with radar for the final stages of the interception) from the Himmelbett cells and allowing them to attack on their own. This was not all that easy, given the capabilities of the current generation of radars, but newer systems being developed would greatly increase the detection range and angles. In this role the existing cells created as part of the original Kammhuber Line would be used primarily for early warning and vectoring the planes to the stream.Dear, I. C. B. and M. R. D. Foot. "Zahme Sau", The Oxford Companion to World War II. 2001. Retrieved March 27, 2010 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com
At the same time Kammhuber continued to press for a new dedicated nightfighter design, eventually selecting the Heinkel He 219 Uhu after seeing it demonstrated in 1942. However Milch had decided to cancel the Uhu, and conflict arose between the two. As a result, in 1943 Kammhuber was transferred to Luftflotte 5 in Norway, in command of a handful of outdated planes. After the reorganization of the Luftwaffe in Scandinavia and the dissolution of Luftflotte 5, he became commanding general of the Luftwaffe in Norway (September-October 1944). In 1945 Kammhuber was re-appointed to command of the night fighters, at this point a largely ceremonial position considering the state of the Third Reich at that time.
Postwar
thumb|right|Meeting between Kammhuber and Air Marshal Sir Thomas Pike in 1956. Pike had previously served as an RAF night fighter pilot.
After Germany's capitulation in May 1945, Kammhuber was held by the United States, but he was released in April 1948 without charges being brought against him. He wrote a series of monographs for the US Department of Defense on the conduct of the German defenses against the RAF and USAAF. These were later collected into book form (listed under References). In 1953 he published a definitive work on what he learned during the war as Problems in the Conduct of a Day and Night Defensive Air War. He later spent time in Argentina, helping to train the air force under Juan Perón..
Josef Kammhuber returned to Germany and joined the German Air Force while it was being formed. He was promoted to Inspekteur der Luftwaffe, serving in that role between 1956 and 1962. Following the 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident, when two West German Republic F-84F Thunderstreaks strayed into East German airspace and flew to West Berlin, Kammhuber and his superior, the West German Minister of Defence, Franz-Josef Strauß, relieved Oberstleutnant Siegfried Barth, commander of the pilots' unit, of his command. After protests, three official investigations and a formal complaint by Barth against Strauß, the former was reinstated in his position.STRAUSS-BEFEHL: Bier-Order 61 Der Spiegel, published: 9 May 1962, accessed: 30 November 2010 Kammhuber was the only inspector of a branch of the German Armed Forces to achieve the rank of (full) General in this office, although actually designated as a Lieutenant General, because of his services to the development of the post-war Air Force. He retired shortly after the crash of a Starfighter formation on 19 June 1962 near Nörvenich.
Kammhuber died on January 25, 1986, aged 89 in Munich and is buried there.
Awards
Iron Cross 1914, 1st and 2nd class
Military Merit, 4th class with Swords (Bavaria)
Clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class
Pilot/Observer Badge In Gold with Diamonds
Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 9 July 1941 as Generalmajor and commander of the 1. Nachtjagd-Division
Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic 10 March 1958
Legion of Merit, Commander (2 August 1961)
Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany with Star and Sash, (21 August 1962)
References
Citations
Bibliography
Wolfgang Schmidt, "Seines Wertes bewusst"! General Josef Kammhuber, in: Helmut R. Hammerich / Rudolf J. Schlaffer (eds.), Militärische Aufbaugenerationen der Bundeswehr 1955 bis 1970. Ausgewählte Biografien, München, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag 2011, pp. 351-381.
Kammhuber, Joseph, and David C. Isby (eds.); Fighting the Bombers: The Luftwaffe's Struggle Against the Allied Bomber Offensive, Greenhill Books, 2003. .
Category:1896 births
Category:1986 deaths
Category:German Army personnel of World War I
Category:Generals of the German Air Force
Category:History of telecommunications in Germany
Category:Luftwaffe World War II generals
Category:Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Category:Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:Grand Officers of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Category:Burials at Munich Waldfriedhof
Category:Generals of Aviators
Category:People from Altötting (district)
Category:Telecommunications in World War II
Category:Military personnel from Bavaria | {"Born": "Tüßling, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire", "Died": "Munich, West Germany", "Allegiance": "German Empire \nWeimar Republic Nazi Germany \nWest Germany", "Awards": "Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross"} |
The Last Unicorn is a 1982 American animated fantasy film about a unicorn who, upon learning that she is the last of her species on Earth, goes on a quest to find out what has happened to others of her kind. Based on the 1968 novel The Last Unicorn written by Peter S. Beagle, who also wrote the film's screenplay, the film was directed and produced by Arthur Rankin Jr. and Jules Bass. It was produced by Rankin/Bass Productions for ITC Entertainment and animated by Topcraft.
The film includes the voices of Alan Arkin, Jeff Bridges, Mia Farrow, Angela Lansbury, and Christopher Lee. The soundtrack was composed and arranged by Jimmy Webb, and songs were performed by the group America and the London Symphony Orchestra, with additional vocals provided by Lucy Mitchell. The film grossed $6.5 million in the United States.
Plot
A female unicorn learns from two hunters and a butterfly that she is the last of her kind since a malevolent entity called the Red Bull has herded unicorns to the ends of the earth. The Unicorn journeys to find them.
The Unicorn is captured by the witch Mommy Fortuna and displayed in her Midnight Carnival. Most of the attractions are normal animals enhanced by illusions to appear as mythical beasts. Fortuna uses a spell to create another horn on the unicorn's head, as the carnival visitors cannot see her real form. Fortuna keeps the immortal harpy Celaeno captive as well, deeming the risk secondary to the deed's prestige. The unicorn is befriended by Schmendrick, an incompetent magician in the service of Mommy Fortuna. With the help of Schmendrick, the Unicorn escapes, in the process freeing Celaeno, who kills Fortuna. The Unicorn and Schmendrick gain a second traveling companion with Molly Grue, the careworn lover of Captain Cully (the disappointing reality behind the myth of Robin Hood).
When the Unicorn nears the seaside castle of King Haggard, keeper of the Red Bull, she encounters the beast, a monstrous fire elemental. Before she can be captured, Schmendrick uses his unpredictable magic, transforming her into a woman. The Red Bull loses interest in her and departs, but the Unicorn is shocked by the sensation of mortality. Schmendrick promises to return her to normal after the quest is complete.
Schmendrick, Molly Grue, and the now-human Unicorn proceed to the castle. Haggard is at first unwelcoming. Schmendrick introduces the Unicorn as Lady Amalthea, and requests that they become members of Haggard's court, only to be told that the only occupants of the castle are Haggard, his adopted son Prince Lír and four ancient men-at-arms. Haggard consents to lodge the trio, replacing his more competent wizard, Mabruk, with Schmendrick, and setting Molly Grue to work in his scullery. Mabruk leaves after recognizing "Amalthea" for what she truly is, jeering that by allowing her into his castle Haggard has invited his doom. Due to her new human emotions, Amalthea begins forgetting her true self and falls in love with Prince Lír, and considers abandoning her quest in favor of mortal love. Haggard confronts Amalthea, hinting at the location of the unicorns, yet from the waning magic in her eyes, has doubts regarding his suspicions that she is more than she seems.
Molly finally learns the location of the Red Bull's lair from the castle's cat. Molly, Schmendrick, and Amalthea are joined by Lír as they enter the bull's den, and are trapped there by Haggard. Schmendrick explains to Lír what they are looking for and reveals Amalthea's true identity. Lír declares that he loves her anyway. This makes Amalthea want to abandon the quest and marry Lír, but Lír dissuades her. The Red Bull appears, no longer deceived by Amalthea's human form, and chases after her. Schmendrick turns Amalthea back into the Unicorn, but she is unwilling to leave Lír's side. The Bull begins driving her toward the ocean just as he had driven the other unicorns. Lír tries defending her, but is killed by the Bull. Enraged, the Unicorn turns on the Bull and forces him into the sea. As the beast is engulfed by the water, the missing hundreds of unicorns emerge from the raging sea, carried on the incoming tides. With their release, Haggard's castle collapses into the sea, and Haggard, watching all from the battlements, falls to his death.
On the beach, the Unicorn magically revives Lír before she leaves him. Schmendrick assures Lír he gained much by winning the love of a unicorn, even if he is now alone. The Unicorn later says goodbye to Schmendrick, who laments he wronged her by burdening her with regret and the taint of mortality, which could make her unable to properly rejoin her kind. She disagrees about the importance of his actions, as they had helped restore unicorns to the world and made her experience regret and love. Schmendrick and Molly watch the Unicorn depart for her forest home.
Voice cast
Mia Farrow as the Unicorn/Lady Amalthea, the eponymous "last unicorn" who, in her search for the other unicorns, is transformed into a young woman and learns about regret and love.
Alan Arkin as Schmendrick, a magician who accompanies the Unicorn on her quest to find others like her. Beagle commented that he was a bit "disappointed" by the way Arkin approached the character because it seemed "too flat".
Jeff Bridges as Prince Lír, King Haggard's adopted son who falls in love with Lady Amalthea. Although he is later told by Schmendrick that she is a unicorn, his feelings for her remain unchanged, as he says emphatically, "I love whom I love".
Tammy Grimes as Molly Grue, the love of Captain Cully who joins Schmendrick and the Unicorn. While explaining that there was no particular reason that he did not write a detailed background for Molly Grue's character, Beagle stated that he has "always been grateful" to Grimes because she "brought such vocal life to the character that she covered things I didn't do."
Robert Klein as The Butterfly, the creature that gives the Unicorn a hint as to where to find the other unicorns.
Angela Lansbury as Mommy Fortuna, a witch who uses her illusory magic to run the Midnight Carnival, which showcases mythical creatures that are, in truth, just normal animals. Later, the harpy Celaeno, one of the two real mythical creatures, kills her and her henchman, Ruhk.
Christopher Lee as King Haggard, the ruler of a dreary kingdom, who has never been happy, save for when he looks at unicorns. Beagle described Lee as "the last of the great 20th Century actors, and either the most-literate or second-most literate performer I've ever met." When Lee came in to work, he brought his own copy of the novel wherein he took note of lines that he believed should not be omitted. Lee, who was fluent in German, also voiced Haggard in the German dub of the film.
Keenan Wynn as Captain Cully, the leader of a group of bandits.
Wynn also voices The Harpy Celaeno, a real harpy that was captured by Mommy Fortuna, freed by the Unicorn, and kills Mommy Fortuna and Ruhk out of vengeance for trapping her.
Paul Frees as Mabruk, King Haggard's court magician who is replaced by Schmendrick. Frees also voices the Cat that gives hints to finding the Red Bull, and the Tree that falls in love with Schmendrick. Don Messick and Nellie Bellflower have widely been miscredited in the roles for several years (Bellflower's character never made it into the final cut of the film). The miscredits were confirmed on a behind the scenes discussion of the film on the blu-ray.
René Auberjonois as the Skull that guards the clock that serves as an entryway into the Red Bull's lair. Beagle praised Auberjonois' performance, saying "he could have played any role in that movie and I would have been happy ... He's that talented."
Brother Theodore as Ruhk, a hunchback who works for Mommy Fortuna. He, along with Mommy Fortuna, is killed by the Harpy Celaeno.
Edward Peck as Jack Jingly, Cully's Men
Jack Lester as Hunter #1, Old Farmer, Cully's Men
Kenneth Jennings as Hunter #2, Cully's Men
Production
Peter S. Beagle stated that there had been interest in creating a film based on the book early on. Those who expressed interest included Lee Mendelson and Bill Melendez of the Peanuts television specials, though Beagle had been convinced by one of their partners' wives that they were "not good enough", as well as former 20th Century Fox animator Les Goldman. At the time, Beagle believed that "animated was the only way to go" with regard to the film, and had never thought of making it into a live-action film. Arthur Rankin, Jr. and Jules Bass' New York-based production company, Rankin/Bass Productions, had been the last studio that the film's associate producer, Michael Chase Walker, approached, and Beagle was first "horrified" when he was informed that they had made a deal with Walker. Beagle stated that he has since "…come to feel that the film is actually a good deal more than I had originally credited", and went on to say "There is some lovely design work - the Japanese artists who did the concepts and coloring were very good. And the voice actors do a superb job in bringing my characters to life…"
While Rankin/Bass provided the film's dialogue and story based on Beagle's work, the animation was done at Topcraft in Tokyo, Japan, headed by former Toei Animation employee Toru Hara, with Masaki Iizuka being in charge of the production. The studio, which previously animated Frosty's Winter Wonderland (1976), The Hobbit (1977), The Stingiest Man in Town (1978), The Return of the King (1980) and other cel-animated projects from Rankin/Bass, would later be hired by Hayao Miyazaki to work on Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, and their core members eventually went on to form Studio Ghibli. According to Beagle, the final film ended up being "remarkably close" to his original script, although one scene at the end involving an encounter with a princess was "animated but eventually cut."
Soundtrack
The musical score and the songs were composed and arranged by Jimmy Webb, and performed by the group America and the London Symphony Orchestra, with additional vocals provided by Lucy Mitchell. The Last Unicorn soundtrack was recorded at De Lane Lea Studios in Wembley, England in 1982. The album was released in Germany in 1983 by Virgin Records, but has not been released in the United States; it includes the film score's symphonic pieces. In his review for AllMusic, James Christopher Monger called it, "an appropriately somber and sentimental blend of fairy tale motifs and dark, Wagnerian cues".
The theme song is featured on the 1997 compilation album The Best of America.The Last Unicorn on America's official YouTube channel
Release
U.S. distribution rights were sold to Jensen Farley when Universal Pictures, who were due to release Associated Film Distribution's product (including ITC) in the United States, were not keen on the film.
The Last Unicorn premiered in 648 theaters in the United States on November 19, 1982, and earned $2,250,000 on its opening weekend. It grossed a total of $6,455,330 in the U.S. and Canada.
Home media
The first U.S. DVD, released by Family Home Entertainment on March 16, 2004, was made from poor-quality pan-and-scan masters. The company's owner, Lionsgate, later licensed the German video masters and audio mix and came up with a "25th Anniversary Edition" DVD which was released in North America on February 6, 2007. It has audio and visual quality superior to the original U.S. release, and is in 16:9 widescreen format, but has several swear words edited out, and as a result of being taken from PAL masters, plays 4% faster than the original film, resulting in a slightly higher audio pitch than normal. The new DVD edition includes a featurette with an interview with the author, as well as a set-top game, image gallery, and the original theatrical trailer. As of October 2011, over 2,500,000 copies of the DVD have been sold. A Blu-ray edition of the film was released by Lionsgate on February 22, 2011; this release was sourced from a new transfer of the theatrical cut of the film, thus restoring the swearing and correcting the PAL speed-up issue, though the 25th Anniversary Edition was still included as an option on this release.
On June 9, 2015, Shout! Factory released new Blu-ray and DVD versions of The Last Unicorn entitled "The Enchanted Edition". This edition was transferred from a new widescreen 2K digital master, and includes the original uncensored audio as well as a commentary track with Peter S. Beagle, associate producer Michael Chase Walker, tour producer Connor Freff Cochran, and Conlan Press team members; highlights from the Worldwide Screening Tour; a new True Magic: The Story of the Last Unicorn featurette; animated storyboards; and the original theatrical trailer.
In the United Kingdom, ITV Studios Global Entertainment hold complete ownership of the film via their acquisition of ITC's entire feature film library, not including those released by Embassy Pictures, which are held by StudioCanal. Since 2009, ITV have been responsible for all home media releases of The Last Unicorn.
The film was available on The Criterion Channel.The Criterion Channel’s February 2021 Lineup|Current|The Criterion Collection
Reception and legacy
, the film has rating on Rotten Tomatoes from reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "The Last Unicorn lacks the fluid animation to truly sparkle as an animated epic, but offbeat characters and an affecting storytelling make it one of a kind for the true believers."
In a New York Times review, Janet Maslin called The Last Unicorn "an unusual children's film in many respects, the chief one being that it is unusually good [... and] features a cast that would do any live-action film proud, a visual style noticeably different from that of other children's fare, and a story filled with genuine sweetness and mystery." Regarding the ending she said, "no one of any age will be immune to the sentiment of the film's final moments, which really are unexpectedly touching and memorable".
Todd McCarthy in Variety praised the script and voice acting but was unimpressed by the film's animation. "However vapid the unicorn may appear to the eye, Mia Farrow's voice brings an almost moving plaintive quality to the character. For an actress to register so strongly on voice alone is a rare accomplishment." The review also praised the vocal talents of Arkin, Lee, and Frees.
Colin Greenland reviewed The Last Unicorn for Imagine magazine, and stated that "Beagle has kept all the good bits, including the jokes, the smart, wry dialogue, and many bursts of brilliant imagination, here captured in stylish special effects: the attack of the Red Bull, all made of fire; the binding of all the lost unicorns into the foam of the sea."
Beagle himself called the film "magnificent" in comparison to J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, for which he also wrote the screenplay.
The film has since maintained a cult following.18 Popular Cult Classic Movies That Are Perfect For Movie Night - CINEMABLEND22 Animated Cult Classics Worth Checking Out - MovieWeb In 2003, the Online Film Critics Society ranked the film as the 96th greatest animated film of all time.
References
External links
Category:1982 films
Category:1982 animated films
Category:1982 fantasy films
Category:American children's animated adventure films
Category:American children's animated fantasy films
Category:American fantasy adventure films
Category:American independent films
Category:Films directed by Jules Bass
Category:Films directed by Arthur Rankin Jr.
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Category:1982 independent films | {"Directed by": "Arthur Rankin Jr. Jules Bass", "Produced by": "Arthur Rankin Jr. Jules Bass Masaki Iizuka", "Screenplay by": "Peter S. Beagle", "Based on": "The Last Unicorn Peter S. Beagle", "Starring": "Alan Arkin\n Jeff Bridges\n Mia Farrow\n Tammy Grimes\n Robert Klein\n Angela Lansbury\n Christopher Lee\n Keenan Wynn\n Paul Frees\n René Auberjonois", "Music by": "Jimmy Webb", "Edited by": "Tomoko Kida", "Cinematography": "Hiroyasu Omoto", "Distributed by": "Jensen Farley Pictures", "Box office": "$6.5 million (US)The Last Unicorn Box Office Mojo https://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl2371847681/weekend/ 2009-05-15 or $3.4 millionhttps://archive.org/details/americanfilmdist0000dona/page/294/mode/1up American film distribution : the changing marketplace Donahue Suzanne Mary 1987 UMI Research Press 294 9780835717762 Please note figures are for rentals in US and Canada"} |
Experiments in the Revival of Organisms () is a 1940 motion picture, directed by David Yashin, that documents Soviet research into the resuscitation of clinically dead organisms. The operations in the film, as well as the design of the heart-lung machine demonstrated in it, the autojektor, were done by Sergei Brukhonenko, whose work in the film is said to have led to the first operations on heart valves.
Synopsis
thumb|left|thumbtime=21|Full English version of the film
The film depicts and discusses a series of medical experiments. The English version of the film begins with British scientist J. B. S. Haldane appearing and discussing how he has personally seen the procedures carried out in the film at an all-Russian physiological congress. The Russian version lacks this explanation. The experiments start with a heart of a canine, which is shown being isolated from a body; four tubes are then connected to the organ. Using an apparatus to supply it with blood, the heart beats in the same manner as if it were in a living organism. The film then shows a lung in a tray, which is operated by bellows that oxygenate the blood.
Following the lung scene, the audience is then shown the autojektor, a heart-lung machine, composed of a pair of linear diaphragm pumps, venous and arterial, exchanging oxygen with a water reservoir. It is then seen supplying a dog's head with oxygenated blood. The head is presented with external stimuli, which it responds to. Finally, a dog is brought to clinical death (depicted primarily through an animated diagram of lung and heart activity) by draining the blood from its body, triggering cardiac arrest. It is then left for ten minutes and connected to the heart-lung machine, which gradually returns the blood into the animal's circulation. After several minutes, the heart fibrillates, then restarts a normal rhythm. Respiration likewise resumes and the machine is disconnected. Over the ensuing ten days, the dog recovers from the procedure and continues living a healthy life. According to the film, several dogs were brought back to life using this method, including one which is an offspring of parents who were both also resuscitated.
Production
The film was shot at the Institute of Experimental Physiology and Therapy, in Moscow. The operations are credited to Doctor Sergei Brukhonenko and Boris Levinskovsky, who were demonstrating a special heart-lung apparatus called the autojektor, also referred to as the heart-lung machine, to the Second Congress of Russian Pathologists in Moscow.
Legacy
thumb|A patent diagram showing the setup of the procedure
The film was shown to an audience of a thousand US scientists in 1943 in the Congress of American-Soviet Friendship. The audience considered that the film "might move many supposed biological impossibilities into the realm of the possible."
Brukhonenko's decapitation experiment was remarked upon by George Bernard Shaw, who stated, "I am even tempted to have my own head cut off so that I can continue to dictate plays and books without being bothered by illness, without having to dress and undress, without having to eat, without having anything else to do other than to produce masterpieces of dramatic art and literature."
Brukhonenko developed a new version of the autojektor for use on human patients in the same year; it can be seen today on display at the Museum of Cardiovascular Surgery at the Bakulev Scientific Center of Cardiovascular Surgery in Russia. Brukhonenko was posthumously awarded the prestigious Lenin Prize.
Some commentators have questioned the film's authenticity, given that none of the more dubious experiments are shown in any full-frame shots. According to some scientists who claim to have seen the experiments in the film, the severed dog head only survived for a few minutes when attached to the artificial heart, as opposed to the hours claimed in the film. Another source of skepticism are the dogs drained of blood and then brought back to life, as after 10 minutes of death they should have experienced serious brain damage. According to the institute’s records, the dogs only survived for a few days, not several years as the film claimed.
The heart-lung machine demonstrated in the film, the autojektor, was designed and constructed by Sergei Brukhonenko, whose work in the film is said to have led to the first operations on heart valves. The autojektor is similar to modern extracorporeal membrane oxygenation machines, as well as the systems commonly used for renal dialysis in modern nephrology.
In popular culture
In 2004 MF Doom released his song "Fall Back / Titty Fat" (through his album Venomous Villain) which begins and ends with excerpts from the experiment. The music video for the song largely consists of segments from the film.
In 2009, the band The Paper Chase used portions of the film in their video "What Should We Do with Your Body? (The Lightning)".
A portion of the plot of James Rollins' novel Bloodline is based on this experiment.
The 1945 novel That Hideous Strength by C. S. Lewis makes reference to the experiments.
Polish poet Wisława Szymborska references the experiment in her poem "The Experiment" circa 1967.
Metallica's video for their song "All Nightmare Long" is partially based on the film, and shows Soviet scientists reanimating a dead cat.
In the video game Team Fortress 2, a cosmetic set for the Medic called “Canis Ex Machina” features a white dog’s head, in reference to the experiment seen in the film.
In Roald Dahl's 1960 short story "William and Mary", a doctor says: "I saw a short medical film that had been brought over from Russia. It was a rather gruesome thing, but interesting. It showed a dog's head completely severed from the body, but with the normal blood supply being maintained through the arteries and veins by means of an artificial heart."
According to Neil Cicierega in the audio commentary for the 2016 Lemon Demon album Spirit Phone, the first track on the album ("Lifetime Achievement Award") was originally titled "Experiments in the Revival", in reference to this film.
Clips from the film were used as a part of the YouTube webseries Marble Hornets.
See also
Vladimir Demikhov
Suspended animation
Robert J. White
References
External links
Category:1940 films
Category:Soviet black-and-white films
Category:Soviet documentary films
Category:1940 documentary films
Category:Black-and-white documentary films
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Films shot in Moscow
Category:Animal testing in the Soviet Union | {"Directed by": "David Yashin", "Written by": "Sergei Brukhonenko", "Narrated by": "J. B. S. Haldane (English)", "Starring": "Sergei Brukhonenko", "Animation by": "Alexander Prozorov", "Cinematography": "Yekaterina Kashina", "Distributed by": "Brandon Films, Inc. (USA)"} |
Rheintochter was a German surface-to-air missile developed by Rheinmetall-Borsig during World War II. Its name comes from the mythical Rheintöchter (Rhinemaidens) of Richard Wagner's opera series Der Ring des Nibelungen.
The missile was a multi-stage solid fuelled rocket.Christopher, p.131. It had four small control surfaces, resembling paddles, in the nose, six fins at the after end of the top stage, and four at the end of the main stage. It stood tall, with a diameter of . The sustainer motor, located ahead of the warhead (rather than behind, as is more usual) exhausted through six venturis between the first stage fins.
History
Rheintochter was ordered in November 1942 by the German army (Heer). Starting in August 1943, 82 test firings were made. An air-launched version was also designed. The operational version was intended to be fired from a ramp or converted gun mount.
The project was cancelled on February 6, 1945.
Examples are on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Air Defense Learning Annex at Fort Sill, OK and at the RAF Museum Cosford, UK.
Variants
right|thumb|A Rheintochter R1 (left), and part of an R3 (centre), with a Rheinbote (right)
The initial R1 variant was powered by a two-stage solid-fuel rocket.
The proposed R2 did not offer any improvement over the R1, and was dropped in December 1944.
The R3 model was developed, which had a liquid fuel engine with solid-fuel boosters ("strap-ons"). Only six trial missiles were fired.Christopher, p.132.
Specifications
Power plant: RI variant was 2-stage solid fuel; RIII was liquid fuel with solid-fuel boosters
Length: Ford, Brian J., Secret Weapons, Osprey Publishing, 2011, p.80,
Diameter: Ford, p.80
Wing span:
Launch weight:
Speed: 1,080 km/h (671 mph)
Warhead:
Altitude: R1 8 km
Guidance system: Radio Command
See also
List of World War II guided missiles of Germany
Enzian
Notes
Sources
Christopher, John. The Race for Hitler's X-Planes. The Mill, Gloucestershire: History Press, 2013.
Ford, Brian J., Secret Weapons, Osprey Publishing, 2011,
External links
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
Royal Air Force Museum, Cosford (UK)
Category:World War II guided missiles of Germany
Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Germany | {"Place of origin": "Germany", "Type": "Surface-to-air missile", "Blast yield": "y", "Transport": "y", "Designed": "1942-1943", "Manufacturer": "Rheinmetall-Borsig", "Length": "6.3 m ftin on", "Propellant": "multi-stage solid fuel"} |
The Wasserfall Ferngelenkte FlaRakete (Waterfall Remote-Controlled A-A Rocket) was a German guided supersonic surface-to-air missile project of World War II. Development was not completed before the end of the war and it was not used operationally.
The system was based on many of the technologies developed for the V-2 rocket program, including the rocket itself, which was essentially a much scaled-down version of the V-2 airframe. The rocket motor used new fuels as it was expected to be stored in ready-to-fire form for months, and the guidance system used external fins for control instead of relying entirely on the steerable rocket motor exhaust.
Among the many development problems, control of the high-speed rocket was a significant concern, leading to the development of a radio control system where the operator sat in a reclining chair so they could see the target as it passed overhead. Another significant problem was the lack of a suitable proximity fuse, which was required as there was no way for the operator to visually determine when the rocket was close to a target that was directly above it. A radar-aided system was still under development and not ready for operational use.
Technical characteristics
thumb|300px|Wasserfall rocket displayed at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, 2007
Wasserfall was essentially an anti-aircraft development of the V-2 rocket, sharing the same general layout and shaping. Since the missile had to fly only to the altitudes of the attacking bombers, and needed a far smaller warhead to destroy these, it could be much smaller than the V-2, about the size. The Wasserfall design also included an additional set of fins located at the middle of the fuselage to provide extra maneuvering capability. Steering during the launch phase was accomplished by four graphite rudders placed in the exhaust stream of the combustion chamber, as in the V-2, but once high airspeeds had been attained this was accomplished by four air rudders mounted on the rocket tail.
Unlike the V-2, Wasserfall was designed to stand ready for periods of up to a month and fire on command, therefore the volatile liquid oxygen used in the V-2 was inappropriate. A new engine design, developed by Dr. Walter Thiel, was based on Visol (vinyl isobutyl ether) and SV-Stoff or red fuming nitric acid (RFNA), (94% nitric acid, 6% dinitrogen tetroxide). This hypergolic mixture was forced into the combustion chamber by pressurising the fuel tanks with nitrogen gas released from another tank. Wasserfall was to be launched from rocket bases (code-named Vesuvius) that could tolerate leaked hypergolic fuels in the event of a launch problem.
Guidance was to be a simple radio control manual command to line of sight (MCLOS) system for use against daytime targets. Commands were sent to the missile using a modified version of the FuG 203/FuG 230 "Kehl-Straßburg" (code name Burgund) radio-guidance system that used a joystick.
Originally developed for anti-ship missiles dropped by bombers, it was used to direct both the unpowered Fritz X and rocket-boosted Henschel Hs 293. For the anti-aircraft role, the controller was mounted beside a chair on a framework that allowed the operator to tilt back to easily look at targets above him, rotating as needed to keep the target in sight.
Night-time use was considerably more complex because neither the target nor the missile would be easily visible. For this role a new system known as Rheinland was under development. Rheinland used a radar unit for tracking the target and a transponder in the missile for locating it in flight. A simple analog computer guided the missile into the tracking radar beam as soon as possible after launch, using a radio direction finder and the transponder to locate it. Once it entered the radar beam the transponder responded to the radar signals and created a strong blip on the display. The operator then used the joystick to guide the missile so that the blips overlapped.
The original design had called for a warhead, but because of accuracy concerns it was replaced with a much larger one of , based on a liquid explosive. The idea was to create a large blast area effect amidst the enemy bomber stream, which would conceivably bring down several airplanes for each missile deployed. For daytime use the operator would detonate the warhead by remote control.
Development
Conceptual work began in 1941, and final specifications were defined on 2 November 1942. The first models were being tested in March 1943, but a major setback occurred in August 1943 when Dr. Walter Thiel was killed during the Operation Hydra bombings, the start of the Operation Crossbow bombing campaign against V-2 production. After the first successful firing (the third prototype) on 8 March 1944, three Wasserfall trial launches were completed by the end of June 1944. A launch on 8 January 1945 was a failure, with the engine "fizzling" and launching the missile to only 7 km of altitude at subsonic speeds. The following February saw a successful launch which reached a supersonic speed of 770 m/s (2,800 km/h) in vertical flight. Thirty-five Wasserfall trial firings had been completed by the time Peenemünde was evacuated on 17 February 1945.
The Bäckebo rocket, a V-2 rocket using Wasserfall radio guidance, crashed in Sweden on 13 June 1944.
Assessment
According to Albert Speer and Carl Krauch it could have devastated the Allied bomber fleets. Speer, Germany's Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production, later claimed:
In contrast, historian Michael J. Neufeld has argued that it would not have been possible for Germany to have fielded Wasserfall batteries before its defeat due to the extensive development work needed, and the project continued for too long due to bureaucratic inertia in the German military and the sense of desperation among the German leadership. He has also judged that the missiles would have probably proven ineffective in combat as they would not have been fitted with proximity fuses (which Germany never fielded) and their guidance system was impractical. Similarly, the relevant volume of the book series Germany and the Second World War notes that the Wasserfall was one of several competing missile systems which the Luftwaffe ordered to be developed despite lacking the resources needed to complete or field them during the war.
See also
Enzian
Rheintochter
Henschel Hs 117 Schmetterling ("Butterfly")
List of missiles
List of German guided weapons of World War II
List of surface-to-air missiles
Wunderwaffe
References
External links
EMW Wasserfall Luft '46 entry
Wasserfall German Surface to Air Missile
W-10 Drawing
Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Germany
Category:World War II guided missiles of Germany | {"Type": "Surface-to-air missile", "Place of origin": "Nazi Germany", "Transport": "yes", "Manufacturer": "Flak-Versuchskommando Nord, EMW Peenemünde", "Unit cost": "7,000-10,000 yes", "Produced": "March 1943", "Mass": "3700 kg", "Length": "7.85 m", "Diameter": ".864 m", "Detonationmechanism": "Proximity", "Operationalrange": "25 km", "Guidancesystem": "Manual command to line of sight (MCLOS); operator used a radio command link to steer the missile along the optical line of sight from launch point to target", "Launchplatform": "Fixed"} |
Jerry Ray Lucas (born March 30, 1940) is an American former basketball player. He was a nationally awarded high school player, national college star at Ohio State, and 1960 gold medal Olympian and international player before later starring as a professional player in the National Basketball Association (NBA).
As a collegian, Lucas led the Ohio State Buckeyes to three straight NCAA finals (1960-1962), winning the national championship in 1960, and finishing as runner-up in 1961 and 1962. He is the only three-time Big Ten Basketball Player of the Year, and was named the NCAA Player of the Year in 1961 and 1962 by the United States Basketball Writers Association (now Oscar Robertson Award), the Associated Press, and the Sporting News.
As a professional, Lucas was named All-NBA First Team three times, All-NBA Second Team twice, an NBA All-Star seven times (including six years in a row), was the 1964 NBA Rookie of the Year, and was named Most Valuable Player of the 1965 NBA All-Star Game among other honors and awards. He was inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1980.
Early life
Lucas was born in Middletown, Ohio, a community of 30,000+ halfway between Dayton and Cincinnati. Middletown then called itself "The Basketball Capital of Ohio", based on the success of the basketball teams from the town's one high school. The Middies had already won five Ohio state high school championships between 1945 and 1955 before Lucas ever played at Middletown High. Local support for the team was remarkably high in the early and mid-1950s. A tall youth, Lucas was encouraged to take up the game and soon dedicated himself to the town's game.
In addition to strong local support for Middletown High basketball, the city was also home to a remarkable summer outdoor basketball scene that had developed at Sunset Park. Previous Middletown players who had gone on to play at the college level had successfully recruited other college players to play there in the summer. By the time Lucas was age 15 in 1955, Sunset Park was one of the best summer basketball scenes in the region. By then, Lucas had also grown to 6'7" and had the opportunity to scrimmage against these college players, advancing his game greatly. Lucas was, in fact, outplaying college-level big men before he played his first game for Middletown High.
The budding basketball star had, by then, also started to display a remarkable, if unusual intelligence. A straight-A student with a penchant for memorizing his school work, Lucas had started to develop memory games for himself as early as age nine. One trick he would be known for was his ability to take words apart and reassemble them quickly in alphabetical order. "Basketball" became "aabbekllst". He also applied his intelligence successfully to his coaching in the game.
High school
Lucas started play at Middletown as a sophomore in the 1955-56 season. Even at 15, Lucas was a remarkable athlete who could play above the rim. His coach, Paul Walker, had already won three Ohio state champions at Middletown, and Lucas consistently found himself surrounded by strong teammates. As a sophomore, Lucas focused his game primarily on rebounding and passing, but still became a scoring star. Middletown's schedule often featured strong teams from Cincinnati, Dayton, and Columbus, but remained undefeated. A February game held at Cincinnati Gardens against rival Hamilton, itself a nearby former state champion, drew over 13,000 at a time when crowd sizes of that kind were uncommon at any level of the game. The two state powers repeated that feat there in 1958.
In addition to being an excellent rebounder, Lucas also made 60% of his shots from the floor and 75% of his free throws. Wearing number #13, he was often compared to Wilt Chamberlain during his high school years. The 1955-56 Middletown team went undefeated, winning the state championship, and the 1956-57 team did too. He suffered just one loss as a senior, a 63-62 defeat in a state semi-final game against Columbus North. That loss ended a state-record 76 game win streak. Lucas carried a 34-point scoring average through his high school years, and received national press when he surpassed Chamberlain's high school total in points.
Throughout Lucas' career Middletown continued playing top prep teams from around the state. At Cleveland Arena, 12,000 fans saw Lucas score 53 points as Middletown won 99-78 against the undefeated Cleveland East Tech team in the 1956 state playoffs. In 1957, over 15,000 watched Middletown top Toledo Macomber in another state playoff game at Saint John Arena, then the home floor of the Ohio State Buckeyes. With this high level of exposure, Lucas received college scholarship offers from more than 150 schools, and was one of the most publicized American high school players when he graduated from high school in 1958. Lucas also threw the discus in track and field, finishing third at state in 1957, and fifth at state in 1958. Lucas was also a member of the National Honor Society.
Lucas ended his high school career as Middletown's number one scorer with 2,460 points. In three years on the varsity he led the Middies to a 76-1 record, three state final fours (1956-1958), winning two state championships (1956 & 1957).
College career
thumb|150px|Lucas in action with Ohio State in 1960
Lucas was the subject of considerable recruiting interest while at Middletown, to such a degree that measures were taken to protect the privacy of Lucas and his family. When he announced for Ohio State, he became the center of a legendary recruiting class in 1958 that included two more future Hall of Famers in player John Havlicek and future coach Bob Knight. Mel Nowell joined the group as well, giving the group three future NBA players with Lucas and Havlicek. Buckeyes freshman coach Fred Taylor helped all four feel comfortable with coming to Ohio State and soon after he was promoted to head varsity coach.
Lucas had insisted on an academic scholarship to Ohio State and would continue to be an A-student at the college level.ESPN Classic - Lucas had a secret weapon, his mind In addition to publicized scrimmages against an 11-11 1958-59 Ohio State varsity, the freshman Lucas was also asked by Woody Hayes to tutor Ohio State football players in their studies. Such was his reputation as a student. Lucas was also a member of the fraternity Beta Theta Pi at Ohio State.
Lucas played at a time when freshmen athletes were ineligible for varsity college sports, so he and his new teammates had to wait until 1959-60 to lead Ohio State. The four new recruits joined future NBA players Larry Siegfried and Joe Roberts on a loaded Buckeyes team for second-year varsity coach Taylor. The high offense Buckeyes scored 90 points per game and were soon known for their shooting accuracy and rebounding. After two early losses to Utah and Kentucky, the team lost only one more the rest of the way en route to the 1960 NCAA national championship. The Buckeyes overwhelmed defending champion California, 75-55, at the Cow Palace in San Francisco to win the 1960 title. Lucas, passing often, still averaged 26 points per game on a then-record 63% shooting. He also averaged 16 rebounds per game and was named Most Outstanding Player of the 1960 NCAA Final Four. Lucas was on the cover of Sports Illustrated for the first time in January 1960.
In 1960-61, #1-ranked Ohio State ran a winning streak of 32 games all the way to the NCAA Final. Lucas and the team received considerable national publicity that year, especially after winning the 1960 Holiday Tournament at Madison Square Garden. In March 1961 against Kentucky, Lucas became the only college player to date to ever record a "30-30" in an NCAA tournament game (33 points, 30 rebounds). But in the finals, they were upset by the University of Cincinnati Bearcats, in overtime, 70-65.
By the time the 1961-62 season had started, the 6' 8" 230-pound Lucas had played basketball nearly non-stop for two years—he played the 1959-60 season, 1960 Olympics, 1960-61 season, and then the 1961 AAU tour of the Soviet Union. Therefore, health was an issue when he returned from Russia weighing just 200 pounds in the fall of 1961. His sore knees were also an issue throughout his basketball career. But Lucas and the Buckeyes again posted another strong season and made it to the NCAA final, their third straight. Lucas was badly injured against Wake Forest in the semifinal preceding his rematch against the University of Cincinnati Bearcats. But he opted to play in the 1962 final anyway, believing it was his last game ever. During his college career, he had stated repeatedly that he would never turn pro. In his final college game, he moved poorly and Cincinnati again topped Ohio State.
Lucas was All-American First Team all three years at Ohio State. His #11 was later the second number ever retired by the college in any sport. He is still widely considered the greatest player to ever play in the Big Ten today. The team went 78-6 during his years.
Gaining strong national exposure during these years, Lucas was named 1961 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year, the first-ever basketball player to win the award. In 1963, he was awarded the Big Ten Medal of Honor, which recognizes one student from the graduating class of each Big Ten member school, for demonstrating joint athletic and academic excellence throughout their college career. Lucas is still widely regarded as one of the greatest college players of all-time.
1960 Olympics/International play
In the wake of leading the 1960 NCAA champions, Lucas was also named to the 1960 U.S.A. Olympic team for the Rome Games that year. He had a sub-par Olympic Trials, due to fatigue from the NCAA final and the high altitude of the Trials in Denver, but still easily led all Trials players in rebounding.
Initially named to the U.S. team as a reserve forward, Lucas begged Olympic head coach Pete Newell to try him at his natural center spot. Despite the fact that two 6'11" centers, Walt Bellamy and Darrall Imhoff, were present, Lucas got time at center and emerged as the regular starter for the U.S. team.
The biggest game was played against the Soviet Union in September at the Palazzetto dello Sport in Rome, which the Americans won, 81-65. Lucas then scored 21 points in the gold medal final against BrazilGame: BRAZIL vs USA (Group 1) Date: 10 September 1960. to finish second to teammate Oscar Robertson for the team lead in scoring, with 134 points scored in the Olympics over eight games.1960 Olympic Games : Tournament for Men. Despite the physical play near the basket during those Games, Lucas received just six free throws total, but shot 80% from the floor to be a top scorer.
Afterward, Coach Newell, whose California team had just lost to Ohio State and Lucas in the 1960 NCAA final, called Lucas "the greatest player I ever coached, and the most unselfish". The U.S. team also included future pro stars Jerry West, Terry Dischinger, Adrian Smith, and Bob Boozer.
Lucas's international play also includes being named to a team of Amateur Athletic Union stars that toured the Soviet Union in mid-1961. That team played games in Moscow, Leningrad, and Kyiv with Lucas starring at center, and won all eight games played. The coach of the team was future Basketball Hall of Famer John McLendon. The team had gotten the Soviet invitation when the AAU Cleveland Pipers, owned by a young George Steinbrenner, had won the AAU national championship. At the time, Steinbrenner was considering Lucas as a future pro player, and maneuvered to invite him onto the tour team.
In 1964, Lucas was also part of a team of NBA players that played behind the Iron Curtain in Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia. Having toured the Soviet Union in 1961 as that team's big star, Lucas was reportedly requested by these countries for the 1964 NBA tour. That team was coached by basketball Hall of Famer Red Auerbach and included several Boston Celtics, in addition to his Cincinnati pro teammate, Oscar Robertson.
Professional career
Cleveland Pipers
"I never had any special desire to be a professional basketball player," Lucas later said about his pro career. In 1962, pro basketball had two cash-strapped leagues—the NBA and the startup ABL—and both coveted Lucas because of the crowds he drew.
In the NBA, the Cincinnati Royals had long held that league's rights to Lucas, having drafted him as a high schooler with a territorial selection, which was allowed in the league then. However, Lucas declined their contract offer in May 1962.
This created an opportunity for the other league. The now-ABL Cleveland Pipers drafted Lucas, too. They interested the young star with a rare combination business-player contract offer. As part of the deal, Lucas received ownership stock in the team. The ABL agreed to shorten their season for him as well.
The NBA then made overtures to have the Pipers, with Lucas, jump leagues that summer. When that deal was approved by Steinbrenner, the NBA Royals protested and admission fees were added to the Cleveland deal. Unable to make all of the considerable payments, Steinbrenner's team later collapsed and folded. With the ABL losing their league champion in Cleveland and dropping to just six teams afterward, their league folded as well at the end of 1962.
By then, Lucas had signed a business deal with Cleveland advertisers Howard Marks and Carl Glickman, and spoke often of having an NBA franchise in Cleveland. Because of this contract, he missed the 1962-63 NBA season. When the Marks expansion deal was denied by the NBA, Lucas was released from that contract. He decided he wanted to play pro basketball after all, and the Royals retained his rights.
NBA
Cincinnati Royals (1963-1969)
thumb|180px|Jerry Lucas in 1965
The Cincinnati Royals had reportedly been considering Lucas since before their arrival to the city of Cincinnati in 1957. They had secured rights to him in 1958 and drafted him in 1962. In August 1963, Lucas finally signed with Warren Hensel, who was then in process of briefly becoming the team's owner. Signing the locally well-known Middletown and Ohio State star surged ticket sales for the team which had steadily declined in the two seasons before his signing. Attendance at Royals games doubled during Lucas's first season of 1963-64.
In addition to Lucas, the 1963-64 Royals squad included three NBA All-Stars: Oscar Robertson, Wayne Embry and Jack Twyman. Lucas was moved to the big forward position his first season, and the Royals soon had the second-best record in the NBA that year. His role on the team would again be chiefly rebounding and other support play, but he scored 20 or more points several times, and led the league in field goal percentage as a rookie. Lucas also had four 30-rebound games, and one 40-rebound game on February 29, 1964, and remains the only NBA forward with a 40-rebound game. In the 1964 NBA playoffs, Lucas was injured when a Philadelphia player collided with him from behind. He played through the injury, but never quite recovered his form during the playoffs. In Cincinnati's one playoff game win over Boston, Lucas posted a triple-double game with 16 points, 10 assists, and 25 rebounds, but the Royals lost in the Eastern Conference Finals.
In his second season, 1964-65, Lucas was asked to shoot and score more. In 1964-65 and 1965-66, he enjoyed his best seasons in Cincinnati, with the Royals posting a top 3 finish in the league each season. As one of the NBA's most accurate shooters, Lucas posted two seasons of over 21 points per game as the team's #2 scorer. He also averaged over 20 rebounds per game both seasons. In 1965-66, Lucas averaged 21.1 rebounds over 79 games, with 1668 rebounds total on the season. Those are both still all-time rebounding marks for NBA forwards. In addition to his scoring, rebounding, and shooting, Lucas made a name for himself as a big minutes man. In a sport where a regulation NBA game is 48 minutes, Lucas routinely played 43-44 minutes per game at two positions, starting forward, then backup center. Knee pain was still a big concern, and after the 1965-66 season, he nearly retired, but he found a prescription anti-inflammatory drug that allowed him to continue as a player. In the 1964-65 playoffs, Lucas averaged 23.3 points, 21 rebounds and 48.8 minutes over four games against Philadelphia. In the 1965-66 playoffs, he averaged 21.4 points, 20.2 rebounds and 46.2 minutes over the best-of-five series. He had again been injured in the 1966 playoffs, accidentally undercut from behind by a teammate, but still toughed through big minutes of play. He was named Most Valuable Player of the 1965 NBA All-Star Game in St. Louis, having scored 26 points. In the 1966 All-Star Game held in Cincinnati, he collected a team-high 19 rebounds for the East.
In the fall of 1966, the Royals announced the move of nine or more home games to Cleveland, where the team hoped to use Lucas, the former would-be ABL Piper, as a popular crowd draw. He was becoming a heavier player who weighed 240-250 pounds, but he still was a starting East All-Star.
With the team declining at this point, and with his own health concerns, Lucas focused more on off-court business. As a cutting-edge corporate athlete, he sought endorsements. He also studied investment opportunities and tax shelters. By 1968, Lucas was reportedly worth over a million dollars, most of it built on off-court investments. There were only two or three other millionaire players in the NBA at that time. His most famous investment was his growing fast-food chain, Jerry Lucas Beef N Shakes. Lucas also created a number of children's games during this period, starting his own toys and games company. He published a book on the many magic card tricks he often performed himself.
Healthier in 1967-68, he bounced back to postseason averages of 21.5 points per game, 52% shooting, 19 rebounds, and 44.1 minutes over all 82 games. He was second in the league to Chamberlain in rebounds and minutes played. He had also topped Bill Russell of Boston by more than 100 rebounds on the season as just the second player ever to out-rebound Russell over a full season. He was First Team All-NBA again, but the Royals missed the playoffs on the last day of the season.
Over 308 games from 1964 to 1968, Lucas averaged 20.5 points and 19.8 rebounds per game. The only other NBA player to be '20-20' as often was Chamberlain. The 1968-69 season saw the Royals briefly in first place early in the season. Tom Van Arsdale had been added to a team that included Robertson, Lucas and Connie Dierking, but the team played 15 regular season home games outside Cincinnati, which increased their traveling. The extra travel caused the team to wear down after their hot start. Lucas played in his sixth straight All-Star Game in 1969.
In 1969, the American economy tightened, and Lucas saw his lines of credit for his many investments close. Overextended on several fronts, his portfolio of investments collapsed. Lucas was soon forced to declare bankruptcy. His popularity among players, some of whom had lost their investments with him, declined markedly for a time.
San Francisco Warriors (1969-1971)
In 1969, Bob Cousy took over as coach of the Royals, who had again missed the playoffs in the tough NBA East Division of the day. Wanting more of a running team, Cousy did not favor Lucas, now a heavier, slower player. But Lucas had a no-trade clause in his contract, and could steer his transfer to a chosen team. He chose San Francisco.
In 1969-70, he suffered a broken hand, and went through a tough season. He bounced back to form in 1970-71, though, bringing himself back into playing shape at 230 pounds. Lucas averaged 19.2 points per game on 50% shooting, 15.8 rebounds and 3.7 assists. He returned to the NBA All-Star Game in 1971 for the seventh and final time. He was fifth in the league in rebounding in an NBA that now had 17 teams. Playing with Nate Thurmond, Clyde Lee, Jeff Mullins and Ron Williams, the .500 Warriors made the 1971 playoffs before losing to a powerful Milwaukee team that later won the 1971 NBA title.
New York Knicks (1971-1974)
By 1971, Lucas had established himself as one of the most accurate shooters and top rebounders in the league. The Warriors, needing a small scoring forward, dealt Lucas to the 1970 NBA Champion New York Knicks in exchange for Cazzie Russell. The Knicks needed a big man to back up their starting center Willis Reed and power forward Dave DeBusschere. However, early in the 1971-72 season, Reed went down with a season-ending injury and Lucas was pressed into service at center. He was the smallest center in the league, and many were skeptical about how Lucas and the Knicks would do with this lineup. But at 31, Lucas had what may have been his best pro season, leading the Knicks in rebounds and shooting accuracy, and second on the team in both scoring and assists to Walt Frazier. His outside shooting, often well past today's three-point line, changed defensive strategies, as opponents were forced to send their big man 20 feet from the basket to guard Lucas.
Lucas shot 51.2% from the floor that season. He was also an outstanding passing center, just as he had been in college. The team was fourth in the NBA in defense with Lucas at center. The Knicks then upset both Baltimore and Boston to make the 1972 NBA finals against Los Angeles. Lucas figured strongly in both series wins. Lucas also played very well, averaging 20.8 points on 50% shooting, 9.8 rebounds, 6.2 assists and 46.6 minutes in the series against the Lakers and Wilt Chamberlain. When Game Four went to overtime, he played all 53 minutes. But New York lost the series.
During this time, Lucas gained some press for a magic trick, "The Phone Book". In it, he memorized about 50 pages of the Manhattan White Pages phone book. After other demonstrations, a party held by writer Dick Schaap and teammate Bill Bradley saw the trick tested by world chess champion Bobby Fischer, who was reportedly astounded.
In 1972-73, Reed, the New York team captain and star, returned. Lucas was sent to the bench for the first time in his career. But, to keep Reed healthy for the playoffs, he still played often. In averaging ten points and seven rebounds, he also averaged 4.5 assists. The team made the NBA finals again, and this time New York won.
This made Lucas one of the first to become a champion at every level of the game - high school, college, Olympics, and NBA (a feat matched by Quinn Buckner, and Magic Johnson).
In the 1973-74 season, the Knicks made a run to repeat as champions, but lost to perennial rival Boston in the Eastern Conference Finals. Lucas played far less and was physically declining in his 11th professional season. The 34-year-old Lucas retired from the NBA following the season. His 15.6 per game career rebounding average is fourth-highest in league history as of 2020, and his 12,942 total is 17th all-time. He is also seventh all-time in minutes played per game, despite being a reserve the last two years of his career.
Legacy
In 1980, he was inducted into the Springfield Basketball Hall of Fame with Oscar Robertson and Jerry West, all in their first year of eligibility. He was selected by the NBA in 1996 as one of its 50 Greatest Players in NBA History, and again in 2021 as part of the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. In 1999 Sports Illustrated named Lucas to their Five Man College Team of the Century. In 2021, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked the top 75 players of all time, and named Lucas as the 72nd greatest player in NBA history.
As an all-time player, Lucas is remembered for his remarkable fame as an amateur player, his dominance as a rebounder, especially for his height, and as a big man with a dangerous long-range shot, a combination unmatched before and only becoming approached since.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 79 || || 41.4 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.527* || || .779 || 17.4 || 2.6 || || || 17.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 66 || || 43.4 || .498 || || .814 || 20.0 || 2.4 || || || 21.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 79 || || 44.5 || .453 || || .787 || 21.1 || 2.7 || || || 21.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| style="background:#cfecec;"|81* || || 43.9 || .459 || || .791 || 19.1 || 3.3 || || || 17.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 82 || || 44.1 || .519 || || .778 || 19.0 || 3.3 || || || 21.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 74 || || 41.6 || .551 || || .755 || 18.4 || 4.1 || || || 18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 4 || || 29.5 || .514 || || .714 || 11.3 || 2.3 || || || 10.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|San Francisco
| 63 || || 36.5 || .507 || || .786 || 14.4 || 2.6 || || || 15.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|San Francisco
| 80 || || 40.6 || .498 || || .787 || 15.8 || 3.7 || || || 19.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 77 || || 38.0 || .512 || || .791 || 13.1 || 4.1 || || || 16.7
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 71 || || 28.2 || .513 || || .800 || 7.2 || 4.5 || || || 9.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 73 || || 22.3 || .462 || || .698 || 5.1 || 3.2 || .4 || .3 || 6.2
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 829 || || 38.8 || .499 || || .783 || 15.6 || 3.3 || .4 || .3 || 17.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 7 || 6 || 26.1 || .547 || || .905 || 9.1 || 1.7 || || || 12.7
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1964
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 10 || || 37.0 || .390 || || .703 || 12.5 || 3.4 || || || 12.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1965
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 4 || || 48.8 || .507 || || .773 || 21.0 || 2.3 || || || 23.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1966
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 5 || || 46.2 || .471 || || .771 || 20.2 || 2.8 || || || 21.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1967
| style="text-align:left;"|Cincinnati
| 4 || || 45.8 || .436 || || 1.000 || 19.3 || 2.0 || || || 12.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1971
| style="text-align:left;"|San Francisco
| 5 || || 34.2 || .506 || || .688 || 10.0 || 3.2 || || || 17.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1972
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 16 || || 46.1 || .500 || || .831 || 10.8 || 5.3 || || || 18.6
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|1973
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 17 || || 21.6 || .482 || || .870 || 5.0 || 2.3 || || || 7.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1974
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 11 || || 10.5 || .238 || || || 2.0 || .8 || .4 || .0 || .9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 72 || || 32.9 || .467 || || .786 || 10.0 || 3.0 || .4 || .0 || 12.4
Post-NBA career
After his NBA career ended, Lucas pursued publishing and educational endeavors. In 1974 he co-authored a New York Times best-seller, The Memory Book, and he developed an educational product he named the Lucas Learning System. Along with multiple editions of The Memory Book, Lucas has written over 70 other books, most of them related to education or memorization.
Personal life
Lucas has been a committed Christian since his final year in the NBA when he memorized large sections of the New Testament, and many of his current speaking engagements are at churches. He was married to Treva Lucas while in college and divorced in 1974. That same year he married contemporary Christian singer Sharalee Beard. In the 1980s he and Sharalee divorced, and Lucas married Cheri Wulff. Lucas and his wife currently live in Gallipolis, Ohio. His younger brother is the former football coach Roy Lucas, who died in 2019.
See also
Mr. Basketball USA
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association players with most rebounds in a game
List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season rebounding leaders
References
External links
Lucas' Basketball Hall of Fame page
NBA biography of Jerry Lucas
Career stats
Hamilton Middletown Rivalry
Memory Book Harry Lorayne Jerry Lucas
Awards
doctormemory
Category:1940 births
Category:Living people
Category:All-American college men's basketball players
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American men's basketball players
Category:Basketball players at the 1960 Summer Olympics
Category:Basketball players from Ohio
Category:Centers (basketball)
Category:Cincinnati Royals draft picks
Category:Cincinnati Royals players
Category:College basketball announcers in the United States
Category:Indiana Wesleyan University
Category:Medalists at the 1960 Summer Olympics
Category:Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars
Category:New York Knicks players
Category:Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball players
Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
Category:Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
Category:Power forwards (basketball)
Category:San Francisco Warriors players
Category:Sportspeople from Middletown, Ohio
Category:United States men's national basketball team players | {"Listed height": "8", "Listed weight": "230", "Born": "Middletown, Ohio, U.S.", "High school": "Middletown (Middletown, Ohio)", "College": "Ohio State (1958-1962)"} |
The Treaty of Hubertusburg () was signed on 15 February 1763 at Hubertusburg Castle by Prussia, Austria and Saxony to end the Third Silesian War. Together with the Treaty of Paris, signed five days earlier, it marked the end of the Seven Years' War. The treaty ended the continental conflict with no significant changes in prewar borders. Austria and Saxony renounced all claims to the Silesian territories ceded to Prussia in the 1742 Treaty of Berlin and the 1745 Treaty of Dresden. Prussia clearly stood among the ranks of the European great powers, while the treaty enhanced the rivalry with Austria.
Background
Austria's resolve to repossess the rich province of Silesia, which had been lost to Prussia in 1748, was the major conflict leading to the Seven Years' War. Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, acquired the support of Russia, Sweden, Saxony, Spain and France, with the specific aim of waging war against Prussia and its ally, Great Britain. It was King Frederick II of Prussia, however, who initiated the hostilities with his attack and capture of Saxony in 1756.
The Seven Years' War started in 1756, with Prussia facing the allied forces of Austria, Russia, France and Sweden. Although in January 1757, the majority of the colleges of the Imperial Diet (minus Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Brunswick and Saxe-Gotha) voted against the move for war, Frederick succeeded in his quest for expanding Prussian influence, power and territory.
Through the first half of the war, the Prussians continued victorious. In the Battle of Rossbach, on 5 November 1757, the Prussian army defeated the French and also Imperial troops. The Prussians defeated the Austrians at Leuthen later in 1757 and the Russians at Zorndorf in 1758.
However, with Sweden entering the war and virtually all of Europe opposing Frederick, the tide seemed to turn. By 1759 eastern Prussia was in the hands of the Russians, and Berlin was occupied for some weeks. Austrian forces had invaded Prussia from the south. Now seriously running short of soldiers, Frederick II was in a desperate situation.
In 1758, the Anglo-Hanoverian army, an ally of Prussia commanded by Ferdinand of Brunswick, defeated the French and occupied the town of Münster. In 1759 Imperial troops invaded Saxony and expelled the Prussians.
Two significant factors, however, led to the eventual return of Prussian dominance in the war. One was the active support of the British and Hanoverians, which had been ineffective combatants but now fought successfully against the French. The second and more important was the withdrawal in 1762 of Russia and Sweden from the war. That occurred as a result of the death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia; her successor, Peter III, an admirer of Frederick, quickly signed a peace treaty with him. By the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, Russia made peace and restored all conquests, and Sweden also made peace that year. This turn in fortune was labeled the Miracle of the House of Brandenburg.
Now fighting alone in the east, the Austrians were soundly defeated in the Battle of Burkersdorf (July 1762). The French, had suffered severe reverses as well. In America, they had lost Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759), and some possessions in the West Indies. In India, the British victories at Plassey (1757) and Pondichéry (1761) had destroyed French power. On the sea, the French took Port Mahón from the British (1757) but were defeated by Hawke in Quiberon Bay (1759). The entry of Spain into the war under the terms of the Family Compact of 1761 was of little help to France, where the war had never been popular.
Aftermath
After protracted negotiations between the war-weary powers, peace was made among Prussia, Austria and Saxony at Hubertusburg and among Great Britain, France and Spain at Paris. The Treaty of Hubertusburg restored the prewar status quo but marked the ascendancy of Prussia as a leading European power. Through the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain emerged as the world's chief colonial empire, which had been its primary goal in the war, and France lost most of its overseas possessions.
The phrase "Hubertsburg Peace" is sometimes used as a description for any treaty that restores the situation existing before conflict broke out.
See also
List of treaties
References
External links
Category:Treaties of the Seven Years' War
Category:1763 in the Habsburg monarchy
Hubertusburg
Hubertusburg, Treaty of
Category:1763 treaties
Hubertusburg
Category:Treaties of the Electorate of Saxony
Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia
Category:1763 in Prussia
Hubertusburg
Category:1763 in the Holy Roman Empire
Category:18th century in Saxony
Category:Treaties of the Silesian Wars
Category:Habsburg monarchy-Prussia relations | {"Name": "Treaty of Hubertusburg", "Image size": "300px", "Image caption": "Hubertusburg about 1763", "Treaty context": "End of the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War)", "Date signed": "yes 1763 2 15", "Location signed": "Electorate of Saxony Hubertusburg, Saxony", "Negotiators": "Prussia 1750 Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg\n Habsburg Monarchy Heinrich Gabriel von Collenbach\n Electorate of Saxony Thomas von Fritsch", "Signatories": "Prussia 1750\n Habsburg Monarchy\n Electorate of Saxony", "Footnotes": "See also: Treaty of Paris (1763)."} |
Lake Neuchâtel ( ; ; ) is a lake primarily in Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. The lake lies mainly in the canton of Neuchâtel, but is also shared by the cantons of Vaud, Fribourg, and Bern. It comprises one of the lakes in the Three Lakes Region (French: Pays des Trois-Lacs, German: Drei-Seen-Land), along with lakes Biel/Bienne and Morat/Murten.
With a surface of , Lake Neuchâtel is the largest lake located entirely in Switzerland and the 59th largest lake in Europe. It is long and at its widest. Its surface is above sea level, and the maximum depth is . The total water volume is . The lake's drainage area is approximately and its culminating point is Le Chasseron at .
In comparison to the Lake Geneva region, the Lake Neuchatel shoreline has experienced significant economic development with the completion of the regional motorway network. It is also known to have housed a Celtic agglomeration on pile-dwellings called La Tène and which gives its name to the second Iron Age.
The lake is fed by the rivers L'Orbe (called La Thielle or La Thièle locally, downstream of the city of Orbe), L'Arnon, L'Areuse, Le Seyon, and La Menthue, as well as by the Canal de la Broye. The Thielle Canal (, ) drains the lake into Lake Biel and is part of regulation system for the lakes and the rivers of the Seeland region.
Lake Neuchâtel was the home of the now extinct species of deepwater trout Salvelinus neocomensis.IUCN Red list
Geography
Lake Neuchatel is situated at the foot of the Jura mountain range, on the Swiss Plateau. Mainly in the French-speaking Swiss Romande, it borders the territory of four cantons: Neuchâtel (), Vaud (), Fribourg () and Bern ().
The lake's main tributaries are the Thiele and the Broye canal which connect it to Lake Morat. It flows into Lake Biel via the Thielle canal (German: Zihlkanal).
Since the Jura water correction in the 19th and 20th centuries, it has served, together with Lake Morat, as a compensation basin for the waters of the Aare flowing into Lake Biel. Indeed, if the level of the latter rises too much, the flow may stop or even go in the opposite direction.
Lake Neuchâtel is long and has a maximum width of . Its maximum depth is and its capacity is estimated at . It is the largest lake located entirely on Swiss territory, considering that Lake Geneva and Lake Constance are shared with neighboring countries.
In the summer of 2021, Lake Neuchatel reached historically high water levels due to widespread flooding over mainland Europe.
History and prehistory
The lake was frequented by prehistoric man as evidenced by the remains (site of the Auvernier lake resort and archeological museum, the Laténium) where bones of brown bear and Eurasian beaver were also found (two species then almost ubiquitous in Europe). Several megalithic monuments line the lake such as the alignment of Clendy and the menhirs of Gorgier, Grandson, Saint-Aubin-Sauges, and Vauroux, as well as an imposing erratic block, the .
When the first Swiss towns appear, Mont Vully, which was a large fortified area of around 50 hectares built around 120 BCE, controlled the lakes of Morat and Neuchâtel while the La Tène area remained nearly unoccupied. What is now Yverdon-les-Bains was located on a barrier island on the other side of the lake, a place of smaller settlement (3 to 4 hectares) occupied from the 4th century BCE, and later fortified in 80 BCE by means of a long and solid rampart with frontal posts (like that of Vully), before this oppidum (Eburodunum) becomes a vicus in the first centuries CE.
The first written mention of the lake dates from the year 998 CE, where a laci everdunensis (or lake of Yverdon, from its Latin name Eburodunum) is mentioned, near which the priory of Bevaix was founded. The name dominates throughout the Middle Ages, co-utilized with the current term Lake Neuchâtel, however, is frequent from the 15th century onwards. The latter became dominant during the 19th century, in particular with the lowering of the level of the lake and the development of the Vaudois railway, which reduced the importance of the Port of Yverdon.
Lake Neuchâtel, and in particular the town of Neuchâtel became a popular tourist destination during the Belle Époque period due to its climate and panoramic views of the Alps.
List of settlements on the lake
Northwestern shore
thumb|left|upright=2.0|Cantonal participation of Lake Neuchâtel
From Yverdon to La Tène (Southwest to Northeast):
Yverdon-les-Bains (VD)
Grandson (VD)
Bonvillars (VD)
Onnens (VD)
Corcelles-près-Concise (VD)
Concise (VD)
Vaumarcus (NE)
Sauges (Saint-Aubin-Sauges) (NE)
Saint-Aubin (Saint-Aubin-Sauges) (NE)
Gorgier, Chez-Le-Bart (Gorgier) (NE)
Bevaix (NE)
Cortaillod (NE)
Areuse (Boudry) (NE)
Colombier (Milvignes) (NE)
Auvernier (Milvignes) (NE)
Serrières (Neuchâtel)
Neuchâtel
Hauterive (NE)
St-Blaise (NE)
Marin-Epagnier (La Tène) (NE)
Southeastern shore
From Yverdon to Gampelen:
Cheseaux (Cheseaux-Noréaz) (VD)
Yvonand (VD)
Cheyres (Cheyres-Châbles) (FR)
Châbles (Cheyres-Châbles) (FR)
Font (Estavayer) (FR)
Estavayer-le-Lac (Estavayer) (FR)
Forel (Estavayer) (FR)
Chevroux (VD)
Pré de Riva (Gletterens) (FR)
Portalban (Delley-Portalban) (FR)
Chabrey (Vully-les-Lacs) (VD)
Champmartin (Cudrefin) (VD)
Cudrefin (VD)
La Sauge (Cudrefin) (VD)
Lindehof, Witzwil (Ins) (BE)
Tannenhof (Gampelen) (BE)
Notes
External links
Waterlevels at the Harbour of Neuchâtel from the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment
L Lake Neuchatel
Neuchatel
Neuchatel
Neuchatel
Neuchatel
Neuchatel
Category:Bern-Fribourg border
Category:Fribourg-Vaud border
Category:Bern-Vaud border
Category:Bern-Neuchâtel border
Category:Ramsar sites in Switzerland | {"Native name": "fr Lac de Neuchâtel frp Lèc de Nôchâtél de Neuenburgersee", "Coordinates": "46 54 N 6 51 E region:CH_type:waterbody_scale:500000 inline,title", "Primary inflows": "L'Orbe (La Thielle), Le Bey, La Brine, L'Arnon, Ruisseau de la Vaux, Le Vivier, L'Areuse, Le Seyon; Canal Oriental, Le Buron, Ruisseau de l'Epena, La Menthue, Ruisseau de Crêt Moron, Ruisseau de Longefont, Ruisseau de Robin, Ruisseau de la Molliette, Canal de la Broye", "Primary outflows": "Zihlkanal / Canal de la Thielle", "Catchment area": "2,670 km2 on", "Basin": "Switzerland", "Max. length": "38.3 km on", "Max. width": "8.2 km on", "Average depth": "64.2 m on", "Max. depth": "152 m on", "Surface elevation": "429 m on", "Settlements": "Neuchâtel, Grandson, Yverdon, Estavayer-le-Lac (see list)"} |
Silver Fox is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She works for the terrorist organization HYDRA and is also known as a former love interest for Wolverine.
The character has appeared in several X-Men animated series and video games, and was portrayed by Lynn Collins in the 2009 film X-Men Origins: Wolverine.
Publication history
Silver Fox first appears in Wolverine vol. 2 #10 and was created by Chris Claremont and John Buscema.
Fictional character biography
Silver Fox is a member of the First Nation Blackfoot Confederacy.Native Americans in Comic Books: A Critical Study In the early to late 1900s, she lived with Wolverine as his lover in Canada. She was allegedly murdered by Sabretooth on Wolverine's birthday,Wolverine vol.2 #10 but is later revealed to be alive and a member of "Team X", the most formidable covert ops team the CIA had to offer. Fox eventually betrays Team X and becomes a member of HYDRA, a subversive terrorist organization.Wolverine vol.2 #20
Silver Fox reappears during the modern period when Wolverine tracks down each member of the Weapon X staff, discovering the studios where many of his memories, which he believes to be real, were staged. Allegedly she kills the professor who had been in charge of the program after Logan left. At this point it is revealed that Silver Fox is in command of a section of HYDRA.Wolverine vol.2 #50
Shortly thereafter, Silver Fox captures the assassin Reiko, and forms an alliance with Reiko's boss, Hand Jonin Matsu'o Tsurayaba. Matsu'o is in the process of trying to buy Clan Yashida's underworld connections before Mariko Yashida severs them entirely. Silver Fox dupes Reiko into poisoning Mariko, giving Matsu'o what he wanted. Silver Fox's motivations in this are unclear.Wolverine vol.2 #56
Later, when Mastodon, a member of the Weapon X Program, dies due to the failure of his anti-aging factor, Silver Fox reunites with Logan, Creed, Maverick, and Wraith. She is cold to Logan, and seems not to remember having spent any pleasant time with him. The group infiltrates a secret base and confronts the man who had implanted them with their false memories: Aldo Ferro, the Psi-Borg. After Carol Hines dies of fright at the hands of Ferro's transformation, Ferro takes control of their minds and this time makes Creed kill Silver Fox.Wolverine vol.2 #64 After Ferro's defeat, Silver Fox was to be buried in Salem Center. At the church, Logan discovered that her body has been prepared for flight. The father at the church notifies Logan that "a brick wall with an eyepatch" gave the order. Suddenly, a S.H.I.E.L.D. carrier arrives with Nick Fury, who states he never imagined the day when a top-ranking HYDRA member would get a full honors S.H.I.E.L.D. burial. Wraith appears as well, having orchestrated the entire funeral, stating "Salem Center meant nothing to her". Wraith tells Logan that they found the cabin where he really had lived with Silver Fox a lifetime ago. He gets permission to bury her there, by himself with only a shovel and uses the part of the door with "Silver Fox + Logan" in a heart that he had carved into it as a headstone.Wolverine vol.2 #65
Before beheading Sabretooth, Wolverine expresses his doubt on whether or not the events of Silver Fox's return actually happened at all, but admits the pain and loss he'd felt again during that time was very much real.Jeph Loeb (w), Wolverine vol. 3 #55
Powers and abilities
Silver Fox possesses an accelerated healing and an age suppressant, allowing her to retain her looks after years of being separated from Logan.
In other media
thumb|200px|right|Maverick and Silver Fox (right) as they appear in X-Men: The Animated Series
250px|right|thumb|Lynn Collins as Kayla Silverfox in X-Men Origins: Wolverine.
Silver Fox appears in the X-Men: The Animated Series episode "Weapon X, Lies and Videotape" as a member of Team X.
Kayla Silverfox appears in X-Men Origins: Wolverine, portrayed by Lynn Collins. This version is of Native American descent, works as a school teacher, has a sister named Emma, and was previously in a relationship with Logan, having given him his codename "Wolverine" after a Native American legend. Additionally, she possesses tactile manipulation, allowing her to persuade anyone she touches into doing whatever she says, though individuals with healing factors such as Logan and Victor Creed prove immune. She reluctantly works with William Stryker and Creed to fake her death and manipulate Logan to save Emma. While working with Logan to save Stryker's mutant captives, Kayla is mortally wounded while Stryker shoots Logan with an adamantium bullet, erasing most of his memories. Before she dies, she forces Stryker to walk perpetually.
Kayla Silverfox appears in the X-Men Origins: Wolverine tie-in game, voiced by April Stewart.
Silver Fox appears in the Wolverine versus Sabretooth motion comic, voiced by Heather Doerksen.
References
External links
Category:Characters created by Chris Claremont
Category:Comics characters introduced in 1989
Category:Fictional Blackfoot people
Category:Fictional Native American people in comics
Category:Fictional characters with memory disorders
Category:Fictional First Nations people
Category:Hydra (comics) agents
Category:Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Category:Marvel Comics female supervillains
Category:Marvel Comics film characters
Category:Marvel Comics mutants
Category:Marvel Comics spies
Category:X-Men supporting characters
Category:Fictional Native American women | {"Species": "Human Mutant", "Publisher": "Marvel Comics", "Created by": "Chris Claremont (writer) John Buscema (artist)", "Team affiliations": "HYDRA Weapon X Team X", "Notable aliases": "Zorra de Plata", "Abilities": "Accelerated healing"} |
The Golestan Palace (, Kākh-e Golestān), also transliterated as the Gulistan Palace and sometimes translated as the Rose Garden Palace from Persian language, was built in the 16th century, renovated in the 18th century and finally rebuilt in 1865. It is the former official royal Qajar complex in Tehran.
One of the oldest historic monuments in the city of Tehran, and of world heritage status, the Golestan Palace belongs to a group of royal buildings that were once enclosed within the mud-thatched walls of Tehran's arg ("citadel"). It consists of gardens, royal buildings, and collections of Iranian crafts and European presents from the 18th and 19th centuries.
History
Tehran's arg ("citadel") was built during the reign of Tahmasp I (r. 1524-1576) of the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), and was later renovated by Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty (r. 1750-1779). Agha Mohammad Khan of the Qajar dynasty (1742-1797) chose Tehran as his capital. The arg became the seat of the Qajars (1794-1925). The court and palace of Golestan became the official residence of the Qajar dynasty. The palace was rebuilt to its current form in 1865 by Haji Ab ol Hasan Mimar Navai.
During the Pahlavi era (1925-1979), the Golestan Palace was used for formal royal receptions, and the Pahlavi dynasty built their own palace (the Niavaran Complex) in Niavaran. The most important ceremonies held in the palace during the Pahlavi era were the coronation of Reza Shah (r. 1925-1941) on the Marble Throne and the coronation of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941 - 1979) in the Museum Hall.
In between 1925 and 1945, a large portion of the buildings of the complex were destroyed on the orders of Reza Shah. He believed that the centuries-old Qajar palace should not hinder the growth of a modern city. In the place of the old buildings, commercial buildings with the modern style of 1950s and 1960s were erected.
Sites
The complex of Golestan Palace consists of 17 structures, including palaces, museums, and halls. Almost all of this complex was built during the 131 years rule of the Qajar kings. These palaces were used for many occasions such as coronations and other important celebrations. It also consists of three main archives, including the photographic archive, the library of manuscripts, and the archive of documents.
Marble Throne (Takht e Marmar)
thumb|right|The Marble Throne
This spectacular terrace, known as the Marble Throne, was built in 1806 by the order of Fath Ali Shah of the Qajar dynasty (r. 1797-1834). Adorned by paintings, marble-carvings, tile-work, stucco, mirrors, enamel, woodcarvings, and lattice windows, the throne embodies the finest of Iranian architecture. The Marble Throne is one of the oldest buildings of the historic arg. It is situated in the middle of the terrace (iwan), and is made of the famous yellow marble of Yazd Province.
The throne is made of sixty-five pieces of marble, and was designed by Mirza Baba Naqash Bashi ("head painter") of the Qajar court. Mohammad Ebrahim, the Royal Mason, oversaw the construction and several celebrated masters of the time worked on the execution of this masterpiece. The architectural details, and other ornaments of the terrace, were completed during the reigns of Fath Ali Shah and Nasser ed Din Shah (r. 1848-1896).
Coronations of the Qajar kings and formal court ceremonies were held on this terrace. The last coronation to be held at the Marble Throne was the coronation of Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty, in 1925.
Karim Khani Nook (Khalvat e Karim Khani)
Dating back to 1759, this building was a part of the interior residence of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty. The basic structure of the Karim Khani Nook is similar to the Marble Throne. Like the latter, it is a terrace. There is a small marble throne inside the terrace. The structure is much smaller than the Marble Throne and it has much less ornamentation. There was once a small pond with a fountain in the middle of this terrace. Water from a subterranean stream (the king's qanat) flowed from the fountain into the pond and was later used to irrigate the palace grounds.
Nasser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty was fond of this corner of the Golestan Palace. He is said to have spent much time here in rest and repose, smoking his water-pipe in quiet reflection. In fact, some believe that it was Nasser od Din who dubbed the structure Khalvat (nook). It seems extraordinary, but the valuable gravestone of Nasser ed Din Shah finally found its way to this quiet corner of the palace after being misplaced for some time. The marble stone, with an engraving of Nasser ed Din Shah's image, is indeed a sight to behold.
Pond House (Howz Khaneh)
thumb|right|200px|The Pond House, painted by Kamal ol Molk.
Works of European painters presented to the Qajar court are housed at the Pond House.
The Pond House was used as a summer chamber during the Qajar era. A special cooling system pumped water from a subterranean system of streams into small ponds inside the chambers. The system was designed to pass through as many summer rooms as was necessary. The water was then channeled outside to irrigate the royal gardens. Due to the harmful effects of humidity, this system is no longer in use.
Brilliant Hall (Talar e Brelian)
thumb|Talar e Brelian (Brilliant Hall).
The Brilliant Hall was named so for it is adorned by the brilliant mirror work of Iranian artisans. The hall was built by the order of Nasser ed Din Shah to replace another hall called Talar e Bolour ("the Crystal Hall"). Built by the order of Fath Ali Shah, the Crystal Hall had been laid waste by the damp. The Brilliant Hall is famous for its mirror work and chandeliers. An oil painting by Yahya Khan (Sani ol Molk Ghafari), showing the decorations of this hall before renovations carried out by Mozafar ed Din Shah (r. 1896-1907), exists in the Golestan Palace.
In the ethnography gallery in Horsham Museum of Horsham in the United Kingdom, an Iranian tile is displayed. The tile, according to Dr. Mehdittodjat (the former Deputy Minister of Culture and Higher Education of Iran), comes from the Golestan Palace. It comes from the entrance to the Brilliant Hall and was probably a reject (or may have been retrieved) from the rebuilding of the palace in the period 1867-92. It was found smashed beneath a gatepost in Shipley by Mr. and Mrs. Ayling, who kindly donated it to the Museum. The plaque has been set in plaster, and unfortunately not all the glazed decoration survived.
Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)
This building replaced the building of Narenjestan in the north of the Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj). All the chinaware that were dedicated to Qajar kings by the European kings were taken to this room and were arranged in show cases which were built for this purpose.
Among the chinaware in this hall, these are the most exceptional:
The chinaware that shows the Napoleonic Wars, dedicated by Napoleon Bonaparte.
The chinaware dedicated by Nicholas I of Russia.
The chinaware studded with gems and jewels, dedicated by Queen Victoria.
The chinaware dedicated by Wilhelm II to the Iranian crown prince.
A set made by malachite stone, dedicated by Alexander III of Russia.
Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)
Ivory Hall is a large hall used as a dining room. It was decorated with some gifts presented to Nasser ed Din Shah by European monarchs.
Among the collections of the Golestan Palace, a watercolor by Mahmoud Khan Saba (Malek osh Shoara) shows the exterior view of this hall during the Qajar period.
Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)
thumb|right|250px|Mirror Hall, painted by Kamal ol Molk
The Mirror Hall is the most famous of the halls of the Golestan Palace. This relatively small hall is famous for its extraordinary mirror work. The hall was designed by Haj Abd ol Hossein Memar Bashi (Sanie ol Molk). Yahya Khan (Mowtamed ol Molk), who was the Minister of Architecture, was a consultant for the designer.
Salam Hall (Talar e Salam)
thumb|left|Entrance of Salam Hall
The Salam ("Reception") Hall was originally designed to be a museum. After the Sun Throne (Takht e Khorshid) was moved to the Royal Jewels Museum at the Central Bank of Iran, this hall was designated to hold special receptions in the presence of the king, hence the name Salam Hall.
This hall has exquisite mirror works. The ceiling and walls are decorated with plaster molding, and the floors are covered with mosaic.
During the reign of Nasser ed Din Shah, this hall was used to exhibit Iranian and European paintings alongside gifts presented to the Iranian court. Royal jewels were also exhibited inside glass cases. These jewels are now housed at the Royal Jewels Museum of the Central Bank of Iran.
Diamond Hall (Talar e Almas)
The Diamond Hall is located in the southern wing of the Golestan Palace, next to the building of Windcatchers. It is called Talar e Almas ("the Diamond Hall") because of the exceptional mirror work inside the building.
The construction of this hall dates back to the time of Fath Ali Shah. Nasser ed Din Shah renovated this hall changing its appearance and replacing the hall's ogival arches with Roman ones. He also ordered the walls covered with wallpaper imported from Europe. As the basic structure dates back to the time of Fath Ali Shah, it is only apt that this hall should be devoted to the exhibition of art and handicrafts from that period.
The Windcatcher Building (Emarat e Badgir)
The Windcatcher Building was constructed during the reign of Fath Ali Shah. The building underwent major renovations, including structural changes, during the reign of Nasser ed Din Shah.
A watercolor rendering by Mahmoud Khan (Malek osh Shoara) depicts the original structure prior to renovations.
It is flanked by two rooms known as Gushvar ("corner-like"). There is a central room which boasts the finest stained glass window in the Golestan Palace. Outside, there are four wind towers of blue, yellow and black glazed tiles and a golden cupola.
The Windcatchers are constructed to allow cooling wind to move through the structure.
Edifice of the Sun (Shams ol Emareh)
thumb|left|The Edifice of the Sun
The Edifice of the Sun is considered the most stunning structure of the Golestan Palace.
The idea of building a tall structure came to Nasser ed Din Shah who wanted a structure from which he could have panoramic views of the city.
Designed by Moayer ol Mamalek, construction on this building began in 1865 and was completed two years later. Its architect was Ali Mohammad Kashi.
The building has two identical towers. The exterior views have multiple arches, intricate tile work and ornate windows. This building's two towers are in fact small versions of the Safavid viewing palace of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan.
Museum of Gifts
thumb|300px|Golestan Palace on the reverse of a 1974 5000 Iranian rial banknote
This building is located under the Salam Hall. It is a part of the first Iranian museum, which was built by Mohammad Ebrahim Khan Memar Bashi.
Under the reign of Nasser ed Din Shah, this building was used as a warehouse for the chinaware and silverware which was dedicated to Qajar kings.
By time of the Pahlavi dynasty, this warehouse was turned into a museum to expose the rare gifts which were given to the Qajar kings.
Today, in addition to the gifts, some rare objects are kept at this museum, including:
Helmet of king Ismail I
Bow and arrows of King Nader
Armband of Fath Ali Shah
The collection of Qajar Seals
Agha Mohammad Khan's crown
A decorated ostrich egg
Abyaz Palace
thumb|left|The Abyaz Palace
The Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid sent precious gifts to Nasser ed Din Shah, and reportedly, these gifts were copious and enough to fill a castle. The Qajar monarch decided to build an exhibit hall worthy of these gifts within the confines of the Golestan Palace, and eventually the Abyaz Palace was constructed.
It is believed that Nasser ed Din Shah, himself, designed the structure, with a central hall large enough to house the carpet which was sent by Sultan Abd ol Hamid.
Completed in 1883, the Abyaz ("White") Palace now houses one of the most interesting ethological museums in Iran. It includes a colorful exhibition of traditional Iranian costumes, as well as a folk art exhibition.
Museum Hall
Nasser ed Din Shah was very impressed by the exhibition of artifacts and valuable objects at European museums during his second European tour around 1872. He arrived back in Tehran intent on building a museum hall to exhibit paintings, royal jewels, and other royal artifacts.
The original collection of the Museum Hall is now scattered among Tehran's many museums. However, the paintings of the royal court are now kept at the Golestan Palace, with the European paints housed at the Pond House and the works of Iranian painters housed in the Picture House.
Meant to show the evolution of painting in Iran during the Qajar era, the works of Iranian painters are exhibited in two sections:
Housed in the southern part of the Picture House are the works of early Qajar masters such as Mirza Baba, Mehr Ali Afshar, Ali Akbar Khan (Mozaien od Dowleh) and Ab ol Hassan Sani (Sani ol Molk, the uncle of Kamal ol Molk).
The northern Picture House, was the seat of the Royal Guard during the time of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The northern hall underwent substantial renovations in 1995, and now houses the works of later masters of the Qajar era such as Mahmoud Khan Saba (Malek osh Shoara), Mohammad Gafari Kashani (Kamal ol Molk), Mehri and Mosa Momayez.
Photographic archive
thumb|Photographic archive
There is an early photographic collection at the Golestan complex which includes photos which are mainly related to the time of the 19th-century progress of photography in Europe. It was created by the order of Naser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. It is mentioned that "photography was so common at the royal palace that the king's wives and his servants also took pictures and posed playfully in front of the camera." There is a picture of one servant with flowers decorating his head and shoulders.
Present use
In its present state, Golestan Palace is the result of roughly 400 years of renovations.
On 11 October 2005, the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran submitted the palace to the UNESCO for inclusion into the World Heritage List in 2007. On 23 June 2013, it was proclaimed as world heritage site during the UNESCO meeting in Phnom Penh.
The Golestan Palace is currently operated by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran.
See also
Ferdows Garden
Baharestan
Morvarid Palace
References
Further reading
External links
Official website of Golestan Palace
More details about Golestan Palace
Images of the Golestan Palace marbles, Iran Journal of Architecture, No. 14, October 2004.
Photos from Golestan Palace
Farnāz Khatibi, The First Museum of Iran, Jadid Online, 2008 . A slide show, by Amin Āzād and Farnāz Khatibi, Jadid Online, 2008. (4 min 54 sec).
Information and pictures of Golestan Palace
Horsham Museum with collections database access
Category:Buildings of the Qajar period
Category:Palaces in Tehran
Category:Palaces in Iran
Category:Royal residences in Iran
Category:Museums in Tehran
Category:Persian gardens in Iran
Category:World Heritage Sites in Iran
Category:Historic house museums in Iran
Category:Qajar harem | {"Location": "Tehran, Iran", "Criteria": "Cultural: ii, iii, iv", "Reference": "1422", "Inscription": "2013"} |
Samuel Prescott Bush (October 4, 1863 - February 8, 1948) was an American businessman and industrialist. Bush was the patriarch of the Bush political family. He was the father of U.S. Senator Prescott Bush, the paternal grandfather of former U.S. President George H. W. Bush, and the paternal great-grandfather of former Texas Governor and President George W. Bush and former Florida Governor Jeb Bush. After graduating from the Stevens Institute of Technology, he went on to establish himself as one of the leading industrialists of his era, leaving a lasting impact on history.
Early life
Bush was born in Brick Church, Orange, New Jersey,Bush's obituary in The New York Times, February 8, 1948, incorrectly stated that he was born October 13, 1864 on Staten Island, New York City. to Harriet Eleanor Fay (1829-1924) and Reverend James Smith Bush (1825-1889), an Episcopal priest at Grace Church in Orange. His siblings were James Freeman Bush (1860-1913), Harold Montfort Bush (1871-1945), and Eleanor Bush Woods (1872-1957).
He grew up in New Jersey, San Francisco, and Staten Island, but spent the majority of his adult life in Columbus, Ohio.
Career
Bush graduated from the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1884, where he played on one of the earliest regular college football teams. He took an apprenticeship with the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad at the Logansport, Indiana shops, later transferring to Dennison, Ohio and Columbus, Ohio, where in 1891 he became Master Mechanic, then in 1894 Superintendent of Motive Power. In 1899, he moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin to take the Superintendent of Motive Power position with the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad.
In 1901, Bush returned to Columbus to be general manager of Buckeye Steel Castings Company, which manufactured railway parts. The company was run by Frank Rockefeller, the brother of oil magnate John D. Rockefeller, and among its clients were the railroads controlled by E. H. Harriman. The Bush and Harriman families would be closely associated at least until the end of World War II. In 1908, Rockefeller retired and Bush became president of Buckeye, a position he would hold until 1927, becoming one of the top industrialists of his generation.
Bush was the first president of the Ohio Manufacturers Association,Many sources, including Bush family biographer Kevin Phillips, erroneously state he was first president of the National Association of Manufacturers, which was founded in 1895. and cofounder of the Columbus Academy. Additionally, he was the co-founder of the Scioto Country Club, a golf club in Columbus, Ohio.
Political prominence
In the spring of 1918, banker Bernard Baruch was asked to reorganize the War Industries Board during World War I, and placed several prominent businessmen in key posts. Bush became chief of the Ordnance, Small Arms, and Ammunition Section, with national responsibility for government assistance to and relations with munitions companies.
Bush served on the board of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland (as well as of the Huntington National Bank of Columbus). In 1931, he was appointed to Herbert Hoover's President's Committee for Unemployment Relief, chaired by Walter S. Gifford, then-president of AT&T. He was once recommended to serve on the board of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, but Hoover did not feel he was sufficiently known nationally.
thumb|Headstone
Personal life
On June 20, 1894, he married Flora Sheldon (1872-1920), the daughter of Robert Emmet Sheldon (1845-1917) and Mary Elizabeth Butler (1850-1897). Her maternal grandfather was Courtland Philip Livingston Butler (1812-1891), a member of the Livingston family. Together, they had five children:
Prescott Sheldon Bush (1895-1972), a US Senator, who married Dorothy Walker (1901-1992), daughter of George Herbert Walker; he was the father of President George Herbert Walker Bush and grandfather of President George Walker Bush.
Robert Sheldon Bush (1896-1900), who died in childhood
Mary Eleanor Bush (1897-2001), who married Francis "Frank" House
Margaret Livingston Bush (1899-1993), who married Stuart Holmes Clement (1895-1974) in 1919.
James Smith Bush (1901-1978), a director of the Export-Import Bank, and president of the Northwest International Bank.
His wife, Flora, died on September 4, 1920, in Narragansett, Rhode Island, when she was hit by a car. He later married Martha Bell Carter (1879-1950) of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Bush died on February 8, 1948, aged 84, in Columbus. He is interred at Green Lawn Cemetery in Columbus.
References
External links
Samuel Bush residence
Category:1863 births
Category:1948 deaths
Category:Bolling family of Virginia
Category:Bush family
Category:Businesspeople from New Jersey
Category:Businesspeople from Columbus, Ohio
Category:People from East Orange, New Jersey
Category:Stevens Institute of Technology alumni
Category:People from Dennison, Ohio
Category:American chief executives
Category:American steel industry businesspeople
Category:Stevens Tech Ducks football
Category:Burials at Green Lawn Cemetery (Columbus, Ohio) | {"Name": "Samuel P. Bush", "Birth date": "1863 10 4 y", "Birth place": "Orange, New Jersey, U.S.", "Birth name": "Samuel Prescott Bush", "Death date": "1948 2 8 1863 10 4 y", "Death place": "Columbus, Ohio, U.S.", "Resting place": "Green Lawn Cemetery, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.", "Occupation": "Businessman and industrialist", "Alma mater": "Stevens Institute of Technology (BS)", "Spouse(s)": "Flora Sheldon June 20, 1894 1920 died Martha Bell Carter", "Parent(s)": "James Smith Bush Harriet Eleanor Fay", "Children": "5", "Relatives": "Bush family"} |
The Tennessean (known until 1972
as The Nashville Tennessean) is a daily newspaper in Nashville, Tennessee. Its circulation area covers 39 counties in Middle Tennessee and eight counties in southern Kentucky. It is owned by Gannett, which also owns several smaller community newspapers in Middle Tennessee, including The Dickson Herald, the Gallatin News-Examiner, the Hendersonville Star-News, the Fairview Observer, and the Ashland City Times. Its circulation area overlaps those of the Clarksville Leaf-Chronicle and The Daily News Journal in Murfreesboro, two other independent Gannett papers. The company publishes several specialty publications, including Nashville Lifestyles magazine.
History
The Tennessean, Nashville's daily newspaper, traces its roots back to the Nashville Whig, a weekly paper that began publication on September 1, 1812. The paper underwent various mergers and acquisitions throughout the 19th century, emerging as the Nashville American.
The first issue of the Nashville Tennessean was printed on Sunday May 12, 1907. The paper was founded by Col. Luke Lea, a 28-year-old attorney and local political activist.
In 1910, the publishers purchased a controlling interest in the Nashville American. They began publishing an edition known as The Tennessean American. When the American formally folded in 1911, some of its employees banded together to found the Nashville Democrat. This paper was purchased by the Tennessean in 1913.
In 1931, Col. Luke Lea and his son Luke Lea, Jr. were indicted for their role in the failure of the Central Bank and Trust Co. of Asheville, North Carolina. On March 3, 1933, the newspaper was placed under federal receivership, and Ashland City attorney and former Tennessean editorial writer Littleton J. Pardue was appointed to direct the paper. Under his leadership circulation grew swiftly, but the newspaper continued to lose money.
In 1935, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation acquired a large portion of the paper's outstanding bonds. It eventually sold them to Paul Davis, president of the First American National Bank of Nashville.
Still suffering from effects of the Great Depression, the paper was sold at auction in 1937, when it was purchased for $850,000 by Silliman Evans, Sr. a former reporter for the Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Evans came to an agreement with Nashville Banner publisher James Stahlman to move both newspapers into new offices at 1100 Broadway. He created the Newspaper Printing Corporation as a business agent for both papers. As part of this agreement, the Tennessean ceased publication of its evening editions, and the Banner ceased publication of its Sunday edition. The two newspapers maintained a joint operating agreement from 1937 until the Banner ceased publication February 20, 1998. The two papers operated out of the same building and shared advertising and production staff, but maintained separate (and distinct) ownership and editorial voices.
On June 2, 1955, Silliman Evans Jr. was named president of the paper. After his father died unexpectedly of a heart attack on June 26, the board of the paper elected him publisher, and he became president of the Newspaper Printing Corporation in August.
In 1957, Tennessean cartoonist Tom Little won a Pulitzer Prize for his cartoon, "Wonder Why My Parents Didn't Give Me Salk Shots?", encouraging parents to have their children immunized against polio.
In 1961, Silliman Evans Jr. died of a heart attack at age 36 while on his boat on Old Hickory Lake. Ownership of the newspaper passed to his mother, and several months later his brother Amon Carter Evans was named Chief Executive of the paper.
Tennessean reporters Nat Caldwell and Gene Graham won a Pulitzer Prize in 1962 "[f]or their exclusive disclosure and six years of detailed reporting, under great difficulties, of the undercover cooperation between management interests in the coal industry and the United Mine Workers." In the same year, John Seigenthaler Sr. was named editor of the newspaper. He would earn the additional title of publisher in 1973.
thumb|right|200px|Offices for The Tennessean. The Gannett logo replaced the Nashville Banner logo in 1998.
In 1972, the Gannett Corporation purchased the Nashville Banner from the Stahlman family. In 1979, Gannett sold the Banner to a group of local investors including political figure John Jay Hooker, businessman Brownlee Currey and Franklin banker Irby Simpkins for about $25 million. It then purchased the Tennessean from the Evans family for about $50 million. John Seigenthaler became president, publisher, and editor of the Gannett-owned Tennessean. Historian E. Thomas Wood says that "without question" Seigenthaler ran the newspaper as a liberal one.
In 1976, when it was revealed that Tennessean reporter Jacqueline Srouji had for many years been working as an informant (and possibly agent provocateur) for the FBI, including spying on her colleagues at the paper, Seigenthaler fired her immediately. Srouji claimed that when she had started as a reporter for the Nashville Banner over a decade before, that paper's publisher had encouraged her to hand over information to the FBI."A Special Relationship", TIME, May 24, 1976
In 1989, Frank Sutherland was named editor. He had begun his career as a reporter at the paper in 1963. Seigenthaler retired as publisher in 1991. He was replaced by Craig Moon, who held the post until he moved into a corporate position with Gannett in 2002; Moon was later named publisher of USA Today. Leslie Giallombardo was publisher from 2002 to 2005. Seigenthaler remained "Chairman Emeritus" until he died.
In September 1998, the paper launched Tennessean.com, its news and information website.
Among the notable journalists who have worked for The Tennessean are Vice President Al Gore and his wife Tipper, Pulitzer Prize winning author David Halberstam, and cartoonist Anthony Wright.
In early 2019, The Tennessean confirmed that it would be leaving its long-time headquarters at 1100 Broadway for a smaller facility nearby, and that its printing operations would be consolidated with those of the Gannett-owned Knoxville News-Sentinel at a facility near Knoxville, resulting in much earlier deadlines for its print editions.
In March 2013, The Tennesseans circulation was reported as 100,825 daily (M-F), 102,855 (Sat) and 227,626 (Sun). In contrast, as of November 2, 2005, the paper reported daily circulation of 177,714; Saturday circulation of 199,489 and Sunday circulation of 250,575.
The paper's primary print competitors are the weekly Nashville Scene and the Nashville Business Journal. In 2004 Gannett announced the acquisition of the Franklin Review-Appeal, and The Daily News Journal in Murfreesboro from Morris Multimedia. The Review-Appeal became a supplement of The Tennessean, while the Daily News Journal continued to operate as an independent newspaper.
The paper maintains two Goss Colorliner presses. In 2002, the paper completed installation of a MAN Roland UNISET press, which is now used to print regional editions of USA Today, as well as commercial printing jobs. In early 2019 it was announced that the Tennessean would begin to be printed in Knoxville on presses which it would share with the Knoxville News-Sentinel.
John Seigenthaler joined The Tennessean in 1949, resigning in 1960 to act as Robert F. Kennedy's administrative assistant. He rejoined The Tennessean as editor in 1962, publisher in 1973, and chairman in 1982 before retiring as chairman emeritus in 1991.
Ellen Leifeld was named as publisher in September 2005, succeeding Leslie Giallombardo, who became the newspaper's first female publisher in April 2002. Carol Hudler was named publisher in 2009 when Leifeld retired. Hudler was replaced by Laura Hollingsworth, who was named president and publisher in May 2013.
Frank Sutherland served as editor of the newspaper from 1989–2004. He began his journalism career as a reporter at the paper in the 1960s and returned as editor after a serving in several leadership positions at other newspapers. He announced his retirement in September 2004. He was briefly succeeded by Everett J. Mitchell II, the former managing editor of the Detroit News, who was the first African American to be editor of The Tennessean. In September 2006, Mark Silverman was announced as editor. He was replaced by Maria De Varenne in 2011, who held the executive editor post until February 2014. At that time, Stefanie Murray was named vice president for content and engagement. She was previously an assistant managing editor at the Detroit Free Press.Cavendish, Steve. "Tennessean Hires New VP To Run News Operation", The Nashville Scene, Nashville, February 14, 2014. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
See also
List of newspapers in Tennessee
References
External links
Tennessean.com
Rutherford
Williamson A.M.
Tennessean.com mobile version
Ashland City Times
Dickson Herald
Dickson Shopper
Fairview Observer
Gannett subsidiary profile of The Tennessean
Category:Mass media in Nashville, Tennessee
Category:Newspapers published in Tennessee
Category:Gannett publications
Category:Newspapers established in 1907
Category:1907 establishments in Tennessee | {"Type": "Daily newspaper", "Format": "Broadsheet", "Owner(s)": "Gannett", "Headquarters": "1801 West End AveNashville, Tennessee 37203", "Editor": "Maria De Varenne", "Circulation": "https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1579684/000157968423000014/gci-20221231.htm Form 10-K Gannett Securities & Exchange Commission March 10, 2023", "Website": "http://www.tennessean.com/"} |
Pauline Kael (; June 19, 1919 - September 3, 2001) was an American film critic who wrote for The New Yorker from 1968 to 1991. Known for her "witty, biting, highly opinionated and sharply focused" reviews, Kael's opinions often ran contrary to those of her contemporaries.
One of the most influential American film critics of her era, she left a lasting impression on the art form. Roger Ebert argued in an obituary that Kael "had a more positive influence on the climate for film in America than any other single person over the last three decades". Kael, he said, "had no theory, no rules, no guidelines, no objective standards. You couldn't apply her 'approach' to a film. With her it was all personal." In a blurb for The Age of Movies, a collection of her writings for the Library of America, Ebert wrote that "Like George Bernard Shaw, she wrote reviews that will be read for their style, humor and energy long after some of their subjects have been forgotten." Owen Gleiberman said she "was more than a great critic. She reinvented the form, and pioneered an entire aesthetic of writing."
Early life and education
Kael was born to Isaac Paul Kael and Judith Kael (née Friedman), Jewish emigrants from Poland, on a chicken farm among other Jewish chicken farmers, in Petaluma, California. Her siblings were Louis (1906), Philip (1909), Annie, (1912), and Rose (1913). Her parents lost their farm when Kael was eight, and the family moved to San Francisco. Kael attended Girls High School (San Francisco). In 1936 she matriculated at the University of California, Berkeley, where she studied philosophy, literature, and art, but dropped out in 1940. Kael had intended to go on to law school, but fell in with a group of artists and moved to New York City with the poet Robert Horan.
Three years later, Kael returned to Berkeley and "led a bohemian life," writing plays, and working in experimental film. In 1948, Kael and the filmmaker James Broughton had a daughter, Gina James, whom Kael would raise alone.Seligman (2004). p. 11. Gina had a congenital heart defect through much of her childhood, which Kael could not afford the surgery to correct.Brantley (1996). p. 10. To support her daughter and herself, Kael worked a series of menial jobs such as cook and seamstress, along with stints as an advertising copywriter.
Early career
In 1952, Peter D. Martin, the editor of City Lights magazine overheard Kael arguing about films in a coffeeshop with a friend and asked her to review Charlie Chaplin's Limelight. Kael dubbed the film "Slimelight" and began publishing film criticism regularly in magazines.
Kael later explained her writing style: "I worked to loosen my style—to get away from the term-paper pomposity that we learn at college. I wanted the sentences to breathe, to have the sound of a human voice."Brantley (1996). p. 95. Kael disparaged the supposed critic's ideal of objectivity, referring to it as "saphead objectivity," and incorporated aspects of autobiography into her criticism. In a review of Vittorio De Sica's 1946 neorealist film Shoeshine that has been ranked among her most memorable,Seligman (2004). p. 37. Kael described seeing the film
Kael broadcast many of her early reviews on the alternative public radio station KPFA, in Berkeley, and in 1955, she married Edward Landberg, the owner of the Berkeley Cinema-Guild and Studio. Though their marriage soon ended in divorce, he agreed to pay for Gina's heart surgery, and made Kael the manager of the cinema in 1955, a position she held until 1960. In that role, she programmed the films at the two-screen facility, "unapologetically repeat[ing] her favorites until they also became audience favorites." She also wrote "pungent" capsule reviews of the films, which her patrons began collecting.Thomson, David (2002). "Pauline Kael." The New Biographical Dictionary of Film. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. . p. 449-50.
Going mass-market
Kael continued to juggle writing with other work until she received an offer to publish a book of her criticism. Published in 1965 as I Lost It at the Movies, the collection sold 150,000 paperback copies and was a surprise bestseller. Coinciding with a job at the high-circulation women's magazine McCall's, Kael (as Newsweek put it in a 1966 profile) "went mass."Brantley (1996). p. 3-4.
That same year, she wrote a blistering review of The Sound of Music in McCall's. After mentioning that some of the press had dubbed it "The Sound of Money," Kael called the film's message a "sugarcoated lie that people seem to want to eat." p. 214-5. Although according to legend this review led to her being fired from McCall's (and The New York Times printed as much in Kael's obituary), both Kael and the magazine's editor, Robert Stein, denied this. According to Stein, he fired her "months later, after she kept panning every commercial movie from Lawrence of Arabia and Dr. Zhivago to The Pawnbroker and A Hard Day's Night."
Her dismissal from McCall's led to a stint from 1966 to 1967 at The New Republic, whose editors continually altered Kael's writing without her permission. In October 1967, Kael wrote a lengthy essay on Bonnie and Clyde, which the magazine declined to publish. William Shawn of The New Yorker obtained the piece and ran it in the New Yorker issue of October 21. Kael's rave review was at odds with prevailing opinion, which was that the film was inconsistent, blending comedy and violence. According to critic David Thomson, "she was right about a film that had bewildered many other critics." A few months after the essay ran, Kael quit The New Republic "in despair."Brantley (1996). p. 12 In 1968, Kael was asked by Shawn to join The New Yorker staff; she alternated as film critic every six months with Penelope Gilliatt until 1979, and became sole critic in 1980 after a year's leave of absence working in the film industry.
New Yorker tenure
Initially, many considered her colloquial, brash writing style an odd fit with the sophisticated and genteel New Yorker. Kael remembered "getting a letter from an eminent New Yorker writer suggesting that I was trampling through the pages of the magazine with cowboy boots covered with dung."Seligman (2004). p. 12. During her tenure at the New Yorker, she was able to take advantage of a forum that permitted her to write at length—and with minimal editorial interference—thereby achieving her greatest prominence. By 1968, Time magazine was referring to her as "one of the country's top movie critics."
In 1970, Kael received a George Polk Award for her work as a critic at the New Yorker. She continued to publish collections of her writing with suggestive titles such as Kiss Kiss Bang Bang, When the Lights Go Down, and Taking It All In. Her fourth collection, Deeper into Movies (1973), won the U.S. National Book Award in the Arts and Letters category.
"National Book Awards - 1974". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-10. (With acceptance speech by Kael.)"Arts and Letters" was an award category from 1964 to 1976. It was the first non-fiction book about film to win a National Book Award.
Kael also wrote philosophical essays on movie-going, the modern Hollywood film industry, and what she perceived as the lack of courage on the part of audiences to explore lesser-known, more challenging movies (she rarely used the word "film" to describe films because she felt the word was too elitist). Among her more popular essays were a damning 1973 review of Norman Mailer's semi-fictional Marilyn: a Biography (an account of Marilyn Monroe's life); an incisive 1975 look at Cary Grant's career; and "Raising Kane" (1971), a book-length essay on the authorship of the film Citizen Kane that was the longest piece of sustained writing she had yet done.
Commissioned as an introduction to the shooting script in The Citizen Kane Book, "Raising Kane" was first printed in two consecutive issues of The New Yorker. The essay extended Kael's dispute of the auteur theory, arguing that Herman J. Mankiewicz, co-author of the screenplay, was virtually the sole author of the script and the film's actual guiding force. Kael further alleged that Orson Welles had actively schemed to deprive Mankiewicz of screen credit. Welles considered suing Kael for libel. He was defended by critics, scholars and friends, including Peter Bogdanovich, who rebutted Kael's claims in a 1972 article that included the revelation that Kael had appropriated the extensive research of a UCLA faculty member and did not credit him.
Woody Allen said of Kael, "She has everything that a great critic needs except judgment. And I don't mean that facetiously. She has great passion, terrific wit, wonderful writing style, huge knowledge of film history, but too often what she chooses to extol or fails to see is very surprising."This is Orson Welles, Introduction : My Orson, page xxiii-xv, Da Capo Press, 1998 Edition
Kael battled the editors of the New Yorker as much as her own critics. She fought with William Shawn to review the 1972 pornographic film Deep Throat, though she eventually relented.Davis (2002). p. 32. According to Kael, after reading her negative review of Terrence Malick's 1973 film Badlands, Shawn said, "I guess you didn't know that Terry is like a son to me." Kael responded, "Tough shit, Bill," and her review was printed unchanged. Other than sporadic confrontations with Shawn, Kael said she spent most of her work time at home, writing.Davis (2002). p. 40.
Upon the release of Kael's 1980 collection When the Lights Go Down, her New Yorker colleague Renata Adler published an 8,000-word review in The New York Review of Books that dismissed the book as "jarringly, piece by piece, line by line, and without interruption, worthless." Adler argued that Kael's post-1960s work contained "nothing certainly of intelligence or sensibility" and faulted her "quirks [and] mannerisms," including Kael's repeated use of the "bullying" imperative and rhetorical question. The piece quickly became infamous in literary circles and was described by Time magazine as "the New York literary Mafia['s] bloodiest case of assault and battery in years." Although Kael refused to respond, Adler's review became known as "the most sensational attempt on Kael's reputation";Seligman (2004). p. 137. two decades later, Salon.com referred to Adler's denunciation of Kael as her "most famous single sentence" up to the point of a furore over having written that Judge John Sirica was "a corrupt, incompetent, and dishonest figure, with a close connection to Senator Joseph McCarthy and clear ties to organized crime."
In 1979, Kael accepted an offer from Warren Beatty to be a consultant to Paramount Pictures, but left the position after only a few months to return to writing criticism.
Later years
In the early 1980s, Kael was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, which sometimes has a cognitive component. As her condition worsened, she became increasingly depressed about the state of American films, along with feeling that "I had nothing new to say." In a March 11, 1991, announcement which The New York Times referred to as "earth-shattering," Kael announced her retirement from reviewing films regularly. At the time, Kael explained that she would still write essays for The New Yorker, along with "some reflections and other pieces of writing about movies." Over the next 10 years, however, she published no new work save for an introduction to her 1994 compendium, For Keeps. In the introduction (which was reprinted in The New Yorker), Kael stated, in reference to her film criticism, "I'm frequently asked why I don't write my memoirs. I think I have".
Though she published no new writing of her own, Kael was not averse from giving interviews, occasionally giving her opinion on new films and television shows. In a 1998 interview with Modern Maturity, she said she sometimes regretted not being able to review: "A few years ago when I saw Vanya on 42nd Street, I wanted to blow trumpets. Your trumpets are gone once you've quit." She died at her home in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, on September 3, 2001, at the age of 82.
Opinions
Kael's opinions often ran contrary to the consensus of her fellow critics. Occasionally, she championed films that were considered critical failures, such as The Warriors and Last Tango in Paris. She was not especially cruel to some films that had been deplored by many critics—such as the 1972 Man of La Mancha, in which she praised Sophia Loren's performance. She also panned films that had elsewhere attracted critical admiration, such as Network,Madder Than Hell: How Network Anticipated Contemporary Media - The Atlantic A Woman Under the Influence ("murky, ragmop movie"),Cinema Scope|I Lost It at the Movies: Charlie Kaufman's Antkind and I'm Thinking of Ending Things The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, most experimental cinema (calling it "a creature of publicity and mutual congratulations on artistry"), most student films ("freshmen compositions"), It's a Wonderful Life, ShoahShoah|AV Club ("logy and exhausting"),Five Classic Pauline Kael Reviews|The New Yorker Dances with Wolves ("a nature boy movie") and 2001: A Space Odyssey, the last of which Kael dubbed a "monumentally unimaginative movie." The originality of her opinions, as well as the forceful way in which she expressed them, won her ardent supporters as well as angry critics and fans.
Kael's reviews included a panning of West Side Story (1961) that drew harsh replies from the film's supporters; ecstatic reviews of Z and MASH that resulted in enormous boosts to those films' popularity; and enthusiastic appraisals of Brian De Palma's early films. Her 'preview' of Robert Altman's film Nashville (1975) appeared in print several months before the film was actually completed, in an attempt to prevent the studio from recutting the film and to catapult it to box-office success.
Kael was an opponent of the auteur theory, criticizing it both in her reviews and in interviews. She preferred to analyze films without thinking about the director's other works. Andrew Sarris, a key proponent of the theory, debated it with Kael in the pages of The New Yorker and various film magazines. Kael argued that a film should be considered a collaborative effort. In "Raising Kane" (1971), an essay she wrote on Orson Welles' Citizen Kane, she points out how the film made extensive use of the distinctive talents of co-writer Herman J. Mankiewicz and cinematographer Gregg Toland.Kael, Pauline, "Raising Kane," The New Yorker, February 20, 1971.
Views on violence
Kael had a taste for antihero films that violated taboos involving sex and violence; this reportedly alienated some of her readers. However, she panned Midnight Cowboy (1969), the X-rated antihero film that won an Oscar for Best Picture. She also had a strong dislike for films that she felt were manipulative or appealed in superficial ways to conventional attitudes and feelings. She was particularly critical towards Clint Eastwood: her reviews of his films and acting, even if generally well-favored, were resoundingly negative. She became known as his nemesis.
She was an enthusiastic, if occasionally ambivalent, supporter of Sam Peckinpah and Walter Hill's early work, both of whom specialized in violent action dramas. Her collection 5001 Nights at the Movies includes positive reviews of nearly all of Peckinpah's films, with the exception of The Getaway (1972), as well as Hill's Hard Times (1975), The Warriors (1979), and Southern Comfort (1981). Despite her initial dismissal of John Boorman's Point Blank (1967) for what she felt was its pointless brutality, she later acknowledged it was "intermittently dazzling" with "more energy and invention than Boorman seems to know what to do with ... one comes out exhilarated but bewildered".Kael, Pauline. 5001 Nights at the Movies, Henry Holt and Company, 1991.
However, Kael responded negatively to some action films that she felt pushed what she described as "right wing" or "fascist" agendas. She labeled Don Siegel's Dirty Harry (1971), starring Clint Eastwood, a "right-wing fantasy" and "a remarkably single-minded attack on liberal values." She also called it "fascist medievalism."Kael, Pauline. Deeper into Movies, Warner Books, 1973. In an otherwise extremely positive critique of Peckinpah's Straw Dogs, Kael concluded that the controversial director had made "the first American film that is a fascist work of art".
In her negative review of Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange (1971), Kael explained how she felt some directors who used brutal imagery in their films were desensitizing audiences to violence:
Accusations of homophobia
In his preface to a 1983 interview with Kael for the gay magazine Mandate, Sam Staggs wrote that "she has always carried on a love/hate affair with her gay legions. ... like the bitchiest queen in gay mythology, she has a sharp remark about everything".Brantley (1996). p. 91. In the early 1980s, however, and largely in response to her review of the 1981 drama Rich and Famous, Kael faced notable accusations of homophobia. First remarked upon by Stuart Byron in The Village Voice, according to gay writer Craig Seligman the accusations eventually "took on a life of their own and did real damage to her reputation".Seligman (2004). p. 151.
In her review, Kael called the straight-themed Rich and Famous "more like a homosexual fantasy," saying that one female character's "affairs, with their masochistic overtones, are creepy, because they don't seem like what a woman would get into".Seligman (2004). p. 152. Byron, who "hit the ceiling" after reading the review, was joined by The Celluloid Closet author Vito Russo, who argued that Kael equated promiscuity with homosexuality, "as though straight women have never been promiscuous or been given the permission to be promiscuous."
In response to her review of Rich and Famous, several critics reappraised Kael's earlier reviews of gay-themed films, including a wisecrack Kael made about the gay-themed The Children's Hour: "I always thought this was why lesbians needed sympathy—that there isn't much they can do."Seligman (2004). p. 155. Craig Seligman has defended Kael, saying that these remarks showed "enough ease with the topic to be able to crack jokes—in a dark period when other reviewers. ... 'felt that if homosexuality were not a crime it would spread.Seligman (2004). p. 156. Kael herself rejected the accusations as "craziness", adding, "I don't see how anybody who took the trouble to check out what I've actually written about movies with homosexual elements in them could believe that stuff."Brantley (1996). p. 96.
Nixon quote
In December 1972, a month after U.S. President Richard Nixon was reelected in a landslide victory, Kael gave a lecture at the Modern Language Association, during which she said, "I live in a rather special world. I only know one person who voted for Nixon. Where they [Nixon's other supporters] are I don't know. They're outside my ken. But sometimes when I'm in a theater I can feel them." An article on the lecture in The New York Times included this quote.
Kael was subsequently misquoted as having said, "I can't believe Nixon won. I don't know anyone who voted for him" or a similar sentiment that expressed surprise at the election result. This misquote became an urban legend, and has been cited by conservatives (such as Bernard Goldberg, in his 2001 book Bias) as an example of insularity among the liberal elite. The alleged quote has also been variously attributed to other writers, such as Joan Didion.
Influence
As soon as she began writing for The New Yorker, Kael carried a great deal of influence among fellow critics. In the early 1970s, Cinerama distributors "initiate[d] a policy of individual screenings for each critic because her remarks [during the film] were affecting her fellow critics".Brantley (1996). p. 16. In the 1970s and 1980s, Kael cultivated friendships with a group of young, mostly male critics, some of whom emulated her distinctive writing style. Referred to derisively as the "Paulettes," they came to dominate national film criticism in the 1990s. Critics who have acknowledged Kael's influence include, among many others, A. O. Scott of The New York Times, David Denby and Anthony Lane of The New Yorker, David Edelstein of New York Magazine, Greil Marcus, Elvis Mitchell,"Q&A: Elvis Mitchell: Part 1", Undercover Black Man, March 5, 2007. Michael Sragow, Armond White, and Stephanie Zacharek of Salon. It was repeatedly alleged that, after her retirement, Kael's "most ardent devotees deliberate[d] with each other [to] forge a common School of Pauline position" before their reviews were written. When confronted with the rumor that she ran "a conspiratorial network of young critics," Kael said she believed that critics imitated her style rather than her actual opinions, stating, "A number of critics take phrases and attitudes from me, and those takings stick out—they're not integral to the writer's temperament or approach".
Asked in 1998 if she thought her criticism had affected the way films were made, Kael deflected the question, stating, "If I say yes, I'm an egotist, and if I say no, I've wasted my life". Several directors' careers were profoundly affected by her, most notably that of Taxi Driver screenwriter Paul Schrader, who was accepted at UCLA Film School's graduate program upon Kael's recommendation. Under her mentoring, Schrader worked as a film critic before taking up screenwriting and directing full time. Derek Malcolm, who worked for several decades as a film critic for The Guardian, said: "If a director was praised by Kael, he or she was generally allowed to work, since the money-men knew there would be similar approbation across a wide field of publications". Alternately, Kael was said to have had the power to prevent filmmakers from working; David Lean said that her criticism of his work "kept him from making a movie for 14 years" (referring to the 14-year break between Ryan's Daughter in 1970 and A Passage to India in 1984).
In 1978, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry. In his film Willow (1988), George Lucas named one of the villains "General Kael" after the critic. Kael had often reviewed Lucas's work without enthusiasm; in her own (negative) review of Willow, she described the character as an "hommage à moi".
Though he began directing films after she retired, Quentin Tarantino was also influenced by Kael. While growing up, he read her criticism voraciously and said that Kael was "as influential as any director was in helping me develop my aesthetic". Wes Anderson recounted his efforts to screen his film Rushmore for Kael in a 1999 The New York Times article titled "My Private Screening With Pauline Kael". He later wrote to Kael, commenting: "[Y]our thoughts and writing about the movies [have] been a very important source of inspiration for me and my movies, and I hope you don't regret that". In 1997, cultural critic Camille Paglia described Kael as her second favorite critic (behind Parker Tyler), criticizing Kael's commentary on such films as La Dolce Vita and Last Year at Marienbad but also describing Kael as "unfailingly perceptive [...] [her] tart, lively, colloquial style I thought exactly right for a mass form like the movies." In March 2023, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Tarantino's script for his final film is completed and is called The Movie Critic, based on Kael's career.
In January 2000, filmmaker Michael Moore posted a recollection of Kael's response to his documentary film Roger & Me (1989). Moore wrote that Kael was incensed that she had to watch Roger & Me in a cinema (after Moore refused to send her a tape of the film for her to watch at home), and she resented Roger & Me winning Best Documentary at the 55th New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Moore said:two weeks later, she wrote a nasty, mean review of my film in The New Yorker. It was OK with me that she didn't like the film, and it didn't bother me that she didn't like the point I was making, or even how I was making it. What was so incredibly appalling and shocking is how she printed outright lies about my movie. I had never experienced such a brazen, bald-faced barrage of disinformation. She tried to rewrite history... Her complete fabrication of the facts was so weird, so out there, so obviously made-up, that my first response was this must be a humor piece she had written... But, of course, she wasn't writing comedy. She was a deadly serious historical revisionist.Kael's career is discussed at length in the documentary For the Love of Movies (2009) by critics whose careers she helped shape, such as Owen Gleiberman and Elvis Mitchell, as well as by those who fought with her, such as Andrew Sarris. The film also shows several of Kael's appearances on PBS, including one alongside Woody Allen. Brian Kellow published a biography about Kael in 2011: A Life in the Dark (Viking Press).
Rob Garver's documentary What She Said: The Art of Pauline Kael was released in 2018. With the voice of Sarah Jessica Parker narrating for Kael, the film is a portrait of the work of the film critic and her influence on the male-dominated worlds of cinema and film criticism.
Awards
1964: John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship
1970: George Polk Award, Criticism
1974: National Book Award, Arts and Letters, for Deeper into Movies
1978: Crystal Award, Women in Film Crystal Awards
1980: Muse Award, New York Women in Film & Television
1991: Mel Novikoff Award, San Francisco International Film Festival
1994: Special Award, Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards
1995: Writer Award, Gotham Independent Film Awards
2012: Posthumous induction into the Online Film & Television Association Film Hall of Fame, Behind the Scenes, Film Criticism
Bibliography
Books
thumb|upright|The Citizen Kane Book (1971)
I Lost It at the Movies (1965)
Kiss Kiss Bang Bang (1968)
Going Steady (1969)
The Citizen Kane Book (1971)
Deeper into Movies (1973)
Reeling (1976)
When the Lights Go Down (1980)
5001 Nights at the Movies (1982, revised in 1984 and 1991)
Taking It All In (1984)
State of the Art (1987)
Hooked (1989)
Movie Love (1991)
For Keeps (1994)
Raising Kane, and other essays (1996)
Reviews and essays
"Trash, Art, and the Movies", essay published in the Feb. 1969 issue of Harper's
"Raising Kane", book-length essay on the making of Citizen Kane published in the February 20, 1971 and February 27, 1971 issues of The New Yorker
"Stanley Strangelove", review of A Clockwork Orange from a January 1972 issue of The New Yorker
"The Man From Dream City", profile of Cary Grant from the July 14, 1975 issue of The New Yorker
Reviews Mrs. Soffel, directed by Gillian Armstrong, and The Cotton Club, directed by Francis Ford Coppola
Reviews A Passage to India, directed by David Lean
Reviews Micki and Maude, directed by Blake Edwards; Starman, directed by John Carpenter; The Flamingo Kid, directed by Garry Marshall
See also
Women in film
Andrew Sarris
Auteur theory
Film criticism
The New Yorker
Susan Sontag
References
Works cited
Brantley, Will, ed. (1996). Conversations with Pauline Kael. University Press of Mississippi. .
Further reading
External links
What She Said: The Art of Pauline Kael on IMDb
What She Said: The Art of Pauline Kael official site
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The Hopewell tradition, also called the Hopewell culture and Hopewellian exchange, describes a network of precontact Native American cultures that flourished in settlements along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern Eastern Woodlands from 100 BCE to 500 CE, in the Middle Woodland period. The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society but a widely dispersed set of populations connected by a common network of trade routes.
At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the northern shores of Lake Ontario south to the Crystal River Indian Mounds in modern-day Florida. Within this area, societies exchanged goods and ideas, with the highest amount of activity along waterways, which were the main transportation routes. Peoples within the Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over the territory of what now comprises the mainland United States. Most of the items traded were exotic materials; they were delivered to peoples living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people converted raw materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks. Hopewell communities traded finished goods, such as steatite platform pipes, far and wide; they have been found among grave goods in many burials outside the Midwest.
Origins
Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax.
Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio, where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or, Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois and spread by diffusion... to southern Ohio. Similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. (Dancey 114)
American archaeologist Warren K. Moorehead popularized the term Hopewell after his 1891 and 1892 explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio. The mound group was named after Mordecai Hopewell, whose family then owned the property where the earthworks are sited. What any of the various peoples now classified as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown; indeed, what language families they spoke is unknown. Archaeologists applied the term "Hopewell" to a broad range of cultures. Many of the Hopewell communities were temporary settlements of one to three households near rivers. They practiced a mixture of hunting, gathering, and horticulture.
Politics and hierarchy
The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification. This increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people. In some sites, hunters apparently were given a higher status in the community: their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods.
The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they did not command the kind of centralized power to order armies of slaves or soldiers. These cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of "big-men", leaders whose influence depended on their skill at persuasion in important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps augmented their influence by cultivating reciprocal obligations with other important community members. The emergence of "big-men" was a step toward the development of these societies into highly structured and stratified chiefdoms.
The Hopewell settlements were linked by extensive and complex trading routes; these operated also as communication networks, and were a means to bring people together for important ceremonies.
Mounds
thumb|right|Hopewell mounds from the Mound City Group in Ohio
Today, the best-surviving features of the Hopewell tradition era are earthwork mounds. Researchers have speculated about their purposes and debate continues. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, and were built by cultures following the Hopewell. Eastern Woodlands mounds typically have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. Some of the gigantic sculpted earthworks, described as effigy mounds, were constructed in the shape of animals, birds, or writhing serpents.Nash, Gary B. Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early North America, Los Angeles, California: 2015. Chapter 1, p. 6.
Several scientists, including Bradley T. Lepper, hypothesize that the Octagon, in the Newark Earthworks at Newark, Ohio, was a lunar observatory. He believes that it is oriented to the 18.6-year cycle of minimum and maximum lunar risings and settings on the local horizon. The Octagon covers more than 50 acres, the size of 100 football pitches. John Eddy completed an unpublished survey in 1978, and proposed a lunar major alignment for the Octagon. Ray Hively and Robert Horn of Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, were the first researchers to analyze numerous lunar sightlines at the Newark Earthworks (1982) and the High Banks Works (1984) in Chillicothe, Ohio.
Christopher Turner noted that the Fairground Circle in Newark, Ohio aligns to the sunrise on May 4, i.e. that it marks the May cross-quarter sunrise. In 1983, Turner demonstrated that the Hopeton earthworks encode various sunrise and moonrise patterns, including the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, the cross-quarter days, the lunar maximum events, and the lunar minimum events, due to their precise straight and parallel lines.
William F. Romain has written a book on the subject of "astronomers, geometers, and magicians" at the earthworks.
Many of the mounds also contain various types of human burials, some contiaining precious grave goods such as ornaments of copper, mica and obsidian imported from hundreds of miles away. Stone and ceramics were also fashioned into intricate shapes.
Artwork
The Hopewell created some of the finest craftwork and artwork of the Americas. Most of their works had some religious significance, and their graves were filled with necklaces, ornate carvings made from bone or wood, decorated ceremonial pottery, ear plugs, and pendants. Some graves were lined with woven mats, mica (a mineral consisting of thin glassy sheets), or stones. The Hopewell produced artwork in a greater variety and with more exotic materials than their predecessors the Adena. Grizzly bear teeth, fresh water pearls, sea shells, sharks' teeth, copper, and small quantities of silver were crafted as elegant pieces. The Hopewell artisans were expert carvers of pipestone, and many of the mortuary mounds are full of exquisitely carved statues and pipes.
Excavation of the Mound of Pipes at Mound City found more than 200 stone smoking pipes; these depicted animals and birds in well-realized three-dimensional form. More than 130 such artifacts were excavated from the Tremper site in Scioto County. Some artwork was made from carved human bones. A rare mask found at Mound City was created using a human skull as a face plate.
Hopewell artists created both abstract and realistic portrayals of the human form. One tubular pipe is so accurate in form that the model was identified by researchers as an achondroplastic (chondrodystropic) dwarf. Many other figurines are highly detailed in dress, ornamentation, and hairstyles. An example of the abstract human forms is the "Mica Hand" from the Hopewell Site in Ross County, Ohio. Delicately cut from a piece of mica 11 x 6 in, the hand carving was likely worn or carried for public viewing. They also made beaded work.
File:Hand Hopewell mica.jpg|Carved mica hand, Hopewell Mounds
File:Serpent effigy, Hopewell culture, Turner Group, Mound 4, altar, Little Miami Valley, Ohio, 200 BC to 500 AD, mica - Native American collection - Peabody Museum, Harvard University - DSC06095.jpg|Serpent effigy, Turner Group, Mound 4, Little Miami Valley, OH
File:Hopewell SerpMd pipe points earspool HRoe 2009.jpg| Hopewell pipe, points, and earspool on display at Serpent Mound
File:Adena SerpMd gorget points HRoe 2009.jpg|Gorgets and points from the Adena culture, found at Serpent Mound
File:Hopewell culture nhp raven effigy pipe chillicothe ohio 2006.jpg|Raven effigy pipe, Mound City
File:British Museum otter pipe.jpg|Otter effigy pipe, Mound City
File:Native North American - Bird Figure - Walters 2006155 - Side.jpg|Bird figure, Tremper Mounds
File:Hopewell copper spider.jpg|Copper spider(?) from a Ross County mound
File:Hopewell Bird Head carved on Bone.jpg|Bird head carved on bone, Hopewell Mounds
File:Hopewell culture falcon.jpg|Repoussé copper falcon, Mound City
File:Copper repousse bird anhm.jpg|Repoussé copper falcon at American Museum of Natural History
File:Hopewell Culture Pot.jpg|Pot with a bird design, Hopewell site
Local expressions of Hopewellian traditions
In addition to the noted Ohio Hopewell, a number of other Middle Woodland period cultures are known to have been involved in the Hopewell tradition and participated in the Hopewell exchange network.
Armstrong culture
The Armstrong culture was a Hopewell group in the Big Sandy River Valley of northeastern Kentucky and western West Virginia from 1 to 500 CE. They are thought to have been a regional variant of the Hopewell tradition or a Hopewell-influenced Middle Woodland group who had peacefully mingled with the local Adena peoples. Archaeologist Edward McMichael characterized them as an intrusive Hopewell-like trade culture or a vanguard of Hopewellian tradition that had probably peacefully absorbed the local Adena in the Kanawha River Valley. Their culture and very Late Adena (46PU2) is thought to have slowly evolved into the later Buck Garden people.
Copena culture
The Copena culture was a Hopewellian culture in northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, as well as in other sections of the surrounding region including Kentucky. Researchers developed the Copena name based on the first three letters of copper and the last three letters of the mineral galena, as copper and galena artifacts have often been found with Copena burials.
Crab Orchard culture
thumb|Crab Orchard culture
During the Middle Woodland period, the Crab Orchard culture population increased from a dispersed and sparsely settled Early Woodland pattern to one consisting of small and large base camps. These were concentrated on terrace and floodplain landforms associated with the Ohio River channel in southern Indiana, southern Illinois, and northwestern and western Kentucky. In the far western limits of Crab Orchard culture is the O'byams Fort site. This large earthwork, shaped like a tuning fork, is reminiscent of Ohio Hopewell enclosures. Examples of a type of pottery decoration found at the Mann site are also known from Hopewell sites in Ohio (such as Seip earthworks, Rockhold, Harness, and Turner), as well as from Southeastern sites with Hopewellian assemblages, such as the Miner's Creek site, Leake Mounds, 9HY98, and Mandeville site in Georgia, and the Yearwood site in southern Tennessee.
Goodall focus
The Goodall focus culture occupied Michigan and northern Indiana from around 200 BCE to 500 CE. The Goodall pattern stretched from the southern tip of Lake Michigan, east across northern Indiana, to the Ohio border, then northward, covering central Michigan, almost reaching to Saginaw Bay on the east and Grand Traverse Bay to the north. The culture is named for the Goodall site in northwest Indiana.Hopewell Archeology: The Newsletter of Hopewell Archeology in the Ohio River Valley; 4. "Current Research on the Goodall Focus;" Volume 2, Number 1, October 1996
Havana Hopewell culture
The Havana Hopewell culture was a Hopewellian people in the Illinois and Mississippi river valleys in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri. They are considered ancestral to the groups who eventually formed the Mississippian culture that built Cahokia (in present-day southwestern Illinois) and influenced the hinterlands of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, including into the Appalachian Mountains.
The Toolesboro site is a group of seven burial mounds on a bluff overlooking the Iowa River near its confluence with the Mississippi River. The conical mounds were constructed between 100 BCE and 200 CE. At one time, as many as 12 mounds may have existed. Mound 2, the largest remaining, measures 100 feet in diameter and 8 feet in height. This mound was possibly the largest Hopewell mound in Iowa.
Kansas City Hopewell
At the western edge of the Hopewell interaction sphere is the Kansas City Hopewell. The Renner Village archeological site in Riverside, Missouri, is one of several sites near the junction of Line Creek and the Missouri River. The site contains Hopewell and succeeding Middle Mississippian remains. The Trowbridge archeological site near Kansas City is close to the western limit of the Hopewell. "Hopewell-style" pottery and stone tools, typical of the Illinois and Ohio River valleys, are abundant at the Trowbridge site. Decorated Hopewell-style pottery rarely appears further west.
The Cloverdale site is situated at the mouth of a small valley that opens into the Missouri River Valley, near present-day Saint Joseph, Missouri. It is a multi-component site with evidence of Kansas City Hopewell (around 100 to 500 CE) and Steed-Kisker (around 1200 CE) occupation.
Laurel complex
The Laurel complex was a Native American culture in what is now southern Quebec, southern and northwestern Ontario, and east-central Manitoba in Canada; and northern Michigan, northwestern Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota in the United States. They were the first pottery-using people of Ontario north of the Trent-Severn Waterway. The complex is named after the former unincorporated community of Laurel, Minnesota.
Marksville culture
The Marksville culture was a Hopewellian culture in the Lower Mississippi valley, Yazoo valley, and Tensas valley areas of present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas. It evolved into the Baytown culture and later the Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures. It is named for the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Marksville, Louisiana.
Miller culture
thumb|Miller and Copena cultures
The Miller culture was a Hopewellian culture located in the upper Tombigbee River drainage areas of southwestern Tennessee, northeastern Mississippi, and west-central Alabama, best known from excavations at the Pinson Mounds, Bynum Mounds, Miller (type site), and Pharr Mounds sites. The culture is divided chronologically into two phases, Miller 1 and Miller 2, with a later Miller 3 belonging to the Late Woodland period. Some sites associated with the Miller culture, such as Ingomar Mound and Pinson Mounds on its western periphery, built large platform mounds. Archaeologist speculate the mounds were for feasting rituals. With that purpose, they fundamentally differed from later Mississippian culture platform mounds, which were mortuary and substructure platforms. By the end of the Late Woodland period, about 1000CE, the Miller culture area was absorbed into the succeeding Mississippian culture.
Montane Hopewell
The Montane Hopewell on the Tygart Valley area, an upper branch of the Monongahela River of northern West Virginia, is similar to Armstrong. The pottery and cultural characteristics are also similar to late Ohio Hopewell. They occurred during the neighboring Watson through Buck Garden periods of peoples to the south and westerly in the state. Montane Hopewell is a variant that is a considerable distance from Cole Culture and Peters Phase, or Hopewell central Ohio. According to McMichael, the culture built small, conical mounds in the late Hopewell period; this religion appeared to be waning in terms of being expressed in the daily living activities at these sites. The influence of an elite priest cult, burial phase was centered toward the Midwest states and was less important here.
Ohio Hopewell culture
thumb|right|Map of the archaeological cultures of Ohio
right|thumb|Artists conception of the summer solstice sunrise at the Shriver Circle with the Mound City Group to the left
The greatest concentration of Hopewell ceremonial sites is in the Scioto River Valley (from Columbus to Portsmouth, Ohio) and adjacent Paint Creek valley, centered on Chillicothe, Ohio. These cultural centers typically contained a burial mound and a geometric earthwork complex that covers ten to hundreds of acres, with sparse residential settlements. There is little evidence of large resident populations at the monument complexes.
The Hopewell Culture National Historical Park, encompassing mounds for which the culture is named, is in the Paint Creek Valley just a few miles from Chillicothe, Ohio. Other earthworks in the Chillicothe area include Hopeton, Mound City, Seip Earthworks and Dill Mounds District, High Banks Works, Liberty, Cedar-Bank Works, Anderson, Frankfort, Dunlap, Spruce Hill, Story Mound, and Shriver Circle. When colonial settlers first crossed the Appalachians, after almost a century and a half in North America, they were astounded at these monumental constructions, some of which were as high as 70 feet and covering acres.
The Portsmouth Earthworks were constructed from 100 BCE to 500 CE. It is a large ceremonial center located at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers. Part of this earthwork complex extends across the Ohio River into Kentucky. The earthworks included a northern section consisting of a number of circular enclosures, two large, horseshoe-shaped enclosures, and three sets of parallel-walled roads leading away from this location. One set of walls went to the southwest and may have linked to a large square enclosure located on the Kentucky side of the Ohio River. Another set of walls led to the southeast, where it crossed the Ohio River and continued to the Biggs site, a complicated circular enclosure surrounding a conical mound. The third set of walls went to the northwest for an undetermined distance, in the direction of the Tremper site.
Point Peninsula complex
The Point Peninsula complex was a Native American culture located in present-day Ontario, Canada and New York, United States, during the Middle Woodland period. It is thought to have been influenced by the Hopewell traditions of the Ohio River valley. This influence seems to have ended about 250 CE, after which burial ceremonialism was no longer practiced.
Saugeen complex
The Saugeen complex was a Native American culture located around the southeast shores of Lake Huron and the Bruce Peninsula, around the London, Ontario area, and possibly as far east as the Grand River in Canada. Some evidence exists that the Saugeen complex people of the Bruce Peninsula may have evolved into the historic Odawa people, also known as the Ottawa.
Swift Creek culture
The Swift Creek culture was a Middle Woodland period archaeological culture in the southeast of the United States (present-day Georgia, Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee) dating to around 100-700 CE.
Wilhelm culture
The Wilhelm culture (1 to 500 CE), Hopewellian influenced, appeared in the Northern Panhandle of West Virginia. They were contemporaneous to Armstrong central in the Big Sandy valley, nearly 200 miles downstream on the Ohio River. They were surrounded by peoples who made Watson-styled pottery, with a Z-twist cordage finished surface.Peterson map 5.1 1996-08:91; Maslowski 1973, 1978a, 1980, 1984a: "Cordage Twist and Ethnicity" Wilhelm pottery was similar to Armstrong pottery, but not as well made. Pipe fragments appear to be the platform-base type.
Small earthwork mounds were built around individual burials in stone-lined graves (cists). These were covered over together under a single large mound.
Little studied are their four reported village sites, which appear to have been abandoned by about 500 CE. Today, new local researchers are looking at this area period and may provide future insight.
Cultural decline
thumb|upright|Sinnissippi Mounds, Sinnissippi Park, Sterling, Illinois
Around 500 CE, the Hopewell exchange ceased, mound building stopped, and characteristic art forms were no longer produced. War is a possible cause, as villages dating to the Late Woodland period shifted to larger communities protected by palisade walls and ditches. Colder climatic conditions could have driven game animals north or west in search of grazing land. The introduction of the bow and arrow may have led to over-hunting of game populations, as well as making warfare more deadly. With fewer people using trade routes, the transmission of traditions may have dwindled away. The breakdown in social organization could also have resulted from adoption of full-scale agriculture. Conclusive reasons for the evident dispersal of the people have not yet been determined.
See also
List of Hopewell sites
Adena culture
Further reading
A. Martin Byers and DeeAnne Wymer, eds. Hopewell Settlement Patterns, Subsistence, and Symbolic Landscapes (University Press of Florida, 2010); 400 pages
Christopher Carr and D. Troy Case, eds. Gathering Hopewell: Society, Ritual, and Ritual Interaction (Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology, Springer Verlag, 2005)' 733 pages
References
External links
Ohio Historical Society's Archaeology Page
Ancient Earthworks of Eastern North America
Octagon Moonrise website
Ohio Memory
Hopewell Culture, National Historical Park, Ohio, NPS
Category:Mound Builders
Category:Woodland period
Category:Archaeological cultures of North America
Category:Great Lakes tribes
Category:Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands
Category:Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands
Category:Classic period in the Americas
Category:3rd-century BC establishments
Category:6th-century disestablishments in North America
Category:Prehistoric cultures in Ohio | {"Culture name": "Hopewell tradition", "Geographical range": "Midwestern United States", "The period of the culture": "Middle Woodland period", "The absolute date range of the culture": "100 BCE to 500 CE", "Major sites": "Newark Earthworks", "Preceded by": "Adena culture", "Followed by": "Fort Ancient, Mississippian culture", "Defined by": "Warren K. Moorehead"} |
thumb|Portrait of Mahendra in Royal Dress
Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (; 11 June 1920 - 31 January 1972) was King of Nepal from 13 March 1955 until his death in 1972, which was due to heart attack as told in an interview by his personal physician Dr. Mrigendra Raj Pandey. Following the 1960 coup d'état, he established the partyless Panchayat system which governed the country for 28 years until the introduction of multiparty democracy in 1990. During his reign, Nepal experienced a period of industrial, political and economic change that opened it to the rest of the world for the first time after the 104-year-long reign of the Rana rulers, who had kept the country under an isolationist policy, came to an end in 1951.
Early life
thumb|During 1932 From left Crown Prince Mahendra, Prince Basundhara and Prince Himalaya Pratap together with their father King Tribhuvan|left
King Mahendra was born in the year 11 June 1920 (1977 B.S) at the Narayanhiti Palace to King Tribhuvan of Nepal. King Mahendra was the eldest child of King Tribhuvan and Queen Kanti. Under the Rana dynasty, the power of the king was reduced to that of a figurehead. Although Tribhuvan was nominally king since 1911, the royal family had been held captive in Narayanhiti Palace since the rise of the prominent Rana dynasty.
Even though he had not taken any official education, he took private education inside the palace and learned politics, economics and Nepali literature, history and culture.
Inside the palace, King Mahendra had a love affair with a concubine, named Geeta Gurung through which a child was born at the age of 13.There was only one child named Rabindra Shah.नेपालको शाह तथा राणा वंशावली: विष्णु प्रसाद श्रेष्ठ Since the concubine was not a Thakuri, his marriage could not take place and the royal family decided to marry their son with the Rana family.
In 1940, He married Indra Rajya Lakshmi, the granddaughter of Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana and daughter of General Hari Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana. Mahendra had three sons, Birendra, Gyanendra, and Dhirendra and three daughters Shanti, Sharada, and Shobha. His first wife, Crown Princess Indra died in 1950.
In 1951 King Tribhuvan launched a successful political movement against the Ranas and established Nepal as a constitutional monarchy. Mahendra was not happy that King Tribhuvan had reduced the rights of the monarchy in the 1951 (2007 B.S) Interim Constitution while bidding farewell to the Rana dynasty after the 1951 revolution.
After the death of his first wife Indra Rajya in 1950, the then Prince Mahendra was in a love affair with sister in law, Ratna, but King Tribhuvan was planning to prevent his son from marrying Rana's daughter Ratna under any circumstances. Prince Mahendra did not like the pressure of his father to marry the girl of his choice. King Tribhuvan, on the other hand, was not in favor of expanding relations with the Rana family, even more so with Shamsher's Clan. King Tribhuvan was outraged by the insult inflicted on him by Juddha Shamsher, but the dispute had been going on for a long time. In 1952, two years after the death of his queen, Mahendra married Indra's younger sister, Ratna Rajya Lakshmi Devi. This created bad relations between him and his father. This marriage produced no children as King Mahendra had married on the condition his personal life should not hinder his national duties and the queen agreed to be childless.
Early reign
thumb|194x194px|Mahendra of Nepal in Coronation, 1955
Mahendra became the king of Nepal as the successor of King Tribhuvan. When King Tribhuvan left for Europe for treatment, Mahendra got the authority from the then King Tribhuvan. He inherited the throne aged 34 as a constitutional monarch. He became king on 13 March 1955 but his coronation took place on 2 May 1956 due to the one year mourning period of death of his father.
Tanka Prasad Acharya's cabinet
On January 27, 1956 (Magha 13, 2012 B.S) King Mahendra appointed Acharya as the Prime Minister of Nepal. The first five-year plan was launched during his tenure as prime minister. During his time, Nepal Rastra Bank and the Supreme Court were established. Acharya's tenure is also seen as a golden age for Nepal in foreign relations. In addition to establishing diplomatic relations with many countries, the government was able to establish close ties with the Chinese government. The Chinese government had provided Rs 60 million to Nepal on 7 October 1956 (Ashwin 22, 2013 B.S). Tanka Prasad Acharya resigned as Prime Minister in July 1957(Ashadha 2014 B.S).
Kunwar Indrajit Singh's cabinet
Kunwar Indrajit Singh was appointed Prime Minister by King Mahendra in 1957 (2014 B.S) His cabinet included Education Minister Mahakavi Laxmi Prasad Devkota. He tenure was mostly spent in attempts to curtail his own enemies He was later replaced by a government led by Suvarna Samsher Rana. According to General Nara Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana, he was dismissed by King Mahendra because he tried to stage a coup against the king and relegate him to a 'puppet king', just like in the Rana days.
Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1959
King Mahendra had promulgated the constitution in 1959(2015 B.S) to take the country towards a parliamentary system. On the basis of the royal announcement on February 1, 1958, a Constitution Drafting Commission was formed on March 27, 1958, to take the country towards a parliamentary system. On the basis of the draft prepared by the Constitution Drafting Commission, the Constitution of the Dominion of Nepal(2015) was announced on February 12, 1959 (Falgun 1, 2015 B.S) from King Mahendra. Sections 73 and 75 came into force on February 12, 1959, and the rest of the sections came into force from June 17, 1959. In that law, which has a bicameral system, the lower house was the House of Representatives and the upper house was the General Assembly. There was a system of 109 members elected from 109 constituencies in the House of Representatives, while in the General Assembly there were 36 members with 18 elected and 18 nominated. Candidates were required to be 25 years of age to become a candidate for the House of Representatives and 30 years of age to be a candidate for the General Assembly. After reaching the age of 21, one could become a voter. The constitution had made the first provision of Public Service Commission which required one-third member to have not had served government job for last 5 years. The arrangement of the Auditor General was also made for the first time while there was no arrangement for an Election Commission. The constitution recognized Nepali as the official language and Devanagari as the official script of the country. The 1959 election was held in accordance with this constitution thumb|187x187px|left|BP Koirala taking oath as 22nd Prime minister of Nepal
General election 1959
In order to elect 109 representatives to the House of Representatives, the lower house of the Parliament of Nepal, the first democratic election of Nepal was held in 45 days from Falgun 7, 2015 until Chaitra 21, 2015. B.S. This election was held in accordance with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1959, which was implemented on Falgun 1, 2015 B.S. The Nepali Congress, achieved two-third majority and merged as the largest party in the election.
BP Council of Ministers
The Nepali Congress, which emerged as the largest party in the election, elected party president B. P. Koirala as the leader of the parliamentary party and fielded him as Nepal's prime minister. On Jestha 13, 2016 B.S. Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala of the Nepali Congress took the oath of office before the then King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah. The first assembly of the house took on 1 July 1959 (Ashadha 17, 2016 B.S.)
1960 coup d'état
On 15 December 1960, King Mahendra used his emergency powers and took charge of the State once again claiming that the Congress government had fostered corruption, promoted party above national interest and failed to maintain law and order. The King suspended the constitution, dissolved the elected parliament, dismissed the cabinet,Mishra, S. G. (1982). "Royal Coup 1960 in Nepal". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 43, 754-765. imposed direct rule and imprisoned the then-prime minister B. P. Koirala and his closest government colleagues. Political parties were outlawed.
Panchayat Regime
On 13 April 1961, Mahendra made a televised appearance, in which he introduced Panchayat, a partyless political system of village, district and national councils. At first, the Nepali Congress leadership propounded a non-violent struggle against the new order and formed alliances with several political parties, including the Gorkha Parishad and the United Democratic Party. However, the king would abolish political activities, jail political dissenters calling them anti-national elements and introduce a new constitution in which the people could elect their representatives, while real power remained in the hands of the monarch.
Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1962
The Constitution Drafting Commission was formed on May 8, 1962, with the then Minister for Finance and Economic Affairs Rishikesh Shah as chairman and Kulshekhar Sharma as Member Secretary and Mrs. Angur Baba Joshi as the only female member. The commission was assigned to submit the draft constitution to the king within 23 days until June 1, 1962. On December 16, 1962, King Mahendra promulgated a new constitution institutionalizing a four-tier Panchayat System. The constitution had a unicameral legislature named as Rashtriya Panchayat. Sovereign power and residual rights were vested in the King based on Article 90. There was a provision that the constitution could be amended by a royal proclamation from the king. This constitution made the provision of Election Commission and the Commission for Prevention of Abuse of Authority for the first time. The arrangement of 6 class organizations was made which could send its class representatives in the Rashtriya Panchayat while the basic duties of citizens were also designated. The Constitution officially recognized Hindu religion as the national religion and introduced country's first national anthem by giving official recognition to Shriman Gambhir. It also introduced the new modernized national flag of the country and therewith introduced the method to draw out the flag for the first time . In addition to that, it introduced national emblem such as Lali gurans as the national flower, crimson colour as the national colour, the cow as the national animal and Danphe as the national bird of Nepal.
The constitution, which has been amended 3 times, was first amended on January 27, 1967. Through the first amendment, the various English words used in the constitution were replaced with Nepali, Nepal was divided into 14 zones and 75 districts and the arrangement of zonal commissioner was made. The constitution would officially abolish political parties and substitute a "National Guidance" system based on local panchayat led directly by the king.
Panchayat election 1963
The first elections to the National Panchayat took place in March and April 1963.The panchayat election of 1963 was held on the basis of constitution of kingdom of Nepal 1962. Although political parties officially were banned and the major opposition parties publicly refused to participate, about one-third of the members of the legislative were associated with the Nepali Congress. There were 4,000 village assemblies at the local level, electing nine members of the village assemblies, who in turn elected a mayor . Each village assemblies sent a member to sit on one of seventy-five district panchayat, representing from forty to seventy villages; one-third of the members of these assemblies were chosen by the town panchayat. Members of the district panchayat elected representatives to fourteen zone assemblies functioning as electoral colleges for the National Panchayat in Kathmandu. In addition, there were class organizations at village, district, and zonal levels for peasants, youth, women, elders, laborers, and ex-soldiers, who elected their own representatives to assemblies.
Panchayat system (1962-1972)
thumb|King Mahendra and Queen Ratna in 1957|150x150pxAdopted on the second anniversary of the royal coup and founded on the idea of having a system "suitable to the soil", the new constitution, created a four-tier Panchayat System. The National Panchayat of about ninety members could not criticize the royal government, debate the principles of partyless democracy, introduce budgetary bills without royal approval, or enact bills without approval of the king. Mahendra was supreme commander of the armed forces, appointed (and had the power to remove) members of the Supreme Court, appointed the Public Service Commission to oversee the civil service, and could change any judicial decision or amend the constitution at any time. To many of the unlettered citizens of the country, the king was a spiritual force as well, representing the god Vishnu upholding dharma on earth. Within a span of ten years, the king had, in effect, reclaimed the unlimited power exercised by Prithvi Narayan Shah in the eighteenth century.
Support of the king by the army and the government bureaucracy prevented opposition to his rule from developing within the Panchayat System. Real power came from the king's secretariat, and in the countryside influence rested in the offices of zonal commissioners and their official staffs or the parallel system of development officers. The Nepali Congress leadership made increasingly conciliatory statements and began to announce its faith in democratic ideals under the leadership of the king. In 1968 the king began to release political prisoners, including B. P. Koirala, who was freed on 30 October. At this point, a three-way split developed in the Nepali Congress. B.P. Koirala went to India, where he headed a wing committed to democratic revolution and violent overthrow of the Panchayat System. He was a symbol for youth but powerless politically. Subarna Shamsher's wing continued to advocate local cooperation with the king outside the Panchayat System. A third wing tried to work within the Panchayat System in the expectation that it would evolve into a democratic system. The disunity of the political opposition left King Mahendra to do as he wished.
Attempts to overthrow the regime
There were multiple struggles and attempts to remove the king from power both before and during the Panchayat regime.
1957 coup d'état attempt
King Mahendra used his residual power of Royal prerogative of mercy and pardoned KI Singh in 1955 when he was declared a traitor and rebellion against the state by former state powers. He was then allowed to enter the country and listening to his nationalist view, KI Singh was appointed Prime Minister by King Mahendra in 1957. He tenure was mostly spent in attempts to curtail his enemies while he also tried to stage a coup against the king with the help of the army. However, the head of the army, General Nar Shamsher, being loyal to the king informed him about the coup and KI Singh was immediately dismissed.
Janakpur bomb incident
On January 22, 1962, King Mahendra visited the Janaki Mandir temple after completing his eastern tour. Arvind Kumar Thakur and other anti-panchayat youths under the leadership of Durgananda Jha threw a bomb at the car he was traveling in when he was returning to the arena after performing religious visit. Fifty nine people were arrested on the charge of their involvement in the incident and a special court was formed to investigate the incident. The court found three people, Durgananda Jha, Arvind Kumar Thakur and Dal Singh Thapa, guilty on July 3, 1962. They were slapped death penalty on grounds of treason and rebellion on September 4, 1963, after the introduction of new Nation's Legal Code (Muluki Ain) on 17 August 1963 since the old law did not allow the punishment of a person of Brahmin descent. On January 29, 1964, Durgananda Jha was hanged until death while Arvind Kumar Thakur and Dal Singh Thapa had their sentenced changed to life time imprisonment.
Notable works and improvements
Promotion of nationalism
thumb|183x183px|The current flag institutionalized by the constitution
King Mahendra's role in the promotion of nationalism has been unforgettable. In nearly two centuries since Prithvi Narayan Shah, Nepal was administered as a single political entity from Kathmandu and was treated as a single country by its neighbouring powers including like China, India and Tibet but its citizens never had a unified sense of "Nepali-ness".Mocko, A. T. (2016). Demoting Vishnu: ritual, politics, and the unraveling of Nepal's Hindu monarchy. Oxford University Press. page 36-37 Even the citizens of the country did not know where and what Nepal was. calling Kathmandu valley as Nepal, lower plains around Birgunj, Biratnagar area as Madesh, upper gorkha region as Gorkha, and western Nepal as Khas and even the king as Gorkhali King rather than a king of Nepal.Rana, Mani, and Dhurba Hari Adhikari. Interview with B P Koirala (in Nepali), BBC London, 9 Nov. 2020, Accessed 26 July 2022. It is said that Nepal was built before, but Nepal as a political boundary and country was institutionalized by King Mahendra. Before 1960, foreigners were free to purchase land in Nepal. After coup d'état of 1960, King Mahendra banned foreigners from purchasing land in Nepal. At that moment there was no single mother language used by the whole nation, and Nepalese were increasingly influenced from foreign languages. Indian cultures, Indian cinemas, teaching of Hindi language in the schools were all the signs leading towards the amalgamation of Nepal into India. Mahendra was uncomfortable with the widespread changes happening in the country: a diverse elected cabinet under BP Koirala; political parties in the Terai advocating for an autonomous province; and Hindi, lingua franca of the people of Indian origin, being spoken in Parliament. The king was troubled by how democracy had allowed people to assert their identity and culture forcing communalism, regionalism, and other anti-national motives .Bhandari, S. (2014). Self-determination & constitution making in Nepal. Constituent Assembly. When Hindi dominance was increasing in communities, he devised the policy of national language by selecting Khas Kura as the national language as it was the lingua franca and made it nationwide. The language was transformed from lingua franca, to official language and then later to national language. By establishing the Nepal Rastra Bank, King Mahendra made Nepali currency compulsory throughout the kingdom. At that time, 90 percent of Indian currency was in circulation in Nepal. By creating a distinct language, distinct currency, distinct dress, distinct political system and distinct religious identity from those of the neighbouring nations, Mahendra created a distinct identity of the people which in turn promoted national unity and nationality.Bandhu, C. M. (1989). The role of the Nepali language in establishing the national unity and identity of Nepal. King Mahendra personally funded 2 lakh 50 thousand rupees to build a martyr's gate at Bhadrakali, Kathmandu in order to honor the great martyrs who died for the rights and democracy of the people during the rana regime.
He is also credited for introducing country's first national anthem by giving official recognition to Shriman Gambhir. The constitution introduced by King Mahendra in 1962 introduced the modern national flag of the country which is being used until today. In 1955 King Mahendra appointed a commission headed by famous writer Balkrishna Sama to make nominations of National heroes of Nepal since ancient times on the basis of their contributions to the nation.
Diplomatic campaign
thumb|King Mahendra of Nepal met with Chivu Stoica in 1967 in Bucharest, Romania.
The role played by Mahendra in establishing Nepal in the international arena is important. From the thought of achieving membership of the United Nations to establishing Nepal as a zone of peace major attributions goes to King Mahendra. Adopting the principle of Panchsheel and non-aligned foreign policy, he maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring countries and kept them in balance.Adhikari, M. (2012). Between the Dragon and the Elephant: Nepal's Neutrality Conundrum. Indian Journal of Asian Affairs, 25 (1/2), 83-97. King Mahendra established diplomatic relations with 45 countries to show the world that Nepal is an independent nation.
In 2012 B.S, Nepal also became a member of the United Nations. Rishikesh Shah then became the Permanent Representative to the United Nations. On Magha 13, 2012 B.S, King Mahendra appointed Acharya as the Prime Minister of Nepal. He established friendly relations by visiting China and Japan. Under his guidance and policy, Nepal was elected as a Member of United Nations Security Council in 1969.U.N. General Assembly, 25th session. Official Record of One Thousand Seven Hundred and Ninth Meeting Held at Headquarters, New York, On Friday, 1 November 1968. (A/PV.1709) 1 November 1968. Nepal was elected in the Security Council the second time again in 1988. Nepal established its image as a committed member of the UN and Nepal was well recognized by the member countries. Nepal's active role and the role she played on the Security Council twice are the proof of a success policy guided by the King.
King's tenure is also seen as a golden age for Nepal in foreign relations. In addition to establishing diplomatic relations with many countries, the government was able to establish close ties with the Chinese government. He pursued a foreign policy of neutrality between China and India. One of the historical diplomatic achievement of king Mahendra is his success in Nepal-China Boundary Treaty of 1961. The border adjustments was made on grounds of equality by performing land-swapping with Nepal gaining more land than it gave. After the treaty Nepal gained 302.75 square kilometer more land from China.Shrestha, B. N. (2013). The natural environment and the shifting borders of Nepal. Eurasia Border Review, 4 (2), 57-74.
Development policy
thumb|Stamp introduced for promoting Back to the Village National Campaign
King Mahendra introduced five years government plans to plan and oversee development in the country. Seeing the importance of planning in better development, the king established the National Planning Commission in 2013 BS. For the first time the industrial policy of 1957 formally recognized the responsibility of the government in "promoting, assisting and regulating" industrial development in the country and the First Plan intended to establish state monopolies in the fields of transportation, telecommunication, hydro-electric power generation and irrigation, and to run some big industries, such as cement, sugar, cigarettes, textiles, iron and steel Paudel, H. (2006). The implementation of privatisation policy: case studies from Nepal (Doctoral dissertation, Bonn, Univ., Diss., 2005). From 1960 to 1965, government's population policy was to resettle people from the Hills to the Terai. However, in 1965, King Mahendra formally endorsed a new population policy to bring equilibrium between population and economic growth. The official policy was firstly to reduce population growth through socio-economic change, secondly through family planning program and only then through resettlement. Following the promulgation of Nepal Electricity Corporation Act 2019, Nepal Electricity Corporation (NEC) came into operation in 1962 which was the main authority for responsible for providing electricity to the citizens.Shrestha, H. M. (2017). Facts and figures about hydropower development in Nepal Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment, 20, 1-5. The provision of planning for five years known as the five-year plan started during his reign from 1956. He introduced Company Act for the first time in Nepal on 1964 to facilitate and manage the industrialization of the economy. The highway built by the king has greatly contributed to the all round socio-economic development of the country. He launched the Back to the Village National Campaign in 1967 which was one of his largest rural development efforts. He established Nepal Sports Council to oversee the development of the sports activities in the country.
Economic reforms
Before 1956, Nepal did not have its own foreign currency reserve but rather maintained it in central bank of India. For getting the foreign currency amounts required to bear the expenses of Nepalese Embassies and treatment expenses of King, an application had to be submitted to the Reserve Bank of India. One of the problems that distressed Nepalese economy was the circulation of two types of currency, Nepalese and Indian simultaneously. Nepal had a dominant use of Indian rupee. Exchange rates between the Indian and Nepali currency were fixed by local traders. Between 2007 and 2011 B.S, Nepal's economic dependence on India was 95 percent. Seeing this, King Mahendra, established a central bank on 26 April 1956 in order to reduce dependence on India, replace Indian currency being circulated in the market and strengthen the countries' sovereignty by making Nepal independent in foreign currency exchange. Mahendra had managed to bring this dependency below 60 percent.
The responsibility of notes issuance was transferred from "Sadar Muluki khana" (Central Treasury) to the NRB. On 19 February 1960, NRB released its first bank notes in the denomination of Mohru 1. The Nepal Rastra Bank Act, 1955 and Later, the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1963 and Nepal's choice for a fixed exchange rate with Indian Currency along with supporting government policies contributed significantly in stabilizing confidence in both the domestic currency and in exchange rate among the local traders. Additionally, during this decade, the national policy of relations with foreign institution were implemented which created the foundation for membership with international organization such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) in 1961. Because of these policies, Nepal succeeded in the circulation of the new Nepalese rupee as the legal tender in Nepal's Terai region which was predominated by Indian currencies and facilitated for the elimination of the dual currency period in 1964 in the country and making Nepal independent in foreign currency exchange. Many financial institutions, such as Rastriya Banijya Bank, Rastriya Beema Sansthan, Nepal Co-operative Banks among others were gradually established to make the Nepalese economy more engaging and sustainable.
Industrialization of economy
In July 1959, Nepal Industrial Development Corporation started serving as an industrial finance organization to expand Nepalese industries and services, including hotels, and industrial estates. King Mahendra laid the foundation of economic development by building physical infrastructure with the help of foreign aid. The foundation for the Industrial Estates (IEs) was laid with the establishment of Balaju Industrial Area in 1963 (2018 BS) with technical and financial assistance from the United States of America (USA).Khatri, M. B. (2018). Industrial development in Nepal: Problems and prospects. Economic Journal of Nepal, 41 (3-4), 25-40. Patan Industrial Area, Hetauda Industrial Area, Dharan Industrial Area, Birgunj Sugar Mill, Nepal Oil Corporation, Janakpur Cigarette Factory, and Balaju Textile Industry were all established during his time. Salt Trading Corporation was established in 1963 (2020 BS), with objective to make iodized table salt accessible to all citizens. Later, again to deal with the import and export for the purpose of rendering support to the economic development of the country Mahendra established National Trading Limited. On 12 March 1969, (Falgun 29, 2025 B.S) with the help of Chinese aid, Mahendra inaugurated Nepal's First Brick and Tile Factory in Harisiddhi which started its production two months later in Baishakh 17 2026 BS. Similarly, Bansbari leather Shoe Factory was also established in 1965 with help of Chinese aid. Similarly, he started the era of stocks and bonds by issuing the first Government Bond in 1964. To providing a guaranteed market for milk to the rural farmers with fair price and for the purpose of economic advancement of the farming communities Dairy development corporation (DDC) was established in 1969 .Acharya, Bodha Hari; Basnet, Mohan Bahadur (2009). "Supply Chain Challenges in Dairy Development Corporation, Nepal".
During the Cold War, Nepal tried to boost the economy by creating an environment of economic cooperation between the two neighboring sides.
Contribution to health
thumb|Prasuti Griha, the first maternity hospital of Nepal
The death of the first wife of King Mahendra due to birth complications led to the building of the kingdom's first maternity hospital, Paropakar Shree Panch Indra Rajya Lakshmi Maternity Hospital later renamed as Paropakar Maternity and Women's Hospital, commonly known as the Prasuti Griha, on the grounds of Charburja Durbar on 17 August 1959. Kanti Children's Hospital was established as a general hospital in 1963 with the economic aid from USSR and was later specialized mainly for children in 1968. In 1964, Royal Drugs laboratory was established to perform scientific research and analysis of drugs as well as development of new drugs. Also, Nepal Ausadhi Limited was established in 1972 with technical collaboration with United Kingdom. In the same year, Institute of Medicine (IOM) was established under Tribhuvan University with the purpose of producing and training all categories of medical manpower required for the nation which immediately initiated courses for Auxiliary Nurse Midwives and Community Medical Assistants. The first ayurvedic school, Rajakiya Ayurvedic Bidyalaya was also established in this year.
Malaria Eradication Project in the Terai region was launched for the first time in 1958 with the help of USAID. After its success, several other projects to control and prevent smallpox, tuberculosis and leprosy were initiated in successive years. Programs to prevent nutritional disorders, and family planning, maternal and child health issues were also launched in successive years.
Various health centers were established between 1955 and 1958 such as in Dailekh (1955), Ramnagar Bhutaha, Sunsari (1956) and Chainpur, Sankhuwasabha (1957). Biratnagar Hospital, Dang Hospital and Baglung Hospital were also opened between 1955 and 1958. In 1958, government announced to build one health center in each 105 electoral constituency and announced to establish zonal hospitals in all 14 zones in 1961. Within this policy the numbers reached 32 for hospitals and 104 for health centers in the public sector In the year 1963.
Similarly in this period, hospitals funded by various NGO missions were established such as Scheer Memorial Hospital in banepa (1957), Pokhara Shining Hospital in Kaski (1957), Amp Pipal Hospital in Gorkha (1957), Okhaldhunga Hospital in Okhaldhunga (1963), Bulingtar Hospital in Nawalparasi (1962) and United Mission Hospital in Palpa (1954), Anandban Leprosy Hospital in patan (1963), Green Pasteur Hospital in kaski (1957) and Dadeldhura Leprosy Hospital in Dadeldhura.
Agricultural development
left|thumb|Agricultural Development Bank
To support animal husbandry and agriculture and to modernize the traditional agriculture Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) was established in 1957 as an independent institute for the motive of training agriculture technicians which was later brought under Tribhuvan University's management. In 1964, to process sugar from sugar cane, Birgunj Sugar Mill was established with economic aid from the then Soviet Union in Parsa. Visioning better future prospects of the Tea industry in Nepal, in 1965 a Tea plantation Estate, Soktim Tea was set up in the plains of Jhapa District. Nepal Tea Development Corporation was established in 1966 by Government of Nepal to aid the development of Tea industry.Thapa, Ajit N.S. "Concept Paper on Study of Nepalese Tea Industry - Vision 2020-" . Nepal Tree Crop Global Development Alliance (NTCGDA), Winrock International. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2011. Agriculture Supply Corporation, which was later split into Nepal Food Corporation, Krishi Samagri Company Ltd. and National Seed Company Ltd was established in 1965 to distribute high quality agricultural inputs such as seeds, and agro-chemicals at a price accessible to the farmers across the country. In order to provide credit to farmers and people of rural areas, financial institutions dedicated to agriculture development, Agricultural Development Bank was established in 1967 . This bank has also been executing Small Farmer Development Program (SFDP) for motive of poverty alleviation in rural areas. Agricultural Tools Factory was initially established in Birgunj in 1967 and later also in Biratnagar to produce required agricultural tools for the farmers in cheap cost within the country with the technical and economic aid of Soviet Union. Dhan Chamal Company was established to produce rice produced from the fields of newly extended agriculture region after the extinction of malaria in the Terai region. Eradication of Malaria in the Terai region and the land settlement programs contributed to a massive movement of population from the hills into the Terai, resulting in a large increase in the area devoted to agriculture.
In late 1950s, king Mahendra gave a direct order to make feasibility studies of agricultural development in various parts of the country. In the early 1960s, buckwheat and millet were the main agriculture products in Mustang, which were easy to produce but were extracting very little income since rice and wheat were the main products beyond its borders. The then government of Nepal invested in apple farming for the first time in several areas around the region like mustang and Baitadi, by setting up a regional agricultural outpost in 1966 which was later restructured as the Temperate Horticulture Development Center. Along with the horticulture expert Pasang Sherpa and help of the Nepali army, government tested different varieties of the fruit on various qualities parameters, while disseminating the most successful cultivated ones to local farmers. The technical and economic assistance provided to the farmers, as well as harvest and grooming tools and equipment promoted apples and agro products in Marpha, Jomsom and Thak Khola villages of Mustang which eventually introduced this region as the apple farmland of the country.Amgai, S., Dutta, J. P., Regmi, P. P., & Dangol, D. R. (2015). Analysis of marketing practices of apple in Mustang district of Nepal. Agric. Dev. J, 11, 2091-0746. According to the Companies Act, "The Timber Corporation of Nepal Limited" (TCN), later restructured as Nepal Forest corporation, was established in 1960 to systematically collect and chop firewood produced by forest management and supply it to the general public.
Cigarette was one of the major import during panchayat regime so people were encouraged to cultivate tobacco and Janakpur Cigarette Factory was established to make use of such tobacco and reduce the import of cigarette in the country.
Tourism development
thumb|Rara lake, first described by Mahendra
He also focused on the development of tourism in Nepal. Apparently, he built many houses, rest houses, Taverns and water taps in this beautiful country. Under his reign, Nepal was first open to the foreign people laying the foundation of tourism in the nation. The first tourist group aside from the Foreign Diplomat and Bureaucrats arrived for the first time during his reign. In 1959 Nepal became the member of International union of Official travel organization,Agarwal, M. K., & Upadhyay, R. P. (2006). Tourism and economic development in Nepal. Northern Book Centre. page 292-293 now known as World Tourism Organization. In the same year, a separate directorate for tourism was setup by the government and a general plan for organization of tourism of Nepal was prepared with cooperation with the Government of France. In 1960 the first handicraft exhibition was performed with the royal approval. In 1964, the King travelled to Rara Lake and penned his famous poem Rara Ki Apsara since he got mesmerized by beauty of Rara. His visit and the famous poem afterwards brought this lake to limelight and the reader of the poem started visiting the lake. The royal family established Soaltee hotel in 1965 and was inaugurated by King Mahendra in 1966. Similarly, Annapurna Hotel was also established in 1965 with cooperation with foreign diplomats and tourists by the royal family.Shakya, S. (2013). Unleashing Nepal. Penguin UK. The hotel tax act was first time devised in 1960 defining hotel, restaurants, casinos and bringing them under the jurisdiction of law. Also, the first professional trekking took place in 1960 when Mahendra opened the Himalayas to tourists for trekking. The first tourism act was enacted in 1964 with the motive of increasing foreign tourist and the first travel agency "Mountain Travel Nepal" was established immediately afterwards. With his initiation, Nepal association of Travel agents was established in 1966. In the same year, eight members of the hotels together established Hotel association of Nepal (HAN) which became the one of the main contributor to governmental decisions making regarding tourism. The first casino for the purpose of promoting tourist was established during his reign in 1968. The five-year plan of 1965-1970 devised a plan to dedicate a commission for recognizing and promoting the tourism of the country. Under this plan, a high level Tourism development board was later established in 1969Butler, R., & Suntikul, W. (Eds.). (2017). Tourism and political change. Goodfellow Publishers Ltd. page 150-155 After being member of the United Nations, King Mahendra invited the UN Secretary General U Thant to Nepal and involved him in the development of Lumbini as a Birthplace of Lord Buddha. With this initiation, a 13 nation International Lumbini development Committee was established in New York to develop the Ancient Lumbini area. It was in his time the famous Hippie trail started in Nepal and Nepal's existence started being known to the outside world. The famous Mahendra Cave in Pokhara got his name after he officially inaugurated it and since then it is one of the most visited places in Pokhara. In 1972 a tourism master plan was created emphasizing public-private partnership model with the view of creating more jobs and more revenue to the government. Under this master plan, Hotel management and tourism training center (HMTTC) was established with the economic and technical assistance of ILO and UNDP with the motive to produce skilled workers inside the country in 1972 which was later renamed as Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management. Later the establishment of Royal Nepal Airlines and opening of Himalayan trek for the first time brought more influx of tourist.
Transportation development
left|thumb|300x300px|Mahendra Highway in Itahari
Earlier, Nepalis were compelled to travel via Indian territory while visiting from one district to another district. King Mahendra ended this situation by constructing a highway with foreign assistance. King Mahendra had initially requested India to build this highway. However, when India refused, he sought the help of the Soviet Union. India was also attracted after the road from Dhalkebar to Pathalaiya was built by Soviet Union, the Mechi section from Dhalkebar (Jhapa to Janakpur) was constructed by India, while the Hetauda-Narayanghat section was constructed by the Asian Development Bank, the Narayanghat -Butwal section by the United Kingdom and the Butwal-Kohalpur section by India.Pulipaka, S., NR, A. S., Harshini, M., Deepalakshmi, V. R., & Korrapati, K. (2018). India's development assistance and connectivity projects in Nepal. In 1961, King Mahendra laid the foundation stone for the construction of the Mahendra Highway (also called East-West Highway) at Gaindakot. The highway has greatly contributed to the all round socio-economic development of the country.Rankin, K., Sigdel, T., Rai, L., Kunwar, S., & Hamal, P. (2017). Political economies and political rationalities of road building in Nepal. Studies in Nepali History and Society, 22 (1), 43-84.Hörmann, André (2021). Mahendra highway. Salzgeber, Deutschland . In his efforts to diversify Nepal's connectivity beyond India, he created Kodari road link with China's Tibet Araniko Highway . India was furious when China said it would build the Kodari Highway. The highway construction was started in June 1963 and completed with Chinese aid in April 1967 (2024 B.S.) Again, with the aid of Indian government, Tribhuvan Rajpath from Hetauda to Thankot was built. This Rajpath was famously known as "By road" when lots of Indians using this road to travel to Kathmandu. Similarly, another major Highway, the Prithvi Highway was also built under King Mahendra's plan in 1967 (2024 BS). This highway connects Naubise near Kathmandu to Prithvi Chowk, Pokhara. Kanti Highway, a 92 Kilometer feeder road connecting Lalitpur to Hetauda was started in 1954 by King Mahendra. In 1964, with the help of USAID, Kathmandu-Hetauda ropeway was started to reduce the cost of goods transportation from India.
On 15 June 1955, Tribhuvan International Airport was inaugurated by Mahendra and later named it such in memory of his father. In 1957, department of aviation was established and it started its first scheduled service in 1958. Nepal at the time lacked all weather and blacktopped airports, except the Tribhuvan International Airport, and for aviation to sustain, other airports were built, including airports in Bhairahawa (later renamed as Gautam Buddha Airport), Biratnagar, Bharatpur, Dhangadhi, Pokhara and Simara. In 1959 Rajbiraj Airport was officially inaugurated. Some of these airports were later mothballed.
In the same year, 1959, His Majesty's Government established Royal Nepal Airlines Cooperation (RNAC) as a public undertaking, although the required law, the Royal Nepal Airlines Corporation Act (now Nepal Airlines Corporation Act) was approved only in 1963 (2019 B.S), when King Mahendra enacted Nepal Airlines Corporation Act. Funds were temporarily transferred from construction of suspension bridges to the airline company when the Soviets promised to help with the civil aviation after the King's state visit to the Soviet Union. Under his leadership, Nepal became the member of ICAO in 1960. Janakpur Airport and Palungtar Airport was established in 1960 and Nepalgunj Airport and Meghauli Airport in the Chitwan District was established next year in 1961. Bhadrapur Airport was established in 1963, Surkhet Airport in 1966, Syangboche Airport at Solukhumbu was established in 1971 and Rumjatar Airport and Tumlingtar Airport established in 1972. After, the establishment of country own airlines, air service agreement was needed for which first air service agreement was made in 1963. Mahendra also established Sajha Bus Yatayat in order to provide cheap and accessible transport to the local people in 1961.
Buildings and structures
thumb|left|Old Narayanhiti Palace ca 1920, demolished in 1958He built the modern Narayanhiti Palace after the demolition of the old palace from the old Rana architecture . King Mahendra also built Ratna Mandir, the Lakeside palace for Queen Ratna in 1956. Nepal's first golf course, the Royal Nepal Golf Club (RNGC) at Tilganga, Kathmandu, was inaugurated on 2022 BS. by him. He is also given credit for the construction of Dasrath Stadium in Kathmandu. Diyalo Bangla, a palace for the former royal family was constructed in Bharatpur, Chitwan to allow former royal family members to relax and hunt wild animals during their visit.
The Koshi River Barrage, a product of multiple ideas to control monsoon floods was constructed during his reign between 1959 and 1963 with the motive of irrigation of agricultural fields, flood control and generation of hydroelectricity. In 1959, king Mahendra and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru jointly inaugurated and laid foundation of Koshi Barrage. Koshi Barrage was believed to be biggest water project of south Asia at the time of its construction.Dinesh Kumar Mishra. (1997). The Bihar Flood Story. Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (35), 2206-2217.
A similar dam, the Gandaki river dam was built between the period of 1959 to 1964 on the border between India and Nepal at Gandak for the purpose of flood control, irrigation and hydropower generation. Also, Trisuli dam was built in 1971. In 1956 (2013 BS), the first 1728 KW diesel plant of the country was established for the coronation of king Mahendra which opened the door for supply of electricity to the public and made it more accessible. Hydro Power generated at Trishuli Hydropower Station, Sunkoshi Hydro Power Project, Panauti Hydro Power, Kulekhani Hydro Power are some of the few power projects built during King Mahendra's rule. He is also credited for the vision of Kathmandu water project also known as Melamchi Water Supply Project though his early demise could not bring the plan into implementation. The first bridge connecting Nepal with China was also built during his reign in 1964.China's Nepalese friendship road leads to the heart of India's market The Guardian 23 April 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
Educational reforms
thumb|320x320px|IOE, Central Campus, Pulchowk
At the beginning of king's reign the literacy rate of the country was estimated to be 5 percent and it reached 10 percent in 1960 while it reached 18 percent in 1971. After the 1960 coup, efforts were made to establish an education system. The All Round National Education Committee was established in 1961, and the National Education Advisory Board in 1968 in order to implement and refine the education system. Nepal 's 1965's education plan and 1971's education plan hastened the educational development in the country. In the year 1971 (2028 BS), it was King Mahendra who formulated the education policy of the nation and implemented it by making the Education Act. In this year, Nepal's own education came into operation as an integral part of the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1970-75) designed to address individual as well as societal needs towards the goals of national development. This new education system boycotted foreign books and education system. Furthermore, he wrote books named Mahendra Malla for schools to give priority to Nepal and Nepali language and boycotted Indian Books. The introduction of the first University of the country, Tribhuvan University was the landmark contributions made by King Mahendra in reforming education sector. At that time King Mahendra's family raised 16 lakh rupees by selling gold jewelries in order to fund the project. He later modernized Tribhuvan University, creating conditions for higher education in Nepal, and displaced Indian books from the curriculum. He also started production of books in Nepal with the introduction of Jana Shiksha Samagri Kendra Limited. King Mahendra's diplomacy also made arrangements to send Nepali students to study in Russia on scholarships.
As a memorial to his wife, one of the famous public college, Ratna Rajya Campus was established in Putalisadak, Kathmandu and its school was established in Taulihawa, Gorkha, Kathmandu and Mukundapur in 1961 during his reign. With the need to provide higher education institution for a growing settlement n Chitwan, Birendra Intermediate Arts College was established on April 13, 1965 (Baishakh 1, 2022 BS.) later renamed as Birendra Multiple Campus. In order to produce skilled workers inside the country, Pulchowk Engineering Campus was established in 1966 with assistance from Government of India and Thapathali Engineering Campus was established in 1967 with technical assistance of Germany. Later in 1972, these two institutes were brought under the umbrella of Tribhuvan university to constitute the Institute of Engineering. These two engineering institution are still regarded as one of the best engineering institution in the county. The king was in forefront to bring women forward for participation in the society. With the heated discussion to bring women in the schools a girl school was established in Dillibazaar, Kathmandu which was with effort of the king later converted in to a higher institution, Padma kanya campus, and moved to Baghbazar within a greater college premises and facilities
Information and communication development
The telephone service in the country was initially, exclusively aimed for use in the Palaces of feudal Rana rulers. However, since the day of coronation of King Mahendra, the first distribution of telephone line was made available to the general public. Beginning in 1959, with support from USAID, Nepal developed 1,000 telephone lines in the capital. It also established its first public exchange in 1962 and converted its manual exchange into the country's first automatic telephone exchange within 1964. In 1961 (2018 BS) Rastriya Samachar Samiti commonly abbreviated as RSS, was established under the Rastriya Samachar Samiti Act, 2019 B.S, with a view to facilitate news for newspapers and broadcasting media. It is still one of the major source of news and photos in the nation. Understanding the value of newspaper in spreading knowledge and information, he modernized Gorkhapatra and converted it from weekly newspaper it to a daily newspaper in 1961. Similarly, to address the English language influence and increment of foreign tourists, The Rising Nepal was established on 16 December 1965 (1 Poush 2022 BS) by the then Panchayat Government. In 1971, Nepal received its first telex service. He increased tower infrastructures so that Radio Nepal could reach all corners of the country.
Political reforms
left|thumb|Former political division of Nepal: 14 zones and 75 districts
After the 1962 war between China and India, Chinese troops occupied mountain areas east and west of Nepal in an attempt to resolve border disputes with India by simply occupying disputed territories. The reversal, Indian armed force were deployed in the country's norther border. and Indian diplomats were involved in the ministry as well as every decisions made by the Nepalese Government. King Mahendra played an important role to oust the Indian armed force from Nepali territory. Moreover, there were multiple representatives from India claiming that Nepal cannot handle its foreign policy and defense policy on its own. King Mahendra removed all the Indian representatives and politicians from the ministry and only kept Nepalese representatives. He was the first king to introduce constitution as the fundamental law in the country. King Mahendra incorporated the phrase 'Hindu Kingdom' in the newly introduced constitution. He scientifically divided Nepal into 14 administrative zones with 75 districts in it. In order to perform proper administration and to secure decentralization of power to every zone, each zones were appointed a zonal commissioners. This was the first decentralization of power in history of Nepal. There were more than 4000 villages and 35 municipalities. Every village was divided into nine wards and every municipalities were divided between 9-35 wards as per the size of the town. During his rule an extensive legal and judicial reforms were carried out. In order to provide good governance and social justice to people he nullified Royal courts and introduced local courts in 1961 through introduction of two new acts Petty States and Rulers Act and royal court nullification act (Nepali: राज्य रजौटा ऐन, २०१७ र राज्य अदालत उन्मूलन ऐन, २०१७) राज्य रजौटा ऐन, २०१७ and introduced Supreme court in Nepal on 21 May 1956. Even though royalty act removed many smaller kings, it still recognized 17 small kings including that of Salyan, Bajhang, Jajarkot, Mustang, Bhirkot, Malneta and Darna. King Mahendra publicly declared his will for rule of law in the nation. The Legal Practitioners Act, in 1968 was introduced to institutionalize this willingness of a systematic rule. He introduced the separation of power within the state by dividing legislative power to the Rastriya Panchayat, executive power to the Council of ministers and judicial power to the Supreme Court. The Commissions of Inquiry Act introduced in 1969 opened the legal means through which government could appoint various investigative committees for the purpose of making inquiries into matters of national importanceSharma, M., & Tamang, S. (Eds.). (2016). A difficult transition: the Nepal papers. Zubaan. He also established the Office of the Auditor General in Nepal by appointing the first auditor general in 1963 according to the Nepalese constitution of 1958. Section 77 and Section 78 of Part 13 of 1962 constitution provided a provision for establishment of Public Service Commission to employ and train government officials in the country. Section 78 (a b c) of Part 13 (a) of the same constitution made the arrangement of the Election Commission which later became the sole authority to regulate and conduct elections in the country.
Social reforms
In 1955 (2012 B.S), with the enactment of the Police Act, there were attempts to boost the morale of the army.प्रहरी ऐन २०१२ National Police Academy was established under this act. The electricity produced in the country at the beginning was exclusively aimed for use in the Palaces of feudal rulers. However, since the day of coronation of King Mahendra in 1955, electricity became more open and accessible to the public. On 17 August 1963 a new legal code was promulgated replacing the Muluki Ain of 1854 with the new Muluki ain. The Muluki Ain (people's code) and made attempt to break untouchables, caste discrimination and policy of gender-discrimination. He then introduced the Nepal Civil Service Act to develop employee skills,नेपाल निजामती सेवा ऐन, २०१३ ending the long era of the Panjani practice. Nepal Public Commission was established under this act for reforming and developing the civil service. This move ended the long-standing tradition of directly electing, dismissing and transferring government officials by the king and started the tradition of electing only eligible candidates. In 1963, a Central Police Training Centre was established to train and reform the police. Rajya reform abolished special privileges of some aristocratic elites in western Nepal. The new panchayat system managed to bring 50,000 to 60,000 people into a single system of representative government in a way that had been rendered impossible for the elite-based political parties. Nepal was able to carry out its second plan (1962-65) and third plan (1965-70), and to begin the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1970-75). He was also the first ruler to bring high class Brahmin rulers under the equal rule of punishment. His wife, queen Ratna had huge love for children for which he desired to establish an orphanage. So he provided 25 ropanies of land to establish the first orphanage of the country to Daya Bir Kansakar under the name of Paropkar Sansthan. Moreover, he became the first king to donate blood in Nepal in order to create awareness between people about blood donation. He was also concerned about illegal Indians entering the nation and taking benefit in the name of local, so he introduced the system of citizenship in 1964.
Promotion of art, history and culture
thumb|200x200px|National Dance Academy
In order to preserve the local traditions, religion and culture, way of life, festivals and languages, he had established the Royal Nepal Academy (Nepali:- नेपाल राजकीय प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठान)व्यवस्थापिका संसदले बनाएको २०६४ सालको ऐन न. २१, नेपाल प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठान ऐन २०६४ and National Dance Academy (Nepali: राष्ट्रिय नाचघर) and other institutions. Royal Nepal Academy later renamed as Nepal Academy started translating foreign literature to Nepali language giving access to the people for foreign literature. In 1961 Nepal Association of fine arts later known as Nepal Academy of Fine Arts (Nepali:नेपाल ललित कला प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठान ) was established .This along with Srijana Fine Arts School were some prominent established made to promote contemporary art in the nation. Furthermore, under the instruction of Mahendra, the government established Ratna Recording Sansthan to facilitate Nepali artists who otherwise were travelling to Calcutta for recording songs. This corporation paired with Radio Nepal to increase the reach of produced records of Nepali national music. King Mahendra was a great lover of Art. In his leadership National Numismatic Museum was established in 1962 to preserve the national history, art and culture. To promote the art and the artist in the nation, he conceived a Public-Private partnership organization and established Nepal Art Council in 1962. In 1962, Nepal Sahitya Sansthan was established to stimulate public's interest in art and culture through literature.Brisbane, K., Chaturvedi, R., Majumdar, R., Pong, C. S., & Tanokura, M. (2005). The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Volume 5: Asia/Pacific. Routledge. page 410-415 In 1965, Panchayat Government initiated a program where actors and directors were sent to India for special training. Later, Mahendra Pragya puraskar was introduced which awarded to contributors of Nepali language, arts and culture every two years. King Mahendra as a chancellor of Nepal academy started the tradition of All Nepal poetry competition on his birthday where winners are awarded with cash prizes. In 1966, on the personal request of Mahendra, the first private bannered Film, Maitighar was produced in the country.Jha, P. (2014). Battles of the new republic: A contemporary history of Nepal. Oxford University Press. Mahendra wrote songs for the film and also provided some funding. In 1967, National archive was established to document and preserve the history and historical documents. Kaiser Library was established in 1969 when the ownership of Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana's history and books collection came under the ownership of the government. King Mahendra made this property accessible to the public with the donated personal collection by his widow Krishna Chandra Kumari Devi.Klib In 1970, the king discussed with Dev Anand, an Indian actor, director and producer, to produce film in Nepal to promote the local cultural heritage and depict the hippie culture. The movie showcased the cultural heritage of the country to the world for the first time such as ancient Kasthamandap, Basantapur Durbar Square as well as Bhaktapur durbar square and showcased the hippie culture.
Promotion of religion
Royal Nepal Academy started translating religious text to Nepali and Sanskrit language giving access to the people for religious text.
The constitution introduced by King Mahendra in 1962 officially recognized Hindu religion as the state religion. In addition to that, it introduced national emblem such as crimson colour as the national colour, the cow as the national animal which had its root in Hinduism. The constitution guaranteed promotion of Hindu religious festivals and religious discourses including the use of Sanskrit and a ban on proselytizing. A Being a state religion Hinduism was promoted and protected under the expense of the state and prohibited the slaughter of the animal. Under his reign, the king and the queen was started being worshipped in every Nepalese homes as the incarnation of Vishnu.
left|thumb|Maharaja Mahendra attending the promotional conference of Buddhism held at Kathmandu
After being member of the UN, King Mahendra invited the UN Secretary General U Thant to Nepal and involved him in the development of Lumbini as a Birthplace of Lord Buddha.
In 1962 (2021 BS), King Mahendra, set up a Guthi Sansthan with the objectives to continue preservation and promotion of festivals, heritage and culture of the people. During the kings reign, Sikhism flourished in Nepal as a number of Sikhs entered Nepal as a businessman with the permission of the king. King Mahendra was the one to provide first citizenship to Sikhs for their help during the drought in 1960s. During his entire rule, he enhanced the religious responsibilities of the royal family and enhanced the ritual status of the king in the society by routinely referencing himself in his speeches and writings "as the last remaining Hindu king of the world" He also promoted Dashain as a religious practice to integrate the entire state through integration of the local leaders into national government. All local and regional leaders were expected to receive Tika from the hands of the king and similarly from their bureaucratic superior and thus dispensing the political hierarchy from the center to all the corners of the country. Dashain embraced the vision of the panchayat regime to create a religiously and ethnically homogeneous society which accepted an hierarchical system with the king at its center to bring the country into a single integrated unit.
Land reforms
In 1959, the Birta Abolition Act was enacted which gave poor people and farmers ownership to the land they were historically working on. Birta land was then converted into Raikar through this act. Similarly, the Land Survey and Measurement Act was introduced in 1962. It classified land as Abal, Doyam, Sim, and Chahar. This act effectively established a Land Administration Office (Nepali:भूमि प्रशासन कार्यालय).The Agricultural Reorganization Act, passed in 1963 emphasized security for tenant farmers and put a ceiling on landholdings. Likewise, land reform act 1964 ended the feudal land ownership practice and secured the right of farmers. This land reform policy led to the confiscation of large Rana estates and provided land to many landless people. In the meantime, the Land Administration Act, 1966 was promulgated which further reformed the land administration office changing it into Land Revenue office(Nepali: मालपोत कार्यालय). Moreover, He had provided accommodation to ex- soldiers who knew how to wield weapons and to Nepalese who were expelled from Burma and set up settlements of Nepalis in the Terai from Jhapa to Kanchanpur so that the Indians would not oppress them. He also provided passport to the people of Manang region and waived custom duty for them so that the people of the region could use their lands to grow herbs and trade in the nearby regions. Eradication of Malaria and the land settlement programs contributed to a massive movement of population from the hills into the Terai, resulting in a large increase in the area devoted to agriculture."The Analysis Of The Population Statistics Of Nepal, 1971," Central Bureau Of Statistics (Kathmandu: Jore Ganesh Press, 1977) p.29
Criticisms
Dismantling of democracy
Mahendra seized power after dissolving the government of Nepali Congress, jailed any objectors and moved steadily towards an authoritarian rule. He considered political parties anti-national elements and put a complete ban on them in favor of a partyless system. While he believed himself to be a supporter of democracy and considered the Panchayat system to be a democratic regime, the claim was rejected by many. He also criticized and objected to King Tribhuvan's decision to accept a multiparty democracy and an arrangement for a constituent assembly. Mahendra once said, "The constitution is given by the King. It is not supposed to be made by the people. "(translated from Nepali).
Authoritarianism
Mahendra gave himself absolute power following the coup and tried to establish his image as a patriotic and benevolent ruler. He suppressed all his critics and launched a propaganda campaign through radio, newspapers and pamphlets that boosted his popularity among the people and established himself as a god-like figure. Critics also see his one-country one-language one-monarch policy as the height of his abuse of authority. Some people also claim that his introduction of the reformed Muluki Ain was not to bring equality in the society but rather to give death sentences to the Brahmin leaders of rebellions who had tried to assassinate him.
Some critics claim that Mahendra stole the development plans of B.P Koirala and credited himself as the architect of the developmental process of the era. Mahendra made a conscious effort to consolidate his hold over the Nepalese Army.
"One-Country, One-monarch, One-language, One-dress" policy
Mahendra's efforts to unite the multicultural country under a singular culture have faced heavy criticism. The system equated the identity of the country with the Nepali as the language, the Daura-Suruwal as the national dress and Hinduism as the national religion. Everyone was required to wear a Dhaka topi for official purposes: to acquire their citizenship, passport, and driving license. This was criticized to be one sided as it dominated a country with pluralism and completely ignored the existence of the many minority groups within the country. This policy was disseminated in the Nepali language textbooks titled as 'Mahendramala' during the Panchayat era.
Accusations of creating an institution favoring the rich
Many critics consider the Panchayat system to be an institution that innately favored the rich and Mahendra to be the patron saint of the feudal lords and landlords of the country. Ganesh Man Singh criticized the establishment of the Nepal Rastra Bank saying, "The Central Bank, opened for the benefit of landlords and right-wing traders, does not benefit the poor." (translated from Nepali) Some also argue that the 1960 coup happened because the then BP Koirala government could not keep the feudal lords happy.
Memorial constructions
thumb|left|Ratna Park entrance
Mahendra was criticized for constructing various memorials and statues for himself and his wife and for naming various landmarks, schools and parks after him and his family members. Ratna Park, named after King Mahendra's wife Rani Ratna, a prime example of it. The statue of Queen Ratna Rajya Lakshmi Devi at Ratnapark was vandalized by republican protestors in 2062 BS. The Kathmandu Metropolitan City changed the name of the park to Shankdhar Udyan in 2077 BS and erected a statue of Sankhadar Shakwa instead of the one of Queen Ratna. Similarly, naming various development projects like Prithvi highway, Mahendra highway, Kanti highway, Tribhuvan airport etc. after their family members was seen as his attempt to improve the image of the royal family among the common people.
Failed land-reform policy
The land-reform policy introduced by Mahendra is considered to be a major failure by many people. Land reform efforts began with the enactment of the Land and Cultivation Record Compilation Act (1956), through which the government began compiling tenant records and continued with the Lands Act (1957). These acts were not much successful in increasing small farmers so further efforts had to made. The Agricultural Reorganization Act, passed in 1963 emphasized security for tenant farmers and put a ceiling on landholdings. Likewise, land reform act 1964 ended the feudal land ownership practice and secured the right of farmers. However, there were loopholes in the acts which allowed landlords to control most of the lands. Though, these policies were successful in securing the rights of farmers, it was not so in the case of land redistribution. Until 1972, average landholdings remained small. Moreover, the double ownership law of land introduced by the Panchayat through 'Mohiyai hak' became a major hindrance in development in the decades to come.
Child-less second marriage
After the death of his first wife Indra Rajya in 1950, Prince Mahendra was in a love affair with his sister in law, Ratna, but despite sharp opposition from his father King Tribhuvan, Prince Mahendra married Ratna Rajyalakshmi two years later. This created bad relations between him and his father. Mahendra held many criticism from this marriage. Some people criticize him for not obeying his father and disregarding the obedience of a prince towards the king of Nepal. Moreover, some people also criticize him for pre-marriage sterilization of his new wife and snatching the right of his wife to be a mother
Personality
Historians define Mahendra as an ambitious ruler.Tripathi, D. P. (2012). Nepal in Transition: A Way Forward. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. He was courageous and visionary who would not be reluctant to take any steps. Swiss scholar, Toni Hagen described him as very clever ruler who could handle delicate issues. He was a deep admirer of Nepalese literature, art and culture which led to himself composing several poems which were later sung by many famous singers. He was proficient in Nepali, English, Hindi and Sanskrit Language.
Hobbies
Mahendra went in for various activities like noblemen of his era and subsequent eras. MBB Shah (Nepali: म. वी. वि. शाह) is the literary name of King Mahendra. MBB Shah is a more passionate poet of the Romantic section of Nepali poetry. King Mahendra wrote various songs and poems. He is also called the first lyricist of Nepal by some sources. He penned Lolayeka Tee, Gajalu Tee Thula Thula Aakha, Garchin Pukar Aaama, Aakashma Tirmire, Kina Kina Timro Tasbir, ma mare pani mero desh bachi rahos, Rara ki Apsara etc. which were later sung by Gulam Ali and Lata Mangeshkar. He was also fond of hunting and would regularly go to hunting with her queen to different places.
Offspring
thumb|Nepal Academy's founding chancellor poet म. वी. वि. शाह's half bodied statue
NameBirthDeathSpouseChildrenPrincess Shanti20 November 19401 June 2001 (aged 60)Deepak Jang Bahadur SinghBinod SinghPramod SinghChhaya DeviPrincess Sharada2 February 19421 June 2001 (aged 59)Khadga Bikram ShahBikash Bikram ShahDeebas Bikram ShahAshish Bikram ShahKing Birendra29 December 19451 June 2001 (aged 55)Queen AishwaryaKing DipendraPrincess ShrutiPrince NirajanKing Gyanendra7 July 1947Living (age 74)Queen KomalCrown prince ParasPrincess PreranaPrincess Shova17 January 1949Living (age 73)Mohan Bahadur ShahiNonePrince Dhirendra14 January 19501 June 2001 (aged 51)Princess PrekshyaJaya Shah PandeyShirley GreaneyPrincess PujaPrincess DilashaPrincess SitashmaShreya ShahUshaana Laela Shah
Other than his 6 children, King Mahendra also had a son from one of his concubine Gita Gurung, who was born before any other child from his legal marriage. Gita worked in the royal palace as a servant when Mahendra was a prince.
Memorial
Many structures, institutions, locations and honors have been built and introduced in the memory of King Mahendra. Monuments erected in his name were renamed after the restoration of the parliament in 2063 BS and the end of the monarchy in 2065 BS. After the political changes of 2063 BS, an attempt was made to rename the highway built in the name of the king as Lok Marg. Even though the Ratna Park named after his queen was renamed as Shankhadhar Sakhwa Park, Ratna Park is still popular among the people.
thumb|Mahendra jyoti school, Handikhola village
Bagmati Province
Shree Mahendra Kiran Higher Secondary School, Manahari,( Makwanpur)
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Chhatiwan,( Makwanpur)
Shree Mahendra Jyoti Higher Secondary School, Handikhola,( Makwanpur)
Mahendra Chowk, HetaudaReed, D. (2002). The rough guide to Nepal. Rough Guides pp 383-385.
Shree Mahendra Secondary, Padampokhari (Hetauda)
Mahendra Kiran Higher Secondary School, (Hetauda)
Mahendra Mriga Kunja (Mahendra Deer Park), ChitwanThapa, K. (2012). Ecotourism for (nature) conservation and development. management, 39 (3).
Shree 5 Mahendra Memorial Eye Hospital, Bharatpur, ChitwanAdhikari, R. K. (2006). Analysis of corneal injuries in king mahendra memorial eye hospital Bharatpur, Chitwan. Kathmandu University Medical Journal, 4 (1), 13-34.
Mahendra Bus Park, Chitwan
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School,Chaturale (Nuwakot)
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School,Charghare, (Nuwakot)
Shree Mahendragram Higher Secondary School, Nagarkot
Mahendra Jyoti village development committee
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Sanga, Banepa
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Kunchok, Sindhupalchok
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Ichok, Sindhupalchok
Mahendra Pratap Secondary School, Dhuskun, Sindhupalchok
shree mahendra higher secondari school, Nilkantha, Dhading
Shree Mahendrodaya Hss school, Dhading
thumb|Mahendra Cave named after mahendra|356x356px
Gandaki Province
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Narethanti, (Baglung)
Mahendra statue, Humde (Manang)
Mahendra Chowk, Putalibazar, (Syangja)
Shree Mahendra secondary school, Malyangkot, (Syangja)
Mahendra Cave, Pokhara
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Pokhara lekhnath, (Pokhara)
Mahendra Secondary School, Naya bazar, (Pokhara)
Mahendra Secondary School, bhalam, (Pokhara)
Mahendrapul, Pokhara
Mahendra Multiple Campus, Pokhara
Mahendra statue, Bhraga (Manang)
Mahendra Jyoti Secondary School, Lunkhu Deurali, (Parbat)
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Bajung, (Parbat)
Shree Mahendra Shakti Secondary School, Bakrang, (Gorkha)
Shree Mahendra Leela Secondary School Siranchok, (Gorkha)
Mahendra Jyoti school, (Gorkha)
Mahendra Jyoti Secondary School, Durbar Marga, (Gorkha)
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Sukhaura, (Baglung)
Shree Mahendra Jyoti Higher Secondary School, Shyamgha,(Tanahu )
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Lahachowk, Kaski
Shree Mahendra mandir secondary school, Sundarbazar, (Lamjung)
Mahendra High school, Barangja, (Myagdi)
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Jagat Bhanjyang, Syangja
Karnali Province
Mahendra Daha
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Chhiwang, (Rukum)
Shree Mahendra higher secondary school, Dullu, (Dailekh)
thumb|Mahendra statue (Durbar Marg)
Kathmandu Valley
Mahendra Bhawan Higher Secondary Boarding School, Gyaneshwor, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra statue, Durbar Marg, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra statue, Kaalimati, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra statue, Pashupatinath temple, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra Park, Balaju, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra Ratna Campus
Mahendra statue, Hanuman Dhoka
Mahendra Bhawan Girls' Higher Secondary Boarding School, (Kathmandu)
Mahendra Museum, Hanuman Dhoka
Mahendra Rastriya Secondary School, Baluwataar,(Kathmandu)
Mahendra statue as M.B.B shah (Nepal Academy)
Mahendra Adarsha Vidhyashram College, Lalitpur
Shree Mahendra Adarsha Higher Secondary School, Mahalaxmi, Lalitpur
Mahendra Adarsha Vidhyashram Secondary School / College, Satdobato, Lalitpur
Mahendra Manzil, Narayanhiti Palace
Shree Mahendra Gram Secondary School, Tikathali, Lalitpur
Mahendra Bhawan Marga, (Kathmandu)
Shree Mahendra Shanti Secondary School, Balkot,( Bhaktapur)
Mahendra Vidya Ashram, Bhaktapur
Mahendra Bhrikuti Secondary School, Lalitpur
Mahendra Adarsha Marga, Lalitpur
Mahendra Boudha Secondary School, Kathmandu
Shree Mahendra Gram Higher Secondary School, Changunarayan, Bhaktapur
Mahendra Secondary School, Shankharapur, Kathmandu
Shri Mahendra Saraswati Sewa Lower Secondary School, Teku, Kathmandu
Lumbini Province
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Krishnanagar, Kapilvastu
Mahendra Chowk, Butwal
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Banganga, Kapilvastu
Mahendra Stadium, Nepalgunj
Mahendra Park, Nepalgunj
Mahendra Multiple Campus, Nepalgunj
Mahendra Airport, Nepalgunj
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Mallarani, ( Pyuthan)
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, ( Pyuthan)
Mahendra Multiple Campus, Dang
Shree Mahendra higher secondary school, Dang
Mahendra Sanskrit University, Dang
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Somani, (Nawalparasi)
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Sarawal, (Nawalparasi)
Mahendra Hospital, Ghorahi, Dang
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Tulsipur, Dang
Mahendra Model Secondary School. Tamghas,(Gulmi)
Mahendra Adarsha School, Wamitaksar, (Gulmi)
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Kerunga, Arghakhanchi
Mahendra Bodi Higher Secondary School, Tansen, Palpa
Madesh Province
Shree Mahendra secondary school, Singyahi, Mahottari
Mahendra Adarsha Village Development Committee
Mahendranagar town, Dhanusha
Mahendra Chowk, Jaleshwor, Mahottari
Mahendra Janata H.S.School, Karmaiya, Sarlahi
Shri Mahendra National Higher Secondary School, Ramgopalpur, Mahottari
Shree 5 Mahendra higher secondary school, khadak, (Saptari)
Shree Paanch Mahendra Chunni Secondary School, Manraja, Saptari
Mahendra Bindeshwari Multiple Campus, (Saptari)
thumb|Mahendra Morang Adarsh Multiple Campuus
Province No 1
Mahendra Ratna Multiple Campus, Illam
Mahendra statue, Mahendra Park(Chandragadhi)
Mahendra Park, Chandragadhi, (Jhapa)
Mahendra Multiple Campus, Dharan
Mahendra path, Dharan
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Itahari
Mahendranagar Municipality
Shree Mahendra Jyoti Secondary School, Chaurikharka, (Solukhumbu)
Mahendra Chowk, Pathari-Sanischare Municipality, (Morang)
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Biratnagar
Mahendra Chowk, Biratnagar
Mahendra Marga, Biratnagar
Mahendra Morang Adarsh Multiple Campus
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Kamal Gaun Palika, (Jhapa)
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Sharanamati, (Jhapa)
Mahendra Jyoti Higher Secondary School, Garamani, (Jhapa)
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Khandbari, Sankhuwasabha
Shree Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Manebhanjyang, Okhaldhunga
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Bharaul, Sunsari
Mahendra higher secondary school, Itahara, (Morang)
Shree Mahendra secondary school, Dangihat, (Morang)
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Woplukha, (Khotang)
Mahendranagar town, Sunsari
Shree Mahendra Secondary School, Mahendranagar, Sunsari
Mahendra Ratna Higher Secondary School, Birtamode, (Jhapa)
thumb|301x301px|Mahendra Griha at Tikapur Park
Sudurpashchim Province
Mahendranagar Bazaar, Bhimdatta
Mahendranagar Airport, Mahendranagar
Mahendranagar Town, Mahakali
Mahendra statue, Attariya (Kailali)
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Darchula
Mahendra Griha, Tikapur Park
Mahendra Statue Park, Bhimdatta
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Bhimdatta
Mahendra Secondary School, Sanfebagar, Achham
Mahendra Secondary School, Amargadhi, Dadeldhura
Mahendra Higher Secondary School, Dahabagar, (Bajhang),
Others
Mahendra Highway
Mahendra Mala Book
Mahendra Police Club
King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation
Mahendra Mala Manapadvi
Mahendra Pragya Puraskar
Mahendra Gold Cup
Mahendra Bhawan Scout Troop
His Majesty King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shaha Deva (An Analytical Biography)
King Mahendra Poetic Values and Technique Based on the Kashmiri Pandit Tradition (book)
Death and succession
Mahendra suffered a massive second heart attack whilst on a winter hunting trip in Chitwan where he was attended to by his trusted Physicians Dr Mrigendra Raj Pandey and Dr Sachey Kumar Pahari. King Mahendra was in a stable but critical condition and eventually breathed his last at Diyalo Bangala, the royal palace in Bharatpur on 31 January 1972. The King's body was subsequently flown to Kathmandu by helicopter in preparation for the State Funeral.
His son Birendra ascended the Nepalese throne on 31 January 1972 immediately after his father's death at the age of 27. However, his coronation took place only on 24 February 1975 at the age of 29 due to Hindu ritual for an auspicious date and the astrologers had claimed only that time to be auspicious.
Honors
British Field Marshal
King Mahendra was appointed as a British Field Marshal in 1962.Heathcote, Tony (1999). The British Field Marshals, 1736-1997: A Biographical Dictionary. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. pp. 204-205.
King Mahendra and Queen's visit to US
King Mahendra and Queen Ratna visited the US in 1960 and 1967. In 1960 they were greeted by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and in 1967 they were greeted by President Lyndon B Johnson and Mrs. Johnson in Washington DC in 1967. The royal couple of Nepal was greeted with the 'guard of honor'.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Other honors were as follows
National
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Pratap Bhaskara
Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Mahendra Mala Manapadvi (26 February 1961)
Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Tribhuvan (11 December 1936)
Foreign
Iran: Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire, 14 October 1971.
: Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 19 April 1960
: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint James of the Sword, 13 July 1960Presidência da República
: Grand Cross of the Order of Legion of Honour, 24 February 1956
: Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II, 1964
: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1964
: Collar of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol, 1970
Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 25 April 1967.
: Royal Victorian Chain, 26 February 1961
:Honorary Doctor of Laws, University of Detroit Mercy, 1960
: Collar of the Order of Sikatuna, Rank of Raja, April 22, 1971.
Ancestry
Notes
Possibly no heir for the time period of 1911 through 1920. Previous Crown Prince: Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah, from 1906 to 1911.
Regnal titles
References
External links
Category:1920 births
Category:1972 deaths
Category:Nepalese Hindus
Category:British field marshals
Category:Hindu monarchs
Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Category:Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II
Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:Kings of Nepal
Category:Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Category:Shah dynasty
Category:People from Kathmandu | {"Father": "Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah", "Mother": "Kanti Rajya Lakshmi Devi", "Occupation": "Author", "Born": "Narayanhity Royal Palace Kathmandu, Kingdom of Nepal", "Died": "Diyalo Bangala, Bharatpur, Nepalhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/31/archives/king-mahendra-of-nepal-dead-hindu-on-throne-for-15-years-king.html King Mahetidra of Nepal Dead; Hindu on Throne for 15 Years The New York Times 31 January 1972", "Burial": "Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal", "Religion": "Hinduism"} |
The Philip A. Hart Senate Office Building is the third U.S. Senate office building, and is located on 2nd Street NE between Constitution Avenue NE and C Street NE in Washington, D.C., in the United States. Construction began in January 1975, and it was first occupied in November 1982. Rapidly rising construction costs plagued the building, creating several scandals. The structure is named for Philip Hart, who served 18 years as a senator from Michigan. Accessed via a spur of the United States Capitol Subway System, the building features a nine-story atrium dominated by massive artwork, and a large Central Hearing Facility which provides television facilities as well as extensive seating.
Design and construction
The Dirksen Senate Office Building was intended to occupy the entire block bounded by 1st Street NE, Constitution Avenue NE, 2nd Street NE, and C Street NE. However, due to the resource and financial demands of the Korean War, the building was scaled back and occupied only the western half of this area.
thumb|left|Groundbreaking for the Hart Senate Office Building on January 5, 1976. Assistant Architect of the Capitol Mario Campioli (left) and Architect of the Capitol George White (right).
In 1969, Congress voted to acquire the eastern half of the block for a "New Senate Office Building".; Originally, the Senate intended only to build a $21 million ($ in dollars) underground parking garage here. That effort was approved in June 1971. But in May 1972, the Subcommittee on Buildings of the Senate Committee on Public Works approved a plan to construct the New Senate Office Building above the parking garage. The building's cost was estimated at $48 million ($ in dollars) in June 1972. The full Senate approved the building plan in September 1972, but by then the building's estimated cost had risen to $53.5 million ($ in dollars).
In April 1973, the Architect of the Capitol awarded the architectural design contract to John Carl Warnecke, a nationally prominent architect working in the District of Columbia who had helped save Lafayette Square and designed the John F. Kennedy grave site. Warnecke's design for the building was approved by the Senate Committee on Public Works on August 8, 1974. Warnecke was given just two weeks to come up with the cost estimate, which the Architect of the Capitol later claimed was far too little time to generate an accurate cost forecast. By the end of the year, the estimated cost of construction had risen to $69 million.
Ground for the new structure was broken in January 1975, and by the time ground clearance began in April the building's cost had risen to $84 million ($ in dollars). The poor and uneven condition of the soil at the site caused delays in the excavation, and major cost increases. When the foundations were finished, it was discovered that many of the anchoring bolts were misaligned and had to be replaced. This also added extensive new costs to the project.
On August 30, 1976, the Senate voted to name the new office building the Philip A. Hart Senate Office Building in honor of retiring Senator Philip Hart (D-Michigan).. Hart died on December 26, 1976, of melanoma, having declined to run for reelection the previous November.
By August 1978, actual construction costs were now $85 million ($ in dollars) and were expected to top $122 million ($ in dollars). The Senate approved a plan to spend another $54 million ($ in dollars) on the structure, and cap costs at $135 million ($ in dollars). Initially, the House approved this plan. But when constituents bitterly complained, the House reversed itself on both counts. By 1979, construction estimates had soared to $179 million ($ in dollars), and the General Accounting Office said it would rise to $230 million ($ in dollars) without changes. In July 1979, the Senate agreed to cap costs at $137.7 million ($ in dollars) after an acrimonious three-hour debate during which some senators suggested the building be torn down. The Architect of the Capitol ordered changes in the design to keep construction costs under the $137.7 million cap. These included elimination of a penthouse-level dining room, $906,000 ($ in dollars) in furnishings for an interior gymnasium, oak paneling for each senator's office, dimmer switches for lights, a $400,000 ($ in dollars) art gallery, $227,000 ($ in dollars) in carpeting for auxiliary space, $167,700 ($ in dollars) for vertical blinds, and $1.2 million ($ in dollars) for finishes and furnishings for a large central hearing room with hidden multimedia bays.
The Hart Senate Office Building was completed in September 1982 at a cost of $137.7 million ($ in dollars). The Architect of the Capitol argued that the significantly higher costs of the Hart Senate Office building were due to the unexpected excavation issues, the foundation construction errors, Senate-ordered changes, high inflation, and some mismanagement of the construction project. Architect of the Capitol George M. White argued the construction cost was a reasonable $110 per square foot. Architect John Carl Warnecke defended the building's cost, noting that it almost doubled in size (from to ), and that building costs in the District of Columbia leapt 76 percent during its erection. Warnecke dismissed allegations about Senate-ordered changes, saying these increased costs just 2 percent, and said that construction alone was just $107 million ($ in dollars) (with another $28 million ($ in dollars) coming from administrative costs, fees, and furnishings). He argued that excellent construction management held inflation in construction costs to just 67 percent, and that the building was erected at a cost of $97 per square foot, "well below the costs of any other major public building built in the District during that period." However, the American Institute of Architects said commercial construction costs in Washington, D.C., ranged from $54 to $65 per square foot, and The Christian Science Monitor reported the cost of the building at $137.70 per square foot.
The building was first occupied on November 22, 1982. The structure contained offices for 50 senators, but 25 of them refused to move into the structure. To save costs, the building gave each person a cubicle, rather than an office, which greatly upset Senate staff. To resolve the issue, junior senators (not normally able to choose which offices they wanted, nor obtain spacious and well-equipped ones) were able to claim the large, modern offices in the Hart Senate Office Building.
In late 1982, the Senate found $9.5 million ($ in dollars) in unused funds, which it designated to pay for the modular furniture and partitions for use in the Hart building.
Structure
thumb|left|Typical high Senator's office in the Hart building.
The Hart Senate Office Building consists of nine above-ground stories. The structure has of internal floor space, of which is usable.
Instead of the Neoclassical architectural style of the Dirksen and Russell Senate Office Buildings, the Hart Senate Office Building is Modernist. To fit within the context provided by the Dirksen and Russell buildings, Hart's building lines were designed to mesh with those of the earlier structures and the new building clad in dazzlingly white marble from Vermont. The marble was thick, twice the usual thickness for an office building, and used to cover even the most mundane aspects of the structure (such as the mechanical shed on the roof). More than of marble were needed for interior and exterior use.
To echo the courtyards of Dirksen and Russell, the Hart building has an atrium covered by a vast skylight. The walls of the interior of the structure, including the atrium, are clad in the same white Vermont marble as the exterior. The atrium's floor, however, is rose-colored Tennessee marble. Walkways on the interior of the atrium provide access to each office suite.
The public entrance to each suite is on an odd-numbered floor, with private staff entrances on even-numbered floors. Each office suite contains a private office for a senator which has outward-facing windows and has high ceilings. Due to the building's layout, a workspace with identical ceilings and views is adjacent to each senator's office. Workspace elsewhere in the suite exists on a main floor and a mezzanine, connected by an internal stairs. This office space has unusually low high ceilings. All workspace is generally free of columns and walls. A partition system consisting of oak frames covered in sound-absorbent fabric, designed and manufactured by Acoustical Screen Corporation, was designed for use in providing a flexible partition system in each office. These partitions were originally purchased for only a handful of offices, due to cutbacks in the building's furnishing budget. Each office also has a private restroom.
Manhole covers in the sidewalks and streets nearby were made of bronze, to avoid unsightly rust stains from traditional iron manhole covers (the usual material). The interior elevator doors were also cast in bronze, and areas in the floors in suites, meeting rooms, and some public areas had removable panels and built-in tubing which allowed for the easy replacement or upgrading of electrical, telecommunications, and computer wiring. The cafeteria beneath the Dirksen Senate Office Building was doubled in size and extended beneath the Hart building, which allowed the public to use for the first time during lunch hours.
The structure's $137 million cost did not include furnishing, which Senate experts estimated would cost another $32.6 million ($ in dollars). Unspecified changes made by Warnecke led to $4.2 million ($ in dollars) in cost savings, however. These allowed certain items to be restored, such as the large hearing room, auxiliary area carpeting, vertical blinds, and the gymnasium equipment (now estimated to cost just $736,000 ($ in dollars)). The cost savings also allowed the Architect of the Capitol to build a tennis court on the building's roof.
Below the structure is a 350-car parking garage.
The building's design deliberately spared the adjacent Sewall-Belmont house, a historic structure that serves as headquarters for the National Woman's Party and a museum about the women's suffrage movement.
Central Hearing Facility
thumb|left|Central Hearing Facility in the Hart building.
The Central Hearing Facility was completed in October 1987, and used for the first time in January 1988. Located on the second floor of the Hart Senate Office Building, the two-story high room has studio-quality television lighting built into the ceiling. Booths built into the sides of the room are elevated and can accommodate television camera crews. Above them are glassed-in booths where television reporters and news presenters can report from without disturbing the proceedings below.
The Central Hearing Facility is lavishly paneled and has a stone backdrop behind the dais.
Public access to the Central Hearing Facility is controlled via two foyers, accessible from the public hallways. Privately, members of Congress, their staff, and often witnesses access the hearing room from nondescript doors on the second floor of the Dirksen Senate Office Building. A small "green room", hidden behind the back wall of the Central Hearing Facility, provides a waiting room and space for individuals to prepare before entering the main hearing room.
Subway access
A spur of the United States Capitol Subway System was constructed to connect the Hart Senate Office Building to the subway's main track beneath the Dirksen Senate Office Building. The spur opened when the new building did. In 1989, the Senate approved a plan to upgrade the subway beneath the Hart and Dirksen office buildings. The changes included four new cars capable of seating 25 people (up from 18), making platforms and cars wheelchair-accessible, and automating these cars (eliminating the need for car conductors). The changes were expected to produce savings of $122,000 ($ in dollars) a year and cut waiting times to two minutes from four. Transportation Group Inc., of Orlando, Florida, was paid $15.8 million ($ in dollars) and the Architect of the Capitol received $2 million ($ in dollars) to design and manufacture the new subway cars and system. The system was finished in 1994.
Atrium
The atrium in the Hart Senate Office Building is high and capped by a lighting system and skylight. The skylight is actually 18 separate skylights, each of which has nine panels. A four-globe light fixture is suspended from each skylight. Each light fixture has an electric motor which can lower the fixture to the lobby floor so that bulbs can be replaced.
Beginning in 2014, major renovations and repairs were made to the roof of the Hart building. The roof had reached the end of its life and was replaced. The skylights, which leaked extensively and were causing damage to the building, were also replaced. To enhance the building's energy efficiency, solar panels capable of generating 148 kilowatts of solar power were installed on the roof. The entire roof project cost about $11.3 million ($ in dollars).
Mountains and Clouds
thumb|Walkway arcades on each floor provide access to the offices of the Hart building, as well as a view of the atrium. A portion of Mountains and Clouds can be seen in this image.
The atrium is dominated by the sculptural work Mountains and Clouds by Alexander Calder. The upper part of the work consists of a mobile, "Clouds", made from curved aluminum plates suspended from the roof on a shaft. The largest section of the mobile measures roughly , and the entire mobile weighs about . Crystallization Systems, Inc. of New York manufactured the mobile. A computer-controlled motor moves the mobile.
The lower part of the work consists of a stabile made of four flat, triangular-shaped steel plates painted matte black and supported by two curving legs. Sources differ as to how tall the stabile is, with reported heights of , , and . The stabile weighs about or . The Segré Foundry of Waterbury, Connecticut, manufactured the stabile.
Mountains and Clouds was the last work Calder completed. He was in Washington, D.C., on November 10, 1976, to show the finalized maquette to Architect of the Capitol George White. White gave his approval for the full-size work to be installed at the Hart Senate Office Building. Calder flew to his daughter's home in New York, and died of a heart attack at 6:00 AM on November 11.;
During the budget battles in 1979 over the cost of the Hart Senate Office Building, funds for completion of the Calder work were deleted. But Senator Nicholas F. Brady, who had been appointed to serve out the unexpired term of Senator Harrison A. Williams (who had resigned on March 11, 1982, after his bribery conviction in the Abscam scandal), decided in June 1982 to establish the Capitol Art Foundation. The foundation's goal was to raise funds for the placement of art through the United States Capitol Complex. By June 1985, the foundation had raised $250,000 ($ in dollars) to manufacture and $400,000 ($ in dollars) to install Mountains and Clouds. Most of the money came from billionaire art collector Paul Mellon and C. Douglas Dillon. The work was dedicated in a ceremony held on May 5, 1987.
Some time after the installation of the work, the motor malfunctioned and the mobile portion of Mountains and Clouds stopped rotating. When this happened is unclear, with one source saying shortly after the work's installation and another saying about 2005. In 2015, Senator Chris Murphy began a fundraising effort to restore the mobile to operation.
Mountains and Clouds is considered a one-of-a-kind work, as it is the only work by Calder to combine a mobile and a stabile. "He had mounted the forms atop one another before, but had never used them separately in a single piece as he anticipated to do with moving clouds and stationary mountains," says Capitol Hill reporter Justin Cox.
After the 2011 Virginia earthquake, there were concerns that the mobile might have become unsafe. It was lowered to the ground in 2014, and a complete safety check of the work conducted. It was restored to its suspended position in 2015.
Anthrax attack
On October 15, 2001, several suites of this building became contaminated by the release of anthrax powder from an envelope mailed to Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle in the 2001 anthrax attacks.“The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill.” Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association. Video, Transcript (see p1). May 12, 2015. The building was closed October 17, 2001, displacing hundreds of Senate staff. The building was decontaminated using chlorine dioxide gas from November to December 2001, and the building reopened January 23, 2002.
Committee offices
As of 2016, three Senate committees had offices located inside Hart Senate Office Building:
United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs
United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics
United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
List of current U.S. senators in the Hart Senate Office Building
Name Party State Room Tammy Baldwin D Wisconsin Room 709 Richard Blumenthal D Connecticut Room 706Cory BookerDNew JerseyRoom 717 John Boozman R Arkansas Room 141 Sherrod Brown D Ohio Room 503 Maria Cantwell D Washington Room 511 Ben Cardin D Maryland Room 509 Tom Carper D Delaware Room 513 Bill Cassidy R Louisiana Room 520 John Cornyn R Texas Room 517Catherine Cortez MastoDNevadaRoom 516 Steve Daines R Montana Room 320 Tammy Duckworth D Illinois Room 524 Dick Durbin D Illinois Room 711Joni ErnstRIowaRoom 730 Dianne Feinstein D California Room 331 Chuck Grassley R Iowa Room 135 Maggie Hassan D New Hampshire Room 324 Martin Heinrich D New Mexico Room 303 Mazie Hirono D Hawaii Room 713Cindy Hyde-SmithRMississippiRoom 702 Ron Johnson R Wisconsin Room 328 Angus King I Maine Room 133 James Lankford R Oklahoma Room 316 Joe Manchin D West Virginia Room 306 Bob Menendez D New Jersey Room 528 Jeff Merkley D Oregon Room 313 Markwayne Mullin R Oklahoma Room 330 Lisa Murkowski R Alaska Room 522 Chris Murphy D Connecticut Room 136Jon OssoffDGeorgiaRoom 825B Gary Peters D Michigan Room 724 Jack Reed D Rhode Island Room 728 Mike Rounds R South Dakota Room 502 Brian Schatz D Hawaii Room 722 Chuck Schumer D New York Room 322 Tim Scott R South Carolina Room 104 Jeanne Shaheen D New Hampshire Room 506Kyrsten SinemaIArizonaRoom 317 Tina Smith D Minnesota Room 720 Debbie Stabenow D Michigan Room 731 Dan Sullivan R Alaska Room 702 Jon Tester D Montana Room 311 Chris Van Hollen D Maryland Room 110 Mark Warner D Virginia Room 703 Elizabeth Warren D Massachusetts Room 309 Sheldon Whitehouse D Rhode Island Room 530Alex PadillaDCaliforniaRoom 112
References
Notes
Citations
External links
C-SPAN American History TV tour of the Hart Senate Office Building with Senate Historian Emeritus Don Ritchie
Category:Congressional office buildings
Category:Government buildings completed in 1982
Category:1980s architecture in the United States
Category:1982 establishments in Washington, D.C. | {"Status": "Complete", "Type": "Offices", "Location": "United States Capitol Complex", "Town or city": "Washington, D.C.", "Coordinates": "38 53 35 N 77 0 15 W region:US-DC inline,title"} |
Sidmouth () is a town on the English Channel in Devon, South West England, southeast of Exeter. With a population of 12,569 in 2011, it is a tourist resort and a gateway to the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. A large part of the town has been designated a conservation area.
History
thumb|left|Sidmouth beach in 1924
The origins of Sidmouth pre-date recorded history. The Sid valley has been in human occupation since at least the Iron Age as attested by the presence of Sidbury Castle, and possibly earlier given the presence of Bronze Age burial mounds on Gittisham Hill and Broad Down. The village of Sidbury itself is known to be Saxon in origin with the Church crypt dating to the seventh century. However, the Sid Valley was divided into two ecclesiastical land holdings, with Sidbury and Salcombe Regis being gifted by King Athelstan to Exeter Cathedral, and Sidmouth, which was part of the manor of Otterton, was gifted by Gytha Thorkelsdóttir (the mother of King Harold Godwinson) to the Benedictines at Mont-Saint-Michel.
Sidmouth appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Sedemuda, meaning "mouth of the Sid". Like many such settlements, it was originally a fishing village.
By the 1200s, Sidmouth had expanded to become a market town of similar size to Sidbury and generating more income for the abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel than Otterton. By this time, Sidmouth already had a parish church, as the Otterton Cartulary refers to a grant of 30 acres of land to Guilielmas, the vicar in Sidmouth, as a glebe, and excavations in 2009 during the remodelling of the parish church revealed foundations dating from that time. It is likely that the church was already dedicated to St Giles, as the annual fair was held on his feast day 1 September. According to one of the many blue plaques found around Sidmouth, not far from the church was a chapel dedicated to St Peter built sometime before 1322, the remaining wall of which is now part of Dukes Hotel.
During the 14th century, Sidmouth enjoyed a degree of prosperity from the wine trade and, as part of the manor of Otterton, was transferred by King Henry V from Mont-Saint-Michel to Syon Abbey. King Henry VIII confiscated it again during the dissolution of the monasteries and sold it off, whereafter it changed hands several times before being acquired by the Mainwaring baronets, whose family provided two of the vicars of Sidmouth parish.
Although attempts have been made to construct a harbour, none has succeeded. A lack of shelter in the bay prevented the town's growth as a port. Despite this, a part of the town is known as 'Port Royal' which is likely due to the town's having provided two ships and 67 men to King Edward III during the Hundred Years' War with which to attack Calais. The most concerted effort was a short-lived attempt in the 1830s at the west of the seafront; this included the construction of the Sidmouth Harbour Railway along the seafront and into a tunnel at the cliffs to the east that would have transported stone from Hook Ebb. Only a few traces of the railway and tunnel survive today.
According to one of the Sid Vale Association Blue Plaques, a fort was built in Sidmouth in 1628, due to fear of a French invasion or naval attack, on the part of the seafront that is known as 'Fortfield' and which is now the cricket pitch.
Another of the Blue Plaques of the Sid Vale Association, confirms that the Old Ship pub (now a Costa Coffee) had operated as a tavern in Sidmouth since the 1400s and was used by smugglers. The infamous Jack Rattenbury, who was born nearby in Beer, Devon operated in the area, and was known to associate with the Mutter family of Ladram Bay (after whom Mutter's Moor on Peak Hill overlooking Sidmouth is named).
Sidmouth remained a village until the fashion for coastal resorts grew in the Georgian and Victorian periods of the 18th and 19th centuries. A number of Georgian and Regency buildings still remain. In 1819, George III's son Edward, Duke of Kent, his wife, and baby daughter (the future Queen Victoria) came to stay at Woolbrook Glen for a few weeks. In less than a month he had died of pneumonia. The house later became the Royal Glen Hotel; a plaque on an exterior wall records the visit. Sidmouth was connected to the railway network in 1874, by a branch line from Sidmouth Junction, which from there called at Ottery St Mary and Tipton St John. This was dismantled in 1967 as a result of the Beeching Axe.
In 2008, Canadian millionaire Keith Owen, who had been on holiday in the town and planned to retire there, bequeathed about £2.3 million to the community's civic society, the Sid Vale Association, upon learning that he had only weeks to live due to lung cancer. The bequest was used as a capital fund to generate an annual interest dividend of around £120,000 for community projects.
Demographics
At the 2011 census the population was 12,569, with a median age of 59.
Geography
thumb|Sidmouth from Salcombe Hill
Sidmouth lies at the mouth of the River Sid in a valley between Peak Hill to the west and Salcombe Hill to the east. It is surrounded by the East Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and is on the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site, and the South West Coast Path. The red-coloured rock indicates the arid conditions of the Triassic geological period.
Erosion of the cliffs to the east of the river mouth threatens homes and the coastal footpath, and is a serious concern.
The wide esplanade has been a prominent feature since Regency times. A series of southwesterly storms in the early 1990s washed away much of the shingle beach protecting the masonry. A set of artificial rock islands was constructed to protect the sea front, and tons of pebbles were trucked in to replace the beach.
Sidmouth has a number of conservation projects, notably the arboretum which in 2012 designated all land owned by Sidmouth Town Council as 'civic arboretum', the first town in the United Kingdom to do so.
Climate
The highest temperature recorded since 1990 in Sidmouth is 28 °C (82 °F) in July 2018, and the coldest is -5 °C (23 °F) in February 1991 and March 2018.
Transport
Sidmouth's main road access is via the A3052 coast road. This provides access to Exeter and the M5 motorway away.
Irregular bus services connect to Exeter up to every half-hour by Stagecoach South West and to Honiton or Seaton.
Sidmouth is also served by AVMT Buses' service 899, which runs from Seaton to Sidmouth via Beer and Branscombe .
Since the closure of the Sidmouth Railway in 1967, the nearest railway stations are Feniton, Honiton or Whimple, all on the West of England line. Feniton is the nearest of these stations, being away.
Government
Sidmouth has its own town council, presided over by a chair elected from councillors. There are eight wards, with 19 councillors in all. The town clerk is the senior paid officer, with a team of full-time and part-time staff. The town is responsible for many of the locally run services, including the information centre. Sidmouth lies within the areas of East Devon District Council and Devon County Council. The electorate of the Sidmouth ward at the 2011 census was 13,737.
Sidmouth was in the Honiton parliamentary constituency from its recreation in 1885 until its abolition in 1997, since when it has been in the East Devon constituency.
Culture
thumb|Tower of Sidmouth parish church (15th century)
thumb|Sidford Methodist Church
thumb|right|Sidmouth seafront; the red cliff is Salcombe Hill exposing Jurassic rocks
Churches and museums
The parish church is dedicated to St Giles and St Nicholas. It was rebuilt in 1860; the architect was William White. Of the medieval structure, only the 15th-century tower has been retained. Oddments of Norman and later stonework were included in the rebuilding. Features of interest include the Duke of Kent Memorial Window, which Queen Victoria gave in 1867, and the reredos by Samuel Sanders Teulon. Parts of the original fabric, such as the windows, were reused by the historian Peter Orlando Hutchinson in building a folly adjoining his house. He was also responsible for saving the stained glass in the vestry.Mee, Arthur (1938) Devon. (The King's England.) London: Hodder & Stoughton; p. 390Pevsner, N. (1952) South Devon. Harmondsworth: Penguin; p. 262 The folly is the Old Chancel in Coburg Terrace which was started by Hutchinson in 1859, in protest over the destruction of the original church fabric during rebuilding.
The museum, next to the church, has local memorabilia, historical artefacts, and geological samples.
The church of All Saints, also Anglican (Taylor, architect, 1837), is in the Early English style with lancet windows and "oddly clumsy" pinnacles.Pevsner, N. (1952) South Devon. Harmondsworth: Penguin; p. 263 There were also Unitarian, Wesleyan (later Methodist) and Congregational chapels; the Unitarian chapel was founded in the 17th century by Presbyterians and the Wesleyan and Congregational ones in 1837 and 1846 respectively.White's Devonshire Directory of 1850; Sidmouth in Genuki; retrieved 24 August 2012
After the Reformation, the Catholic Church returned to Sidmouth in 1880 with the arrival of exiled French Jesuits who were joined in 1881 by the Sisters of the Assumption. The convent erected a purpose built chapel which opened for public mass in 1884. By the 1920s the Catholic population had grown to require a parish church. Land at Radway was acquired in 1930 and the Church of the Most Precious Blood was built, with the first Mass being celebrated on 10 November 1935.
Sidmouth is home to the Norman Lockyer Observatory and Planetarium, located on Salcombe Hill. The facility, completed in 1912, fell into disuse but was saved from demolition by the appeals of enthusiasts to East Devon District Council. The observatory now operates as a science education project and is open to the public.
Music
Folk Week
Sidmouth Folk Week is an annual folk festival in early August attracting musicians and visitors. It became less financially viable over the years and in 2005 the last of the commercial sponsors, essential for its existence, pulled out. To continue the tradition, individuals grouped together to form Sidmouth FolkWeek Productions, a limited company. Since the change of format, the event has been held on a smaller scale, with no arena at the Knowle, though marquees are still erected in the Blackmore Gardens and The Ham at the eastern end of the town. The popular late-night extra feature is also run at Bulverton on the edge of Sidmouth next to the main campsite.
Sidmouth Town Band
During the summer, Sidmouth Town Band, a brass band, play a series of concerts in the Connaught Gardens each Sunday at 8pm from late May until early September. The earliest record of the band is from a photograph of 1862.
In 2010, during competition, it was crowned West of England Champion in the third section. It went on to win third prize at the national finals of Great Britain. In 2011, it retained its West of England Champion title, becoming one of only a handful of bands to win back-to-back titles, and was promoted to the second section from 2012. From 2017 the band was promoted to the First Section.
Literary associations
Sidmouth has featured in various literary works, e.g. as "Stymouth" in Beatrix Potter's children's story The Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930), in which the author included views of the beach and other parts of the Devon countryside. In Thomas Hardy's Wessex it is the inspiration for "Idmouth". "Baymouth" in William Makepeace Thackeray's Pendennis, and "Spudmouth" in The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood by Howard Pyle, are both based on the town. In G. A. Henty's book With Wolfe in Canada, the hero James Walsham is from Sidmouth, and parts at the beginning and end of the book take place there. The poet Elizabeth Barrett lived in the town from 1832 until 1835. The area of rock pools around Jacob's Ladder is used as the location for H. G. Wells' The Sea Raiders. In 1962, author R. F. Delderfield had a house, 'Dove Cottage' (now 'Gazebo'), built on Peak Hill.
J.R.R. Tolkien was a regular visitor to Sidmouth and wrote parts of the early part of Lord of the Rings while on holiday with his family in 1938. Chapters drafted during the holiday encompass the hobbits escape of the Shire through the Old Forest and up to their arrival at Bree.
It was a favourite spot for Sir John Betjeman. He chose it as the subject of the first programme of the television series John Betjeman in the West Country that he wrote and presented in 1962. The script takes the form of an extended poem and was republished in 2000 as a short book.
Sidmouth has been the setting for television dramas, such as a 1987 adaptation of William Trevor's novel The Children of Dynmouth, and an ITV adaptation of Agatha Christie's Marple in summer 2005.
Miscellaneous
The Sidmouth Herald is the local newspaper.
Manor Pavilion houses an arts centre and a theatre that hosts both amateur and professional productions. There is also the Radway Cinema.
Sidmouth has been a frequent winner of Britain in Bloom awards. Most recently it won the Small Town category in 2001 and the Coastal Resort category in 2005.
The Sid Vale Association, the first civic society in Britain, was founded in 1846 and is based in Sidmouth.
In 2016, a worldwide architectural competition was held in the town to provide ideas for the future redevelopment of Sidmouth's eastern town and seafront. The competition was initiated by Sidmouth Architect Henry Beech Mole.
In October 2018, it was discovered that an unusually large fatberg was constricting the sewers. A team of scientists from the University of Exeter studied it and attributed it to the ageing population and its food habits. It was removed and turned into energy at a local power plant.
Twin towns
Sidmouth is twinned with Le Locle in Switzerland.
Features
The Esplanade is the sea front road from the red cliffs of Salcombe Hill in the east towards Jacob's Ladder Beach at the west. Peak Hill can be seen in the distance.
Jacob's Ladder is a series of wooden steps leading up to Connaught Gardens from Jacob's Ladder Beach and its red cliffs.
thumb|Connaught Gardens in September
Connaught Gardens date from around 1820. They were named after the Duke of Connaught, the third son of Queen Victoria, who officially opened the gardens in 1934. The bandstand there is used by bands in many weeks of the summer season.
This grassy slope up and along Peak Hill follows the red cliffs above Jacob's Ladder Beach. It provides a wide view eastwards over the whole town towards Salcombe Hill.
Economy
The principal revenue is from tourism, with a wide range of hotels and guest houses, as well as self catering accommodation in the local area. Sidmouth is a retirement location, so pensioner spending is another source of income.
The largest employer is East Devon District Council, the headquarters of which are at the former Knowle Hotel. The headquarters were transferred to Honiton in 2019. There is a large independent department store, Fields of Sidmouth, which has been on the same site for over 200 years.Fields archives There are pubs, restaurants, coffee houses and tea rooms; also an indoor swimming pool, a sports hall at the leisure centre, and a golf course.
Education
thumb|Old Fore Street (pedestrian zone)
Sidmouth College is a comprehensive school which takes children aged between 11 and 18 from as far afield as Exmouth and Exeter. In February 2012, with 852 pupils on the roll, the college was deemed 'Good' by Ofsted. The judgment of improvement in the college's provision followed the previous inspection (May 2009) when it was deemed 'satisfactory'. In the 2005 Ofsted report, when there were 869 students on the roll, it was also deemed 'satisfactory'.
Sidmouth College is situated in the Sid Valley. It admits students from East Devon.
There is one state junior school, which takes children from between the ages of 8 and 11. There are two state infant schools. There is, additionally, a private school: St John's International School (formerly known as the Convent of the Assumption) which takes children from two to 18, including overseas boarders. In 2007, it was taken over by International Education Systems (IES).IES Magazine 2007 - News (pdf)
Sidmouth International School is an English language school for foreign pupils.
Notable people
Stuart Hughes (politician)
Edmund Leach (1910-1989), social anthropologist
Adolph Friedrich Lindemann (1836-1931), engineer, lived at Sidholme mansion
R. W. Sampson
References
External links
Official Sidmouth Tourism and Town Website
Sidmouth Town Council
Rock fall at Pennington Point near Sidmouth February 2009 British Geological Survey
Category:Towns in Devon
Category:Beaches of Devon
Category:Jurassic Coast
Category:Seaside resorts in England | {"Sovereign state": "England", "Population": "12,569", "Shire county": "Devon", "District": "East Devon", "Postcode district": "EX", "Dialling code": "01395", "UK Parliament": "East Devon", "OS grid reference": "SY124874", "Website": "visitdevon.co.uk/sidmouth"} |
Maharajadhiraj Prithvi Narayan Shah (1723-1775) () was the last ruler of the Gorkha Kingdom and first monarch of the Kingdom of Nepal (also called the Kingdom of Gorkha). Prithvi Narayan Shah started the unification of Nepal.
Prithvi Narayan Shah is considered the Father of the Nation in Nepal.
Early years
Prithvi Narayan Shah was born prematurely on 7 January 1723 as the first child of Nara Bhupal Shah and Kaushalyavati Devi in the Gorkha Palace.thumb|Idols of PrithviNarayan Shah with his two wives
Prince Prithvi Narayan Shah's education began at age five through the appropriate ceremony. At that time, the responsibility to educate him was given to Mokchyeshwor Aryal and Bhanu Aryal. They were the Upadhyayas who worked in the palace as astrologers, where they were also known as Jyotishi or Jaisi. Even though the Gurus provided his primary education, the duty of developing his character was taken on by Queen Chandra Pravawati. It is said that seeing the princes of neighboring states Tanahun, Lamjung, and Kaski indulge in excess pleasure, Chandra Pravawati kept Prithvi Narayan Shah away from pleasurable or wrong pursuits. That is why no traces of pleasurable pursuits and diversion can be found in his early life.
From a young age, he took an interest in the affairs of his father's state and soon began to take on these responsibilities. Prithvi Narayan Shah had an early dream of conquering Nuwakot, partially because his father had lost it to the Mallas of Kathmandu in an earlier war. After the death of his father in 1743 AD, Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20. As king, he valued his people and enjoyed talking to them about their general concerns. This practice helped him to build a rapport with his people and helped him to understand the requirements of the citizens of Gorkha. King Shah sealed his borders and maintained a friendly diplomatic relationship with his neighbors, with the exception of the East India Company, which ignored Nepal and refused to open trade relations at the time.
Reign
Before Prithvi Narayan Shah's unification movement, there were a total of 54 states in Nepal. In the South-Eastern Terai, there were three Sen states: Makawanpur, Bijayapur, and Chaudandi. In the West, from Gorkha to Gandaki Province, there were 24 states. In the province of Karnali, there were 22 states with Kalyan, Samaal, Shahi and Chand dynasties. Along with Gorkha and Mustang, Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Lalitpur made up the remaining five states. thumb|Prithvi Narayan Shah consulting with his first Army Chief Senapati Shivaram Singh BasnyatWhen Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended to the throne of Gorkha on 3 April 1743 A.D., it was still a small state. He then started to contemplate the methods for turning Gorkha into a huge and strong state. He went to Varanasi to gain first-hand knowledge about the neighbouring states and about India to the south. During those days, Varanasi was one of the largest trade centres in India where people from different places gathered. He met with different types of people and gained valuable understandings regarding the Political and Social conditions of the Indian Sub-Continent. In Varanasi, his father-in-law Abhiman Singh, a Rajput Chief, procured for him some firearms and a quantity of ammunition.
Nuwakot
His first attempt at invasion of Nuwakot in 1743 CE failed and his reign began with an immediate military defeat. Conquering Nuwakot was essential for the unification, as it lay between Kathmandu and the Gorkha District, making it a vital trading route to Tibet.
On his return to Gorkha from Varanasi, Prithvi Narayan Shah first took steps to defeat Nuwakot in the diplomatic field. He entered into friendly alliance with the chiefs of Lamjung , Tanahun and Palpa. This done, Prithvi Narayan Shah sent an army against Nuwakot from three directions. The Chief of Nuwakot knowing that Gorkha is going to attack them in near future had gone to take help from Jaya Prakash Malla, the king of Kantipur. Thus his son Jayant Rana commanded the Nuwakot army representing his father. The Nuwakot army was defeated in 1744 CE and his country passed into the hands of Prithvi Narayan Shah's Gorkhas.
Kirtipur
Prithvi Narayan Shah's next strategy was to conquer all the places around the Nepal valley, that is, Kathmandu and the neighboring regions, and thereby to create an economic crisis in order that the conquest of Nepal valley might become easier. He first attacked Kirtipur, a dependency of Patan and a strategic post commanding the Nepal valley, but was signally defeated (1757). He made a narrow escape from the battlefield but his minister Kalu Pande was killed. Pande's death meant a great loss to the Gorkhas and it was not until 1763 that they were in a position to resume the policy of conquest.
In 1765, Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked Kirtipur again after two humiliating defeats. In Kirtipur, King Prithvi Narayan conquered the ancient city on his third attempt. The ferocity with which the conquerors had dealt with the natives of Kirtipur struck terror into the hearts of the neighbouring people and made the conquest easier.
Makwanpur
In 1763, the Gorkhas conquered Makwanpur, one of the gateways to Nepal from Bengal. The conquest of Makwanpur, however, brought Prithvi Narayan Shah in a collision with Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal. Bikram Sen, the king of Makwanpur, was then taken prisoner by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Upon this Kanak Singh, another local Chief complained to Nawab Mir Qasim and requested his intervention. "In consequence of this complaint, the Nabab himself crossed over sending Gurgin Khan before him who arrived near Makwanpur where his whole army being destroyed the Nabab returned to Patna". The expedition of Qasim was also determined by Gurgin Khan's eagerness to test the strength and skill of the troops who he had disciplined and of the artillery which he had trained. Gurgin Khan's lust for the Nepalese gold was another cause of his earnestness to lead the expedition, although the Nawab had counselled against it. Gurgin Khan lost a great number of his men and had to leave many stands of arms.
Chaukot
The Gorkhalis fought for six months with the people of Dhulikhel. After this Prithvi Narayan Shah built a fort on the top of the hill south of Chaukot and collected a large number of troops. On consulting with his followers, he was told by the kajis that small villages were easily taken, as the people fled when they heard the shouts of the assailants, but the village of Chaukot required special military skills. After this, consultation the troops blockaded Chaukot. Some of the people fled to Pyuthan by way of Basdol, and others to their places. Narasinha Rai went to Mahindra Sinha Rai and said, "We are unable to cope with the Gorkhalis with the help of fifty houses. The rest of the people have fled, and I have come to tell you. Do not delay but flee soon". Mahindra Sinha reproached him and charged him with cowardice, saying, "Do not stay for me but escape with your lives. As for myself, I will repulse the whole force of the Gorkhalis, and having earned great renown, will enjoy my possession in happiness. If I do not succeed, I shall leave my body on the field of battle and earn an abode in heaven, by the merit of which my sons and grandsons will obtain happiness." Then he called together his faithful followers, who were desirous of securing happiness in the next world and encouraged them.
On the 6th of Jestha (28 May 1757), a severe battle was fought, which lasted from evening till 12 gharis (12 o' clock) of the night. The Gorkhalis, having lost 131 men, retreated. The battle was renewed daily for fifteen days, without the Gorkhalis making any impression. On the 6th of Jeth Sudi a hardly contested battle was fought, which lasted till 14 gharis of the night. At this time a soldier, getting behind Mahindra Sinha, killed him with a khoda and a lance and wounded Narasinha in the left shoulder with a Khukuri, due to which he fell senseless to the ground. Seeing this, the Chaukotiyas fled, and the village was set on fire. In this battle, the Gorkhalis lost 201 men, which, with the 131 killed on the former day, gives the total of 332 men.
The next morning Prithvi Narayan Shah inspected the field of battle, and seeing Mahindra Sinha Rai's lifeless body pierced with wounds, he praised his bravery and sent for his family, that they being the relative of so brave a man, might have proper protection. They were brought and fed in the royal kitchen. After this, having with ease taken five villages, viz., Panauti, Banepa, Nala, Khadpu, and Sanga, Prithvi Narayan Shah returned to Nuwakot.
Kathmandu Valley
thumb|Statue of Shah at Chandragiri Hill. Shah is said to have planned to annex the Kathmandu valley after seeing it from the Chandragiri Hill.
After this, he intended to take possession of the Kathmandu Valley. Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the whole of Nepal was rendered easier by the internal dissensions among the Nepali rulers. Ranjit Malla, the chief of Bhadgaon, invoked the assistance of the Gorkha Chief due to his feud with the chiefs of Patan and Kathmandu. Prithvi Narayan Shah had previously gained over the Satbahalyas of Ranjit Malla by promising to leave them the throne and the revenue to content himself with nominal sovereignty over the country.
Prithvi Narayan Shah took possession of Bhadgaon and next he invested in Patan in 1767. The rapid expansion of the Gorkha dominions and the growth of the Gorkha power round the Nepal valley placed Jaya Prakash Malla, the Chief of Kathmandu in a state of siege. All egress and ingress having been stopped, Kathmandu faced the danger of being starved into submission. The valley was completely cut off from the outside world and was controlled solely by Shah. Having understood that the Gorkhas cannot be defeated by his army alone, Jaya Prakash in this predicament sought military assistance from the Bengal Presidency by sending one of his messengers to Patna in order to ask for help with the East India Company. The officers in Patna of the East India Company sent the message to Bengal. The East India Company seized the opportunity and sent a warning to Prithvi Narayan Shah and decided to send an expedition to relieve Jaya Prakash.
According to legends, when Prithvi Narayan Shah entered the durbar of Bhadgaon, he found the kings of three towns sitting together, whereat he and his companions laughed. Jaya Prakash was offended by this, and said, "O Gorkhalis, this has come to pass through the treachery of our servants, or else you would have had no cause for mirth." Prithvi Narayan Shah having conversed with Jaya Prakash Malla for a while then paid his respects to Ranjit Malla, and respectfully asked him to continue to rule as he had hitherto done, although Prithvi Narayan Shah had conquered the country. Ranjit Malla said that Prithvi Narayan Shah had obtained the sovereignty by the favor of God and that all that he now asked for was to be sent to Benaras. Shah entreated him to remain, but the recollection of the treachery of the servants was fresh in his memory and he would not be consent. Shah granted him the leave along with the expenses used for the journey. When Ranjit Malla reached the top of the Chandragiri Paa, he took a last view of Nepal, and with tears in his eyes exclaimed, " The Satbahalyas have killed my son Bir Narsinha, and have caused me this sorrow. " He then bade farewell to Taleju, Pashupatinath, and Guhyeshwari, and went to seek an asylum with Bisweswaranatha and Ganga.
He also occupied the Kuti Pass in circa 1756 CE, halting all trade through the pass and preventing communication with Tibet.
Kinloch expedition
After the loss, Jaya Prakash Malla, out of sheer desperation, sent Nepali Vakeels to Mr. Golding, the Commercial Agent of the East India Company at Bettiah, to solicit their help against Prithvi Narayan Shah. The purport of the conversation between the Nepali Vakeels and Golding was communicated to Thomas Rumbold, the company's chief at Patna, on 6 April 1767. Golding had made a strong case for sending an expedition to the relief of Jaya Prakash Malla. According to him, if Malla was successfully relieved, the East India Company would earn his gratitude which would facilitate the opening of communication with China through Nepal and this would be of great consequence to the company. Malla was offering to bear all costs of the expedition.
In the meantime, Prithvi Narayan Shah had already realized the danger of a military alliance between Malla and the East India Company. Shah then sent a letter to Rumbold requesting his protection for a visit to Patna. Rumbold then communicated Shah's request to the president of the Select Committee. The Select Committee under the persuasion of Golding decided to instead send military assistance to Jaya Prakash Malla.
The Select Committee directed George Kinloch, who had been earlier sending on an expedition against the Raja of Tipperah, to proceed to Patna so that he might be in readiness to lead the expedition against Prithvi Narayan Shah. The considerations that weighted with the Selection Committee to decide in favour of sending military assistance to Jaya Prakash Malla can be gathered from their letters. The revival of the declining, almost dead, trade relations with Nepal and the opening up of China trade through Nepali territory were two of the prime considerations. Under instructions from the Select Committee Capt. Kinloch proceeded to Patna where he was asked to await further instructions from Mr. Rumbold. Pursuant to the committee's decision to render the military assistance, Mr Rumbold and Capt. Kinloch was busy gathering all relevant information that was likely to help the expedition to success. In the meantime, Prithvi Narayan Shah was peremptorily asked to accept the East India Company mediation to which he sent an evasive reply.
In June 1767, The Nepali Vakeels Muktananda and Faqir Ramdoss who came to solicit East India Company help on behalf of Jaya Prakash Malla were examined by Capt. Kinloch at Patna with a view to eliciting every information of military importance. The strength of Prithvi Narayan Shah's troops, as the Vakeels said, was near about 50,000 of which again, only 20,000 were stationed in the Nepal valley and the rest was engaged in cultivation in their native places. Their arms comprised bows and arrows, swords and matchlocks. The Vakeels also made no secret of the fact that there was no time to lose, as the break of monsoon the hilly paths would become unsafe and the hill rivers unforeseeable. They also informed Capt. Kinloch how Prithvi Narayan Shah had "taken ten principal cities and possession of all his (Jaya Prakash's) country" and had kept the towns of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhadgaun, and Zeemy (sic) all closely blockaded".
The total distance to be covered by the expeditionary force was 96 coss (384000 yards) and the journey had to be completed by eleven stages, during the last six stages of which the Nepal Rajah undertook to provide porters and provisions.
The expedition, however, miscarried and the high hopes of the Select Committee were dashed to the ground. The reasons for the failure were set forth in a series of letter that passed between Capt. Kinloch and Mr. Rumbold, the latter, the Select Committee and the Court of Directors. The first reason mentioned the destruction of the major part of their provisions by a sudden torrent from the hills. The other reason was that no help in respect to provisions came from the Nepal Rajah and when Capt. Kinloch had reached Janakpur assurances of abundant supply were given by the men of the Rajah once the troops would reach Sindhuli where the seventh stage of the journey would have ended. But even there, the promised help didn't come. "Famine stared them in the face. Retreat under the present circumstances was out of the question and it was impossible to hold Sindhuli for long as all supplies of provisions had been cut off by the enemy (Prithvi Narayan Shah). But as Kinloch insisted the troops had to face the holy river Bagmati. The troops had built an improvised bridge and rafts but the violent torrent washed them down before any army could cross the river. Famished and falling sick in an increasingly large number, the troops had no way out but to order an immediate retreat. The retreating troops, however, were hotly pursued by the Gorkhas sent by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Capt. Kinloch then, at last, returned to the Terai and occupied the territories of Bara, Parsa and Hilwall. The miscarriage of the Kinloch expedition allowed Prithvi Narayan Shah to deal with the besieged capitals of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhadgaon, etc. By the end of the year 1768, he had succeeded in reducing all the cities that still held out. "Prithvi Narayan Shah almost walked into Kathmandu due to the Indra Jatra revelry in which the Nepali were sunk".
Divyopadesh
upright|thumb|Nepali stamp featuring Prithvi Narayan Shah with a quote from his Divyopadesh 1968
Towards the end of his life, Prithvi Narayan Shah was troubled by illness to a great extent. He had probably started to realize his end was near, which is why he decided to organize an unofficial council meeting known as bhardaari-sabha. In this sabha he decided to inform his brothers, his son and his ministers on why was he involved in the unification of Nepal and what should the appropriate policies and programs for the future be regarding Nepal. This sabha continued for the whole day for about 5/6 hours. The messages he gave in this sabha was written down by his brothers and ministers and was compiled as Divyopadesh.
Foreign policy
Prithvi Narayan Shah considered the state of Nepal as a ' Yam between two boulders ', referring to China on the North and the 'Emperor of Seas' to the South. He suggested that Nepal should forever maintain a good friendship with China. In regards to his policy towards the East India Company's rule, however, he suggested maintaining friendliness but also to be wary of their shrewdness. Shah opined that "The East India Company is currently occupying Hindustan forcefully...If the Hindustanis wake-up then they will come here in search of safe forts". Hence, Prithvi Narayan Shah connoted his soldiers to be prepared and build barriers and forts at appropriate locations.
Religion
Prithvi Narayan Shah was born into a Hindu family. After he became the master of Kathmandu proper, he began to follow his policy of exclusion and expulsion of the Europeans with all strictness. The Capuchin missionaries who were residing in Nepal for a long time and who had been successfully converting people and also gaining lands from the Malla Kings were expelled from Nepal. He called Nepal the actual 'Hindustan.' He advised the citizens of Nepal to never leave the traditional dharma of the ancestors.
Economic policy
Prithvi Narayan Shah strongly emphasized local production. In his Divya Upadesh, he was of the idea that if foreign traders enter Nepal then they will suck the country dry. In the same context, he suggested a boycott on wearing foreign clothes and also promotes the training of the local people to weave clothes. He believed that by doing so, the local wealth would not be allowed to reach out of the country. He encouraged the selling of Nepali herbs to foreign lands and bringing the wealth so attained back to the country. He also wanted the money to remain inside the country. He famously said, " प्रजा मोटो भए दरबार पनि बलियो रहन्छ " (If the people are capable then the palace will also remain stronger).
Defense policy
King Prithvi Narayan Shah established the Nepal Army in August 1762 with Shreenath, Kali Baksh (Kalibox), Barda Bahadur, and Sabuj companies. Prithvi Narayan Shah emphasized the building of forts. He considered the land of Nepal as a natural fort created by God Himself. He suggested on building one strong fort each on Shivapuri, Phulchowki, Chandragiri, Mahadevpokhari, Palung, Daapcha, and Kaahule and placing cannon in each of them in a ready state. Construction of iron doors at the bhanjyangs and the placement of cannons in each of those doors, each in the ready state was also advocated by Prithvi Narayan Shah, which, he believed would keep the country safe from spies, refugees, murderers, etc.
Memorial
thumb|Statue of Prithvinarayan Shah at Prithvi Smarak Devighat Was Cremated and his ashes here.Many structures, institutions and honors have been built in the memory of King Prithvinarayan Shah. Monuments erected in his name were renamed after the restoration of the parliament in 2063 BS and the end of the monarchy in 2065 BS. After the political changes of 2063 BS, an attempt was made to rename the highway built in the name of the king as Lok Marg.
Prithvi Highway
Prithvi Rajpath
Prithvi Statue (Singh Durbar)
Prithvi Statue (Pashupatinath temple)
Prithvi Memorial statue, Chandragiri
Maharaja Prithvi Narayan Shah Memorial Foundation
Prithvi Narayan Shah's Statue, Rastra Bibhuti Park, Pokhara
Greater Nepal: Quest for Boundaries (Documentary)
Prithvi Narayan Campus , Pokhara
Prithvi Museum
Prithvi Narayan Shah Statue, Sindhuli Gadi Fort
Death and legacy
King Prithvi Narayaṇ Shah was ultimately able to capture small principalities and annex them into the kingdom. This expansion was crucial to ensure the continued survival of the Kingdom of Nepal as the East India Company was already expanding into the Indian subcontinent from their base in Bengal. Shah was convinced that the company would eventually conquer the regions bordering Nepal to the south and approach Nepal. He believed that if Nepal remained a collection of fifty principalities, then it would easily be defeated and conquered in the event of a war with the company or any other foreign power. Expanding his kingdom ensured that Nepal would remain an independent state and be able to negotiate with a foreign power on equal terms.
In January 1775, at the age of 52, Prithvi Narayan Shah died at Devighat, Nuwakot on his birthday. Upon his death, his son, Pratap Singh Shah, succeeded him and his unification campaign was continued by his younger son, Bahadur Shah.
References
Shumsher, Purusottam (1993). Shree Tinharuko Tathya Britanta. Kathmandu: Pramod Shumsher.
External links
History of Nepal
|-
Category:Prithvi Narayan Shah
Category:1723 births
Category:1775 deaths
Category:18th-century monarchs in Asia
Category:18th-century Nepalese people
Category:Founding monarchs
Category:Gurkhas
Category:Hindu monarchs
Category:National heroes of Nepal
Category:Nepalese Hindus
Category:Kings of Nepal
Category:People from Gorkha District
Category:People of the Nepalese unification
Category:Shah dynasty | {"Father": "Nara Bhupal Shah", "Mother": "Kaushalyavati Devi", "Religion": "Hinduism", "Born": "Gorkha Palace, Gorkha Kingdom (present-day Gorkha District, Nepal)", "Died": "Devighat, Kingdom of Nepal"} |
Zapp Mobile was the first CDMA 450 MHz mobile phone operator in Romania, now part of Telekom Romania Mobile. In 2006 Zapp got a UMTS 2100 MHz license.
Zapp Mobile was a company of Telemobil S.A. România, which was a spin-off of Telefónica Romania, the first Romanian mobile service provider (now defunct). Telefónica Romania acquired a NMT license on 22 March 1992 and the mobile operator called "Telemobil" went live in April 1993.
On 30 June 2009 Zapp Mobile was acquired by OTEGreece's OTE to buy Romanian mobile company Zapp and it is in the process of integration in OTE's Romanian mobile unit Cosmote Romania.
As of 24 March 2013 Zapp CDMA licence expired and the CDMA 450 network was closed down.
Radio Frequency Summary
The following is a list of known frequencies Zapp Mobile employed in Romania:
+Frequencies used on the Zapp Mobile Network MCC MNC Frequency Band number Protocol Class Notes 226 06 900 MHz 8 UMTS/HSPA/HSPA+ (21.6 Mbit/s)/(5.76 Mbit/s) 3G Not operational - shut down as of end of March 2023 226 06 2100 MHz 1 UMTS/HSPA/HSPA+/DC-HSPA+ (43.2 Mbit/s)/(5.76 Mbit/s) 3G Not operational - shut down as of end of March 2023
See also
List of mobile network operators
Communications media in Romania
References
External links
Zapp CDMA Romania
Category:Mobile phone companies of Romania
Category:Companies based in Bucharest | {"Founded": "April 1993 as Telefonica Romania", "Defunct": "1 December 2017", "Headquarters": "Baloteşti, Ilfov County, Romania", "Industry": "Mobile telecommunications", "Fate": "Acquired by OTE, and slowly dissolved from 2011 to 2018", "Website": "www.zapp.ro", "Type": "Private"} |
The American Expeditionary Forces (A. E. F.) was a formation of the United States Armed Forces on the Western Front during World War I. The A. E. F. was established on July 5, 1917, in France under the command of then-Major General John J. Pershing. It fought alongside French Army, British Army, Canadian Army, British Indian Army, New Zealand Army and Australian Army units against the Imperial German Army. A small number of A. E. F. troops also fought alongside Italian Army units in 1918 against the Austro-Hungarian Army. The A. E. F. helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at the Battle of Château-Thierry and Battle of Belleau Wood) in the summer of 1918, and fought its major actions in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in the latter part of 1918.
Formation
thumb|upright|right|American Expeditionary Forces Commander in Chief, General John J. Pershing in 1917.
President Woodrow Wilson initially planned to give command of the A. E. F. to Gen. Frederick Funston, but after Funston's sudden death, Wilson appointed Major General John J. Pershing in May 1917, and Pershing remained in command for the rest of the war. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe. As a result, few troops arrived before January 1918. In addition, Pershing insisted that the American force would not be used merely to fill gaps in the French and British armies, and he resisted European efforts to have U.S. troops deployed as individual replacements in depleted Allied units.
This approach was not always well received by the western Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare.Coffman, The War to End All Wars (1998) In addition, the British government tried to use its spare shipping as leverage to bring US soldiers under British operational control.
thumb|right|200px|Map, Port of Embarkation Hoboken (1917-18).
By June 1917, only 14,000 American soldiers had arrived in France, and the A. E. F. had only a minor participation at the front up to late October 1917, but by May 1918 over one million American troops were stationed in France, though only half of them made it to the front lines.Pershing, My Experiences in the World War (1931)
Since the transport ships needed to bring American troops to Europe were scarce at the beginning, the U.S. Army pressed into service passenger liners, seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships to transport American soldiers from the Hoboken Port of Embarkation with facilities in New York City and New Jersey, and the Newport News Port of Embarkation in Virginia. The mobilization effort taxed the American military to the limit and required new organizational strategies and command structures to transport great numbers of troops and supplies quickly and efficiently. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire, and Brest became the entry points into the French railway system that brought the American troops and their supplies to the Western Front. American engineers in France also built 82 new ship berths, nearly of additional standard-gauge tracks, and over of telephone and telegraph lines.
thumb|right|Column of American troops passing Buckingham Palace, London, 1917.
The first American troops, who were often called "Doughboys," landed in Europe in June 1917. However the A. E. F. did not participate at the front until October 23, 1917, when the 1st Division fired the first American shell of the war toward German lines, although they participated only on a small scale. A group of regular soldiers and the first American division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy, France, in Lorraine.
thumb|left|With America's first convoy. The troop ships are Henderson, Antilles, Momus, and Lenape.
I Corps was officially activated in France, under the A. E. F., from 15 January 1918. It include the 1st, 2nd, 26th, 32nd, 41st and 42nd Divisions. (4th Brigade, US Marine Corps, was included as part of 2nd Division.) II Corps was activated on 24 February,Yockelson, p. 34. by which time troop numbers justified it. Initially II Corps consisted of the 27th, 30th, 33rd, 78th and 80th Divisions.
In June 1918, many component infantry units from II Corps - commanded by Maj.-Gen. George W. Read - were attached to veteran British Army or Australian Army units. This served two purposes: familiarizing the Americans with actual battlefield conditions in France, and temporarily reinforcing the British Empire units that were often severely-depleted in numbers, after more than three years of fighting. In fact, the first major operation in World War I to involve US troops concerned individual infantry platoons of the 33rd Division, which were attached to battalions of the Australian Corps for the Battle of Hamel on the 4th of July. Their involvement was voluntary and occurred despite last-minute orders from A. E. F. headquarters, that its troops should not take part in offensive operations led by non-US generals. Thus Hamel was historically significant as the first major offensive operation during the war to involve US infantry and the first occasion on which US units had fought alongside British Empire forces.
thumb|right|Men of the 18th Machine Gun Battalion passing through St. Baussant in advance upon St. Mihiel, September 13, 1918.
The A. E. F. used French and British equipment. Particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider, and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, and the U.S. Army tank corps used French Renault FT light tanks. Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons.Wilson, Treat 'Em Rough: The Birth of American Armor, 1917-1920 (1989)
By the end of 1917, four divisions were deployed in a large training area near Verdun: the 1st Division, a regular army formation; the 26th Division, a National Guard division; the 2nd Division, a combination of regular troops and U.S. Marines; and the 42nd "Rainbow" Division, a National Guard division made up of soldiers from nearly every state in the United States. The fifth division, the 41st Division, was converted into a depot division near Tours.
Logistics
left|thumb|A. E. F. officer's identity card belonging to Edwin Hubble, 1918
Logistic operations were under the direction of Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes, with the rank first of colonel and then brigadier general. Dawes reported directly to Gen. Pershing. Dawes recommended in May 1918 that the allies set up a joint logistics planning board, which was approved by the Allies in the form of the Military Board of Allied Supply (MBAS), which coordinated logistics and transportation on the Western and Italian fronts.Edward A. Goedeken, "Charles Dawes and the Military Board of Allied Supply." Journal of Military History 50.1 (1986): 1-6.
Supporting the two million soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean was a massive logistical enterprise. In order to be successful, the Americans needed to create a coherent support structure with very little institutional knowledge. The A. E. F. developed support network appropriate for the huge size of the American force. It rested upon the Services of Supply in the rear areas, with ports, railroads, depots, schools, maintenance facilities, bakeries, clothing repair shops (termed salvage), replacement depots, ice plants, and a wide variety of other activities.
The Services of Supply initiated support techniques that would last well into the Cold War including forward maintenance, field cooking, graves registration (mortuary affairs), host nation support, motor transport, and morale services. The work of the logisticians enabled the success of the A. E. F. and contributed to the emergence of the American Army as a modern fighting force.Leo P. Hirrel, “Supporting the Doughboys: US Army Logistics and Personnel During World War I” Ft. Leavenworth: Combat Studies Institute, 2017. Available at no cost.
African Americans
thumb|right|Officers of the 366th Infantry, 1919
African Americans were drafted on the same basis as whites and made up 13 percent of the draftees. By the end of the war, over 350,000 African-Americans had served in A. E. F. units on the Western Front.African-Americans Continue Tradition of Distinguished Service; U.S. Army; Gerry J. Gilmore; February 2, 2007 However, they were assigned to segregated units commanded by white officers. One fifth of the black soldiers sent to France saw combat, compared to two-thirds of the whites. They were three percent of A. E. F. combat forces, and under two percent of battlefield fatalities.Jennifer D. Keene, "Americans as Warriors: 'Doughboys' in Battle during the First World War", OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 17, No. 1, World War I (Oct., 2002), p. 17. "The mass of the colored drafted men cannot be used for combatant troops", said a General Staff report in 1918, and it recommended that "these colored drafted men be organized in reserve labor battalions." They handled unskilled labor tasks as stevedores in the Atlantic ports and common laborers at the camps and in the Services of the Rear in France.Kennedy (1982) 162. The French, whose front-line troops were resisting combat duties to the point of mutiny, requested and received control of several regiments of black combat troops.Barbeau and Henri (1974); . Kennedy reports "Units of the black 92nd Division particularly suffered from poor preparation and the breakdown in command control. As the only black combat division, the 92nd Division entered the line with unique liabilities. It had been deliberately dispersed throughout several camps during its stateside training; some of its artillery units were summoned to France before they had completed their courses of instruction, and were never fully-equipped until after the Armistice; nearly all its senior white officers scorned the men under their command and repeatedly asked to be transferred. The black enlisted men were frequently diverted from their already attenuated training opportunities in France in the summer of 1918 and put to work as stevedores and common laborers."Kennedy (1982) p. 199.
The 369th, 370th, 371st, and 372nd Infantry Regiments (nominally the 93d Division, but never consolidated as such) served with distinction under French command with French colonial units in front-line combat. The French did not harbor the same levels of disdain based on skin color and for many Americans of African descent it was a liberating and refreshing experience. These African-American soldiers wore American uniforms, some dating from the time of the Union Army, with French helmets and were armed with French Model 1907/15 Berthier rifle manufactured by Remington Arms, rather than the M1903 Springfield or M1917 Enfield rifles issued to most American soldiers.Canfield, Bruce N. American Rifleman (April 2009) p. 40 One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the Harlem Hellfighters. The 369th was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other African-American regiment in the war. One hundred seventy-one members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit. One member of the 369th, Sergeant Henry Johnson, was awarded the French Croix de guerre, and posthumously the Medal of Honor.
Actions during World War I
thumb|upright=2|Allies gain overwhelming superiority in front-line rifle strength as American soldiers arrive in the summerLeonard P. Ayers, online The war with Germany: a statistical summary (1919) p. 105
At the beginning, during the spring of 1918, the four battle-ready U.S. divisions were deployed under French and British command to gain combat experience by defending relatively quiet sectors of their lines. After the first offensive action and American-led A. E. F. victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny,Matthew Davenport, "First Over There", 2015, Thomas Dunne Books by the U.S. 1st Division, and a similar local action by the 2nd Division at Belleau Wood beginning 6 June, both while assigned under French Corps command, Pershing worked towards the deployment of an independent US field Army. The rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. By June Americans were arriving in-theater at the rate of 10,000 a day; most of which entered training by British, Canadian and Australian battle-experienced officers and senior non-commissioned ranks. The training took a minimum of six weeks due to the inexperience of the servicemen.
The first offensive action by A. E. F. units serving under non-American command was 1,000 men (four companies from the 33d Division), with the Australian Corps during the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918. (Corporal Thomas A. Pope was awarded the Medal of Honor for this battle.) This battle took place under the overall command of the Australian Corps commander, Lt. Gen. Sir John Monash. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support (combined arms), which served as a blueprint for all subsequent Allied attacks, using "tanks".Roland Perry, Monash - The Outsider Who Won a War, 2007, Random House, Sydney, pp. 349-352
thumb|Army field hospital in France, 1918
U.S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918 (at the Battle of Château-Thierry (1918) and the Battle of Belleau Wood). The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient during September 1918. During the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, Pershing commanded the U.S. First Army, composed of seven divisions and more than 500,000 men, in the largest offensive operation ever undertaken by United States armed forces. This successful offensive was followed by the Meuse-Argonne offensive, lasting from September 26 to November 11, 1918, during which Pershing commanded more than one million American and French combatants. In these two military operations, Allied forces recovered more than 200 sq mi (488 km2) of French territory from the German army. By the time the World War I Armistice had suspended all combat on November 11, 1918, the American Expeditionary Forces had evolved into a modern, combat-tested army.
Late in the war, American units ultimately fought in two other theaters at the request of the European powers. Pershing sent troops of the 332d Infantry Regiment to Italy, and President Wilson agreed to send some troops, the 27th and 339th Infantry Regiments, to Russia.Venzon, ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995) These latter two were known as the American Expeditionary Force Siberia,Robert L. Willett, Russian Sideshow, pp. 166-167, 170 and the American Expeditionary Force North Russia.E.M. Halliday, When Hell Froze Over (New York City, ibooks, inc., 2000), p. 44
Casualties
The A. E. F. sustained about 320,000 casualties: 53,402 battle deaths, 63,114 noncombat deaths and 204,000 wounded. Relatively few men suffered actual injury from poison gas, although much larger numbers mistakenly thought that they had been exposed. The 1918 influenza pandemic during the fall of 1918 took the lives of more than 25,000 men from the A. E. F., while another 360,000 became gravely ill.
Demobilization
After the Armistice of November 11, 1918 thousands of Americans were sent home and demobilized. On July 27, 1919, the number of soldiers discharged amounted to 3,028,487 members of the military, and only 745,845 left in the American Expeditionary Forces.
American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune
The A. E. F. established the American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune, complete with its own chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. Faculty included Walter M. Chandler, a Progressive Party member and, later, a Republican Party member of the U.S. House of Representatives from the State of New York. Botanist Edwin Blake Payson was also an instructor there.
See also
Bonus Army
Formations of the United States Army during World War I
Notes
References
Further reading
Awards and Decorations: World War I Statistics
Ayres, Leonard P, The War with Germany: A Statistical Summary Government Printing Office, 1919 full text online
Barbeau, Arthur E. and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974),
Beaver, Daniel R. Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919 (1966)
CMH Pub 24-1: "Learning Lessons in the American Expeditionary Forces"
Chambers, John W., II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987)
Chapter 17: "World War I: The First Three Years"
Chapter 18: "World War I: The U.S. Army Overseas"
Cooke, James J., The Rainbow Division in the Great War, 1917-1919 Praeger Publishers, (1994)
Dalessandro, Robert J. & Dalessandro, Rebecca S. American Lions: The 332nd Infantry Regiment in World War I (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
Dalessandro, Robert J., & Knapp, Michael G., "Organization and Insignia of the American Expeditionary Forces, 1917-1923" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008) The best single volume on AEF unit organization.
Dalessandro, Robert J. & Gerald Torrence, "Willing Patriots: Men of Color in the First World War" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
Davenport, Matthew J. "First Over There: The Attack on Cantigny America's First Battle of World War I" (New York, Thomas Dunne: 2015)
Faulkner, Richard S. Pershing's Crusaders: The American Soldier in World War I (U Press of Kansas, 2017). xiv, 758 pp
Freidel, Frank. Over There (1964), well illustrated
Grotelueschen; Mark E. Doctrine under Trial: American Artillery Employment in World War I (2001) (full text version at Google Books)
Hallas, James H. Doughboy War: The American Expeditionary Force in World War I (2000)
Heller Charles E. Chemical Warfare in World War I. The American Experience, 1917-1918. Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: Combat Studies Institute, 1984.
Hirrel, Leo P. "Supporting the Doughboys: US Army Logistics and Personnel During World War I." Ft. Leavenworth, KS Combat Studies Institute, 2017. online at no charge
Holley, I. B. Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States During World War I (1983)
Howarth, Stephen. To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775-1991 (1991)
Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power (1975)
James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, I, 1880-1941. (1970)
Johnson; Herbert A. Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation through World War I University of North Carolina Press, (2001)
Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1982)
Koistinen, Paul. Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865-1919 (2004)
Lengel, Edward G., ed. A Companion to the Meuse-Argonne Campaign (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014). xii, 537 pp.
Millett, Allan Reed. Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps (1991)
Pershing, John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War (1931)
Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies (1986)
Trask, David F. The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917-1918 (1961)
Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917-1918 (1993) online free
Van Ells, Mark D. America and World War I: A Traveler's Guide. (Interlink, 2014)
Venzon, Anne ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995)
Wilson Dale E. Treat 'Em Rough: The Birth of American Armor, 1917-1920 Presidio Press, 1989.
Woodward, David R. Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917-1918 (1993) online
Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War(Armies of the Great War) Cambridge University Press, 2014. 484 pp. online review
Yockelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing's Warriors Came of Age to Defeat at the German Army in World War I (New York: NAL, Caliber, 2016)
Zeiger; Susan. In Uncle Sam's Service: Women Workers with the American Expeditionary Force, 1917-1919 (1999)
External links
Government
Records of the American Expeditionary Forces (World War I) at the National Archives
General information
American Expeditionary Forces at UASWW1.com
Category:1917 establishments in France
Category:1920 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.
Category:Disbanded armies
Category:Expeditionary units and formations
Category:Military units and formations of the United States in World War I
Category:Military units and formations established in 1917
Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1920 | {"Disbanded": "August 31, 1920", "Branch": "United States Army", "Role": "Command and control", "Size": "2,057,675 men (1918)", "Nickname(s)": "A. E. F."} |
Michael Anthony Powell (born November 10, 1963) is an American former track and field athlete, and the holder of the long jump world record. He is a two-time world champion and two-time Olympic silver medalist in this event. His world record of has stood since 1991.
Biography
Background
Powell was born in Philadelphia. He attended Edgewood High School in West Covina, California, where he finished second in the high jump at the CIF California State Meet in 1981. He went on to attend the University of California, Irvine, and later transferred to the University of California at Los Angeles. He is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.
Athletics career
Powell won the long jump silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.
At the 1991 World Championships in Athletics (Tokyo), on August 30, 1991, Powell broke Bob Beamon's almost 23-year-old long jump world record by , leaping .Mohapatra, Bikash (July 5, 2011). "I believed I could break the record: Mike Powell", [rediff.com]. Retrieved on September 7, 2021. The world record still stands, making it the longest-standing long jump world record since records have been kept. His feat earned him the James E. Sullivan Award and BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year Award in 1991.
He also holds the longest wind-assisted jump at (+4.4 m/s) that he set at high altitude in Sestriere, Italy in 1992.
Powell again won the long jump silver medal at 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. In addition to his famous 1991 victory, he won the long jump again at the 1993 World Championships in Athletics, and came third at the 1995 World Championships in Athletics.
Powell competed in the 1992-93 Foot Locker Slam Fest and successfully dunked from the free throw line.
After coming fifth in the long jump at the 1996 Olympics, Powell retired. He returned in 2001 with a goal of competing in the 2004 Olympics, but did not make the American team.
After retirement
Powell became an analyst for Yahoo! Sports Olympic Track & Field coverage.
He stated in July 2009 that he intended to return to competition with the aim of breaking Tapani Taavitsainen's Masters over-45 world record in the long jump.Minshull, Phil (July 7, 2009). Mike Powell aims to return to competition . IAAF. Retrieved on 2009-07-23.
Powell now coaches long jump at Azusa Pacific University in Azusa, California.
At the Simplot Games on February 20, 2015, in an official announcement Powell stated that, at the age of 51, he would jump again in competition. On March 7, 2015, Powell entered the Athletics New Zealand Track and Field Championships, with every jump considered an attempt at the World Masters record. However, Powell sustained an injury in warm-up and did not actually compete. He later stated he would jump again in the future, and he has now registered for the WMA in Tampere in July 2022.Registration status - WMA Tampere2022
In July 2016, his daughter Micha Powell was officially named to Canada's Olympic team.
References
External links
Category:1963 births
Category:Living people
Category:American male long jumpers
Category:James E. Sullivan Award recipients
Category:World Athletics record holders
Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Category:Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Category:University of California, Irvine alumni
Category:UC Irvine Anteaters athletes
Category:World Athletics Championships medalists
Category:Track and field athletes from California
Category:Track and field athletes from Philadelphia
Category:Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Category:Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
Category:Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
Category:Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
Category:BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Category:FISU World University Games gold medalists for the United States
Category:World Athletics Championships winners
Category:Competitors at the 1990 Goodwill Games
Category:Competitors at the 1994 Goodwill Games | {"Name": "Mike Powell", "Image": "Long Jumper Mike Powell Announces Attempt At Another World Record.PNG", "Image caption": "Powell announces at a press conference that he will attempt to break the World Masters record", "Full name": "Michael Anthony PowellMike Powell https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/po/mike-powell-1.html https://web.archive.org/web/20200417115324/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/po/mike-powell-1.html dead April 17, 2020 June 20, 2015", "Nationality": "American", "Birth date": "1963 11 10", "Place of birth": "sports-reference />", "Height": "6 ft 2 in", "Weight": "170 lb", "Sport": "Track and field", "Event": "Long jump", "Medal templates": "Sport Men's athletics \ncenter|80px\nCountry United States \nCompetition International athletics competitions \n Olympic Games 0 2 0\n World Championships 2 0 1\n yes\n\nCompetition Olympic Games \nSilver 1988 Seoul Long jump \nSilver 1992 Barcelona Long jump \nCompetition World Championships \nGold 1991 Tokyo Long jump \nGold 1993 Stuttgart Long jump \nBronze 1995 Gothenburg Long jump \n Goodwill Games \n 1994 St. Petersburg Long jump \n 1990 Seattle Long jump", "Show medals?": "yes", "Date updated": "August 6, 2012"} |
Stack is a tool to build Haskell projects and manage their dependencies. It uses the Cabal library but with a curated version of the Hackage repository called Stackage.
Stack competes against Cabal's binary cabal-install and has been created as a result of the overall criticism about dependency problems. It does not, however, provide its own package format, but uses existing *.cabal files and complements projects with an additional stack.yaml file.
References
Category:Free software programmed in Haskell
Category:Free package management systems
Category:Software using the BSD license | {"Initial release": "2015 06 23 stack 0.1 released https://www.fpcomplete.com/blog/2015/06/stack-0-1-release FP Complete 13 January 2016", "Written in": "Haskell", "Size": "60 megabytes", "Available in": "English", "License": "BSD", "Website": "http://www.haskellstack.org"} |
Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (; 27 June 1971 - 4 June 2001) was the King of Nepal for three days from 1 to 4 June 2001. For the duration of his three day reign he was in a coma after he shot his father, King Birendra, his mother, Queen Aishwarya, his younger brother and sister, and other members of the royal family before turning the gun on himself in an event known as the Nepalese royal massacre.
As the eldest of the three children of King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, Dipendra was the crown prince. Under the Nepalese constitution, the privy council named Dipendra king upon the death of his father. Upon Dipendra's death, his paternal uncle Gyanendra became king.
Early life
Dipendra was born on 27 June 1971 at the Narayanhiti Royal Palace as the eldest child of Birendra, the Crown Prince of Nepal, and Princess Aishwarya. In his family he was known as "CP" and famously as "Dippy" among his friends.
Education
Dipendra received his early education from Kanti Ishwori High School, Kathmandu. Then he went to Budhanilkantha School in Kathmandu. Later, he attended Eton College in the United Kingdom. After Eton, he attended Tri Chandra college affiliated with Tribhuvan University in Nepal and later joined the Military Academy in Kharipati, Nepal. He studied Geography at Tribhuvan University for his master's degree and was a all Nepal topper receiving a gold medal. He was a PhD student at the same university. He received military training from the Academy of Royal Nepalese Gurkha Army, and piloting training from the Civil Aviation Department.
Interests
Dipendra was interested in the fields of social service and sports. He attended various national and international sports ceremonies where Nepalese players participated. Dipendra became a karateka when he was studying in England and received a black belt at around the age of 20. He was a patron of the National Sports Council and Nepal's Scouts. Dipendra also wrote articles that were published in Nepalese periodicals. His writings were often on the motifs of nationhood and nationality.
Nepalese royal massacre
On 1 June 2001, Dipendra opened fire at a house on the grounds of the Narayanhity Royal Palace, the residence of the Nepalese monarchy, where a party was being held. He shot and killed his father, King Birendra, his mother, Queen Aishwarya, his younger brother and sister and other members of the royal family before shooting himself in the head. Because he had killed most of the line of succession, he became king while in a comatose state from the head wound.
His motive for the murders is unknown, but there are various theories. Dipendra desired to marry Devyani Rana, the daughter of an Indian royal family whom he had met in England, but due to her family's lower caste and her father's political alliances, Dipendra's parents objected; he was told that he would have to give up his claim to the throne in order to marry her. Other theories allege that Dipendra was unhappy with the country's shift from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy, and that too much power had been given away following the 1990 People's Movement.
Much controversy surrounds the circumstances of the massacre, and even today, with the monarchy abolished, many questions remain within Nepal about its cause. Sources of the yet unanswered questions include details such as the apparent lack of security at the event; the absence of Prince Gyanendra, Dipendra's uncle who succeeded him, from the party; the fact that, despite being right-handed, Dipendra's self-inflicted head-wound was located at his left temple; and finally that the subsequent investigation lasted for only two weeks and did not involve any major forensic analysis.
Portrayals
Upendra portrayed the crown prince in the 2002 Indian film Super Star, which was loosely based on the massacre.
Indian actor Ashish Kapoor portrayed the role of Dipendra in the third season of the documentary series Zero Hour, it showed a reconstruction of the massacre taken from surviving eyewitnesses.
Honours
National honours
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Pratap Bhaskara
Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Most Glorious Mahendra Chain
King Birendra Investiture Medal (24 February 1975)
Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Birendra (31 January 1997)
Foreign honours
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (17 October 1989)
: Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1997)
: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (12/04/2001)
Ancestry
See also
List of shortest-reigning monarchs
History of Nepal
References
External links
Murder and intrigue in Katmandu (World Tibet News Network)
|-
Category:1971 births
Category:2001 suicides
Category:2001 deaths
Category:Assassins of heads of state
Category:Familicides
Category:Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog
Category:Heads of state who committed suicide
Category:Hindu monarchs
Category:Nepalese Hindus
Category:Nepalese mass murderers
Category:Kings of Nepal
Category:Nepalese spree killers
Category:Murder-suicides in Asia
Category:People educated at Eton College
Category:People from Kathmandu
Category:People of the Nepalese Civil War
Category:Regicides
Category:Shah dynasty
Category:Suicides by firearm in Nepal | {"Father": "Birendra Bir Bikram Shah", "Mother": "Aishwarya Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah", "Born": "Kathmandu, Nepal", "Died": "Kathmandu, Nepal", "Religion": "Hinduism"} |
Kula is a district and census-designated place (CDP) of Maui, Hawaii, that stretches across the "up-country", the western-facing slopes of Haleakalā, from Makawao to Kanaio. Most of the residential areas lie between about in elevation. The district has traditionally been where full-time residents prefer to live, as distinct from the generally hotter and busier, more tourism-oriented towns near sea level, such as Kihei and Lahaina. The population of the Kula CDP at the 2020 Census was 6,942, while the larger Kula Census County Division, which includes the communities of Keokea, Wailea, and Makena, had a population of 12,864.
Description
thumb|The ancient district of Kula
Kula roughly extends from Haleakala Highway (Hawaii Route 37) in the north to Keokea in the south—a distance of about around 20°47'32" N, 156°19'37" W. The largely rural area known as Upper Kula includes the region up-slope (southeast) from Lower Kula, the more densely populated area spread along the Kula Highway.
The word Kula means "open meadows" in the Hawaiian language.
On Maui, Kula is one of the island's 12 "foundation" districts of ancient Hawaii called moku. The Kula district is the island's largest, extending from dry coastal areas to the wetter high pasture lands of three major ranches (Haleakala, Erewhon, and Ulupalakua) that cap the region about halfway up the slopes of Haleakala. It laterally extends from Keokea to near Makawao where the rainforest of East Maui once began.
In leeward areas, away from the prevailing moist tradewinds—called the rain shadow of Haleakala—the lower portion of Maui consists of a broad, arid expanse where little cultivation of the earth is possible. This zone consists of dry, desert-like open range just inland from the sea in artificially irrigated Kihei, and is covered with kiawe trees to an elevation of about on the volcano's slopes.
Between this zone and the upper reaches of the hillsides, especially up steep Waipoli and Poli Poli Roads, are broad, open areas for vegetable and fruit crops. The moderate climate often yields as many as three or four harvests per year.
When the territorial legislature first set up the political design in 1906, they decreed only two levels of government: state and county. Consequently, Hawaii's towns do not have specific boundaries or "city limits". There are also no official district boundaries for Maui County elections.
Upper Kula
The twisty Haleakala Highway, from its junction with Kula Highway in Pukalani, loosely defines the northern edge of Upper Kula. The upper road (Kekaulike Avenue), also known as State Highway 377, leads up through usually green pastures, silver eucalyptus tree groves (and blue jacaranda trees in late spring), contrasting to the sugarcane below. Where the road beyond Kula Lodge makes an abrupt upward tack to Haleakala National Park, the area known as Upper Kula surrounds Kekaulike Avenue. In less than five miles it descends the slope to rejoin the Kula Highway near Rice Park and heads south to Keokea.
There is little commercial development along Kekaulike except Kula Botanical Garden and Alii Kula Lavender Farm. Vegetable and flower gardens surround the meandering highway as farmers take advantage of the area's unique combination of open space, good soil, moisture-laden clouds and filtered tropical sun.
New homes dot the area, taking advantage of the moderate weather and bi-coastal views of the isthmus below.
In Keokea, the Kula Hospital sits on the hillside above the road. Originally a tuberculosis treatment sanatorium built in 1909, Kula Hospital now serves the community as a critical access hospital.
The southern edge of Kula had a once-flourishing Chinese community that numbered over 700 immigrant workers and farmers. While the area is now more mixed, Keokea is still home to a pair of Chinese family-owned stores and a service station as well as a boutique coffee-shop.
At , a mile or so beyond Keokea, between mile markers 18 and 19 on the Kula highway (aka Highway 37), is the county park dedicated to Maui's former resident, Sun Yat-sen, called the "father of modern China". He grew up in the area in the late 19th century living with his brother Sun Mei (). He led the revolution that ended China's last dynasty and established the Republic of China in 1912.
Just as upcountry residents visit the seashore, residents near the shore sometimes visit Upper Kula to enjoy cooler temperatures that may require a fireplace in winter. A popular saying is "It's cooler in Kula."
Lower Kula
Lower Kula lies between about of elevation along the western flank of Haleakalā, the dormant volcano that dominates the island's landscape and is the foundation of Kula’s backdrop.
Communities along the old Lower Kula Road with names like Pulehu, Waiakoa, Omaopio and Keokea each have unique history of ethnic settlement. In the late 19th century, Portuguese and Chinese immigrants, who fulfilled labor contracts with the sugarcane plantations, moved to this area. Later, Japanese farmers moved into the area for its fertile earth.
These farmers have been producing vegetables ever since. In fact, during the California gold rush the farmers in Kula shipped so many potatoes that it was nicknamed "Nu Kaleponi," a Hawaiian pronunciation of "New California."
That farming tradition continues today, even among the gentlemen farmers and their farms that have sprung up in the past two decades. Kula grows its well-known onions, lettuce, potatoes, jicama, tomatoes, carrots, cauliflower and cabbage. It is also a major source of cut flowers for the state. Most of Hawaii's proteas, as well as nearly all the carnations used in leis, come from Kula.
Lower Kula encompasses the areas around Lower Kula Road, the old county road that once spanned the region before Kula Highway was finished in 1964. The old meandering road crosses the straight modern highway several times between Pukalani and Keokea.
Even after nearly 50 years, there are few businesses along the highway, while the old road has the usual establishments that serve rural communities, including historic churches. Holy Ghost Catholic Church has a unique octagonal shape and hand-carved altar. Its turret is a landmark on the slopes of Haleakala, visible from much of Central Maui below. It was constructed in 1894 by Portuguese immigrants.
In the past decade, the lush views and cooler climate of Lower Kula have drawn a new type of resident. Agricultural lands are carved up for "gentleman estates" with large homes. Clusters of homes around old Lower Kula Road are becoming denser.
The major limit on the further development in the whole Kula area is the significant lack of water. This basic resource is key to the sustainability of the area. The Upcountry Community Plan gives highest priority to the water supply of agriculture and the Hawaiian Homelands project.
Climate
There are many micro-climates created by the combined effects of elevation, rain shadow, and land contour. Much of the west slopes of East Maui are dry or semi-desert due to a rain shadow effect: the prevailing trade-winds are from the north-east and east and Kula is in the "shadow" of these winds. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Kula is the coolest place in Hawai'i, as defined by having the lowest average annual temperatures (average low temperature: 55.7 °F and average low temperature during coldest month, February: 52.6 °F). At the higher elevations and at night, especially in winter, temperatures dip into the 40s or high 30s (°F). Frosts are virtually unknown except at much higher elevations () on Haleakala.
There is a distinctive weather feature known as the "Maui vortex". A wind vortex forms as the trade-winds pass around the north-west corner of Haleakala (over Pukalani) and blow southward down the central valley of Maui over Maalaea Bay and then circle back up-slope over Kihei bringing a "lei of clouds" late most mornings over Kula. Around sunset, the downward breezes from the summit wipe out these clouds.
Kula displays a warm summer Mediterranean Climate (Köppen climate classification Csb)
Land use
Kula has a strong agricultural and ranching tradition, the latter on the lands above the residential areas. Indeed, there is frequent reference in Makawao (which means "edge of the forest") to a paniolo (cowboy) ambiance that derives from this ranching activity.
The Maui onion mostly grows at the lower levels of Kula (below Highway 37). It is also known for its persimmons that ripen during the fall; many are located in the Pulehuiki area. Other produce grown in Kula includes lettuce, cabbage, and herbs. Kula is also known for the many varieties of protea grown for commercial sale.
Education
Hawaii Department of Education operates public schools. Kula Elementary School is in Kula. Its September 1964 opening stemmed from a combination of Kealahou, Keokea, and Makena, and Ulupalakua schools. Kalama Intermediate School is the area intermediate school.
Notable residents
Jeff Cotton, guitarist
Mick Fleetwood, musician, co-founder of band Fleetwood Mac
Wade Robson, Australian dancer and choreographer
Hannibal Tavares, Mayor of Maui (1979-1991)
Sun Yat-Sen, founding father and first president of the Republic of China.
Points of interest
Enchanting Floral Gardens of Kula, Maui
Holy Ghost Catholic Church (Kula, Hawaii)
References
External links
Kula Community Association website
Category:Populated places on Maui
Category:Census-designated places in Maui County, Hawaii
Category:Census-designated places in Hawaii | {"Land": "34.54", "Water": "0.0", "Density": "201.0", "DST": "-9"} |
Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. ( ; July 18, 1886 - June 18, 1945) was a lieutenant general in the United States Army during World War II who served in the Pacific Theater. As commanding general of Alaska Defense Command, Buckner commanded American-Canadian forces in the Aleutian Islands campaign, including the Battle of Attu and the Kiska Expedition. Following that assignment, he was promoted to command the Tenth Army, which conducted the amphibious invasion of the Japanese island of Okinawa in 1945. He was killed during the closing days of the Battle of Okinawa by enemy artillery fire, making him the highest-ranking United States military officer lost to enemy fire during World War II.Sarantakes p. 129
Buckner, Lesley J. McNair, Frank Maxwell Andrews, and Millard Harmon, all lieutenant generals at the time of their deaths, were the highest-ranking Americans to be killed in World War II. Buckner and McNair were posthumously promoted to the rank of four-star general on July 19, 1954, by a Special Act of Congress (Public Law 83-508).
Early life and education
Buckner was the son of Confederate general Simon Bolivar Buckner and his wife Delia Hayes Claiborne. Buckner and his father are named after the Venezuelan soldier and statesman, Simón Bolívar, who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. His father was Governor of Kentucky from 1887 to 1891, and was the Gold Democratic Party's candidate for Vice President of the United States in 1896. Buckner was raised near Munfordville, Kentucky, and accompanied his father on his 1896 presidential campaign when he served as the running mate of ex-Union general John M. Palmer.
Military career
Buckner attended the Virginia Military Institute. When he turned 18 in the summer of 1904, his father asked President Theodore Roosevelt to grant him an appointment to West Point. Roosevelt granted this request and Buckner graduated in the class of 1908. He served two military tours in the Philippines, and wrote about his adventures in Tales of the Philippines - In the Early 1900s.Simon B. Buckner Jr. Tales of the Philippines - In the Early 1900s, During World War I, he served as a temporary major, drilling discipline into aviator cadets.Buck's Battle, Time Magazine
Inter-war period
For the 17 years beginning May 1919, Buckner's assignments were not with troops but with military schools as follows: four years as tactical officer at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York; one year as student at The Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia; four years at the Command and General Staff School, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, with the first year as a student (distinguished graduate), then three years as instructor; four years at the Army War College, Washington, D.C., with year one as student then three years as executive officer; four more years at West Point, as Assistant Commandant and Commandant of Cadets. At West Point, "His rule is remembered for constructive progressiveness, with a share of severity tempered with hard, sound sense, and justice." However, one cadet's parent commented: "Buckner forgets cadets are born, not quarried".
Buckner was with troops for the rest of his career. In September 1936 he became executive officer of the 23rd Infantry Regiment at Ft. Sam Houston in Texas. Promoted to colonel in January 1937, he was given command of the 66th Infantry (Light Tank) at Ft. Meade in Maryland. In September 1938, he commanded of the 22nd Infantry at Ft. McClellan, Alabama. From November 1939 to August 1940 he was Chief of Staff of the 6th Division at Camp Jackson in South Carolina, Ft. Benning in Georgia, and Camp Beauregard in Louisiana.
World War II
Alaska
thumb|Buckner (sitting, 3rd right) with Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid (sitting, 2nd left) during the Aleutian Islands Campaign
Buckner was promoted to brigadier general in 1940 and was assigned to fortify and protect Alaska as commander of the Army's Alaska Defense Command. He was promoted to major general in August 1941. Alaskan waters, including areas along the Aleutian Islands and into the Bering Sea coastline, had previously been reconnoitered by Imperial Japanese Naval vessels in the 1930s.
The potential for some kind of action was considered seriously by both US and Canadian Forces. When the US was finally drawn into World War II, the defense of Alaska had already been underway - but no one knew the where, when or how the Japanese would attack. It came in a stunning surprise attack on Dutch Harbor 3-5 June 1942; farther west, Imperial Japanese forces seized the islands Kiska and Attu, bringing ashore some 7,000 troops (at Kiska) and nearly 3,000 at Attu.
American commanders, including Buckner, feared that the Japanese would use the islands as bases to strike within range along the rest of the US West Coast. The West Coast was previously attacked several times in the past six months (including unrestricted submarine warfare in coastal waters, the bombardment of Ellwood in California and the bombardment of Fort Stevens in Oregon). Lieutenant Paul Bishop of the 28th Bombardment Group recalled that:
Buckner gave orders in June 1942 for the indigenous Aleut people to be evacuated and for their villages to be burned. The Aleut people were not allowed to return until 1945, after the war was over. Buckner furthermore objected to the deployment of African American troops in Alaska, writing to his superiors of his concern that they would remain after the war, "with the natural result that they would interbreed with the Indians and the Eskimos and produce an astonishingly objectionable race of mongrels which would be a problem".
The campaign to take back Attu Island took nearly a year. The Battle for Attu, Operation Landcrab, occurred across three weeks in May 1943. The casualties on both sides were high. On shore, some 549 US soldiers were killed, 1,148 were wounded, and 1,814 suffered cold and disease. Of the 2,900 Japanese garrison, only 28 survived. Off shore and in the air overhead, many dozens of airmen and sailors of both sides lost their lives during the months of the Aleutian Campaign.
Subsequently, in August 1943, Kiska was invaded by Canadian and US soldiers. Just as at Attu, the weather conspired to aid the enemy. An estimated 5,400 soldiers and sailors had been secretly withdrawn by the Imperial Navy under cover of fog prior to the arrival of allied forces. Allied commanders refused to believe that the Japanese could have completely evacuated Kiska. For eight days, troops searched the island, firing into the dense fog and sometimes accidentally shooting their comrades. 24 Allied soldiers were killed by friendly fire, four by Japanese booby traps, and a further 71 died when the ship Abner Read struck a floating mine. 168 Allied soldiers were wounded or fell ill on Kiska. The bombardment and invasion of the deserted island was written off as a “training exercise,” and the Aleutian Campaign officially ended after 439 days of warfare. This constituted the Aleutian Islands campaign. In 1943, he was promoted to lieutenant general.
Battle of Okinawa
thumb|upright|Buckner on Okinawa, 1945
In July 1944, Buckner was sent to Hawaii to organize the Tenth Army, which was composed of both Army and Marine Corps units. The original mission of the Tenth Army was to prepare for the invasion of Taiwan; however, this operation was canceled, and Buckner's command was instead ordered to prepare for the Battle of Okinawa. Beginning on April 1, 1945, this turned out to be one of the largest, slowest, and bloodiest sealandair battles in American military history. Despite historic amphibious assets, Buckner insisted on a frontal assault on the dug-in Japanese, although extremely costly in American lives, his strategy was ultimately successful. Late in the battle, Buckner failed to realize that the Japanese were pulling back to a secondary defensive line, allowing the Japanese to avoid destruction and escape with a significant force. Reducing this force in the southern part of the island cost enormous casualties, especially among the civilian population, who were trapped in the battle zone.
thumb|left|upright|Buckner (foreground, holding camera), photographed with Major General Lemuel C. Shepherd Jr., USMC, on Okinawa.
A quote of his from 1945 was reported in the newspapers back home when he said that he intended to Christianize the Japanese and that "the best way to do that was to give them a Christian burial".
Death
On June 18, Buckner arrived in his command jeep which was flying its standard 3-star flag to visit a forward observation post on a ridge approximately behind the front lines, as Marine infantry advanced on the Japanese-held Ibaru Ridge. Visits from the general were not always welcome as his presence frequently drew enemy fire, usually as he was departing. Buckner had arrived with his standard three stars showing on the front of his steel helmet and a nearby Marine outpost sent a signal to Buckner's position stating that they could clearly see the general's three stars on his helmet. Told of this, Buckner replaced his own helmet with an unmarked one.
thumb|The last picture of Buckner (right), taken just before he was killed by a Japanese artillery shell.
As Buckner stood at the outpost, a small flat-trajectory Japanese artillery shell of unknown caliber (estimated to have been 47mm) struck a coral rock outcrop near him, and fragments pierced his chest.Military Vol XVII, pp22 & 23Marine Corps Gazette, p.103 Buckner was carried by stretcher to a nearby aid station, where he died on the operating table. He was succeeded in command by Marine General Roy Geiger. Total American deaths during the battle of Okinawa were 12,513.
Personal life
Buckner was married to Adele Blanc Buckner (1893-1988). They had three children: Simon Bolivar Buckner III, Mary Blanc Buckner, and William Claiborne Buckner.
Legacy
thumb|upright|Plaque on Fort McClellan building
Named in honor of Buckner:
Fort Buckner, an Army sub-post of the Marine Corps' Camp Foster on Okinawa, is home to the 78th Signal Battalion and E Co. of the 53rd Signal Battalion and includes a small memorial to its namesake.The Patriot Files: "Fort Buckner"
, an Admiral W. S. Benson class troop transport.
Nakagusuku Bay on the East side of Okinawa was nicknamed "Buckner Bay" in the 1940s by American military personnel. They often refer to it as such to this day, even in official correspondence.US Navy Typhoon Havens Handbook: "Buckner Bay "
West Point's Camp Buckner, where yearlings (incoming sophomores) go through Cadet Field Training (CFT).
Several places built in Alaska during Cold War-related military construction, including:
Buckner Gymnasium (also Fieldhouse and Physical Fitness Center) at Fort Richardson (now part of Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson) in Anchorage, Alaska, a post which the general established during World War II.
The Buckner Building in Whittier, Alaska, once the largest building in Alaska by square footage.
Buckner Drive in the Nunaka Valley subdivision of Anchorage, originally built as military housing.
Buckner Drive in Fort Leavenworth's Normandy Village.
Buckner Avenue in Fort George Meade's Heritage Park.
Buckner Gate at Fort Shafter, Hawaii.
Buckner Hall, the Headquarters Building at the former Fort McClellan
Buckner Circle, the street at the former Fort McClellan where the senior officer homes (20) were located, all facing a central greenspace
Buckner Road, Mount Vernon, Virginia, along with McNair Road, Patton Road and Stillwell Avenue, all US Army generals in Woodlawn Manor neighborhood.
Military awards
Buckner's military decorations and awards include:
Distinguished Service CrossArmy Distinguished Service MedalNavy Distinguished Service MedalPurple HeartWorld War I Victory MedalAmerican Defense Service MedalAsiatic-Pacific Campaign MedalWorld War II Victory Medal
Dates of rank
Insignia Rank Component DateNo insigniaCadet USMA June 16, 1904 No insignia in 1908Second Lieutenant Regular Army February 14, 190813px|center First Lieutenant Regular Army August 5, 191433px|center Captain Regular Army May 5, 191740px|center Major Temporary August 5, 191733px|center Captain Regular Army August 21, 191940px|center Major Regular Army July 1, 192040px|center Lieutenant Colonel Regular Army April 1, 193260px|center Colonel Regular Army January 11, 193733px|center Brigadier General Regular Army September 1, 194066px|center Major General Army of the United States August 4, 1941100px|center Lieutenant General Army of the United States May 4, 1943133px|center General Posthumous July 19, 1954 Official Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Army, 1945. pg. 124.
References
Bibliography
External links
Papers of Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr., Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Family Home Page
His monument at Kuniyoshi, Itoman City Okinawa, where he died.
USNS General Simon B. Buckner (T-AP-123)
Generals of World War II
General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. Deadeyes 96th Infantry Division
Operations in Snow and Extreme Cold-Basic Field Manual Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library
Category:1886 births
Category:1945 deaths
Category:American white supremacists
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Category:United States Army personnel of World War I | {"Born": "Munfordville, Kentucky, United States", "Died": "Okinawa, Japan", "Allegiance": "United States", "Commands held": "Tenth United States ArmyAlaska Defense Command22nd Infantry Regiment", "Awards": "Distinguished Service CrossArmy Distinguished Service MedalNavy Distinguished Service MedalPurple Heart", "Spouse(s)": "Adele Blanc Buckner", "Relations": "Simon Bolivar Buckner (father)"} |
Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 - 3 August 1792) was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. He is credited as the driving force behind the development of the spinning frame, known as the water frame after it was adapted to use water power; and he patented a rotary carding engine to convert raw cotton to 'cotton lap' prior to spinning. He was the first to develop factories housing both mechanised carding and spinning operations.
Arkwright's achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material of cotton to create mass-produced yarn. His organisational skills earned him the accolade "father of the modern industrial factory system," notably through the methods developed in his mill at Cromford, Derbyshire (now preserved as part of the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site).
Life and family
thumb|left|Susannah Arkwright, Mrs Charles Hurt (1762-1835), and her daughter Mary Anne (painting by Joseph Wright of Derby)
Richard Arkwright was born in Preston, Lancashire, England on 23 December 1732, the youngest of seven surviving children. His father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. Richard's parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. He was apprenticed to a Mr Nicholson, a barber at the nearby town of Kirkham, and began his working life as a barber and wig-maker, setting up a shop at Churchgate in Bolton in the early 1760s. It was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable periwigs of the time, the income from which later funded his prototype cotton machinery.
Arkwright married his first wife, Patience Holt, in 1755. They had a son, Richard Arkwright Junior, who was born the same year. Patience died in 1756, and then in 1761 Arkwright, aged 29, married Margaret Biggins. They had three children, of whom only Susannah survived to adulthood. At some time after the death of his first wife, Arkwright became interested in the development of carding and spinning machinery to replace hand labour in the conversion of raw cotton to thread for weaving.
Spinning frame
In 1768, Arkwright and John Kay, a clockmaker, returned to Preston, renting rooms in a house on Stoneygate (now called Arkwright House), where they worked on a spinning machine. In 1769 Arkwright patented the spinning frame, a machine which produced twisted threads (initially for warps only), using wooden and metal cylinders rather than human fingers. This machine, initially powered by horses (see below), greatly reduced the cost of cotton-spinning, and would lead to major changes in the textile industry.
Carding engine
Lewis Paul had invented a machine for carding in 1748. Arkwright made improvements to this machine and in 1775 took out a patent for a new carding engine, which converted raw cotton to a continuous skein prior to spinning.
The machine used a succession of uneven rollers rotating at increasingly higher speeds to draw out the roving, before applying a twist via a bobbin-and-flyer mechanism. It could make cotton thread thin and strong enough for the warp threads of cloth.
Cromford Mill
Arkwright and John Smalley of Preston set up a small horse-driven factory at Nottingham. To obtain capital for expansion, Arkwright formed a partnership with Jedediah Strutt and Samuel Need, wealthy nonconformist hosiery manufacturers. In 1771, the partners built the world's first water-powered mill at Cromford, which covered both carding and spinning operations and employed 200 people.
thumb|Arkwright's mill at Cromford
In 1776 Arkwright built a second, larger mill at Cromford and, soon afterwards, mills at Bakewell, Wirksworth and elsewhere (see below). His success as a businessman and innovator was widely recognized in his own time. The spinning frame was a large advance over Hargreaves's spinning jenny, in that very little training was required to operate the machinery, which produced a strong yarn suitable for warp threads.
Grand Patent
To strengthen his position in relation to his many competitors and emulators, Arkwright obtained a "grand patent" in 1775, which he hoped would consolidate his position within the fast-growing cotton industry. Public opinion, however, was bitterly hostile to exclusive patents, and in 1781 Arkwright initiated legal proceedings to assert his rights. The case dragged on in court until 1785, when it was finally settled against him on the grounds that his specifications were deficient: the court had also heard assertions that the spinning frame was actually the invention of Arkwright's employee John Kay, or of Thomas Highs, Kay's previous employer.
Factories and the factory system
thumb|Masson Mill on the river Derwent, and Arkwright's house Willersley Castle, completed only after his death.
With the expansion of the mill at Cromford, it soon became apparent that the existing population of the town would be inadequate to provide the labour needed for the scale of operations which Arkwright was planning. He therefore brought in workers from outside the locality, building a cluster of cottages near the mill to house them (he also built the Greyhound public house, which still stands in Cromford market square). Stuart Fisher states that the workers' homes are now considered to be "the first factory housing development in the world".
Arkwright instigated novel and highly disciplined working arrangements at Cromford. Work was organised in two 13-hour shifts per day, including an overlap for the change of shift. Bells rang at 5 am and 5 pm and the gates were shut precisely at 6 am and 6 p.m.: anyone who was late was excluded from work for the rest of the day and lost an extra day's pay. Arkwright encouraged weavers with large families to move to Cromford. Whole families were employed, including large numbers of children as young as seven (subsequently increased to ten); and towards the end of his tenure, nearly two-thirds of the 1,150 employees were children. He allowed employees a week's holiday a year, on condition that they did not travel beyond the town.
After establishing the mill at Cromford, Arkwright returned to Lancashire and took up a lease of the Birkacre mill at Chorley, which was to become a catalyst for the town's growth into one of the most important industrialised towns of the Industrial Revolution.
In 1777 Arkwright leased the Haarlem Mill in Wirksworth, Derbyshire, where he installed the first steam engine to be used in a cotton mill (this was used to replenish the millpond that drove the mill's waterwheel rather than to drive the machinery directly).
He was invited to Scotland, where he assisted David Dale in establishing cotton mills at New Lanark. A large mill of Arkwright's at Birkacre in Lancashire, was destroyed in the anti-machinery riots of 1779.
Later life
Aggressive and self-sufficient, Arkwright was a difficult man to work with. He bought out all his partners and went on to build factories at Manchester, Matlock Bath, New Lanark (in partnership with David Dale) and elsewhere. Unlike many entrepreneurs of the time who were nonconformist, he was a member of the Church of England.
Arkwright served as High Sheriff of Derbyshire and was knighted in 1786.
He also built Willersley Castle, now a Grade II* listed building, in 1791; after a fire in 1792, it was rebuilt and occupied by his son Richard Arkwright junior starting in 1796. Arkwright died at Rock House, Cromford, on 3 August 1792, aged 59, leaving a fortune of £500,000. He was buried at St Giles' Church, Matlock. His remains were later moved to the family chapel near the castle, now St Mary's Church, Cromford.
Memorials
thumb|Blue plaque marking the occupancy by Arkwright in Adam Street, London
Richard Arkwright's barber shop in Churchgate, Bolton was demolished early in the 20th century. There is a small plaque above the door of the building that replaced it, recording Arkwright's occupancy.
A Greater London Council blue plaque unveiled in 1984 commemorates Arkwright at 8 Adam Street in Charing Cross, London.
Arkwright lived at Rock House in Cromford, opposite his original mill. In 1788 he purchased an estate from Florence Nightingale's father, William, for £20,000 and set about building Willersley Castle for himself and his family. However just as the building was completed it was destroyed by fire, and Arkwright was forced to wait a further two years whilst it was rebuilt. He died aged 59 in 1792, never having lived in the castle, which was completed only after his death. After being a hotel owned by the Christian Guild company, Willersley Castle now belongs to outdoor adventure education company Manor Adventure.
The Arkwright Society, set up after the bicentenary of Cromford Mill, owns the mill complex and has worked to restore it.About Us Derwent Valley Mills, including this site, was declared by Historic England as "one of the country’s 100 irreplaceable sites".The Cromford Mills Creative Cluster and World Heritage Site Gateway Project, Derbyshire It is also the centrepiece of the Derwent Valley Mills UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Arkwright Scholarships Trust was set up in the UK in 1991 in Arkwright's memory to give scholarships to aspiring future leaders in engineering and technical design. By 2014, the Trust was awarding approximately 400 scholarships annually to support students through their 'A' levels and Scottish Highers, and to assist young people undertaking higher-level apprenticeships and university engineering studies. It had awarded over 5,000 scholarships as of mid 2020.Step up and see where your talent could take you
Notes
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External links
Richard Arkwright 1732-1792 Inventor of the Water Frame
Richard Arkwright The Father of the Modern Factory System Biography and Legacy
Essay on Arkwright
Richard Arkwright, Cotton King
Revolutionary Players website
Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site
The New Student's Reference Work/Arkwright, Sir Richard
Descendants of Sir Richard Arkwright
Richard Arkwright in Derbyshire
Lancashire Pioneers - includes an obituary of Arkwright from 1792
The Arkwright Scholarships Trust - named after Sir Richard. Awards prestigious Scholarships to aspiring future leaders in engineering and design in the UK.
Category:British textile industry businesspeople
Category:English inventors
Category:1732 births
Category:1792 deaths
Category:English industrialists
Category:Industrial Revolution in England
Category:People of the Industrial Revolution
Category:Engineers from Preston, Lancashire
Category:Paintings by Joseph Wright of Derby
Category:Burials in Derbyshire
Category:18th-century English businesspeople
Category:People from Cromford
Category:Businesspeople from Preston, Lancashire
Category:18th-century industrialists | {"Name": "Richard Arkwright", "Image": "Sir Richard Arkwright by Mather Brown 1790.jpeg", "Caption": "Sir Richard Arkwright, oil on canvas, by Mather Brown, 1790. New Britain Museum of American Art, Connecticut.", "Birth date": "1732 12 23 y", "Birth place": "Preston, Lancashire, England", "Death date": "1792 8 3 1732 12 23 y", "Death place": "Cromford, Derbyshire, England", "Title": "Sir Richard Arkwright", "Children": "Richard Arkwright junior, Susannah Arkwright", "Spouse(s)": "Patience Holt, \n Margaret Biggins"} |
Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (; 28 December 1945 - 1 June 2001) was King of Nepal from 1972 until his assassination in 2001. He was the eldest son of King Mahendra.
Early life and education
Birendra was born at the Narayanhiti Royal Palace in Kathmandu as the eldest son of the then Crown Prince Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev and his first wife, Crown Princess Indra Rajya Lakshmi Devi.
Birendra spent eight years studying at St Joseph's School, a Jesuit school in Darjeeling, with his brother Gyanendra. On 13 March 1955, their grandfather King Tribhuvan died and their father succeeded the Nepalese throne. With his father's ascension, Birendra became the crown prince of Nepal.
In 1959, Birendra was enrolled at Eton College in the United Kingdom. After studying at Eton until 1964, he returned to Nepal where he began to explore the country by traveling on foot to the remote parts of the country where he lived humbly with what was available in the villages. He later completed his education by spending some time at the University of Tokyo, before studying political theory at Harvard University from 1967 to 1968. Birendra enjoyed travelling in his youth, and went on trips to Canada, Latin America, Africa, many parts of India, and a number of other Asian countries. He was also an art collector and supporter of Nepalese craftspeople and artists and learned to fly helicopters.
Birendra was married to Aishwarya Rajya Lakshmi Devi from the Rana family, his second cousin, on 27 February 1970. The wedding, which was billed as one of the most lavish Hindu nuptial ceremonies in history, cost $9.5 million to stage.
Birendra was diagnosed to have coronary artery disease and had undergone angioplasty in United Kingdom as per reports in late 90s.
Early reign
Birendra ascended to the Nepalese throne on 31 January 1972, at the age of 27, after the death of his father, King Mahendra. However, his coronation was delayed until February 24, 1975, when he was 29, since the first year was considered to be a mourning period for death of king's father and the second year was deemed to be inauspicious by religious astrologers. As a Hindu monarch, he had to follow Nepalese tradition.
Panchayat era
1972-1980
On his ascension to the throne, Birendra was effectively an absolute monarch, as he inherited a country where political parties were banned and he ruled through a system of local and regional councils known as panchayats.
1980-1990
In an attempt to maintain the panchayat system of government prominent leaders of the Nepali Congress Party were arrested frequently. During the 1980s the restraints that had been imposed on political organizations were eased, and liberal student-led groups started to demand constitutional change in Nepal. Because of the growing pro-democracy movement Birendra announced that a referendum to decide between a party-less or a multi-party system would be held. During, referendum options were given for a multi-party system or a Panchayati system. The referendum was held in May 1980 with the party-less system winning by a margin of 55% to 45%. The result of the election led the king to make mass restructuring of country both economically and politically. After the national referendum, he divided the nation into 5 development regions in order to create balanced development and visited each division once a year; the visits were discontinued after his status as a constitutional monarchy in 1990.
Democratic era
Birendra shaking hands with Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi|thumb
In 1990, a series of strikes and pro-democracy riots broke out in Nepal. Due to the riots, Birendra lifted the ban on political parties and agreed to become a constitutional monarch in April 1990. He appointed an independent Constitution Recommendation Commission to represent the main opposition factions and to prepare a new constitution to accommodate their demands for political reform. The commission presented him with the draft of the proposed constitution on 10 September 1990. The new constitution would make Birendra head of state of a constitutional monarchy with a system of multiparty democracy. The draft constitution was approved by the Prime Minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai and his cabinet and so, on 9 November 1990, Birendra promulgated the new constitution transformed Nepal into a constitutional monarchy. As a constitutional monarchy, Birendra became more popular than he was as a autocratic ruler attributing to his democratic views and behaviors as well as the inability of the political parties. Birendra, however, could not prevent the Nepalese Civil War, a conflict between Maoist rebels and government forces, which lasted from 1996 until 2006.Sharma, S. (2019). The Nepal Nexus: An Inside Account of the Maoists, the Durbar and New Delhi. Penguin Random House India Private Limited.
Notable works and improvements
Diplomatic campaign
thumb|President Ronald Reagan with King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev
He managed to maintain Nepal's independence despite encroaching influences by India, China, and the Soviet Union. His first trips abroad as king were to India in October 1973 and China two months later. He prevented the breaking up of Mustang from Nepal and Tibet from China during the Mustang revolution. The disarmament of Khampas rebellions working against China brought Nepal-China relations to a new height. His compatriots remember him for his extensive campaign and contribution for the establishment of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and South Asian food reserve. During his reign, he was also able to set up the SAARC Secretariat in Kathmandu. He was able to establish diplomatic relations with additional 46 countries taking the total number of countries for diplomatic relations from 49 to 96. He further strengthened Nepal's policy of neutrality by promoting Nepal as zone of Peace in the UN. He believed that Nepal, sandwiched between the two Asian powers, should have good relationship with both.
Promotion of peace
He proposed Nepal to be declared a zone of Peace in the United Nations meeting, taking into consideration Nepal's historic peace status, birth of Gautam Buddha and its historical policy of Non-alignment to any foreign powers. This proposal was supported by 116 countries in the UNO. He later established a "Peace Keeping Training Camp" in 1986. This was later restructured into a training institute in 2001 for training peace keeping forces . It was later renamed as Birendra Peace Operations Training Centre. This institute, was later restructured as the training organization through which Nepal started sending trained, peace-keeping forces in cooperation with the UN and became an active member of it. In 1974, King Birendra was successful in peacefully disarming the Khampas rebellions, settled in the northern Himalayan region, by giving land, money and citizenship to those who surrendered their arms, and by confiscating weapons as well. Thus who did not surrender would be prohibited from moving toward the Tibetan region. Birendra is also credited with blocking the use of the army for suppressing the Maoist revolution in the country, which would've further aggravated the situation and disturbed the peace in the nation.
Environmental protection
thumb|A Tibetan snowcock at Sagarmatha National Park
King Birendra was regarded as a lover of nature and a great supporter of nature conservation. The trend of nature conservation from the government started during his reign. The dramatic decline of the rhinoceros population due to massive Terai migration and the extent of poaching prompted the government to institute the Rhino Patrol force (Nepali: गैडा गस्ती ) of 130 armed men and a network of guard posts all over Chitwan. To prevent the extinction of rhinos through a legal system, National park law was introduced which gazetted the Chitwan National Park in December 1970, with borders delineated the following year and established in 1973.Gurung, K. K. (1983). Heart of the Jungle: the Wildlife of Chitwan, Nepal. André Deutsch, London.Adhikari, T. R. (2002). The curse of success. Habitat Himalaya - A Resources Himalaya Factfile, Volume IX, Number 3.
left|thumb|An Indian rhinoceros at Chitwan National Park
For the purpose of conservation of Tigers in the nation, an area of 368 km2 was gazetted as Royal Karnali Wildlife Reserve in 1976 which was later proclaimed as Royal Bardiya Wildlife Reserve in 1982. The Babai River Valley was further added to this reserved area in 1984. A flourishing ecosystem in the reserve later led to the proclamation of the area as national park in 1988.Majupuria, T. C., Kumar, R. (1998). Wildlife, National Parks and Reserves of Nepal. S. Devi, Saharanpur and Tecpress Books, Bangkok. The country's fourth protected area was established in 1976 from the Himalayan area of Langtang and named as Langtang National Park. For this purpose, an area of 1,710 km2 was reserved in the district of Nuwakot, Rasuwa and Sindhulpalchok. He also gazetted another wildlife reserve in 1976 as Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. In the same year, he also established Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in the Terai region of far-western province which was later enlarged and converted to national park in the late 1980s. Also, another protected area, Rara National Park was established in the same year in order to protect the unique flora and fauna of Humla, Mugu and Jumla regions and to fulfil his father, King Mahendra's dream of creating a pristine nature reserve with a reserved area of 106 km2 in the Mugu and Jumla districts which also includes the famous Rara Lake. The last National Park to be established as part of the Sacred Himalayan Landscape in the same year was Sagarmatha National Park in with reservation of area of 1,148 km2 in the Solukhumbu District.
In 1984, a 225 km2 area of Bajhang, Bajura, Achham and Doti was set aside as a protected area in the Far-Western Region, Nepal and was named Khaptad National Park. In the same year, he also established Parsa Wildlife Reserve which was later extended to a National Park. Similarly, the nation's only trans-Himalayan national park, Shey Phoksundo National Park, was established in 1984 with an area of 3,555 square Kilometers in the districts of Dolpa and Mugu in the Karnali Province which also included the famous Phoksundo Lake.
In order to preserve the royal tradition of hunting as a hobby, but also to prevent the depleting wild life resource he established Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in 1987 AD. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation as a memorial to his father, with the then prince Gyanendra as the chairman, was also established in 1990. With the establishment of Mahendra trust, he declared Annapurna Conservation AreaCroes, K. D. (2006). Conserving the king: Inverting the origin story of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project of Nepal. HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies, 26(1), 6.
Moreover, with his efforts, Nepal was able to enlist Sagarmatha National Park in 1979 and Chitwan National Park in 1984 into the UNESCO World heritage sites. Similarly, monument zones such as the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur and religious sites such as Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, Pashupatinath Temple and Changu Narayan was also enlisted in 1979.
Economic reforms
thumb|One of the blocks of Tribhuwan University Teaching Hospital, the oldest teaching hospital in Nepal.
Focusing on sustainability and environmental conservation, on , trolley bus system was established in Nepal from the aid of People's Republic of China. He followed in the path of his father to establish industrial estates by establishing Nepalgunj Industrial Area(1973), Pokhara Industrial Area(1974), Butwal Industrial Area(1976), Bhaktapur Industrial Area(1979), Dhankuta Industrial Area(1980), Birendranagar Industrial Area(1981), Gajendranarayan Industrial Area(1986) respectively.Khatri, M. B. (2018). Industrial development in Nepal: Problems and prospects. Economic Journal of Nepal, 41(3-4), 25-40.
Birendra is initially credited for devising the plan of Melamchi water project to Kathmandu. Gorakhali Tires Industries, Udayapur Cement Industries Limited, Nepal Metal company, Nepal Pharmaceuticals were all established during his time. King Birendra, was the patron of Pashupati Area Development Trust. In April 1979, Nepal Oriental Magnesite factory was established with a joint investment of Nepal government and Orissa Industries, India at Lakuri Danda in Dolakha District with the objective of producing dead burnt magnesite and talc powder. In 1983 he was able to establish a Nepal-Pakistan Joint Economic Commission bringing in significant foreign investments in the country.
A 60 Megawatt hydropower project at Kulekhani began operation in 1982 with economic aid from the World Bank, Kuwait, and Japan.
TU Teaching Hospital was established in 1982 with the economic support from Japan International Cooperation Agency. Nardevi Ayurvedic Hospital was established in 1974. Nepal Police Hospital was established by the king on the 27th of Chaitra, 2040 BS with an intention to provide free health services to in- service policemen and, their families.
He established Securities Exchange Center Ltd in 1976 to manage, promote and support the growth of trade of stocks and capitals in the nation. This center was later developed to what we know today as Nepal Stock Exchange.
He is also credited for establishing the first television channel of Nepal Nepal Television in 1984 which started its first channel in 1985 with French aid. Due to these economic reforms, by 1986, there were 2,054 industrial establishments employing about 125 thousand workers in the nation. By 1990, reach of people for television meant that video rental services and satellite dishes were commonly available.
King Birendra in the advice and consent of Rastriya Panchayat in 1986 established Mahendra Sanskrit University to manage Sanskrit education in Nepal in Dang which at the time of its commencement was the second university of the country .
Roads and transportation
Various Studies in 1972 showed that building road connectivity in hilly and rural areas were more expensive than air connectivity. So, the then government took the policy of connecting rural areas with airports and build roads only when there was a high amount of traffic flow. Under this policy, Baglung Airport (Balewa Airport), Dhorpatan Airport, Mahendranagar Airport and Rukum Chaurjahari Airport was established in the year 1973. Sanphebagar airport was established in 1975. Simikot Airport was established on 18 March 1977, Dolpa Airport, was established in 1978 and Ramechhap airport in 1979. Doti Airport, also known as Silgadhi Airport was established in 1973 with the blacktopped runway. Talcha Airport, also known as Rara Airport was built in 1975.Taplejung Airport located in Phungling, also called Suketar Airport, Jiri Airport and Phaplu Airport and Bajhang Airport was built in 1976. Rolpa Airport in 1980, Manang Airport in 1981, Bajura airport in 1984 and Darchula Airport in 1986.
Similarly, The Lamosangu-Jiri road leading to Solukhumbu was commissioned in 1985 with Swiss government aid.
Promotion of agriculture
The government, during Birendra's reign, focused highly on agriculture promotion. As a result, almost 90% of the population was directly or indirectly involved in agriculture by 1990. Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper was established in 1985 under the Companies Act 2021 (Bikram Sambat) with support from the People's Republic of China. Increase in agricultural lands and agricultural workforce provided increased supplies of food, resulting in better nutrition. Corn production was increased to over 1 million tons in 1991 from 500,000 tons in 1961. Lumbini Sugar Mills at Sunwal, Nawalparasi was built with the technical assistance from China in 1982. The establishment of Gorakhali rubber Industries led to the cultivation of rubber for the first time in Jhapa, Illam and many other places of eastern Nepal.Poudel, M., Adhikari, P., Dhungana, S., Paudel, S., Thapa, K., Bidari, A., & Manandhar, R. (2020). Economics of rubber production in Jhapa, Nepal. Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 3(1), 198-208. Similarly. establishment of agriculture based industries such as Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper, Hetauda Textile and huge number of carpet and garment industry were established to convert raw agricultural produce which contributed greatly to the economy.Kharel, K. R., & Upadhyaya, Y. M. (2021). Contribution of Cottage and Small Scale Industries for Boosting Nepalese Economy. Tribhuvan University Journal, 36(01), 45-57.
Political achievements
thumb|Administrative division of Nepal with 5 development regions
During the reign of King Birendra, referendum was held in 2037 BS for democracy wherein options were a multi-party system or a Panchayati system. During the Panchayat era and after the national referendum, he divided the nation into 5 development regions in order to create balanced development, and visited each division once a year; the visits were discontinued after 1990 democracy movement.
Despite previously being an autocratic rule and constant pressure from the supporters and royal members, the king always played the role of constitutional monarch by the book and never overstepped his boundaries. King Birendra was always there when there was some political crisis in the nation. Mid-term elections, 2051 and General Election, 2056 can be attributed to his good governance. The King regularly asked the Supreme Court for its advice on any political matters that could concern the constitution so that he would never overstep the boundaries of the constitution. He created a culture where the king and prime minister would meet every Thursday at his palace to discuss matters of state.
Social reforms
Recognizing low literacy levels as the main hindrance to national progress, King Birendra made development of education system his national priority. The five year plan starting from 1971 was mainly focused in building new educational institutions and upgrading the efficiency of the current education system. On the auspicious occasion of his coronation, King Birendra declared primary education to be free for all Nepalese citizens. Similarly, in 1978 with a royal approval all educational material started to be distributed free of costs to educational institutions. King Birendra became the patron of Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology which worked in the field of developing science and technology in the nation. He established Mahendra Sanskrit University in 1986 to preserve the language and culture in the region. Dowry system was criminalized in Nepal in 1976 under the Social Practices Reform Act (2033 B.S). Under the five year plan, King Birendra started the policy of National Service which required the post-graduate students to contribute their one-year of service to the development works in the rural areas. He initiated the process of preserving the history by establishing Natural History Museum in 1975.On 22 September 1976 he enacted Narcotic Drugs (Control) Act, 2033 prohibiting the trade, smuggling or any kind of drug trafficking in the country.
Development policy
Birendra took the policy of road development according to the population and daily road traffic and connecting the rural areas with airports. He restructured many governmental organization for the purpose of achieving developmental goals. He stressed roadbuilding, sanitation and scientific as well as technical trainings. A comprehensive study performed regarding the central planning agency triggered the restructuring of the National Planning Commission in 1972 and minor changes in 1987. The government policy focused mainly on environment conservation, agriculture and education.
Criticism
Stagnant economy
Though King Birendra is remembered as a development-friendly king, he is also criticized for his inability to drive the country towards rapid development efforts like his father King Mahendra. He had the political will but simply not the skill through which development efforts could be rapidly gained. His policy of sustainable development, shown by his nature conservation efforts, culture, and history became hindrances for economic development. The Panchayat regime created a stagnant economy during his reign as an autocratic ruler.
Administrative failure
Historians point out that the Panchayat Regime under King Birendra was a failure. He was not able to bring in much direct foreign investment during his reign, and all the programs he brought, or all the reforms he made were the continuation of his father's legacy. He restructured various organization previously established by his father, and implemented various development plan envisioned by his father. However, he was not able to bring about radical change in the country. Moreover, some historians also claim that making cannabis trade illegal, implemented during this era, created mass unemployment which eventually became one of the causes of the Maoist revolution.
Failed development efforts
Birendra restructured various organization and brought many development plans, but his development efforts were mostly a failure; which hindered any radical change in the country. Many airports and roads built during his era were rarely used, and eventually had to be closed down. Moreover, the reason the newly-built roads were rarely used was due to very low vehicle ownership or access to vehicles; so rarely contributing to economic development.
Killer of the Panchayat system
Some historians and anti-democrats blame Birendra solely for the fall of Panchayat regime. During the 1980s, the restraints that he had eased against political organizations provided a breeding ground for political parties which had previously been powerless and virtually non-existent until then.
Personality
From a very young age, Birendra was described by his Eton teachers as a kind prince. He was remembered by his Eton classmates as a "very, very nice bloke who was embarrassed when his full title was read out at the school assembly." Very famous Nepalese media personality, Neer Shah describe Birendra as kind and development loving king. Royalist around the king and various scholars define him as a simple king who was able to listen to others view. They also criticize him for his weakness of not being able to deny the requests of people around him and his habit to act like a clerk and work himself rather than order others.
Birendra allowed the 2036 B.S. Janmat Sangraha (1980 Referendum) which was considered a move towards democracy. However, the leaders advocating for democracy and historians have claimed that the referendum was rigged. After People's Movement I that resulted in few hundred deaths, he established a constitutional monarchy in Nepal.
Some historians have speculated that Birendra's democratic views and simple nature may have led to the success of the People's Movement I (1990). He is credited for introducing SAARC in Asia in order to strengthen the foreign relations of Nepal with the other South Asian countries.
Memorial
Many structures, institutions and honors have been built in the memory of King Birendra. Monuments erected in his name were renamed after the restoration of the parliament in 2063 BS and the end of the monarchy in 2065 BS. After the political changes of 2063 BS, an attempt was made to rename the highway built in the name of the king as Lok Marg.
thumb|500x500px|King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya Statue
Statues
Birendra statue, Dhamboji Chowk, (Nepalgunj)
Birendra statue (Dang)
Birendra statue, Birendranagar (Surkhet)
Birendra statue, Swargapuri (Shivapuri)
Birendra statue, Jawalakhel (Lalitpur)
Birendra statue, Bindhyabasini Temple (Pokhara)
Birendra statue, Pashupatinath Temple (Kathmandu)
School
Shree Birendra Higher Secondary School, Bhadrapur, Jhapa
Shree Birendra Higher Secondary School, Charghare, Nuwakot
Shree Birendra Sarwajanik Higher Secondary School, Morang
Shree Birendra secondary school, Lakhantari, Morang
Shree Birendra secondary school, Belbari, Morang
Shree Birendra Madhyamik Bidhyalaya, Jhorahat, Morang
Birendra Secondary School, Katahari, Morang
Birendra Secondary School, Argakhanchi
Birendra Secondary School, Dasharathchanda, Baitadi
Birendra secondary school, Badikedar , Doti
Birendra Secondary School, Syangja
Birendra Secondary School, Nuwakot
Birendra Secondary School, Parbat
Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya, Bhaktapur
Birendra jyoti Secondary School, Solukhumbu Sotang
College
Birendara Bidhya Mandir Campus, Tikapur, Kailali
Birendra Multiple Campus, Bharatpur
Birendra Memorial College , Dharan
Birendra Multiple Campus
Location
Birendranagar, Surkhet
Birendranagar, Chitwan
Birendra Chowk , (Birendranagar)
Birendra chowk, Kageshwari-Manohara Municipality
Birendra chowk , Phungling Municipality
Birendra Chowk, Dharan
Birendra Chowk, Tulsipur, (Dang)
Birendra Chowk , (Nepalgunj)
Birendra Chowk , (Itahari)
Birendra Lake (Birendra Tal), Gorkha
Birendra Aishwarya Park, Dhangadi
Birendra Aishwarya Park, Baglung
Structure
Birendra Museum, Kathmandu Durbar Square
Birendra Army Hospital
Birendranagar Airport
Others
Birendra Beer, Zürich
Birendra Memorial Cup
Birendra Peace Operations Training Centre
Birendranagar Jayceesthumb|Narayanhiti Palace where the Nepalese royal massacre occurred.
Murder
Birendra and his whole family were gunned down on 1 June 2001 supposedly by Birendra's eldest son, Crown Prince Dipendra. Almost all of the royal family were killed in the massacre except Gyanendra Shah, Birendra's younger brother. Dipendra was proclaimed King but could not be crowned since he was in a coma in hospital, resulting from self-inflicted gunshot wounds sustained in the massacre. He died a few days later. Consequently, Gyanendra was made the king.
Titles and honours
National orders
70px Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Pratap Bhaskara
70px Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
70px Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
70px Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
70px Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Most Glorious Mahendra Chain
70px Recipient of the King Mahendra Investiture Medal (02/05/1956)
Foreign orders
:
70px Knight of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn, (1979)
:
70px Knight of the Order of the Elephant, (17 October 1989)
:
70px Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, (1975)
:
70px Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Makarios III of Cyprus, (1980)
:
70px Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol, (1970)
:
70px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau, (22 March 1975)
:
70px Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour, (02/05/1983)
:
70px Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, (1986)
:
70px Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carlos III, (19 September 1983)
:
70px Nishan-e-Pakistan, (1983)
:
70px Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania, (1975)
:
70px Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of Chile (1989)
:
70px Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose, (1988)
:
70px Collar of the Order of the Nile, (1974)
:
70px Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star, (2 February 1974)
Romania:
70px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August (1987)
:
70px Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain (23 February 1975)
Association honours
:
70px Golden Pheasant Award of the Scout Association of Japan, (1978)
Ancestry
See also
List of state visits by Birendra
Wedding of Birendra and Aishwarya
Coronation of Birendra
References
|-
Category:2001 murders in Asia
Category:Kings of Nepal
Category:British field marshals
Category:21st-century murdered monarchs
Category:Nepalese Hindus
Category:Nepalese murder victims
Category:Deaths by firearm in Nepal
Category:People educated at Eton College
Category:University of Tokyo alumni
Category:Harvard University alumni
Category:1945 births
Category:2001 deaths
Category:People murdered in Nepal
Category:Male murder victims
Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Category:Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Category:Shah dynasty
Category:Murder-suicides in Asia
Category:People of the Nepalese Civil War
Category:Hindu monarchs
Category:Assassinated heads of state in Asia | {"Father": "Mahendra", "Mother": "Indra Rajya Lakshmi Devi", "Born": "Narayanhiti Royal Palace, Kathmandu, Nepal", "Died": "Narayanhiti Royal Palace, Kathmandu, Nepal", "Religion": "Hinduism"} |
Michael Sean Redmond (マイケル・レドモンド, born May 25, 1963) is an American-born professional Go player. He is one of only a few such players, as Go is not as widespread or developed outside of China, South Korea and Japan. He is the only Westerner to reach the highest grade of 9-dan.
Biography
Michael Redmond was born in 1963 in Santa Barbara, California, and began playing Go at age 11. At 14, he moved to Japan and became an insei (Go apprentice) at the Nihon Ki-in, one of the two major Japanese Go associations. He was promoted to professional 1 dan at age 18, and 2 dan the same year. He was promoted to 5 dan in 1985; 8 dan in 1996; and 9 dan in 2000, becoming the first Western Go professional to reach 9 dan.Michael Redmond's Bio at Sensei's Library
Redmond has not won any tournament titles but has come close. He was runner-up in the Shinjin-O, Kisei 7 dan section, and NEC Shun-Ei competitions in the early 1990s. He was also a quarter-finalist in the Fujitsu Cup and Tong Yang Cup. Currently, he is a celebrated commentator for the NHK channel. In 2005, he was voted "Best Commentator" for the NHK channel, over Ishida Yoshio.
In August 2006, he taught at the AGA East Coast Go Camp in Pennsylvania, and attended the 22nd annual US Go Congress in Black Mountain, North Carolina. He has also attended several other US Go Congresses.
Redmond is married to Xian-Xian Niu, a Chinese 5 dan professional. They have two daughters, Yumi and Emi. Redmond and his family are sponsors of many Go activities for children in America, such as the Redmond Cup, an annual tournament for strong youth players. Niu's elder sister, Lili Niu, is a Chinese 5 dan professional and collaborator of Wu Qing-Yuan (Go Seigen). Her husband is Xiangqi (Chinese chess) champion Zhao Guo-rong.
Redmond provided the English commentary along with Chris Garlock for the Google DeepMind Challenge Match between Lee Sedol and AlphaGo from March 9 to March 15, 2016.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: His commentary was praised in news articles as "vivid" and "illuminating".
Promotion record
Titles and runners-up
DomesticTitle Wins Runners-up Ryuen Cup 1 (1985) NEC Shun-Ei 1 (1990) Shinjin-O 1 (1992)Career Total Total 1 2
Bibliography
References
External links
Page on Redmond from Sensei's Library
Nihon Kiin's bio of Redmond
Category:American Go players
Category:Go (game) writers
Category:Sportspeople from Santa Barbara, California
Category:1963 births
Category:Living people
Category:Sportspeople from Tokyo | {"Full name": "Michael Sean Redmond", "Born": "Santa Barbara, CA, United States", "Residence": "Japan Tokyo, Japan", "Teacher": "Yusuke Oeda", "Rank": "9 dan", "Affiliation": "Nihon Ki-in"} |
Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (; born 7 July 1947) is a former monarch who was the last King of Nepal, reigning from 2001 to 2008. As a child, he was briefly king from 1950 to 1951, when his grandfather, Tribhuvan, took political exile in India with the rest of his family. His second reign began after the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre. Gyanendra Shah is the first person in the history of Nepal to be king twice and the last king of the Shah dynasty of Nepal.
Gyanendra's second reign was marked by constitutional turmoil. His brother King Birendra had established a constitutional monarchy in which he delegated policy to a representative government. The growing insurgency of the Nepalese Civil War during Gyanendra's reign interfered with the elections of representatives. After several delays in elections, Gyanendra suspended the constitution and assumed direct authority in February 2005, asserting that it would be a temporary measure to suppress the Maoist insurgency after civil governments had failed to do so. In the face of broad opposition, he restored the previous parliament in April 2006. He was deposed two years later by the first session of the Constituent Assembly, which declared the nation to be the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal and abolished the 240-year-old Shah dynasty.
Early life and first reign
left|thumb|US President Gerald Ford with Gyanendra Shah in 1976
Gyanendra was born in the old Narayanhiti Royal Palace in Kathmandu, as the second son of Crown Prince Mahendra and his first wife, Crown Princess Indra. After his birth, his father was told by a court astrologer not to look at his newborn son because it would bring him bad luck, so Gyanendra was sent to live with his grandmother.
In November 1950, during a political plot, both his father and his grandfather King Tribhuvan, along with other royals, fled to India, leaving the infant Prince Gyanendra as the only male member of the royal family in Nepal. He was brought back to the capital Kathmandu by Prime Minister Mohan Shamsher, who had him declared king on 7 November 1950. Not only was Gyanendra crowned, but coins were issued in his name. The Rana prime minister provided a 300,000 rupee annual budget as expenditure for the king. After opposition to the hereditary rule of the Rana prime ministers from India, a deal was reached in January 1951, and Gyanendra's grandfather King Tribhuvan returned to Nepal and resumed the throne. The actions of the Rana regime to depose his grandfather and place Gyanendra on the throne were internationally recognized.
Gyanendra studied with his elder brother King Birendra at St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling, India; in 1969, he graduated from Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. He served as the chairman of the Advisory Committee for the Coronation of his brother King Birendra in 1975. He is a keen conservationist and served as chairman of the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (later known as the National Trust for Nature Conservation) from 1982 until his reaccession to the throne in 2001.
Gyanendra married his second cousin Komal Rajya Lakhsmi Devi on 1 May 1970 in Kathmandu. They have two children:
Prince Paras Bir Bikram Shah Dev (born on 30 December 1971).
Princess Prerana Rajya Lakshmi Devi Singh (born on 20 February 1978).
Succession
Gyanendra again assumed the throne after many other royal family members, including King Birendra, were assassinated on 1 June 2001 by Gyanendra's nephew Crown Prince Dipendra, who was titular king for a brief period before succumbing to a self-inflicted gunshot wound. These events and the ensuing investigation proved very controversial. A two-man investigation team appointed by Gyanendra and made up of Keshav Prasad Upadhaya, then-Supreme Court Chief Justice, and Taranath Ranabhat, then-Speaker of the House of Representatives, carried out a week-long investigation.
Nepal massacre inquiry begins, at long last After interviewing more than 100 people—including eyewitnesses, palace officials, guards, and staff—they concluded that Dipendra had indeed carried out the massacre, but they drew no further conclusions. As his nephew lay in a coma, Prince Gyanendra was named regent; but after King Dipendra's death on 4 June 2001, Gyanendra resumed the throne.
Second reign
Early reign
During his early years on the throne, Gyanendra sought to exercise full control over the government, citing the failure of all the political parties to hold an election after the parliament was dissolved. In May 2002, he supported the popularly elected Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba when he dismissed the parliament elected in 1999. In October 2002, he dismissed Deuba and consolidated his power for the first time. During the years 2002 to 2005 he chose and subsequently dismissed three prime ministers for failure to hold elections and bring the rebels to a round table negotiation; he finally dismissed Deuba for the second time and took over as absolute ruler on 1 February 2005, promising that the country would return to normality within 36 months.
His elder brother King Birendra had negotiated a constitutional monarchy during his rule in a delicate manner in which he, as king, played a minor role in government. Thus, Gyanendra's confrontational approach with the established political parties met with widespread censure.
When Gyanendra took complete control for the second time, on 1 February 2005, he dismissed Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba's government for failing to make arrangements for parliamentary elections and being unable to restore peace in the country, which was then in the midst of a civil war led by Maoist insurgents.
Gyanendra promised that "peace and effective democracy" would be restored within three years.
but the period of direct rule was accompanied by repression of dissent. International organizations expressed grave concerns about the safety of journalists, following the king's decision to restrict civil liberties, including freedom of the press, the constitutional protection against censorship and the right against preventive detention.
In April 2006, the seven-party alliance and the then banned CPN Maoist party in an underground manner staged protests and strikes in Kathmandu against King Gyanendra's direct rule. The royal government exercised minimum restraint but declared a curfew to control the deteriorating situation, which was enforced with live firearms and tear gas. After 23 protesters were killed, on 21 April 2006, King Gyanendra announced that he would yield executive authority to a new prime minister chosen by the political parties to oversee the return of democracy. Several party leaders rejected the offer and again demanded that the King call a council to determine the monarchy's future role in politics. An agreement was reached between the parties under the supervision of the Indian ruling Congress that the monarchy would have a place in the new constitution. Girija Prasad Koirala was appointed prime minister in the interim. Girija Prasad, as the main leader, had talks with the King and the agreement for monarchy's position. As such, on 24 April 2006, Gyanendra reinstated the previous parliament in a televised address to the nation.
End of direct rule
The agreement between the parties and Gyanendra under Indian supervision was not honored by the parties. It is widely believed that the then Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala was deeply convinced that as long as Gyanendra remained in the power structure, there was always danger to the democratic order in Nepal. On 10 June 2006, the Parliament scrapped the major powers of the king, including his right to veto laws. This ended the idea of a "King in Parliament", and he was reduced to a figurehead, though for a time he continued to offer felicitations and to receive diplomats. According to Article 167 of the constitution, all executive powers as well as those enjoyed by the king in the previous Constitution were now vested in the prime minister. All powers of the 239-year-old monarchy were stripped, making Gyanendra a civilian king.
Prime Minister Koirala, who had previously supported the continuation of the monarchy, said in March 2007 that he thought Gyanendra should step down. In June, Koirala repeated his call for Gyanendra to abdicate in favor of his grandson Prince Hridayendra.
On 23 August 2007 Nepal's transitional government nationalized all the properties Gyanendra inherited from his brother, including the Narayanhiti Royal Palace. The move did not affect the properties he owned before his accession to the throne.
Interim suspension of the monarchy
It was announced on 24 December 2007 that, following the approval of the Nepalese Parliament, the monarchy would probably be suspended in 2008, as part of a peace deal with Maoist rebels. This was for a bill to amend the constitution to make Nepal a republic.
On 27 May 2008, the meeting decided to give Gyanendra fifteen days to vacate the palace and decided that the first meeting would be held the next day at 11 am; however, it was delayed due to the indecision among the leading parties on power-sharing and the nomination of 26 members of the Constituent Assembly.
On 28 May 2008, the monarchy was officially given no place in the amended constitution of 1990 and was replaced by a republic. This was done by the Constituent Assembly, without a referendum."Nepal becomes a federal democratic republic" , Nepalnews, 28 May 2008. Gyanendra accepted the decision in the following days."Ex-King Gyanendra says he accepts CA decision; prepares to leave Narayanhiti" , Nepalnews, 2 June 2008. As he was required to leave Narayanhiti, he asked the government to make residential arrangements for him on 1 June, and on 4 June the government decided to give Nagarjuna Palace to Gyanendra."Govt decides to give Nagarjuna palace to ex-King", Oneindia, 4 June 2008.
Gyanendra left the Narayanhiti Palace in Kathmandu on 11 June 2008, moving into the Nagarjuna Palace. His new residence consists of ten buildings including the royal residence Hemanta Bas, three guesthouses (Barsha Bas, Sharad Bas and Grishma Bas), one office secretariat and one staff quarters. Gyanendra and his family moved into the two-storey Hemanta Bas. Following his departure, the Narayanhiti Palace was turned into a museum, while Gyanendra's diamond- and ruby-encrusted Crown and royal scepter, along with all the other crown jewels and royal assets, became government property. The royal family's departure from the palace was reported as a "major symbolic moment in the fall of the Shah dynasty, which had unified Nepal in the 1760s".
Transition to interim republic
Gyanendra, in an interview with foreign reporters published on 9 April 2008, expressed dissatisfaction over the decision made by the interim parliament to abolish the monarchy after the 10 April Constituent Assembly election. The interview was published in Japan's leading newspaper, Daily Yomiuri. Speaking to a select group of Japanese correspondents at the Narayanhiti Royal Palace on 4 February 2008, Gyanendra said, "[The decision] doesn't reflect the majority view of the people. This isn't a democracy."
However, he conceded that the people do have the right to choose the fate of the monarchy.
Gyanendra also said that law and order in the country was deteriorating, and questioned the interim government's ability to govern the country even after he had accepted the road map of the seven-party alliance. Citing the recent survey which showed 49% of respondents favored the continuation of the monarchy in some form, Gyanendra claimed, "A majority of the people find great meaning in the institution of the monarchy. In all clouds, there is a silver lining. Let us hope."
Gyanendra had broken his closely guarded silence in an interview with a Nepali weekly paper in which he said he remained silent to "let the peace process succeed". On 7 February 2008 the BBC reported Gyanendra as saying to Japanese journalists: "The Nepali people themselves should speak out on where the nation is heading, on the direction it is taking and on why it is becoming chaotic".
He claimed that his attempt on 1 February 2005 was for a good purpose—restoring peace and stability in the country. He said that his attempt was not a success and so the countrymen are suffering at present.
In an interview, Gyanendra's advisor, Bharat Keshar Singh, claimed that the bill passed by the parliament was a bluff. Replying to a question raised regarding the King's silence even after the bill was passed declaring the state a republic, he said that there was nothing for the King to respond to. He claimed that the parliament which declared a republic was reinstated by the King himself and had no authority to dethrone the same King. He claimed that the King was examining the activities of the government and the parliament and was waiting for a suitable time to respond to them. He said that no people would accept the "bill" unless decided by a referendum or elected members in the constituent assembly.
On 15 January 2007 the interim parliament was set up with the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) included, and on 1 April 2007, the interim government joined by the Communist Party was formed. On 28 December 2007, the Nepali interim parliament approved a bill for the amendment to the constitution of 1990 promulgated on 15 January 2007, with a clause stating that Nepal would become a federal democratic republic, to be implemented by the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly elections.
In 2020 the RPP-N submitted 2.35 million signatures to the Constituent Assembly demanding a referendum for the fate of the 240-year old monarchy and a Hindu state.
Alleged foreign intervention in the fall of the monarchy
Senior Journalist P. Kharel told BBC Nepali service in an interview that King Gyanendra lost his throne when he refused to make Nepal "a protectorate like Bhutan". King Gyanendra's Honorary Royal ADC Late Bharat Keshar Simha also expressed the same during an interview with Jibram Bhandari on Sagarmatha TV.
Later life
left|thumb|Gyanendra in 2012
In an interview with News 24 TV channel in 2012, Gyanendra stated that he would return as the King of Nepal, although he did not state a particular time frame. When asked if he would consider becoming actively involved in politics, he said that he is not a politician. He also dismissed the need for a referendum on bringing the institution of monarchy back into power. He asserted that since the politicians had not asked the people by a referendum to abolish the institution, a referendum to bring him back was not needed.
Gyanendra also stated in the interview with News24 that a written agreement existed between the politicians and himself that the constitutional monarchy would be returned when he gave up his powers to the politicians and restored the Parliament that he had sacked.
On 8 July 2019, the former king's birthday was observed by thousands of Nepalese who marked the occasion by marching to his private residence at Nirmal Niwas Palace. The rally was organized by The Main Civilian Birthday Celebration Committee, however, the former king refused to give audience to the crowd as he didn't celebrate his birthday in public due to the demise of his relatives. Therefore, the visitors wrote birthday wishes on registers kept at the Nirmal Niwas Palace.
In July 2019, the former king summoned acclaimed political analyst Surendra K.C. where the two discussed the current political environment of the nation. In an interview with Nepal Aaja, KC remarked that the former king did not show any active interest to return to the throne or into politics. However, KC did note that the former monarch showed great concerns for the condition of the Nepalese in times of economic turmoil and political suppression.
During a private party at Trisara restaurant in Durbarmarg, a picture taken of the former king dancing caused significant unrest and outcry, most notably from Prime minister Prachanda and Former Prime Minister Oli. Critics and citizens alike condemned the remarks of the politicians criticizing the former king's private affairs.
In February 2023, the former king attended a public event in Jhapa district to call for the transformation of Nepal from a secular country into a Hindu kingdom. The event was attended by thousands of people.
Protest in Myagdi
Soon after news emerged of a ten-day personal visit to Parbat district in 2012, ten political parties of the district organized a corner meeting at Shibalaya Chowk of Kusmabazaar, and decided to protest against Gyanendra's visit. Leaders speaking at the corner assembly called on Gyanendra to stop his visit and also warned that they would obstruct his tour forcibly if he started it. Nevertheless, Gyanendra left for Pokhara. There was no protest on the first day. He walked in the rain through the general public for more than one kilometre. However, the scheduled visit of Gyanendra to Myagdi was cancelled following opposition from different political parties. He had planned to worship at various holy shrines in the district.
COVID-19
On 20 April 2021, the former king and queen tested positive for COVID-19 on their return from India.
Wealth
Despite having all of the properties he inherited from his late brother King Birendra nationalized, the former king still retained all of his wealth prior to his enthronement. Having been a businessman, the former king is said to have inherited huge fortunes from his family members and still runs many lucrative businesses through investments and is widely believed to be worth hundreds of millions of dollars. His investment in Soaltee Hotel alone was estimated to be around $100 million in 2008 with a 47% stake.
Furthermore, the former king is reported to have 54% stake in Himalayan Goodricke Tea, 39% stake in Surya Nepal Tobacco, stakes in Annapurna Hotel which he inherited from aunt Princess Helen, large tea plantations in Itahari, and stakes in Himal International Power Corporation, Jyoti spinning mill in Birgunj, Narayanghat brewery, a Toyota and Tata distributorship, Laxmi Rosin Turpentine Pvt Ltd, Bhotekoshi power company, Sipradi Trading Pvt Ltd, Gorkha Lawrie Pvt Ltd, Amaravati Pvt Ltd, an island in the Maldives and oil interests in Nigeria.
Honours
National orders
70px Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Pratap Bhaskara
70px Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
70px Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
70px Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
70px Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Most Glorious Mahendra Chain
Birendra Chain (29 December 2002)
70px King Mahendra Investiture Medal (2 May 1956)
70px King Birendra Investiture Medal (24 February 1975)
70px Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Birendra (31 January 1997)
Foreign orders
thumb|right|Arms of Gyanendra as knight of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
:
70px King Jigme Singye Investiture Medal (2 June 1974)
:
70px Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit, 2 May 1983
:
70px Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 25 November 1996
:
70px Member of the Order of Korean Labour, 1978
:
70px Grand Gwanghwa Medal (First Class) of the Order of Diplomatic Service Merit, 1987
:
70px Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange, 25 April 1967
70px Commander of the Order of the Golden Ark, 1987
:
70px Nishan-e-Imtiaz, 1970
:
70px Member Special Class of Order of King Abdulaziz, 1983
:
70px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, 13 November 1987
:
70px Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant, 1995
:
70px Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, 1986
:
70px Sash of the Order of the Yugoslav Star 1st Rank, 2 February 1974
Ancestry
References
External links
King of Nepal is stoned by crowd. BBC 16 February 2007
Nepal News Feed - News Headlines
Category:1947 births
Category:Living people
Category:Nepalese anti-communists
Category:Kings of Nepal
Category:Field marshals
Category:Hindu monarchs
Category:Pretenders
Category:Child monarchs from Asia
Category:Monarchs deposed as children
Category:Tribhuvan University alumni
Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Category:Grand Cross of the Ordre national du Mérite
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the House of Orange
Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Category:Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Category:Nepalese Hindus
Category:Shah dynasty
Category:Modern child monarchs
Category:Monarchs who abdicated
Category:People of the Nepalese Civil War | {"Born": "Narayanhiti Royal Palace, Kathmandu, Nepal", "Father": "Mahendra", "Mother": "Indra", "Religion": "Hinduism"} |
Vazgen Zaveni SargsyanAlso spelled Sarkissian, Sarkisian, Sarkisyan, Sargisian. (, ; 5 March 1959 - 27 October 1999) was an Armenian military commander and politician. He was the first Defence Minister of Armenia from 1991 to 1992 and then from 1995 to 1999. He served as Armenia's Prime Minister from 11 June 1999 until his assassination on 27 October of that year. He rose to prominence during the mass movement for the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia in the late 1980s and led Armenian volunteer groups during the early clashes with Azerbaijani forces. Appointed defence minister by President Levon Ter-Petrosyan soon after Armenia's independence from the Soviet Union in late 1991, Sargsyan became the most prominent commander of Armenian forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In different positions, he regulated the military operations in the war area until 1994, when a ceasefire was reached ending the war with Armenian forces controlling almost all of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding districts.
In the post-war years, Sargsyan tightened his grip on the Armed Forces of Armenia, establishing himself as a virtual strongman. After strongly supporting Ter-Petrosyan to retain power in 1996, he forced the president out of office in 1998 due to the latter's support for concessions in the Nagorno-Karabakh settlement negotiations, and helped Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan to be elected president. After his relations with Kocharyan deteriorated, Sargsyan merged the influential war veterans group Yerkrapah into the Republican Party and joined forces with Armenia's ex-communist leader Karen Demirchyan. In the May 1999 elections, their reform-minded alliance secured a comfortable majority in the National Assembly. Sargsyan became prime minister, emerging as the de facto decision-maker in Armenia with effective control of the military and the legislature.
Sargsyan, along with Demirchyan and several others, was assassinated in the Armenian parliament shooting of 27 October 1999. The perpetrators were sentenced to life in prison. However, the distrust toward the trial process gave birth to a number of conspiracy theories. Some experts and politicians argue that their assassination was masterminded by Kocharyan and National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan. Others have suspected the possible involvement of foreign powers in the shooting.
Despite his mixed legacy, Sargsyan is now widely recognized as a national hero across the political spectrum and by the public. Given the honorific Sparapet, he made significant contributions to the establishment of Armenia as independent state and ensuring its security as the founder of the Armenian Army. He has also been criticized by human rights organizations for being undemocratic, especially for his role in elections. Sargsyan was awarded the highest titles of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh—National Hero of Armenia and Hero of Artsakh.
Early life and career
Vazgen Sargsyan was born in Ararat village, Soviet Armenia, near the Turkish border, on 5 March 1959, to Greta and Zaven Sargsyan. His ancestors had moved to Ararat from Maku, northern Iran, following the Russo-Persian War of 1826-28. After finishing secondary school in his village, he attended the Yerevan Institute of Physical Culture from 1976 to 1979. He worked as a physical education teacher at the secondary school in Ararat from 1979 to 1983. Therefore, he was exempt from conscription in the Soviet army. From 1983 to 1986, he was the Young Communist League (Komsomol) leader at the Ararat Cement Factory.
An amateur writer, Sargsyan developed a literary and active social life. He wrote his first novel in 1980, and became a member of the Writers Union of Armenia in 1985. From 1986 to 1989, he headed the publicity department of the Garun («Գարուն», "Spring") literary monthly in Yerevan. In 1986, his first book, Bread Temptation («Հացի փորձություն»), was published, for which he was awarded by the Armenian Komsomol. A number of his works were published in journals. However, his literary career did not last long and ended in the late 1980s.
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
Early stages and independence of Armenia
The relative democratization of the Soviet regime under Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika policies since the mid-1980s gave rise to nationalism in the republics of the Soviet Union. In Armenia, the Karabakh movement gained widespread public support. Armenians demanded the Soviet authorities unify the mostly Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) of Azerbaijan with Armenia. In February 1988, the NKAO regional legislature requested the transfer of the region from the jurisdiction of Azerbaijan SSR to Armenian SSR, but it was rejected by the Politburo. Tensions between Armenians and Azerbaijanis further escalated with the pogrom in Sumgait. With both groups arming themselves, clashes became frequent, especially in the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh and the border areas of the two Soviet republics. In 1989 and 1990, Sargsyan took the command of Armenian volunteer groups fighting near Yeraskh, on the Armenian-Azerbaijani (Nakhchivan) border, not far from his hometown.
By January 1990, he became part of the leadership of the Pan-Armenian National Movement. Sargsyan was elected to the Armenian parliament (the Supreme Council) in the May 1990 election. He served as the head of the Supreme Council Commission on Defense and Internal Affairs until December 1991. With his initiative, the Special Regiment was established in September 1990. Composed of 26 platoons and a total of 2,300 men, it was the first formal Armenian military unit independent from Moscow. It became the main base of the Armenian army in the following years.
thumb|left|Armenian soldiers in Karabakh, early 1990s.
By 1991, most Armenians from Azerbaijan and Azerbaijanis from Armenia were forced to move to their respective countries, as remaining in their homes became nearly impossible. Although Armenia had proclaimed its independence from the Soviet Union on 23 August 1990, it was not until on 21 September 1991, a month after the failed August Coup in Moscow, when the overwhelming majority of Armenians voted for the independence in a nationwide referendum. Levon Ter-Petrosyan, the leader of the Karabakh Committee and the head of the Supreme Council since 1990, was elected president of Armenia in October.
Active military involvement
Due to the fact that Sargsyan was popular among Armenian volunteer units and army officers, he was appointed the first Defense Minister of independent Armenia by President Ter-Petrosyan in December 1991. On 28 January 1992, the Armenian government passed the historical decree "On the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Armenia," which formally created the Armed Forces of Armenia. With the rise of hostilities in Nagorno-Karabakh, in March 1992, Sargsyan announced that Armenia needed a 30,000-strong army for maintaining security. On 9 May 1992, the Armenian forces recorded their first major military success in Nagorno-Karabakh with the capture of Shusha. Another significant victory for the Armenian forces was recorded weeks later with the capture of Lachin, which connects Armenia proper with Nagorno-Karabakh.
In summer 1992, the situation turned critical for the Armenian forces following the launch of Operation Goranboy, during which Azerbaijan took control of northern half of Nagorno-Karabakh. On 15 August 1992, Sargsyan called on Armenian men to gather and form a volunteer unit to fight against the advancing Azerbaijani forces in the northern parts of Nagorno-Karabakh. In a televised speech he stated:
The battalion Sargsyan called for, named "Artsiv mahapartner" («Արծիվ մահապարտներ», "Eagles Sentenced to Death"), was formed on 30 August 1992. Under the command of Major-General Astvatsatur Petrosyan, it defeated the Azerbaijani forces near the Gandzasar monastery and Chldran village in Martakert Province, on 31 August and 1 September 1992, respectively. According to the Armenian Defense Ministry, the battalion's activity stopped the advancement of the Azerbaijani forces and turned the course of the war in favor of the Armenian side in the part of the region.
Armenian military victory
thumb|upright=1.35|The 1994 ceasefire ended the First Nagorno-Karabakh War with the Armenian forces establishing de facto control on the disputed area
Between October 1992 and March 1993, Sargsyan served as the Presidential Adviser on Defence Affairs and the Presidential Envoy to Border Regions of Armenia. Subsequently, he was appointed the State Minister on Defence, Security and Internal Affairs. In these positions, Sargsyan had a major role in the advance of the Armenian army. With other key commanders, he regulated the operations to the Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh.According to Gurgen Dalibaltayan, the Chief of General Staff between 1991 and 1993. He was particularly active in unifying the various semi-independent detachments active in the war zone.According to Sasun Mikayelyan (hy), the commander of "Sasun" detachment. See: Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Political chaos in Azerbaijan and the demoralization of the Azerbaijani army resulted in the Armenian forces taking control over the territories outside of the original Soviet-drawn borders of Nagorno-Karabakh. In 1993, Sargsyan founded and led Yerkrapah, a union of 5,000 war veterans, that had a great influence in Armenia's domestic politics in the post-war years and became the main base for Vazgen Sargsyan to rise in power.
In early April 1993, the Armenian forces captured Kelbajar, a city outside the originally contested areas, causing international attention to the conflict. Turkey closed its border with Armenia, while the United Nations passed a resolution condemning the act. In the summer of 1993, Armenian forces gained more territories and, by August controlled Fizuli, Jebrail, and Zangelan. By early 1994, both countries were devastated by the war. On 5 May, the Bishkek Protocol was signed by the heads of the parliaments of Nagorno-Karabakh, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, backed by Armenia, established de facto control of these lands. Nagorno-Karabakh (also known as Artsakh to Armenians) remains internationally unrecognized and a de jure part of Azerbaijan. However, it is in de facto unified with Armenia.
Minister of Defence and president change
Sargsyan was appointed Minister of Defence by Ter-Petrosyan on 26 July 1995, during the restructuring of government ministries. He remained in that position for almost four years. The Armenian army was highly regarded by experts with Armenia being described as the only former Soviet state that "managed to build a combat-capable army from scratch" and was "comparable in efficiency to the Soviet Army". According to Thomas de Waal, the army was "the most powerful institution" in Armenia under him. Sargsyan is credited with substantially professionalizing the Armenian army.
Sargsyan showed strong confidence in the army and stated in 1997 that its strength has doubled in the past two years. In the same year, in response to Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev's statements that Azerbaijan was "ready to solve the Karabakh problem by force," Sargsyan replied, "Let him do it. We are ready." Sargsyan's term as Minister of Defence was marked by cooperation with Russia and Greece. Sargsyan had "close connections" with the Russian military elite, especially Defense Minister Pavel Grachev. According to the Jamestown Foundation, he pursued a military diplomacy with Greece, Cyprus, Syria, Iran and Bulgaria for a pro-Russian alliance.
A 'power minister': 1995-96 elections
thumb|The Armenian Armed Forces headed by Vazgen Sargsyan significantly influenced the outcome of four elections from 1995 to 1999.
Sargsyan became a key figure in post-war Armenia due to the fact that he was indisputably supported by the army, the only well established institution in Armenia. He was described as an éminence grise of the Armenian politics, deciding many personnel appointments and dismissals. In the aftermath of the war, which was accompanied by a harsh economic crisis in Armenia, President Ter-Petrosyan became unpopular. His authoritarian rule, the banning of the major opposition party Armenian Revolutionary Federation in 1994 and the arrest of its leaders, made him highly dependent on the "power structures," which included the ministries of defence (headed by Sargsyan), interior (Vano Siradeghyan) and national security (Serzh Sargsyan). In July 1995, Vazgen Sargsyan helped Ter-Petrosyan's Pan-Armenian National Movement (PANM) win the parliamentary election and pass the constitutional referendum that gave the president more powers in appointing and dismissing key judicial and legislative officials. They were marred with major electoral violations.
Sargsyan's impact on Ter-Petrosyan's presidency became more evident during the 1996 presidential election and the subsequent developments. A few days before the election, Sargsyan stated his support for Ter-Petrosyan, stating that Armenia "will enter the 21st century victoriously and stable with Ter-Petrosyan [as president]". According to the Caucasian Regional Studies, Sargsyan "turned off the voters" from Ter-Petrosyan and caused "irritation and antipathy" in 28.6% of the people according to a poll. The election, held on 22 September, was largely criticized by observation and monitoring organizations, that found "serious violations of the election law".
Official results, which recorded Ter-Petrosyan's victory in the first round with just above 50% of the total vote in his favor, were denounced by opposition candidate Vazgen Manukyan who had officially received 41% of the vote. Manukyan began demonstrations claiming electoral fraud by Ter-Petrosyan's supporters. The protests culminated on 25 September, when Manukyan led thousands of his supporters to the parliament building on Baghramyan Avenue, where the Electoral Commission was located at the time. Later during the day, the protesters broke the fence surrounding the parliament and entered the building. They beat up the parliament speaker Babken Ararktsyan and vice-speaker Ara Sahakyan. In response, Vazgen Sargsyan stated that "even if they [the opposition] win 100 percent of the votes, neither the Army nor the National Security and Interior Ministry would recognize such political leaders." He was later criticized by human rights organizations for this statement. State security forces, tanks and troops were deployed in Yerevan to restore order and to enforce the ban on rallies and demonstrations on 26 September. Sargsyan and National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan announced that their respective agencies had prevented an attempted coup d'état.
According to Astourian, in the crackdown Vazgen Sargsyan "intervened with an armed detachment and ordered the soldiers and the police to shoot at the legs of the demonstrators. Sargsian himself actually participated in the shooting." According to Freedom House, Sargsyan was allegedly involved in beating and seriously injuring Ruben (Rubik) Hakobyan, an MP from the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), after he was arrested during the demonstrations.
Leadership split: Ter-Petrosyan's resignation
In 1997, the OSCE Minsk Group, co-chaired by Russia, the United States and France, pressured Armenia and Azerbaijan to agree on the final status of Nagorno-Karabakh. In September, Ter-Petrosyan stated his support of the "step-by-step" proposal, which included the return of the territories outside the NKAO borders. Ter-Petrosyan argued the normalization of relations with Azerbaijan and, therefore, the opening of the border with Turkey was the only way to significantly improve Armenia's economy. After the plan was publicized, he came up against strong opposition. The issue was "important to the Armenians because of historical and psychological factors. After having been losing territories for centuries, the Armenians are reluctant to 'lose' Karabakh now that they have won a war against Azerbaijan." According to political scientist Vicken Cheterian, "By calling for major concessions on Karabakh, Ter-Petrosyan was antagonizing the last forces that supported his rule, the army and the Karabakh elite, at a time when his popularity within the Armenian society was at its lowest."
The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic leadership, the Armenian intelligentsia and the diaspora, the opposition also expressed their opposition to the president’'s support for the proposed settlement plan. Vazgen Sargsyan, who quickly denounced the proposal, became the de facto leader of the opposing group within the government. He was joined by the two Karabakh Armenians in the government: Prime Minister Kocharyan and Interior and National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan. These three politicians were referred to as "hardliners" in the Western media for their perceived nationalistic stance. They argued that "Armenia should try to improve its economic performance," while Ter-Petrosyan insisted that Armenia "could only achieve marginal improvements insufficient to address the fear of relative decline and economic exclusion". The Kocharyan cabinet, where Vazgen Sargsyan was a leading figure, called for a "package" deal, "involving a single framework accord on all contentious issues". On 21 October 1997, ten members of the Republic bloc in the parliament left the faction and shifted their support to Vazgen Sargsyan. Ter-Petrosyan's bloc in the parliament was left with a majority of two seats. Despite the great public and political opposition, the Pan-Armenian National Movement voted in favor of Ter-Petrosyan's foreign policy.
thumb|upright=0.8|left|Vazgen Sargsyan and other "hard-liners" forced President Levon Ter-Petrosyan to resign in 1998.
During the National Security Council meeting on 7-8 January 1998 it became clear that Ter-Petrosyan did not have enough support to continue his reign as president. On 23 January 1998, during the peak of the crisis, Vazgen Sargsyan declared his unconditional support to Robert Kocharyan, and blamed the Pan-Armenian National Movement for trying to destabilize Armenia. Sargsyan also guaranteed that the Armenian army "will not intervene in the political struggle".
Ter-Petrosyan announced his resignation on 3 February 1998. According to Michael P. Croissant, it was Vazgen Sargsyan who "played ultimately the principal role in inducting the president's resignation". In his resignation statement, Ter-Petrosyan referred to Vazgen Sargsyan, Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan as "the well known body of power". He cited the threat of destabilization of the country as the reason of his resignation. Ter-Petrosyan's resignation was followed by the resignation of National Assembly speaker Babken Ararktsyan, his two deputies, Mayor of Yerevan Vano Siradeghyan, Foreign Affairs Minister Alexander Arzoumanian and others. A significant change occurred in the National Assembly. Dozens of members of the parliamentary faction called the Republican Bloc (mostly made up of Ter-Petrosyan's Pan-Armenian National Movement) joined Vazgen Sargsyan's Yerkrapah bloc, making it the largest parliamentary bloc, with 69 members compared to only 56 for the Republic.
After Ter-Petrosyan's resignation, Prime Minister Kocharyan became acting president. On 5 February 1998, Sargsyan denied the claims of a coup d'état and said that Ter-Petrosyan's resignation was "rather sad but natural". Sargsyan claimed that the president's move surprised him and that he had "been seeking common grounds with the president for the past three months". He added, "the only step I achieved on the Karabakh issue was the suggestion that the situation be frozen." Almost a year after Ter-Petrosyan's resignation, Vazgen Sargsyan stated at the Republican Party convention that he "respects and appreciates" Ter-Petrosyan and described him as a "wise and a moral man and politician". Sargsyan insisted that the question of "political responsibility" was the main reason behind his resignation, and stated that if Ter-Petrosyan had decided not to resign, "no one could have removed him" and that Sargsyan would have resigned as defence minister instead. Commenting on the circumstances of his resignation in 2021, Ter-Petrosyan insisted that Vazgen Sargsyan and Kocharyan were "ready for civil war" if he did not resign.
1998 election: Kocharyan as president
thumb|upright=0.8|With the support of Vazgen Sargsyan, Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan was elected president in 1998.
Sargsyan (along with Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan) openly supported Kocharyan and used his influence for his election in March. He called Kocharyan a "man of unity of word and action" and stated that his experience in Karabakh and Armenia "shows that he is capable of solving economic problems also". Kocharyan's main opponent was Karen Demirchyan, the leader of Soviet Armenia from 1974 to 1988. Sargsyan praised Kocharyan for being part of the "struggle of the Armenian people" and criticized Demirchyan for not being part of it.
No candidate gained more than half of the votes in the first round, while in the second round of the election, held on 30 March, Kocharyan won 58.9% of the vote. The British Helsinki Human Rights Group suggests that "ordinary Armenians turned to Robert Kocharian as someone untainted by mafia connections and the intrigues of Yerevan politics." The OSCE observation mission described the first round as "deeply flawed," while their final report stated that the mission found "serious flaws" and that the election did not meet the OSCE standards. Although Demirchyan didn't officially dispute the election results, he never accepted them and did not congratulate Kocharyan. After the election, however, Sargsyan suggested Kocharyan appoint Demirchyan prime minister to decrease the tensions in the political scene.
Even after becoming president, Kocharyan did not have any significant institutional support (e.g. a party, control of the army, a source of money) and remained "in a fundamental sense an outsider in Yerevan". Kocharyan had a more tough position on the Karabakh settlement issue than Ter-Petrosyan. He also urged the international community to recognize the Armenian genocide, something on which his predecessor did not place importance. In response, Turkey and Azerbaijan tightened their cooperation in isolating Armenia from regional projects. Kocharyan did not put pressure on the Nagorno-Karabakh leadership to concede territory to Azerbaijan. He was supported by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, which was allowed to actively operate after Ter-Petrosyan's resignation a month before the election.
Rise in power
Politicization of Yerkrapah
By 1998 Vazgen Sargsyan became "the power behind the throne" as the Yerkrapah faction—made up of war veterans loyal to him—was the single largest faction in the Armenian parliament following Ter-Petrosyan's resignation in February 1998.
Yerkrapah was merged with the Republican Party of Armenia—a minor party with an ideology similar to that of Yerkrapah—in summer 1998, taking the party's name and its legal status. Though Sargsyan was not the chairman of the Republican Party, he was considered its unofficial leader.
The relations between Sargsyan and Kocharyan deteriorated after the presidential election with Sargsyan "casting around for partners unconnected with or downright opposed to the president". Within several months three assassinations of top officials took place that spread rumors in Armenia that relations between Sargsyan and Kocharyan were "not normal". In August 1998 Armenia's Prosecutor-General Henrik Khachatryan, a close friend of Kocharyan, was murdered in his office "in murky circumstances". In December 1998 Deputy Minister of Defence Vahram Khorkhoruni was murdered "for equally mysterious motives", while in February 1999 Deputy Minister of the Interior Artsrun Margaryan was murdered. Vazgen Sargsyan and National Security and Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan, Kocharyan's close ally, were "also perceived to be at odds".
Alliance with Demirchyan
It was initially announced that the Republican Party would go to the parliamentary election alone and would seek "qualitative majority" in the parliament, and that their goal was the fairness of the electoral process. Surprisingly for many, on 30 March 1999, Vazgen Sargsyan and the runner-up of the 1998 presidential election and Armenia's ex-communist leader Karen Demirchyan issued a joint announcement that they were forming an alliance between the People's Party of Armenia and the Republican Party. It came to be known as the Unity bloc («Միասնություն» դաշինք), often referred to as Miasnutyun. Vazgen Sargsyan claimed the bloc was a "genuine" alliance and that the two parties had come together to lead Armenia "from a turning point to progress". When asked about the reasons why he joined Demirchyan, Sargsyan said that, "there is no other way out." According to the U.S. Helsinki Commission, Sargsyan "obviously concluded it was better to have the popular Demirchyan as an ally than an opponent," and that "in forming Unity bloc, Sargsyan and Demirchyan overcame whatever ideological differences they may have had, and said they had joined forces to overcome the difficult problems facing Armenia while promoting tolerance in the country's political life." In analyst Richard Giragosian's words, the bloc was "an odd mix," however he admitted that it "effectively marginalized the electoral threat" of other parties. Sociologist Levon Baghdasaryan described it as "unification of the new and old nomenklaturas". The British Helsinki Human Rights Group wrote of the Unity bloc that it "aimed to appeal to the electorate by being all things to all men". The ODIHR suggested that the "alliance was not only created for electoral purposes, but that a strategic political agreement had been reached while overcoming ideological differences".
1999 parliamentary election
thumb|upright=1.15|Karen Demirchyan (left) and Vazgen Sargsyan (right) during the election campaign of the Unity bloc in May 1999.
During the campaign, Sargsyan pledged that he would spare no effort to make sure the elections were free and fair. Sargsyan and Demirchyan put the emphasis of their campaign on the economy and the improvement of the life of ordinary Armenians. Talking about Yerkrapah—now politically transformed into the Republican Party—Sargsyan said he was confident "that the people that gained victory on the battlefield will also gain victory in economy". He expressed his optimism saying that they were sure that they "will jointly change something and find the right course". The Unity bloc "called broadly for a democratic society, rule of law, economic reforms and a market economy, with the state also creating conditions for the normal functioning of state enterprises and ensuring decent living standards for all". Throughout the campaign, the Unity bloc was widely considered the favorite of the election. Opposition newspaper Hayots ashkhar suggested that most other political parties in Armenia were gravitating towards the opposite pole, around Kocharyan, National Security & Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan, and the leadership of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic.
The parliamentary election took place on 30 May 1999, just two months after Sargsyan's and Demirchyan's announcement about their decision to form an alliance. The Unity bloc won over 41.5% of the popular vote, and took 62 of the 131 seats in the National Assembly. and Giragosian, 1999, p. 2 indicate 62 as the number of seats won by the Unity bloc. Other sources indicate different numbers of seats won by the Unity bloc: 55 seats (Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia: 2003, 2002, p. 79-80; Day, A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe, 2002, p. 468), 57 seats () or 61 seats (Usher, The Fate of Small Nations: The Karabagh Conflict Ten Years Later, 1999) The alliance established an effective majority with cooperating with a group of 25 independent and officially non-affiliated members of the parliament, sympathetic to the Sargsyan-Demirchyan coalition. The electoral process "generally showed an improvement over the [previous] flawed elections, but ODIHR said they were "not an adequate basis for comparison". ODIHR's final report described the election as "a step towards compliance with OSCE Commitments" and claimed that, along with improvements to the electoral framework and the political environment, serious issues remained. The Council of Europe also suggested "considerable improvement" from the past elections. The National Democratic Institute report was more critical, saying it "failed to meet international standards" and that it proved to be the continuation of the flawed 1995 parliamentary elections, differing only in "the methods and types of manipulation".
Prime Minister
At the Republican Party convention in January 1999. Sargsyan stated his desire in remaining in the position of Minister of Defence. After the election speculations arose about Sargsyan wanting to combine the positions of Defence Minister and Prime Minister, however, this was impossible according to the Armenian constitution. On 11 June 1999 he became Prime Minister of Armenia, while Unity bloc co-chairman Karen Demirchyan was elected speaker of the National Assembly.
Many experts suggest that Sargsyan as prime minister was the most powerful politician in Armenia, while others suggest that he had become Armenia's strongest politician long before that. According to Mark Grigorian, his "activities had began to overshadow" Kocharyan. Despite Kocharyan's formal welcome of their alliance, the president was "effectively weakened" and "was being sidelined". Some political analysts suggested that the Sargsyan-Demirchyan alliance "ultimately would bring about the resignation of Kocharyan". Vazgen Manukyan stated that Kocharyan "would end up like the "Queen of England". Despite no longer being the Minister of Defence, Vazgen Sargsyan remained the de facto leader of the army, as a close ally, Vagharshak Harutiunyan, replaced him.
According to Styopa Safaryan, an analyst and former member of the Armenian parliament, despite his mixed legacy, under Vazgen Sargsyan Armenia became increasingly independent.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Economic policy
At the time of Sargsyan's Prime Ministry, Armenia had not yet recovered from the economic effects of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the energy crisis in Armenia during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. One of the major issues Sargsyan faces was mass emigration from Armenia, which started at the period of the decline of the Soviet regime. The 1998 Russian financial crisis worsened the situation, and showed a decline in human development.
In his first address to the parliament as prime minister on 18 June, Sarsgyan described Armenia's economic situation as "grave." The budget revenues were almost 20% lower than the government had planned, because of the low level of tax collection and the high level of corruption in the Armenian economy. Although Sargsyan criticized the post-Soviet privatization by the Ter-Petrosyan government, he admitted Armenia had no alternative, and that his government had an enormous amount of work to do. In his speech on 28 July, Sargsyan described the economic situation in Armenia as "extremely difficult, but not hopeless". According to him, the first half of 1999 saw $61 million less in the budged revenues than planned by the Darbinyan government. He said that tax evasion played a role in the budget deficit.
Despite being criticized by the opposition, especially the National Democratic Union, the Unity bloc voted in favor (96 of the 131 MPs) of the austerity measures of the Sargsyan cabinet on 28 August, allowing Armenia to take loans from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The World Bank alone had loaned almost $0.5 billion to Armenia since 1992 to finance the budget deficits. The Sargsyan cabinet wanted to diversify $32 million in the budget funds to be able to repay the internal debts. For this purpose, the excise tax was raised on cigarettes by 200% and on gasoline by 45%, seriously hitting the middle class. Sargsyan described these as "painful but right steps" for getting the necessary amount of money from the foreign lenders. He pledged a "tougher crackdown on the shadow economy and more efficient governance". National Assembly Speaker Karen Demirchyan called for a greater role of the state in the economy to ensure stability, while President Kocharyan was mostly uninvolved in these developments.
Notable events
During his Prime Ministry, Sargsyan helped to organize three major events. On 28 August 1999, the first Pan-Armenian Games began in Yerevan. Over 1,400 Armenian athletes from 23 countries participated in the games. The closing ceremony took place in the Yerevan Sports and Concerts Complex on 5 September, with President Robert Kocharyan and Vazgen Sargsyan in attendance. Just after the Games, which involved thousands of diaspora Armenian youth, the preparations for the eighth anniversary of Armenia's independence began.
On 21 September, the anniversary of the day in 1991 when Armenians voted in favor of leaving the Soviet Union in a referendum, a military parade was held in Yerevan's Republic Square. Vazgen Sargsyan "was visibly the most excited of the government leaders standing on a specially built pedestal". In a short briefing after the parade, Sargsyan enthusiastically stated that he had "touched almost every piece of hardware you've just seen" and continued that he "just wanted to show it" to the Armenian people.
During the next two days, on 22 and 23 September 1999, the first Armenia-Diaspora Conference was held in Yerevan. The conference brought together the Armenian political elite and many diaspora organizations, political parties, religious leaders, writers and over 1,200 representatives of Armenian communities from 53 countries, an unprecedented number. Vazgen Sargsyan opened the second day of the conference with his speech-report about the economic and social situation in Armenia. The conference was closed by Sargsyan.
Assassination
Shooting and funeral
thumb|upright=1.35|The building of the National Assembly of Armenia
On 27 October 1999, at around 5:15 pm, five assailants—Nairi Hunanyan, his brother Karen, their uncle Vram and two others—armed with Kalashnikov rifles hidden under long coats, broke into the National Assembly building in Yerevan, while the government was holding a question-and-answer session. They shot dead Vazgen Sargsyan, National Assembly Speaker Karen Demirchyan, Deputy National Assembly Speakers Yuri Bakhshyan and Ruben Miroyan, Minister of Urgent Affairs Leonard Petrosyan, and Parliament Members Henrik Abrahamyan, Armenak Armenakyan and Mikayel Kotanyan. The gunmen injured at least 30 people in the parliament. The group claimed they were carrying out a coup d'état. They described their act as "patriotic" and "needed for the nation to regain its senses". They said they wanted to "punish the authorities for what they do to the nation" and described the government as profiteers "sucking the blood of the people". They claimed Armenia was in a "catastrophic situation" and that "corrupt officials" were not doing anything to provide the way out. Vazgen Sargsyan was the main target of the group and the other deaths were said to be unintended. According to reporters who witnessed the shooting, the men went up to Sargsyan and said, "Enough of drinking our blood," to which Sargsyan calmly responded, "Everything is being done for you and the future of your children." Vazgen Sargsyan was hit several times. Anna Israelyan, an eyewitness journalist, stated that "the first shots were fired directly at Vazgen Sargsyan at a distance of one to two meters" and, in her words, "it was impossible that he would have survived." Sargsyan's body was taken out of the parliament building on the evening of 27 October.
With policemen, army troops, armed with APCs surrounding the building. President Kocharyan gave a speech on TV, announcing that the situation was under control. The gunmen released the hostages after overnight negotiations with President Kocharyan and gave themselves up on the morning of 28 October, after a standoff that lasted 17-18 hours.
On 28 October, President Kocharyan declared a three-day mourning period. The state funeral ceremony for the victims of the parliament shooting took place from 30 to 31 October 1999. The bodies of the victims, including Vazgen Sargsyan, were placed inside the Yerevan Opera Theater. A number of high-ranking officials from some 30 countries, including Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and the Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze, attended the funeral. Karekin II, the Catholicos of All Armenians and Aram I, the Catholicos of the Holy See of Cilicia gave prayers.
Investigation and conspiracy theories
The five men were charged with terrorism aimed at undermining authority on 29 October. The investigation was led by Gagik Jhangiryan, the chief military prosecutor of Armenia, who claimed his team was looking for the masterminds of the shooting even after the trial had begun. According to Jhangiryan, the investigating team considered more than a dozen theories. By January 2000, Jhangiryan's investigators considered the connection of Kocharyan and his circle to the parliament shooting. Several figures close to Kocharyan were arrested, including Aleksan Harutiunyan, the deputy presidential adviser, and Harutiun Harutiunyan, the deputy director of the Public Television of Armenia, but they were released by the summer of that year. Eventually, Jhangiryan failed to find evidence linking Kocharyan to the shooting. The trial began in February 2001 and eventually, the five main perpetrators of the shooting (Nairi Hunanyan, his younger brother Karen Hunanyan, their uncle Vram Galstyan, Derenik Ejanyan and Eduard Grigoryan) were sentenced to life in prison on 2 December 2003.
thumb|upright=0.8|left|Armenia's former president Serzh Sargsyan was the National Security Minister at the time of the shooting.
A number of conspiracy theories developed about possible motives and architects behind the attack. Stepan Demirchyan, Karen Demirchyan's son, stated in 2009 that "nothing was done by the authorities to prevent that crime and, conversely, everything was done to cover up the crime." In March 2013, Vazgen Sargsyan's younger brother Aram stated he had many questions for both governments of Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan. He claimed the judicial process of 27 October had "deepened the public distrust in the authorities... [as] many questions remain unanswered today". According to him, the full disclosure of the shooting is "vital" for Armenia. Sargsyan insisted that he "never accused this or the former authorities of being responsible for 27 October. I have accused them of not fully disclosing the 27 October event." In an April 2013 interview, Karen Demirchyan's widow, Rita, suggested the shooting was ordered from outside Armenia and was not an attempt at a coup, but rather an assassination.
Although the investigation did not find any considerable evidence linking Kocharyan to the Hunanyan group, many Armenian politicians and analysts believe that President Robert Kocharyan and National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan were behind the assassination of Vazgen Sargsyan and other leading politicians. Former mayor of Yerevan Albert Bazeyan stated in 2002 that "We have come to the conclusion that the crime was aimed at making Robert Kocharian's power unlimited and uncontrolled. By physically eliminating Karen Demirchyan and Vazgen Sargsyan, its organizers wanted to create prerequisites for Kocharyan's victory in the future presidential elections." Levon Ter-Petrosyan accused Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan and their "criminal-oligarchic" system of being the real perpetrators of the parliament shooting. Nairi Hunanyan, the leader of the armed group, was a former member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, Dashnaktsutyun). According to the ARF, Hunanyan was expelled from the party in 1992 for misconduct and had not been in any association with the ARF since then. Some speculations have been made about the involvement of the ARF in the shootings. In 2000, Ashot Manucharyan stated he was worried that "a number of Dashnaktsutyun party leaders are acting in the interest of the American foreign policy."
Allegations of foreign involvement
Some analysts have suggested that foreign powers, including Russia, may have been behind the shooting. They pointed out the fact that Armenia and Azerbaijan were close in signing some kind of an agreement at the OSCE 1999 Istanbul summit over Karabakh, something not in Russia's interest.
Russian secret service defector Alexander Litvinenko accused the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation of having organised the Armenian parliament shooting, ostensibly to derail the peace process, which would have resolved the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, but he offered no evidence to support the accusation. ( on 11 May 2013) Russian and Armenian officials denied this claims.
The French-based Armenian political refugee and former Apostolic priest Artsruni Avetisysan (also known by his religious name Ter Girgor) gave an interview to Armenian media network A1plus, in which he claimed the Russian secret services were behind the 27 October 1999, shooting. He also claimed the shooting was perpetrated by Lieutenant General Vahan Shirkhanyan, the Deputy Minister of Defense from 1992 to 1999, and the National Security Minister Serzh Sargsyan. He insisted the shooting was assisted by the Russian secret services to bring the "Neo-Bolshevik criminal clan" of Serzh Sargsyan and Robert Kocharyan into power.
Others suggested that it was in the best interest of the West to remove Sargsyan and Demirchyan from the political scene, as they had close ties to Russia. Ashot Manucharyan, one of the leading members of the Karabakh Committee, the former Minister of Internal Affairs and Ter-Petrosyan's National Security Adviser and his close ally until 1993, stated in October 2000 that Armenian officials were warned by a foreign country about the shootings. He also declared that "Western special services" were involved in 27 October events. In Manucharyan's words, "the special services of the U.S. and France are acting to destroy Armenia and, in this context, they are much likely to be involved in the realization of the terrorist acts in Armenia." Manucharyan claimed the shooting was planned by Kocharyan to get rid of his two major rivals (Sargsyan and Demirchyan), who were against the Goble plan, involving territorial concessions to Azerbaijan.
Aftermath
Just after the shooting, the Interior and National Security Ministers Suren Abrahamyan and Serzh Sargsyan resigned as a result of pressure from the Defence Ministry, led by Sargsyan's ally, Vagharshak Harutiunyan at the time. From early June to late October 1999, the political system in Armenia was based on the Demirchyan-Sargsyan tandem, which controlled the military, the legislative and the executive branches. The assassinations disrupted the political balance in the country and the political arena of Armenia was left in disarray for months. The "de facto dual command" of Sargsyan and Demirchyan was transferred to President Robert Kocharyan. James R. Hughes claims that the so-called "Karabakh clan" (i.e. Robert Kocharyan and Serzh Sargsyan) was "kept in check" by Vazgen Sargsyan and his "military-security apparatus," while after the parliament shooting it came to be the sole influential group able to successfully take over the political scene in Armenia. Since the leaders of the Unity bloc were assassinated, the two parties in the alliance (the Republican Party of Armenia and the People's Party of Armenia) gradually ceased collaborating and by late 2000, the Unity bloc collapsed. Yerkrapah, the Republican Party, and the People's Party effectively lost their influence by 2001.
Personal life and brothers
Sargsyan never married. According to Razmik Martirosyan, a friend and the Minister of Social Security from 1999 to 2003, Sargsyan promised in December 1987 that he would marry sometime before 8 March of the next year, but did not because the Karabakh movement started in February. In a 1997 interview, Sargsyan revealed that his favorite historical military figure was Charles de Gaulle. When asked about what kind of Armenia he would like to see in five years, he said "an independent, self-sufficient country with strong culture, school and army".
thumb|Aram Sargsyan, Vazgen Sargsyan's brother
Sargsyan had two younger brothers, Aram and Armen. Aram was appointed Prime Minister by President Kocharyan on 3 November 1999, a week after Vazgen Sargsyan's death, largely as a "political gesture". He admitted that Armenia has "no concept of state security" and that fact led to the assassination of his brother. Aram Sargsyan served in the position of the Prime Minister for only six months. He was dismissed by Kocharyan on 2 May 2000, due to "inability to work" with Sargsyan's cabinet. In his television statement, Kocharyan claimed that he relieved Aram Sargsyan to end the "disarray" in the Armenian leadership. Kocharyan blamed him for being involved in "political games".
Aram Sargsyan founded the Hanrapetutyun Party in April 2001, along with several influential Yerkrapah members, such as the former Mayor of Yerevan Albert Bazeyan and former Defence Minister Vagharshak Harutyunyan. Its co-founder Bazeyan stated that the party is the "bearer of the political heritage of Vazgen Sargsian and will try to realize the programs aborted by the October 27 crime and its consequences". The party backed up Stepan Demirchyan against Kocharyan in 2003 and Levon Ter-Petrosyan against Serzh Sargsyan in the 2008 presidential elections. In a 2013 interview, Aram Sargsyan talked about the past 14 years after his brother's death:
Vazgen Sargsyan's other brother, Armen, supported Serzh Sargsyan in the 2013 presidential election. On 5 March 2013, Aram Sargsyan was asked about his brother Armen's political stance, to which he responded, "I would very much like to ask Vazgen that question. I don't know what he would have answered. There are very few questions to which I don't know what Vazgen's answer would be. Unfortunately, our friends and relatives are not always the way we want them to be. I am not the first one, neither am I the last one; the history of the world is full of such examples starting from the Bible."
Legacy and tribute
thumb|left|Vazgen Sargsyan's memorial in Yerablur
thumb|Statue of Sargsyan in Yerevan
Vazgen Sargsyan was awarded the title Hero of Artsakh, the highest award of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, in 1998. On 27 December 1999, two months after the parliament shooting, Sargsyan was posthumously given the title National Hero of Armenia. He widely is recognized as the founder of the Armenian army.
A presidential decree issued on 28 December 1999 renamed the Yerevan Military Academy to the Vazgen Sargsyan Military University in his honor. The Republican Stadium in Yerevan was named after Vazgen Sargsyan by the same decree. The 8th Separate Motorized Rifle Brigade of the Artsakh Defence Army is named after him. Numerous streets in Armenia and Karabakh, including one in Yerevan's Kentron (Central) district and in Stepanakert, and a park in Kapan are named after Sargsyan. Statues or busts have been erected in his honor in Yerevan (2007), Ararat (2009), Vanadzor, Kapan (2015), Vagharshapat (Ejmiatsin, 2015), Shusha (Shushi) and other locations. In 2000, 27 October was declared a day of remembrance by the Armenian government. In 2002, the Armenian Defence Ministry created the Medal of Vazgen Sargsyan, which is awarded for "meritorious services towards military education and improvements in service life".
thumb|Sargsyan's Museum in Ararat
Every year, on 5 March (his birthday) and 27 October (the day of his assassination), Sargsyan is commemorated in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. His comrades from the Yerkrapah Volunteer Union, high state officials and many others visit the Yerablur cemetery, where Sargsyan is buried next to many Armenian military figures.
Vazgen Sargsyan's museum was opened in his hometown of Ararat on 5 March 2001 by the decision made by the Armenian government. Notable attendees of the opening ceremony of the museum included Prime Minister Andranik Margaryan, National Assembly Speaker Armen Khachatryan, Defence Minister Serzh Sargsyan, and other high-ranking military and diplomatic representatives, such as the former Russian Minister of Defence Pavel Grachev, who revealed in his speech at the ceremony that Sargsyan was once his student.
Sargsyan is often referred to as Sparapet, a military rank that has existed since the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. The phrase "Սպարապետ Հայոց" Sparapet Hayots (literally meaning "Supreme Commander of the Armenians") is engraved on Sargsyan's memorial in Yerablur cemetery. The song "Sparapet" by Alla Levonyan is dedicated to his memory.
Public image and recognition
In Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh and, to a lesser extent, in the Armenian diaspora, Vazgen Sargsyan is recognized as a national hero. Several survey conducted by Gallup, Inc., International Republican Institute, and the Armenian Sociological Association from 2006 to 2008, revealed that Vazgen Sargsyan topped the list of national heroes in public perception, with 15%-20% of the respondents giving his name. He has often ranked third, behind 20th-century military commanders Andranik and Garegin Nzhdeh, in surveys about the greatest Armenian national heroes.
Sargsyan is widely considered a charismatic leader. He was generally perceived as a man of "tremendous power and charisma," known for his "brutality, temper, and nonchalant attitude toward the law".
thumb|left|Sargsyan on a 2000 post stamp
His contributions have been acknowledged by his colleagues and comrades. In 1997, President Ter-Petrosyan stated that Sargsyan is someone who deserves the title of National Hero of Armenia. He added that "if all members of our government worked as conscientiously and selflessly as Vazgen Sargsyan, we would live in a perfect state." Armenia's second president Robert Kocharyan said in his speech during Sargsyan's funeral, "history will provide its assessment of Vazgen Sargsyan as a politician who stood at the birth of the Armenian state. His role in the creation of the national army is beyond appraisal. By his life and commitment, Vazgen Sargsyan has made an immense contribution to the establishment of a powerful country." In 2007, giving a speech on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the Armenian Armed Forces, the Defence Minister Serzh Sargsyan (and the incumbent president) noted that he "was a valiant soldier dedicated to the cause of our statehood, and who revered the strength of Armenia and the strength of the Armenian soldier, and who had a staunch belief in our future success".
thumb|Sargsyan's statue in Shusha (Shushi), vandalized and destroyed after the 2020 war.
Manvel Grigoryan, leader of the Yerkrapah Volunteer Union, recognized Sargsyan's contributions, stating that Sargsyan "was a strong individual and his greatness was felt not only during the war, but during the nation-building years after the war". According to Grigoryan "his presence was enough for the foreign leaders to become vigilant." Dr. Ara Sanjian, the director of the Armenian Studies at the Haigazian University, wrote shortly after Sargsyan's assassination:
thumb|Vazgen Sargsyan Street in central Yerevan
In the West, Sargsyan was generally described as a hard nationalist. The British journalist Jonathan Steele wrote of Sargsyan as "a fierce nationalist who always preferred action and force to words and diplomacy". Encyclopædia Britannica describes Sargsyan as an "Armenian nationalist who devoted much of his life to the Armenian fight with Azerbaijan for control of the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave". Political scientist Razmik Panossian expressed the opinion that he was "the last significant nationalist politician whose commitment to Karabakh and Armenia was not doubted by anyone".
Criticism
Sargsyan was criticized for being undemocratic, particularly for using his influence in pre-determining the election results. The Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe suggested in 1999 that his "record does not inspire confidence in his commitment to democracy." The 2008 book Religious Freedom in the World described him as "thuggish" and held him responsible for the 1995 assaults on religious minorities in Armenia (especially those that discourage military service), carried out, allegedly, by Yerkrapah.
Thomas de Waal describes Sargsyan as an "emerging feudal baron." The Yerkrapah, founded by Sargsyan, "took over large areas of the economy." Astourian quoted David Petrosyan, a columnist for the Noyan Tapan news agency and a "thoughtful observer of Armenia's political life", as claiming that Sargsyan "controlled part of the local market in oil products, part of the incomes generated from transport junctions and the greater part of bread production." According to Philip Remler, Sargsyan was one of the prime beneficiaries of the illicit income from the Iran-Armenia border and the "godfather of cross-border trade and contraband".
See also
Military history of Armenia
Monte Melkonian
References
Bibliography
External links
Images
Vazgen Sargsya's pictures from early 1990s at ankakhutyun.am
Documentary videos
Films
by A1plus
by the Public Television of Armenia
by the Yerkrapah Volunteer Union
by Eduard Hambardzumyan, 2010
an excerpt from the news on 5 March 2013, by Shant TV
by Armenia TV, May 2013
Music
Category:1959 births
Category:1999 deaths
Category:People from Ararat, Armenia
Category:Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport alumni
Category:Armenian colonels
Category:Armenian military personnel of the Nagorno-Karabakh War
Category:Defence ministers of Armenia
Category:Prime Ministers of Armenia
Category:Republican Party of Armenia politicians
Category:Members of the National Assembly (Armenia)
Category:Armenian Apostolic Christians
Category:Armenian nationalists
Category:People murdered in Armenia
Category:Deaths by firearm in Armenia
Category:Assassinated Armenian politicians
Category:Assassinated heads of government
Category:Male murder victims
Category:Heroes of Artsakh
Category:National Hero of Armenia
Category:Burials at Yerablur
Category:Victims of the Armenian parliament shooting
Category:1990s murders in Armenia
Category:1999 crimes in Armenia
Category:1999 murders in Asia
Category:1999 murders in Europe
Category:1990s assassinated politicians | {"Name": "Vazgen Sargsyan", "Alternative text": "Vazgen Sargsyan", "Term start": "11 June 1999", "Term end": "27 October 1999", "President 2": "Levon Ter-Petrosyan", "Predecessor 2": "Drastamat Kanayan (1920)", "Successor 2": "Vazgen Manukyan", "Birth date": "y 1959 03 05", "Birth place": "Ararat, Armenian SSR, Soviet Union", "Death date": "y 1999 10 27 1959 03 05", "Death place": "Yerevan, Armenia", "Alma mater": "Yerevan Institute of Physical Culture", "Battles fought": "First Nagorno-Karabakh War", "Awards": "National Hero of Armenia Hero of Artsakh"} |
The Henschel Hs 117 Schmetterling (German for Butterfly) was a radio-guided German surface-to-air missile project developed during World War II. There was also an air-to-air version, the Hs 117H.
The operators used a telescopic sight and a joystick to guide the missile by radio control, which was detonated by acoustic and photoelectric proximity fuses, at .
Development
In 1941, Professor Herbert A. Wagner (who was previously responsible for the Henschel Hs 293 anti-ship missile) invented the Schmetterling missile and submitted it to the Reich Air Ministry (RLM), who rejected the design because there was no need for more anti-aircraft weaponry.
However, by 1943 the large-scale bombing of Germany caused the RLM to change its mind, and Henschel was given a contract to develop and manufacture it. The team was led by Professor Wagner, and it produced a weapon somewhat resembling a bottlenose dolphin with swept wings and cruciform tail.
In May 1944, 59 Hs 117 missiles were tested, some from beneath a Heinkel He 111; over half the trials failed. Mass production was ordered in December 1944, with deployment to start in March 1945. Operational missiles were to be launched from a 37mm gun carriage.
In January 1945, a prototype for mass production was completed, and production of 3,000 missiles a month was anticipated, but on 6 February, SS-Obergruppenführer Hans Kammler cancelled the project.
Variants
The Hs 117H was an air-launched variant, designed to be launched from a Dornier Do 217, Junkers Ju 188, or Junkers Ju 388. This version was designed to attack enemy aircraft up to above the launching aircraft.
See also
{{aircontent
|see also=
Henschel Hs 293
Wasserfall
Enzian
Rheintochter
|lists=
List of surface-to-air missiles
List of German guided weapons of World War II
}}
References
External links
Henschel Hs117 Schmettering (Butterfly) - Royal Air Force Museum, Cosford (UK)
German language page on the Hs 117 Schmetterling SAM missile
Category:World War II guided missiles of Germany
Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Germany | {"Place of origin": "Germany", "Type": "Surface-to-air (SAM) / Air-to-air (AAM) missile", "Blast yield": "y", "Transport": "y", "Designer": "Professor Herbert A. Wagner", "Designed": "1942-1943", "Manufacturer": "Henschel Flugzeugwerke", "Variants": "Hs 117M (air-to-air missile variant)", "Mass": "450 kg lb on,Christopher 2013 126 620 kg lb on with launch boostersJune 2014", "Length": "4200 mm in on", "Diameter": "350 mm in on", "Mainarmament": "25 kg lb on High explosive", "Operationalrange": "32 km smi nmi on", "Guidancesystem": "MCLOS; visual guidance by telescope, radio controls; two-man crewChristopher 2013 126", "Wingspan": "2000 mm in on", "Propellant": "Tonka-250 (50% triethylamine and 50% xylidine) fuel, with SV-Stoff (nitric acid) oxidiserChristopher 2013 126", "Flight altitude": "6000 - 9000 m onChristopher 2013 126", "Boost time": "2x Schmidding 109-553 Ethylene glycol solid fuel boosters, giving total 17.1 kN lbf on thrust for 4 sec."} |
Robert Sedraki Kocharyan ( ; born 31 August 1954) is an Armenian politician. He served as the President of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic from 1994 to 1997 and Prime Minister of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1992 to 1994. He served as the second President of Armenia between 1998 and 2008 and as Prime Minister of Armenia from 1997 to 1998.
Kocharyan was elected president of Armenia twice, in 1998 and 2003; both presidential elections were held in two rounds. During most of his presidency, between 2001 and 2007, Armenia's economy grew on average by 12% annually, largely due to a construction boom. While Kocharyan's supporters credit him with securing Armenia's economic growth during his presidency, his critics accuse him of promoting corruption and the creation of an oligarchic system of government in Armenia.
On July 26, 2018 Kocharyan was charged in connection with the crackdown on the 2008 Armenian presidential election protests in the final weeks of his presidency, which resulted in the deaths of ten people. Kocharyan's trial began on 13 May 2019. The trial ended in March 2021 after the Constitutional Court of Armenia declared unconstitutional the article of the criminal code under which Kocharyan was being tried.
Kocharyan returned to active participation in Armenian politics following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. He participated in the 2021 Armenian parliamentary election as the head of the Armenia Alliance with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and the Reborn Armenia party, which came in second place after Nikol Pashinyan's Civil Contract party and entered parliament as the opposition.
Early life and Nagorno-Karabakh war
Robert Kocharyan was born on 31 August 1954 in Stepanakert, capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast. He received his secondary education in Stepanakert and served in the Soviet Army from 1972 to 1974. Kocharyan's career began as an engineer at Stepanakert's electro-technical plant in 1971. In 1982, he graduated with honors from the Electro-Technical Department of the Karl Marx Polytechnic Institute in Yerevan (now called the National Polytechnic University of Armenia).
Throughout the 1980s, he occupied various posts in Nagorno-Karabakh's communist youth league and party. At one point he served as deputy secretary of the Stepanakert Komsomol, which was headed by his later successor as president of Armenia Serzh Sargsyan. By February 1988, Kocharyan became one of the leaders of the Karabakh movement as a member of the Krunk ("Crane") organization. The Karabakh movement, which started in Nagorno-Karabakh then spread to Soviet Armenia, sought to achieve the transfer of the autonomous region from Azerbaijan to Armenia. After the organization broke apart, he founded the Miatsum ("Unification") organization. In 1989, he was elected to Soviet Armenia's Supreme Soviet. In 1991, Kocharyan was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the newly established Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR). Kocharyan became a member of the Pan-Armenian National Movement (then the ruling party of Armenia) and its executive board, representing the party in Nagorno-Karabakh. In January 1992, Kocharyan was a candidate for president of the Supreme Soviet of the NKR, but lost to Artur Mkrtchyan, a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict plunged into all-out war. Kocharyan participated in the Capture of Shushi in May 1992, one of the most significant Armenian victories of the war. In August 1992, Kocharyan became chairman of the State Defense Committee of the NKR, an extraordinary body which held all executive powers during the war. That year he also became prime minister of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Kocharyan coordinated the war effort of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic in its war against Azerbaijan, which ended in an Armenian victory with the signing of a ceasefire agreement in May 1994 by representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan and the NKR. Kocharyan was elected NKR's first president on 24 December 1994 by the decision of the NKR Supreme Soviet. He was reelected by popular vote in November 1996.
Prime Minister of Armenia
On 20 March 1997, Kocharyan left his post as President of the NKR when he was appointed Prime Minister of Armenia by President Levon Ter-Petrosyan. In February 1998, President Ter-Petrosyan was forced to step down by Kocharyan, Defense Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, and Interior Minister Serzh Sargsyan, who were opposed to Ter-Petrosyan's move to accept a peace plan for Karabakh put forward by international mediators in September 1997. The plan, accepted by Ter-Petrosyan and Azerbaijan, called for a "phased" settlement of the conflict which would postpone an agreement on Karabakh's status. The first phase of the agreement envisioned the return of most Armenian-controlled Azerbaijani territories around Karabakh in exchange for security guarantees, demilitarization of Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories, and the lifting of the Azerbaijani and Turkish blockades of Armenia.
President of Armenia
thumb|upright|Kocharyan in December 2001
After his predecessor Levon Ter-Petrosyan was ousted as President, Kocharyan was elected Armenia's second President on 30 March 1998, defeating his main rival, Karen Demirchyan (who was a former leader of Soviet Armenia), in an early presidential election marred by irregularities and violations by both sides as reported by international electoral observers. There were also complaints that Kocharyan was not eligible to run under the Armenian constitution, which required candidates to be an Armenian citizen and have resided in Armenia for ten years. Before he became prime minister, Kocharyan resided in and was considered a citizen of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Kocharyan was supported by Vazgen Sargsyan's Republican Party, as well as the banned Armenian Revolutionary Federation, which he relegalized early in his presidency.
After their coalition won a majority of seats in parliamentary elections in May 1999, Vazgen Sargsyan took the office of prime minister while Karen Demirchyan became speaker of the parliament. On 27 October 1999, Vazgen Sargsyan and Karen Demirchyan were killed along with six other government officials by five gunmen in an episode known as the 1999 Armenian parliament shooting. The attackers then took around fifty people hostage in the parliament building. Kocharyan himself negotiated with the terrorists to release the hostages and surrender to police. Kocharyan and his ally Serzh Sargsyan, who was minister of national security at the time of the shooting, have been suspected of covering up or even masterminding the attack in order to consolidate political power by their political opponents and some relatives and supporters of the assassinated officials. The possibility of Kocharyan's involvement in the events was considered during the investigation in 2000; although several individuals closed to Kocharyan were arrested, they were released months later, and no evidence was found implicating Kocharyan or anyone besides the five attackers in the shooting. Kocharyan's predecessor Levon Ter-Petrosyan repeatedly accused him and Serzh Sargsyan of being complicit in the 1999 shooting in his campaign speeches before the 2008 presidential election.
In 2001 Kocharyan was attending a jazz performance at Poplavok cafe in Yerevan, and was greeted by former classmate Poghos Poghosyan with the words "Hi Rob". The casualness of the greeting was taken as an insult, and Kocharyan's bodyguards took Poghosyan into the café toilet and killed him. The bodyguard, Aghamal Harutiunyan, received a one-year suspended jail term for the killing.
2003 election
The 2003 Armenian Presidential election was held on 19 February and 5 March 2003. No candidate received a majority in the first round of the election with the incumbent President Kocharyan winning slightly under 50% of the vote. Therefore, a second round was held and Kocharyan defeated Stepan Demirchyan (son of Karen Demirchyan) with official results showed him winning just over 67% of the vote.
Kocharyan's approval rating in IRI polls Date Favorable Unfavorable Nov 2006 33% 66% Mar 2007 40% 51% Jul 2007 42% 52% Sep 2007 42% 52% Oct 2007 49% 46% Dec 2007 53% 42% Jan 2008 48% 48%
In both rounds, electoral observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe reported significant amounts of electoral fraud by Demirchyan's supporters and numerous supporters of Demirchyan were arrested before the second round took place. Demirchyan described the election as having been rigged and called on his supporters to rally against the results. Tens of thousands of Armenians protested in the days after the election against the results and called on President Kocharyan to step down. However Kocharyan was sworn in for a second term in early April and the constitutional court upheld the election, while recommending that a referendum be held within a year to confirm the election result.
On April 14, 2004 Armenian poet Silva Kaputikyan wrote an open letter Kocharyan Must Go, where she protested Kocharyan's harsh methods towards the demonstrators on April 12-13, 2004. She also turned back Mesrop Mashtots Medal awarded by Kocharyan some years ago.Kocharyan Must Go by S. Kaputikyan//Shrjadardz Armenian Magazine, #2, 2004, p. 21
2008 election
A presidential election was held in Armenia on 19 February 2008. The incumbent President Kocharyan, who was ineligible for a third consecutive term,The Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (27 November 2005), Chapter 3: The President of the Republic, Article 50 backed the candidacy of Prime Minister of Armenia Serzh Sargsyan.Robert Kocharyan To Support Serzh Sargsyan, Panorama.am
Following the election result, protests organized by supporters of unsuccessful candidate Levon Ter-Petrosyan began in Yerevan's Freedom Square and accompanied by mass disorders. The opposition accused the government of rigging the election in Sargsyan's favor. On March 1, the demonstrators were dispersed by police and military forces. Ten people (eight protestors and two policemen) were killed during clashes between police and protestors, and President Kocharyan declared a 20-day state of emergency. This was followed by mass arrests and purges of prominent members of the opposition, as well as a de facto ban on any further anti-government protests."Armenia: Police Beat Peaceful Protesters in Yerevan", Human Rights Watch (NY), March 2, 2008.Ter-Petrosian ‘Under House Arrest,’ Rally Broken Up , Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, March 1, 2008.
Foreign policy
thumb|right|upright=1.25|Kocharyan with Russian President Vladimir Putin, March 2002
As President, Kocharyan continued to negotiate a peaceful resolution with Azerbaijani Presidents Heydar Aliyev and Ilham Aliyev on the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. Kocharyan was generally in favor of achieving a "package deal" settlement of the conflict, whereby all issues, including the final status of Nagorno-Karabakh would be resolved in one agreement, rather than a "phased" settlement whereby Armenian forces would withdraw from the territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh in exchange for security guarantees while Karabakh's status would be left for future negotiations. In October 1999, Kocharyan became the first President of Armenia to visit Azerbaijan, holding talks with Heydar Aliyev at the border of the two countries. Kocharyan and Heydar Aliyev reportedly came particularly close to an agreement during US-mediated negotiations at Key West in April 2001. In his memoirs, Kocharyan later claimed that Aliyev stood ready in his discussions to recognize Karabakh as a part of Armenia.
Talks between Kocharyan and Ilham Aliyev, Heydar Aliyev's son and successor, were held in September 2004 in Astana, Kazakhstan, on the sidelines of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) summit. Reportedly, one of the suggestions put forward was the withdrawal of Armenian forces from the Azeri territories adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh, and holding referendums (plebiscites) in Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan proper regarding the future status of the region. On 10-11 February 2006, Kocharyan and Aliyev met in Rambouillet, France to discuss the fundamental principles of a settlement to the conflict, including the withdrawal of troops, formation of international peacekeeping troops, and the status of Nagorno-Karabakh.
During the weeks and days before the talks in France, OSCE Minsk Group co-chairmen expressed cautious optimism that some form of an agreement was possible. French President Jacques Chirac met with both leaders separately and expressed hope that the talks would be fruitful. Contrary to the initial optimism, the Rambouillet talks did not produce any agreement, with key issues such as the status of Nagorno-Karabakh and whether Armenian troops would withdraw from Kalbajar still being contentious. The next session of the talks was held in March 2006 in Washington, D.C. Russian President, Vladimir Putin applied pressure to both parties to settle the disputes.Staff (23 February 2006) "Putin Going to Invite Kocharyan to Moscow to Discuss Karabakh Issue" YERKIR Armenian Online Newspaper Later in 2006 there was a meeting of the Armenian and Azerbaijani Presidents in Minsk on 28 November and ministerial meetings were held in Moscow. "These talks did not initiate any progress, but I hope that the time for a solution will come" said Peter Semneby, EU envoy for the South Caucasus.Staff (21 February 2007) "Peter Semneby: EU tries to create trust between Karabakh and Azerbaijan" More than 4 bln dollars were stolen by his clan in Armenia YERKIR Armenian Online Newspaper
In September 2006, in his congratulatory message(1 September 2006) "Congratulations on Independence Day" Azat Artsakh Newspaper on the occasion of 15th anniversary of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, Kocharyan said "The Karabakhi people made their historic choice, defended their national interests in the war that was forced upon them. Today, they are building a free and independent state." The accompanying message said that the duty of the Republic of Armenia and all Armenians is to contribute to the strengthening and development of Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as to the international recognition of the republic's independence.Staff (1 September 2006) "Robert Kocharyan: Nagorno Karabakh People Made Their Historical Choice, Protected Its National Interests in the Forced War. Today They Built Free and Independent State" ARMINFO News Agency
Post-presidency
Arrest
On 26 July 2018, the Special Investigative Service (SIS) of Armenia charged Kocharian with “overthrowing constitutional order of Armenia” during the final weeks of his presidency. The SIS asked a Yerevan court to remand him in pre-trial custody.
On 27 July 2018, he was arrested. On 13 August 2018, Kocharyan was freed from custody following a court ruling, but remained accused of the charges he was arrested for. On 7 December 2018, Kocharyan was arrested again following another ruling by the Court of Appeals.
In 2019, all Kocharyan's assets and property, other than his pension, were frozen by the court. On 18 May 2019, Kocharyan was freed on bail from pre-trial detention. On 25 June 2019, he was arrested for the third time. He was again released a year later, on 18 June 2020, on bail.
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and aftermath
During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Kocharyan met with fellow ex-presidents of Armenia Levon Ter-Petroysan and Serzh Sargsyan as well as ex-presidents of Nagorno-Karabakh Arkadi Ghukasyan and Bako Sahakyan to discuss the situation. In October 2020, Kocharyan and Ter-Petrosyan requested that Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan give them permission to go to Moscow as special negotiators. Pashinyan accepted their request to go to Moscow to meet with Russian officials, but not as official negotiators. The visit never occurred as Kocharyan tested positive for COVID-19.
After the defeat of the Armenian side in the war and the signing of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement, Kocharyan joined other ex-presidents and opposition politicians in calling for Nikol Pashinyan's resignation. He declared his support for Vazgen Manukyan, who was nominated by a coalition of 17 opposition parties, known as the Homeland Salvation Movement (which includes the Republican Party), to lead an interim national unity government. In January 2021, Kocharyan declared his intention to participate in the next elections.
In March 2021, the Constitutional Court of Armenia ruled that criminal case against Kocharyan must be dropped as the article of the Criminal Code under which he is being prosecuted (Article 300.1) runs counter to two articles of the country's constitution. This ruling cannot be overturned.
On 7 May 2021, Kocharian confirmed his intention to participate in the June 2021 snap parliamentary elections as part of a political alliance with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and the Reborn Armenia party. The alliance was named Armenia Alliance and was led by Kocharyan. He lost the elections to Nikol Pashinyan and his Civil Contract party, with the election results showing the Armenia Alliance party had come in second with 21% of votes. After the conclusion of the election, Kocharyan and the Armenia Alliance party contested the votes and demanded an investigation into claims of voter fraud. Kocharyan declined to take his seat in the National Assembly and continues to lead the Armenia Alliance outside of parliament.
Personal life
thumb|right|Robert Kocharyan with his family in 2013
He and his wife, Bella Kocharyan, have three children: Sedrak, Gayane, and Levon, all of whom were born in Stepanakert. In addition to his native Armenian, Kocharyan speaks Russian and English.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: In his memoirs that were published in 2020, he admitted to having a poor command of standard Armenian, saying that he "had difficulties with writing and reading in Armenian". He attributes this to his homeland of Karabakh, where many local Armenians speak the local Karabakh dialect or Russian as their first language. Although he was baptized in the Armenian Apostolic Church by Archbishop Pargev Martirosyan in 1996, he has stated that he is not a believer.
References
External links
Armenia political alliance
Robert Kocharyan - Armenia alliance
Official Presidential Site of Armenia
Article at armeniapedia.org
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Category:1954 births
Category:Living people
Category:Armenian Apostolic Christians
Category:Armenian nationalists
Category:Presidents of Armenia
Category:Prime Ministers of Armenia
Category:Presidents of the Republic of Artsakh
Category:Prime Ministers of the Republic of Artsakh
Category:People from Stepanakert
Category:Politicians from the Republic of Artsakh
Category:Armenian prisoners and detainees
Category:Converts to Christianity from atheism or agnosticism
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Vytautas the Great
Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Category:Leaders of political parties in Armenia | {"Name": "Robert Kocharyan", "Native name": "hy Ռոբերտ Քոչարյան", "Image caption": "Official portrait, 1998", "Term start": "9 April 1998", "Term end": "9 April 2008Acting: 4 February - 9 April 1998", "Office 2": "6th Prime Minister of Armenia", "President 2": "Levon Ter-Petrosyan", "Predecessor 2": "Armen Sargsyan", "Successor 2": "Armen Darbinyan", "Birth date": "1954 08 31 y", "Birth place": "Stepanakert, Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, Soviet Union", "Spouse(s)": "Bella Kocharyan", "Official website": "robertkocharyan.am", "Alma mater": "National Polytechnic University of Armenia", "Other political party": "Armenia Alliance"} |
Lee Chang-ho (; born 29 July 1975 in Jeonju, North Jeolla) is a South Korean professional Go player of 9-dan rank. He is regarded by many as the best Go player of the late 1990s and early 2000s. He was a student of Cho Hun-hyun 9-dan. He is the second youngest (11 years 1 month) to become a professional Go player in South Korean history behind Cho Hun-hyun (9 years 7 months). He is the only player to have won all eight international competitions at least once.
Biography
He turned professional in 1986 at the young age of 11. By the early 1990s, he started winning titles that his teacher, Cho, had won. By 1992 Lee had already won his first international title, which was the 3rd Tong Yang Cup. Lee has won all of the international Go tournaments at least twice, excluding the World Oza and Ing Cup, which are held every two and four years respectively. He is only the second player to record a "Grand Slam". The first was Cho Hunhyun. In 2006, Lee won the Wangwi title for the eleventh straight year. His teacher, Cho Hunhyun, holds the record for the most successive domestic titles with sixteen consecutive Paewang titles. Ma Xiaochun has the second-most successive domestic titles with thirteen Mingren titles.
Style
"Stone Buddha" is one of Lee's many nicknames. It derives from the fact that he always keeps a straight face and never smiles or frowns during a match. The nickname reflects his playing style as well. His reading ability is among the best in the world. This gives him an honorable nickname, "God of calculation." He does not attack as a general strategy and never plays "wild Go". Instead, he aims for only slightly superior positions where he can win without taking on unnecessary risks. He often wins by making his opponents think they are playing even with him or even winning, only to defeat them in the later stages of the game gradually. He rarely kills large groups or makes a single move that decides the match. His endgame skill is one of the strongest in history, and has resulted in countless wins by a small margin in top-level tournaments.
When confronted with the newer and more dangerous style of players such as Lee Sedol and Choi Cheol-han in the 2000s, Chang-ho adjusted and changed his style to be more aggressive, remaining a dominant player throughout the decade.
Go career
Over the years, Lee's style of play has been broken down. Even Cho Chikun said that Lee Sedol would eventually pass Chang-ho because Chang-ho's style is no longer guaranteed due to the new generation of players. He has had to resort to abandoning his old style and improvising play against these new players. When asked if Lee's era was over, his teacher Cho Hunhyun simply replied, "No". He continued, saying that Lee Sedol is just someone who has finally fit the description of a rival for Chang-ho. He also said that both will battle many times and in the coming years the "smoke will settle" and one of them will come out on top.
After losing the 10th Samsung Cup to Luo Xihe, Lee came back and took the newly made Sibdan Cup against Park Young-Hoon. This was payback to Park, who had beat Lee in the 1st Prices Information Cup. Lee also won the 49th edition of Korea's oldest title, the Guksu. Unusually for him, Lee lost three times in 2006 representing Korea in international tournaments. First in the Nongshim Cup, then in the newly created Kangwon-Land Cup, and finally in the Asian TV Cup. This is a change for Lee, considering he has won 17 international tournaments over the past 14 years. In the final match of the 11th Samsung Cup, Lee lost 0-2 to Chang Hao of China. This was the second year in a row Lee lost the Samsung Cup.
In March 2007, the barely 19-year-old Yun Junsang beat title holder Lee Chang-ho 3-1 for the 50th Guksu title, but Lee got his revenge in July, beating Yun 3-2 to retain his Wangwi title.
Although not having had a successful year internationally, he was the highest earner in South Korea for 2006.GoBase.org - Go Trivia: Hankuk Kiwon: prize money and ranking 2006
Personal life
Lee married the former amateur Go player Lee Do-yoon on 28 October 2010. Their daughter was born on 8 March 2012.
Titles and runners-up
Ranks #2 in total number of titles in Korea and #1 in international titles.
DomesticTitle Wins Runners-up Guksu 10 (1990, 1993-1997, 2001-2002, 2005, 2009) 7 (1989, 1991-1992, 1998, 2003, 2004, 2006) Myungin 13 (1991-1996, 1998-2003, 2009) 2 (1990, 1997) Sibdan Cup 2 (2005, 2007) 1 (2009) GS Caltex Cup 6 (1997, 1998, 2001, 2003-2005) Prices Information Cup 3 (2005, 2009, 2010) Chunwon 3 (1997-1999) KBS Cup 11 (1988, 1991, 1994, 1998, 2001-2002, 2004-2005, 2007-2009) 5 (1995-1997, 1999-2000) Kisung 11 (1993-2003) 1 (2004) Electron-Land Cup 3 (2005, 2006, 2008) 1 (2007) Wangwi 14 (1990, 1995-2007) 2 (1991, 1993) BC Card Cup 5 (1991-1994, 1996) 1 (1995) Chaegowi 8 (1989-1991, 1993-1997) 2 (1988, 1992) Daewang 6 (1990-1992, 1995-1997) 1 (1993) Baccus Cup 3 (1990-1992) Taewang 4 (1991-1993, 1997) Paewang 4 (1993-1994, 2001-2002) 3 (1988, 1995, 2003) Kiwang 2 (1993-1994) 1 (1995) Gukgi 4 (1993-1996) Paedal Cup 4 (1993-1995, 1997) 2 (1996, 1998) Baedalwang 4 (1993-1995, 1997) 1 (1998) Total 117 33Continental World Mingren 1 (2010) China-Korea Tengen 4 (1997-2000) Teda Cup 1 (2004) Total 5 1International Ing Cup 1 (2000) 1 (2008) LG Cup 4 (1997, 1999, 2001, 2004) 3 (2003, 2010, 2012) Samsung Cup 3 (1997-1999) 2 (2005, 2006) Chunlan Cup 2 (2003, 2005) 2 (1999, 2009) Fujitsu Cup 2 (1996, 1998) 3 (2007-2009) Asian TV Cup 3 (1995, 1996, 2002) 4 (1990, 1999, 2000, 2006) World Oza 1 (2002) Tong Yang Cup 4 (1992, 1993, 1996, 1998) Zhonghuan Cup 1 (2007) Total 21 15Career total Total 143 49
See also
Go players
References
External links
Official website
Interview
Sensei's Library page
Category:1975 births
Category:Living people
Category:Sportspeople from Jeonju
Category:South Korean Go players
Category:Asian Games medalists in go
Category:Go players at the 2010 Asian Games
Category:Asian Games gold medalists for South Korea
Category:Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games | {"Full name": "Lee Chang-ho", "Revised Romanization": "I Chang-ho", "Born": "Jeonju, North Jeolla, South Korea", "Residence": "South Korea South Korea", "Teacher": "Cho Hunhyun", "Turned pro": "1986", "Rank": "9 dan", "Affiliation": "Hanguk Kiwon"} |
The Sparrow (1996) is the first novel by author Mary Doria Russell.
It won the Arthur C. Clarke Award, James Tiptree Jr. Award, Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis and the British Science Fiction Association Award. It was followed by a sequel, Children of God, in 1998. The title refers to Gospel of Matthew 10:29-31, which relates that not even a sparrow falls to the earth without God's knowledge thereof.
Plot
In the year 2019, the SETI program at Arecibo Observatory discovers radio broadcasts of music from the vicinity of Alpha Centauri. The first expedition to Rakhat, the world that is sending the music, is organized by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), known for its missionary, linguistic and scientific activities since the time of its founder, Ignatius of Loyola. In the year 2060, only one of the crew, the Jesuit priest Emilio Sandoz, survives to return to Earth, and he is damaged physically and psychologically. The story is told with parallel plot lines, interspersing the journey of Sandoz and his friends to Rakhat with Sandoz's experiences upon his return to Earth.
Father Sandoz is a talented Puerto Rican linguist. He is described as of mixed Taíno and Conquistador heritage and character. Sandoz grew up in La Perla, a poor neighborhood in San Juan. He joined the Jesuits as a teenager. After several stints at Jesuit missionaries around the world, he returns to Puerto Rico. Several of his close friends and co-workers, people with a variety of unique skills and talents, have seemingly coincidental connections to Arecibo. One of them, a gifted young technician, was the first to hear the transmissions; another, Sofia Mendes, a Turkish Jewish artificial intelligence specialist, has the connections and aptitude to obtain a spacecraft and help pilot the mission. Sandoz, who has often struggled with his faith, becomes convinced that only God's will could bring this group of people with the perfect combination of knowledge and experience together at the moment when the alien signal was detected. Sandoz and his friends, along with three other Jesuit priests, are chosen by the Society of Jesus to travel in secret to the planet, using an interstellar vessel made with a small asteroid.
Upon reaching Rakhat, the crew tries to acclimatize themselves to the new world, experimenting with eating local flora and fauna, then making contact with a rural village, inhabited by a peaceful tribe of herbivore gatherers, the Runa. Though the Runa are clearly not the singers of the radio broadcasts, the Earthlings settle among them and begin to learn their language Ruanja and culture. Although Sandoz struggles with his attraction to Sofia, he finds greater spiritual meaning in his interactions with the Runa. The crew transmits all their findings via computer uplink to the asteroid-ship in orbit. One day, in an attempt to retrieve supplies from their landing vehicle for a sick crew member, the landing vehicle runs short of the fuel needed to safely return to the asteroid ship, and the crew must face the reality that they may never return to Earth.
When the Earthlings finally meet a member of the culture which produced the radio transmissions, he proves to be of an entirely different species from the rural natives, a Jana'ata who is an ambitious merchant named Supaari VaGayjur. Supaari VaGayjur sees in the visitors a possibility to improve his status, while the crew hopes to find an alternative source of fuel in Supaari's city, Gayjur. Meanwhile, the crew begins to grow their own food, introducing the concept of agriculture to the villagers. These seemingly innocent actions and accompanying cultural misunderstandings precipitate an outbreak of violence. Though not closely related genetically, the Jana'ata have evolved by aggressive mimicry to physically resemble the Runa, who are in fact their prey species. The human introduction of agriculture leads to a Runa baby boom which is harvested by the predatory Jana'ata. The humans are riven with guilt over their misguided action, and most, including Sofia, are killed when defending against the Jana'ata attack. Only Sandoz and one other human survive, and Sandoz endures capture, degradation, and a crisis of faith. Eventually found by Supaari, Sandoz's hands are disfigured and rendered useless in a Jana'ata practice meant to convey the honor and privilege of being dependent on another, a mutilation analogous to the practice of foot binding. The mutilation kills the other surviving crew member; Sandoz survives, though he is physically and spiritually traumatized, believing himself at fault for the death of his friends. Later, Supaari gives Sandoz to the Reshtar of Galatna, a poet and musician, in exchange for the right to have a wife and start his own lineage. Held captive by the Reshtar, Sandoz realizes the Reshtar is the source of the music that brought the humans to Rakhat and momentarily regains his faith; however, the Reshtar is only interested in Sandoz as a pet who is forced to sexually satisfy the musician, along with his friends and colleagues. It is later revealed that the Reshtar broadcasts songs about his sexual exploits, songs which may have been heard on Earth.
When Sandoz returns to Earth in 2060, his friends are dead, and his faith, once considered worthy of canonization by his superiors, has turned into bitter anger with the God who inspired him to go to Rakhat. Due to relativistic space-time effects, decades had passed while he has been gone, during which popular outrage at the United Nations' initial and highly out-of-context report on the mission,
especially Sandoz's role in the tragedy, had left the Society of Jesus shattered, nearly extinct. The Jesuits shelter Sandoz from the media and help him recover physically, while the Father Superior selects a panel of Jesuit priests from around the world to help Sandoz come out of his shell and explain what really happened. Initially bent on discovering the truth, the other priests eventually recognize the great personal cost at which the journey came, and accept Sandoz's epic struggle with his faith. Over the course of several months, Sandoz painfully explains his story and begins his personal healing.
Similarities to other works
The Sparrow is similar to James Blish's science fiction novel A Case of Conscience. It also involves a Jesuit priest confronting an alien civilization. Mary Doria Russell has addressed this speculation:
Literary significance and reception
Nancy Pearl, in an article in Library Journal about book-club recommendations published five years after The Sparrow came out, felt that this book was mistakenly categorized as science fiction, and that it is really "a philosophical novel about the nature of good and evil and what happens when a man tries to do the right thing, for the right reasons and ends up causing incalculable harm".
However, Pearl's comment about categorization as science fiction is at odds with the author's own assessment. In "Jesuits in Space," her afterword to the 20th-anniversary edition of The Sparrow, Russell repeatedly refers to the book as science fiction, and writes, "At the heart of religion, and at the heart of anthropology, and at the heart of science fiction, there are similar concerns, though there are differences in the kinds of stories we tell and the conclusions that we reach."Russell, Mary Doria. The Sparrow ("20th Anniversary Edition with a New Afterword by the Author"), Ballantine Books (2016), ISBN 9780449912553 It's also worth noting that every award (see next section) won by The Sparrow was specifically a science-fiction award.
In the Catholic journal Commonweal, Paul Q. Kane writes that Russell has done her research on the early historic Jesuit missions and on Jesuit spirituality. He continues that she is successfully updating the stories of other important Jesuits who have sent men to distant lands or went themselves to foreign cultures to represent Christianity. "Russell subtly raises concerns about the ways in which sophisticated cultures tell themselves cover stories in order to justify actions taken at a terrible cost to others". This is also reflected in the way that Sofia has to buy her freedom from what she describes as an institution of intellectual prostitution; as well as the differences between the simple Runa who live in the countryside and the Jana'ata, who are the sophisticated city dwellers that created the beautiful music which triggered the mission originally.
Awards and nominations
The 1996 James Tiptree, Jr. Award
The 1998 Arthur C. Clarke Award
The 1998 BSFA Award for Best Novel
The 1998 John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer
The 2001 Kurd Laßwitz Award
The 2001 Gaylactic Spectrum Hall of Fame (The Sparrow and Children of God together)
Film, television and theatrical adaptations
In March 2006 it was announced that Warner Bros. had purchased the rights to The Sparrow for Brad Pitt's production company, Plan B, and that Pitt himself would be playing the role of Sandoz with screenwriter Michael Seitzman adapting the novel to film.
Since then, Mary Russell has revoked all film rights, believing that Hollywood cannot and will not make a film version of The Sparrow that is faithful to the book. She has written her own screenplay with her assistant Karen Hall, but has realized it has little to no chance of being produced.
In 2014, AMC announced it was developing a television adaptation of the book.
In 2021, Scott Frank announced his plans to adapt The Sparrow as a miniseries, to be presented on FX.Leah Schnelbach, "Mary Doria Russell’s The Sparrow Might Be Coming to FX". Article dated 2021-01-14 on tor.com, page found 2021-01-17. Johan Renck is being looked at to direct, with Frank, Renck, and Mark Johnson signed on as executive producers.
Related works
James Blish's A Case of Conscience also has a Jesuit priest confronting an alien civilization.
In Arthur C. Clarke's short story "The Star" a Jesuit scientist finds out a faith-shaking fact about a supernova.
Stanisław Lem's Fiasco is also about first contact SETI mission and has a priest (although Dominican) as one of prominent secondary characters.
Michel Faber's The Book of Strange New Things is a novel about a pastor sent as a missionary to an alien species.
Progressive/symphonic rock band Metaphor has produced a concept album/rock opera based on The Sparrow (with the author's permission). The CD was released in September 2007.
Publication history
1996, US, Villard , Pub date 9 September 1996, Hardcover
1996, US, Brilliance Corp , Pub date 1 October 1996, Audio Cassette
1997, US, Ballantine Books , Pub date 8 September 1997, Paperback
1997, UK, Black Swan , Pub date 1 November 1997, Paperback
2008, US, Brilliance Audio , Pub date 4 April 2008, Audio CD
Notes
External links
The following links are to detailed reviews with many plot details.
First review of The Sparrow by R.W. Rasband, Association for Mormon Letters.
Second review of The Sparrow by Rasband, with Russell's response.
Review of Children of God by Rasband.
Infinity Plus Interview with Mary Doria Russell where she discusses The Sparrow.
Video clip of interview with Mary Doria Russell and NPR Book Reviewer Alan Cheuse talking about faith and fiction in The Sparrow.
Mary Doria Russell personal website.
Category:1996 American novels
Category:1996 debut novels
Category:Alpha Centauri in fiction
Category:American philosophical novels
Category:American science fiction novels
Category:Catholic novels
Category:Fiction set in 2019
Category:Interpreting and translation in fiction
Category:James Tiptree Jr. Award-winning works
Category:Novels set on fictional planets
Category:Religion in science fiction
Category:Villard (imprint) books | {"Country": "United States", "Language": "English", "Publisher": "Villard", "Media type": "Print (hardback & paperback)", "Pages": "408 pp", "ISBN": "0-679-45150-1", "Followed by": "Children of God"} |
Peters Ice Cream is an Australian ice cream brand, now a subsidiary of European food firm Froneri. It was originally developed by an expatriate American, Frederick (Fred) Augustus Bolles Peters in 1907, using his mother's recipe.
History
The company was established in 1907 at Paddington, New South Wales as the Peters' American Delicacy Company. New works to manufacture 'The Health food of a Nation' was opened at neighbouring Redfern in 1923. Business flourished, in 1927 he set up Peters' Arctic Delicacy Co. Ltd in Brisbane and a branch in Newcastle; followed by, in 1929, associated companies were established in Victoria, Western Australia and at Townsville with manufacturing branch at Queensland. Peters was largely responsible for introducing to Australia the small refrigerated cabinet, which he hired out to retailers. The red and cream corporate identity was adopted in New South Wales and Queensland, whilst green and cream were used in Victoria and Western Australia .Ice cream icon Peters celebrates 100 years Victoria Government press release, 28 August 2007. Accessed 22 January 2014Hopkins, P. Cool idea stands up to a licking. Brisbane Times, 24 August 2007. The hub of the company, in Australia was a food firm known as Petersville Australia Limited, in the Melbourne suburb of Mulgrave, which later became the factory, which remains the production centre for most of its ice-cream products.
The company was taken over by Adelaide Steamship Company (AdSteam) in the late 1980s, and then by Pacific Dunlop (now known as Ansell) upon AdSteam's collapse. Pacific Dunlop sold its food assets in the mid-1990s, and the ice-cream division was acquired by Nestlé, which continued to market brands including Choc-Wedge, Drumstick, and Monaco Bar.
Ownership of a separate Peters Ice Cream business in Western Australia passed as part of Peters and Brownes (PB) Foods to Fonterra in 2006 and to Nestlé in 2009, giving Nestlé nationwide control of the brand.Fonterra sells Australian ice cream business at Fonterra official site, 29 April 2009. Accessed 22 January 2014 Formerly, Peters in Western Australia exported ice-creams to Japan where it was called Lady Borden, and New Zealand where it was called Tip Top. Since 2009, Peters ice-creams have been trucked into WA from Melbourne, but the former PB Balcatta factory still produces Cadbury ice cream.
In 2012, The Peters Ice Cream business, including its Mulgrave factory, was purchased by Pacific Equity Partners (PEP),Nestlé sells Peters Ice Cream business to Pacific Equity Partners at Nestlé official website, 29 June 2012. Accessed 22 January 2014PEP Acquires Nestle’s Peters Ice Cream at Deal Journal Australia, 29 June 2012. (Now part of The Wall Street Journal.) Accessed 22 January 2014 with licence to produce sub-brands that were retained by Nestlé, e.g., Drumstick. In May 2014, the European company R&R Ice Cream bought Peters.
On April 19, 2018, the transaction to create Froneri, a joint venture between the owner of R&R Ice Cream, PAI Partners and Nestlé was completed.
Gallery
Image:Old Peters Ice Cream advertisement, Old Gippstown.JPG|Old advertisement on the side of the former Narracan General Store at Old Gippstown, Moe
Image:Peters ice cream Unthank & Opperman.tif|Advertisement for Peters Ice Cream from 1939 featuring Valda Unthank and Hubert Opperman.
Image:Peters Ice Cream Factory Taree.jpg|Abandoned Peters Ice Cream factory Taree, New South Wales
See also
Michelides Tobacco Factory, a building which was for a while the Peters Ice Cream factory in Perth, Western Australia.
Zig and Zag (Australian performers), a clown duo who advertised Peters Ice Cream
References
Australian Dictionary of Biography, by G.P.Walsh - Volume 11 (MUP), 1988
External links
Froneri Limited
Fred Peters biography
Research Reveals: Queensland's Ice Cream History and the Peters Ice Cream Factory, State Library of Queensland Vimeo
Category:Australian brands
Category:Ice cream brands
Category:Dairy products companies of Australia
Category:Australian subsidiaries of foreign companies
Category:Froneri | {"Type": "Subsidiary", "Founded": "1907", "Headquarters": "Victoria, Australia", "Parent": "Froneri"} |
George Ashley Wilkes is a fictional character in Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind and the 1939 film of the same name. The character also appears in the 1991 book Scarlett, a sequel to Gone with the Wind written by Alexandra Ripley, and in Rhett Butler's People (2007) by Donald McCaig.
Fictional biography
Ashley is the man with whom Scarlett O'Hara is obsessed. Gentlemanly yet indecisive, he loves Scarlett, but finds he has more in common with Melanie, his first cousin and later his wife. However, he is tormented by his attraction to Scarlett. Unfortunately for him and Scarlett, his failure to deal with his true feelings for her ruins any chance she has for real happiness with Rhett Butler. Ashley is a complicated character. He is not sympathetic to the cause of the North. However, he isn't an ardent Confederate patriot, either. What Ashley loves about the South is the serene, peaceful life that he and his dear ones know at Twelve Oaks and similar plantations. At one point (following the war) he comments to Scarlett that "had the war not come he would have spent his life happily buried at Twelve Oaks."
In short, Ashley loves the South, but not necessarily the Confederacy. And he hates war, even telling his friends in the beginning of the book who are eager to start fighting the North that "most of the misery in the world has been caused by war", though he fights because of his loyalty to the above-mentioned peaceful life he had in Georgia. Ashley serves as an officer in Cobb's Legion.
He claims that he would have freed the slaves after the death of his father if the war hadn't freed them already. His willingness to free the slaves further demonstrates his impractical nature, because if the slaves were free, he would not be able to run the plantation. However, he has a great deal of affection for the slaves on his plantation, and the role that they played in his serene, bucolic life.
There is a sense in which the end of Ashley's life (as he knew it) is more than just the burning of Twelve Oaks. The four Tarleton brothers (Boyd, Tom, Brent and Stuart) are all killed, three of them at Gettysburg. Cade Calvert returns home terminally ill from tuberculosis. Little Joe Fontaine is killed in battle, and Tony Fontaine has to flee forever to Texas after killing a Yankee (specifically, Scarlett's family's former slave overseer, Jonas Wilkerson, during Reconstruction; after Wilkerson encouraged a former slave to attempt to rape Tony's sister-in-law). These were Ashley's childhood friends, all represented in the happy scene at the barbecue, close to the beginning of the book. When the "family circle" of the county is decimated, the life Ashley loved is gone.
At one point in the book Ashley pleads, in vain, with his wife Melanie to move to the North, after he comes back from fighting in the war. This isn't, however, because of any affection for the North, but because he wants to be able to stand on his own as a man, something he will never again be able to do in Georgia now that his plantation is gone and his home burned. However, he ends up working for Scarlett due to her manipulative entreaties and Melanie's naive support of her. Melanie also states that if they move to New York, Beau will not be able to go to school. This is because in New York black children are allowed to attend class, and they could not permit Beau to attend class with black children. In Georgia the schools were segregated by race, so Beau would be able to attend school if they remained in the South.
Role
In a sense, he is the character best personifying the tragedy of the Southern upper class after the Civil War. Coming from a privileged background, Ashley is an honorable and educated man. He is in clear contrast to Rhett Butler, who is decisive and full of life. Rhett is both ruthless and practical, and is willing to do whatever he must to survive. In contrast, Ashley is often impractical (even Melanie admits this on her deathbed), and would resist doing many things Rhett would do because they aren't "proper" or "gentlemanly". Ashley fights in the Civil War, but he does it out of love for his homeland and not a hatred of the Yankees, who he actually hopes will just leave the South in peace. As a soldier he shows enough leadership to be promoted to the rank of Major, and survives being imprisoned at the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois (a notorious prisoner-of-war camp) for several months. He eventually returns home, still able-bodied. Ashley could have lived a peaceful and respectable life had the War never taken place. The War that changed the South forever has turned his world upside down, with everything he had believed in 'gone with the wind', a phrase composed by the poet Ernest Dowson.
Category:Fictional American Civil War veterans
Category:Literary characters introduced in 1936
Category:Fictional characters involved in incest
Category:Fictional slave owners
Category:Fictional people of the Confederate States of America
Category:Fictional soldiers
Category:Gone with the Wind characters
Category:Male characters in literature
Category:Male characters in film
Category:Fictional characters from Georgia (U.S. state) | {"First appearance": "Gone with the Wind", "Last appearance": "Rhett Butler's People", "Created by": "Margaret Mitchell", "Portrayed by": "Leslie HowardStephen Collins", "Gender": "Male", "Children": "Beau Wilkes (son, with Melanie)Unborn child (second child with Melanie; deceased)", "Relatives": "John Wilkes (father; deceased)Mrs Wilkes (mother; deceased)India Wilkes (sister)Honey née Wilkes (sister; not in the film)Brother-in-law (Honey's husband; not in the film)Henry Hamilton (uncle; not in the film)Sarah Jane \"Pittypat\" Hamilton (aunt)William R. Hamilton (father-in-law and uncle; deceased)Mrs Hamilton (mother-in-law and aunt; deceased)Charles Hamilton (cousin and brother-in-law; deceased)Scarlett Hamilton née O'Hara (sister-in-law; Charles wife)Wade Hampton Hamilton (nephew; via Scarlett and Charles)"} |
Cho Hunhyun (; born 10 March 1953) is a South Korean professional Go player and politician. Considered one of the greatest players of all time, Cho reached professional level in Korea in 1962. Since then, Cho has amassed 150 professional titles, more than any player in the world. He thrice held all of the open tournaments in Korea in 1980, 1982 and 1986. Cho has also won 11 international titles, third most in the world behind Lee Chang-ho (21) and Lee Sedol (18). He reached 1,000 career wins in 1995.
Early life (1962-1982)
Cho began learning Go at the age of four and passed the test for becoming a professional in 1962. In 1963, Cho was invited to Japan. Originally intended to study under Minoru Kitani, Kensaku Segoe took Cho under his tutelage. Segoe was responsible for bringing Go Seigen to Japan and also teaching Utaro Hashimoto, founder of the Kansai Ki-in. Cho was considered a 2 dan professional in Korea, but was demoted to 4 kyu upon arriving in Japan.
Cho passed the Nihon Ki-in professional exam three years later and became the first player to hold professional certificates from two Go associations. It was at this time when Cho was introduced to Hideyuki Fujisawa. Fujisawa began mentoring Cho, and the two kept a friendly relationship between each other until Fujisawa's death in 2009. Cho participated in some Japanese tournaments, finishing runner-up to Takaho Kojima in the 3rd Shin-Ei tournament. In 1972, Cho returned to Korea to begin mandatory military service. Cho won his first title in 1973, defeating Kim In in the 14th Chaegowi. That same year, Cho lost his first title to rival Seo Bongsoo in the 6th Myungin. Since 1973, Cho and Seo have met 65 times in the finals of tournaments, with Cho winning 53 of them. Their most recent title match-up came in the 1st Daejoo Cup in 2010.
Cho continued winning several titles, including the Paewang in 1977, a title he defended sixteen straight times until 1992. In 1980, he held nine titles simultaneously: Guksu, Myungin, Wangwi, Kisung, Paewang, Kiwang, Daewang, Jaewang and the Baccus Cup. Cho repeated this twice, in 1982 and 1986, winning ten and eleven titles respectively. Despite winning several titles, Cho wasn't considered the best Korean player at the time. Instead, the media favored Cho Chikun, a Korean-born 9 dan professional in Japan. In 1980, Cho Chikun visited South Korea after winning the Meijin title and the two began a friendship match consisting of two games. The two game series was played on 31 December 1980 and 2 January 1981 with Hunhyun losing both games. From 1991 until Hunhyun's loss in the 8th Samsung Cup in 2003, Cho Hunhyun didn't lose a match to Cho Chikun.
First Korean 9 dan (1982-2004)
In 1982, Cho was promoted to 9 dan, becoming the first Korean 9 dan. Cho was the sole Korean player invited to the 1st Ing Cup, which featured nine players from the Nihon Ki-in and six players from China. Cho was matched up with Taiwanese-born Japanese professional O Meien in the first round. Cho won the match and went on to defeat Koichi Kobayashi in the quarter-finals. He then met another Taiwanese-born Japanese professional Rin Kaiho in the semi-final. Cho won the best-of-three match in two games and progressed to the final to face Nie Weiping in a best-of-five final. Cho won the first game, but Nie went on to win the next two. The match came down to a fifth and final deciding game, with Cho winning by resignation.
In 1984, Cho began teaching Lee Chang-ho. Two years later, Lee became a professional and began challenging Cho. By 1989, Lee defeated Cho for the first time in a title final by winning the 29th Chaegowi. In 1992, he lost the Paewang title to Lee after defending it for sixteen consecutive years. Their rivalry would continue until 2003, when Lee won the 34th Myungin. As of 16 June 2011, the score between the two in title finals is Lee 47-19 Cho.
Political career
Cho decided to go to politics, joining the Saenuri Party in March 2016.Go player Cho joins Saenuri Party He was elected on the party's proportional representation list in the 2016 election, taking seat number 14.Saenuri unveils candidates for non-electoral seats
On 5 February 2020, Cho was appointed as the Secretary-General of the newly formed Future Korea Party.
Promotion record
Titles and runners-up
Ranks first in total number of titles in Korea and third in international titles.
DomesticTitle Wins Runners-up Guksu 16 (1976-1985, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2000) 8 (1986, 1987, 1993-1996, 1999, 2001) Myungin 12 (1977, 1979-1981, 1984-1990, 1997) 7 (1973, 1978, 1983, 1991, 1998, 2000, 2003) Chunwon 2 (1996, 2002) KBS Cup 11 (1980, 1981, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1996, 1997, 1999) 2 (1991, 1994) Daejoo Cup 1 (2010) 1 (2011) Wangwi 13 (1976-1979, 1981-1989) 7 (1990, 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2003) Kisung 2 (1990, 1992) 7 (1991, 1993-1996, 1998, 2003) BC Card Cup 2 (1990, 1995) 4 (1991, 1992, 1994, 1996) Baedalwang 1 (1996) Chaegowi 15 (1973, 1974, 1976-1979, 1981-1988, 1992) 8 (1980, 1989, 1990, 1993-1997) Gukgi 12 (1975-1979, 1981-1987) 3 (1980, 1988, 1992) Paewang 20 (1977-1992, 1997-2000) 2 (1993, 2001) Taewang 8 (1983, 1985-1987, 1989, 1990, 1994, 1995) 2 (1988, 1997) Baccus Cup 6 (1983, 1985, 1987-1989, 1994) Daewang 7 (1983-1987, 1989, 1993) 3 (1993, 1995, 1996) Paedel Cup 1 (1996) 5 (1993-1995, 1997, 1999) KT Cup 1 (2002) Kiwang 12 (1979, 1981, 1982, 1984-1987, 1989-1992, 1995) 3 (1983, 1988, 1993) SBS TV Cup 1 (1994) Shin-Ei 1 (1971) Total 139 67International Ing Cup 1 (1988) LG Cup 1 (2002) Samsung Cup 2 (2001, 2002) Chunlan Cup 1 (1999) Fujitsu Cup 3 (1994, 2000, 2001) 1 (1993) Asian TV Cup 2 (2000, 2001) 3 (1992, 1995, 2002) Tong Yang Cup 2 (1994, 1997) Total 11 6Career total Total 150 73
Book
2015, The Power of Master's Thinking
2018, Go with the Flow, is a 2015 autobiography written by Korean, professional 9-dan Cho Hunhyun and translated by You Jungmin. The original Korean edition was published in 2015 and the English edition as was published in 2018. It features a collection of eight thematic stories and self-reflections about go and life. Since he became a professional Go player at the age of nine, he has won 1,935 matches and taken various championship titles as many as 160 times over 56 years, achieving unprecedented record in the world Go history. Now, he gives what he has learned through his life, the essence of how to train our heart and mind.
References
External links
Official site (in Korean)
Category:1953 births
Category:Living people
Category:South Korean Go players
Category:Sportspeople from South Jeolla Province
Category:Liberty Korea Party politicians | {"Full name": "Cho Hunhyun", "Nickname": "The God of Warhttp://gobase.org/studying/articles/LeeHongYeol/?episode=1 Episode 1: Pro's Nicknames gobase.org Lee Hongreal 16 June 2011", "Revised Romanization": "Jo Hun-hyeon", "Born": "Mokpo, South Jeolla, South Korea", "Residence": "Seoul, South Korea", "Teacher": "Kensaku Segoe,Hideyuki Fujisawa", "Turned pro": "1962 (Korea)1966 (Japan)", "Rank": "9 dan", "Affiliation": "Hanguk Kiwon"} |
Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (; 4 February 1811 - 13 October 1899) was a French organ builder. He has the reputation of being the most distinguished organ builder of the 19th century. He pioneered innovations in the art and science of organ building that permeated the profession and influenced the course of organ building, composing and improvising through the early 20th century. As the author of scientific journal articles about the organ construction details, he published the results of his research and experiments. He was the inventor of the symphonic organ being able to follow smooth and immediate dynamic changes like a symphonic orchestra. This goal was reached by: a) invention of harmonic flue and reed stops, such as the flûte harmonique, trompette harmonique, clairon harmonique, b) invention of divided windchest with 2-3 different wind pressure sections, c) creation of groups of stops (jeux d'anches and jeux de fonds) allowing for fast dynamics changes without taking hands out of the keyboards by the organist, d) organ specification planning on the base of orchestral quartet". His most famous organs were built in Paris in Saint-Denis Basilica (1841), Église de la Madeleine, Sainte-Clotilde Basilica (1859), Saint-Sulpice church (his largest instrument; behind the classical façade), Notre-Dame Cathedral (behind the classical façade), baron Albert de L'Espée's residence in Biarritz (moved finally to the Sacré-Cœur Basilica), and many others. After Cavaillé-Coll's death, Charles Mutin maintained the business into the beginning of the 20th century. The organ reform movement in the 20th century sought to return organ building to a more Baroque style; but since then, Cavaillé-Coll's designs have come back into fashion.
Life
thumb|175px|Cavaillé-Coll's grave in Montparnasse Cemetery, Paris
Born in Montpellier, France, to Dominique, one in a line of organ builders, he showed early talent in mechanical innovation. He exhibited an outstanding fine art when designing and building his famous instruments. There is a before and an after Cavaillé-Coll. His organs are "symphonic organs": that is, they can reproduce the sounds of other instruments and combine them as well. His largest and greatest organ is in Saint-Sulpice, Paris. Featuring 100 stops and five manuals, this instrument, which unlike many others remains practically unaltered, is a candidate to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Cavaillé-Coll was also known for his financial problems - he focused mostly on the organ building art, leaving finance less attention. The art of his handcrafted instruments, unparalleled at that time, was not enough to ensure his firm's survival. It was taken over in 1898, shortly before his death, by Charles Mutin, who continued in the organ business, but by the 1940s the firm had almost disappeared.
Cavaillé-Coll died in Paris on 13 October 1899 and is buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery.
Organ building innovations
Cavaillé-Coll is responsible for many innovations that revolutionized organ building, performance and composition. Instead of the Positif, Cavaillé-Coll placed the Grand-Orgue manual as the lowest manual, and included couplers that allowed the entire tonal resources of the organ to be played from the Grand-Orgue. He refined the English swell box by devising a spring-loaded (later balanced) pedal with which the organist could operate the swell shutters, thus increasing the organ's potential for expression. He adjusted pipe making and voicing techniques, thus creating a whole family of harmonic stops (flutes, trompettes, clairons) and stops imitating orchestral instruments such as the bassoon, the oboe and the english horn. He popularized the harmonic flute stop, which, together with the montre (principals), the gambe (strings) and the bourdon (flutes), formed the fonds (foundations) of the organ. He designed the "orchestral quartet" which referred to orchestral four colours of sound - principals, flutes, strings and reeds. He introduced divided windchests which were controlled by ventils. These allowed the use of higher wind pressures and for each manual's anches (reed stops) to be added or subtracted as a group by means of a pedal. Higher wind pressures allowed the organ to include many more stops of 8' (unison) pitch in every division, so complete fonds as well as reed choruses could be placed in every division, designed to be superimposed on top of one another. Sometimes he placed the treble part of the compass on a higher pressure than the bass, to emphasize melody lines and counteract the natural tendency of small pipes (especially reeds) to be softer.
For a mechanical tracker action and its couplers to operate under these higher wind pressures, pneumatic assistance provided by the Barker lever was required, which Cavaillé-Coll included in his larger instruments. This device made it possible to couple all the manuals together and play on the full organ without expending a great deal of effort. He also invented the pneumatic combination action system for his five-manual organ at Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris. All these innovations allowed a seamless crescendo from pianissimo all the way to fortissimo, something never before possible on the organ. His organ at the Basilique Ste-Clotilde, Paris (proclaimed a basilica by Pope Leo XIII in 1897) was one of the first to be built with several of these new features. Consequently, it influenced César Franck, who was the titular organist there. The organ works of Franck have inspired generations of organist-composers who came after him. It is worth to underline that Cavaillé-Coll's concept of symphonic organ was developed during his whole professional career inspired by influenced organists his times.
Legacy
Marcel Dupré stated once that "composing for an orchestra is quite different from composing for an organ... with exception of Master Cavaillé-Coll's symphonic organs: in that case one has to observe an extreme attention when writing for such kind of instruments." Almost a century beforehand, César Franck had ecstatically said of the rather modest Cavaillé-Coll instrument at l'Église St.-Jean-St.-François in Paris with words that summed up everything the builder was trying to do: "Mon nouvel orgue ? C'est un orchestre !" ("My new organ? It's an orchestra!"). Franck later became organist of a much larger Cavaillé-Coll organ at St Clotilde in Paris. In 1878 Franck was featured recitalist on the four-manual Cavaillé-Coll organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in the Trocadéro area of Paris; this organ was subsequently rebuilt by V. & F. Gonzalez in 1939 and reinstalled in the Palais de Chaillot which replaced the Palais de Trocadéro, then rebuilt in 1975 by Danion-Gonzalez and relocated to the Auditorium Maurice Ravel in Lyon. Franck's Trois Pièces were premiered on the Trocadéro organ.
Film
A documentary film titled The Genius of Cavaillé-Coll was released in 2012 by Fugue State Films to mark both the 200th anniversary of Cavaillé-Coll's birth in 2011 and the 150th anniversary of his organ at St Sulpice. It won the DVD Documentary Award of the BBC Music Awards 2014.
Existing Cavaillé-Coll organs For a complete list of all organs by Cavaillé-Coll, see: In Europe
In France
Bergerac: Saint Jacques
Bonsecours: Basilique Notre-Dame
Caen: Abbey of Saint-Étienne (50 stops, 3 manuals)
Carcassonne: Cathedral
Castelnau-d'Estrétefonds: Saint-Martin
Dreux: Chapelle royale
Épernay: Saint-Pierre Saint-Paul
Lavaur: Cathedral
Luçon: Cathedral
Lyon: Saint-François-de-Sales
Orléans: Cathedral
Mazamet: Saint-Sauveur
Nancy: Cathedral (65 stops, 4 manuals)
Paris: American Cathedral (72 stops, 4 manuals)
Paris: Saint-Roch
Paris: La Madeleine (58 stops, 3 manuals)
Paris: Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix (26 stops, 2 manuals)
Paris: Notre Dame
Paris: Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption
Paris: Pentemont Abbey
Paris: Saint-Antoine-des-Quinze-Vingts
Paris: Sainte-Clotilde Basilica (71 stops, 3 manuals)
Paris: Saint-Sulpice (102 stops, 5 manuals)
Paris: Saint-Vincent-de-Paul (66 stops, 3 manuals)
Paris: Sainte-Trinité (61 stops, 3 manuals)
Paris: Saint-Jean-de-Montmartre (28 stops, 2 manuals)
Paris: Sacré-Cœur (78 stops, 4 manuals)
Paris: Val-de-Grâce
Courbevoie (near Paris): Saint-Maurice de Bécon
Perpignan: Cathedral
Rabastens: Notre-Dame-du-Bourg Church (smallest, with only 20 stops)
Rouen: Church of St. Ouen. (64 stops, 4 manuals)
Saint-Denis: Basilica (47 stops, 4 manuals)
Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Saint-Germain church
Saint-Omer: Cathedral (49 stops, 4 manuals)
Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche: Collégiale du Moustier
Toulouse: Saint-Sernin Basilica (51 stops, 3 manuals)
Trouville-sur-Mer: Notre-Dame des Victoires
Vimoutiers: Notre-Dame
Yport: Eglise saint-Martin
File:Grandes-Orgues, Notre-Dame de Paris.jpg|Notre Dame de Paris
File:Paris 06 - St Sulpice organ 01 (square version).jpg|Saint Sulpice
File:Normandie Seine Rouen19 tango7174.jpg|Church of Saint Ouen, Rouen
File:Buffet grand-orgue.jpg|Nancy Cathedral
File:Paris, Sacré Coeur, Hauptorgel (2).jpg|Sacré cœur
File:Loire Maine Angers5 tango7174.jpg|Angers Cathedral
File:Bretagne Ille Rennes4 tango7174.jpg|Rennes Cathedral
File:81 - Rabastens - L'église Notre-Dame-du-Bourg - Interieur - Les orgues PalissyPM81000656.jpg|Notre-Dame-du-Bourg Rabastens
File:Orgue Cavaillé-Coll de la chapelle royale de Dreux, Eure-et-Loir, France.jpg|Chapelle royale de Dreux
File:Castelnau-d'Estrétefonds Eglise - orgue.jpg|Castelnau-d'Estrétefonds
In Spain
Alegia: San Juan
Azkoitia: Santa María
Azpeitia: Basílica de Loyola
Bilbao: Santa María de Begoña
Getaria (Guetaria): San Salvador
Irún: Santa María
Lekeitio:
Madrid: Basílica de San Francisco el Grande
Mutriku (Motrico): Santa Catalina
Oiartzun: San Esteban
Pasaia (Pasajes)
San Sebastián (Donostia): Résidence de Zorroaga
San Sebastián (Donostia): San Marcial d’Altza
San Sebastián (Donostia): Santa María del Coro
San Sebastián (Donostia): Santa Teresa
San Sebastián (Donostia): San Vicente
Urnieta: San Miguel
Vidania (Bidegoyan), San Bartolomé
In the United Kingdom
Channel Islands, Jersey: Highlands College
Cheshire, Warrington: Parr Hall
Hampshire, Farnborough: St Michael's Abbey
Hampshire, Isle of Wight: Quarr Abbey
Manchester: The Town Hall
Renfrewshire, Paisley: Paisley Abbey
In the Netherlands
Amsterdam: Augustinuskerk
Amsterdam: Joannes en Ursulakapel Begijnhof
Haarlem: Philharmonie
In Belgium
Brussels: Royal Conservatory of Music
Gesves : Saint Maximin (50 stops, 4 manuals)
Ghent: Saint Nicholas' Church, Ghent
Hasselt: Sacred Heart Church
Leuven: Jesuit Church Heverlee
Leuven: Saint Joseph's Church
In Portugal
Lisbon, Portugal: Igreja de São Luís dos Franceses
Lisbon, Portugal: Igreja de São Mamede
In Italy
Rome, Italy: Chapel of the Casa Santa Maria of the Pontifical North American College
In addition, Cavaillé-Coll designed a large but never-built pipe organ for Saint Peter's Basilica, where a 1/10 scale model is preserved.
In Denmark
Copenhagen, Denmark: Jesus Church (1890)
In Russia
thumb|right|300px|Organ of the Grand Hall of the Moscow Conservatory
Moscow, Russia: Bolshoi Hall of Moscow Conservatory, Russia (installed by Charles Mutin)
In Latin America
In Venezuela
Caracas: Iglesia de la Parroquia San Francisco. Used for regular service.
Caracas: Iglesia de la Parroquia Altagracia (Inoperative)
Caracas: Iglesia de la Parroquia Santa Teresa. Used for regular service.
Caracas: Iglesia de la Parroquia San José (In a delicate situation)
Caracas: Parroquia La Encarnación del Valle. After several decades of silence, it's been played regularly since in 2011.
Los Teques: Catedral (Inoperative)
In Brazil
Belém: Catedral da Sé (1882)
Campinas: Catedral Metropolitana (1883)
Campo Largo: Igreja Matriz de Nossa Senhora da Piedade (1892)
Itu: Igreja Matriz Nossa Senhora da Candelária (1882)
Jundiaí: Catedral de Nossa Senhora do Desterro (1895)
Lorena: Catedral Nossa Senhora da Piedade (1889)
Rio de Janeiro: Igreja Nossa Senhora do Carmo da Lapa (1898)
Rio de Janeiro: Capela do Colégio Sion do Cosme Velhos (Mutin)
Rio de Janeiro: Igreja de Nossa Senhora de Bonsucesso (Mutin)
Rio de Janeiro: Capela da Santa Casa (1882)
Salvador: Igreja da Ordem Terceira do Carmo (1888)
São Paulo: Igreja de São José do Ipiranga (1863)
São Paulo: Igreja do Senhor Bom Jesus do Brás (1875)
In Mexico
Mazatlán, Mexico: Catedral Basílica de la Inmaculada Concepción
In Chile
Valparaíso, Chile: Iglesia de los Sagrados Corazones (French Fathers Church) (1872)
In Argentina
Most of the instruments in this list were sold and installed by Mutin-Cavaillé Coll, successor of Cavaillé Coll business after his death in 1899. Argentina was a strong demander of pipe organs in the first decades of XXth century, in such degree that the company installed a branch in Buenos Aires city at that time, with two shops: one located in street Estados Unidos number 3199, the other one in street 24 de Noviembre number 884.
Lujan, Basilica de Lujan
Basílica del Santísimo Sacramento (1912)
Capilla del Colegio "La Salle" (1926)
Iglesia de San Juan Bautista (ca. 1920)
Basílica del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (ca. 1906)
Basílica de San Nicolás de Bari (órgano principal)
Basílica de San Nicolás de Bari (órgano de la cripta)
Capilla de la "Casa de la empleada"
Parroquia de "Nuestra Señora del Valle"
Parroquia de "San Martín de Tours" (ca. 1910)
Parroquia de "San Cristobal"
Catedral de San Isidro (1906)
Parroquia de "Nuestra Señora de Aránzazu" (San Fernando) (1907)
Parroquia de "San Francisco Solano" (Bella Vista) (1906)
In Costa Rica
Parroquia Inmaculada Concepción (Heredia) (ca. 1904)
Parroquia Nuestra Señora de la Soledad (San José) (ca. 1906)
In Asia
Fuji, Japan: Haus Sonnenschein
Beijing, China: Beitang (in regular use through at least 1938)
Asteroid
Cavaillé-Coll's name was given to an asteroid: 5184 Cavaillé-Coll.
Further reading
Bicknell, Stephen. Cavaillé-Coll's Four Fonds
Cavaillé-Coll, Cécile (1929). Aristide Cavaillé-Coll: Ses Origines, Sa Vie, Ses Oeuvres. Paris: Fischbacher.
Douglass, Fenner (1999). Cavaillé-Coll and the French Romantic Tradition''. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Huybens, Gilbert (1985). Cavaillé-Coll: Liste des travaux exécutés/Werkverzeichnis. Lauffen/Neckar: Orgelbau-Fachverlag Rensch. .
References
External links
Association Aristide Cavaille-Coll
French government Ministry of Culture: Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, Organ Builder
Writings of Aristide Cavaillé-Coll
Category:1811 births
Category:1899 deaths
Category:French pipe organ builders
Category:Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
Category:Musical instrument manufacturing companies of France | {"Name": "Aristide Cavaillé-Coll", "Birth date": "1811 2 4 y", "Birth place": "Montpellier, France", "Death date": "1899 10 13 1811 2 4 y", "Death place": "Paris, France"} |
The Arthur C. Clarke Award is a British award given for the best science fiction novel first published in the United Kingdom during the previous year. It is named after British author Arthur C. Clarke, who gave a grant to establish the award in 1987. The book is chosen by a panel of judges from the British Science Fiction Association, the Science Fiction Foundation, and a third organisation, which is the Sci-Fi-London film festival. The award has been described as "the UK's most prestigious science fiction prize".
Any "full-length" science fiction novel written or translated into English is eligible for the prize, provided that it was first published in the United Kingdom during the prior calendar year. There is no restriction on the nationality of the author, and the publication history of works outside the United Kingdom is not taken into consideration. Books may be submitted for consideration by their publishing company, and, beginning in 2016, self-published titles have been eligible with certain qualifications. An official call for entries is issued to UK publishers every year and members of the judging panel and organisation committee also actively call in titles they would like to see submitted. A title must be actively submitted in order to be considered. The judges form a shortlist of six works that they feel are worthy of consideration, from which they select a winning book. The winner receives an engraved bookend and a prize consisting of a number of pounds sterling equal to the current year, such as £2012 for the year 2012. Prior to 2001, the award was £1000.
During the 35 nomination years, 141 authors have had works nominated, 32 of whom have won. China Miéville has won three times, while Pat Cadigan and Geoff Ryman have won twice each; no other author has won multiple times. Stephen Baxter and Gwyneth Jones have the most nominations, at seven each, and Baxter has the most nominations without winning. Neal Stephenson has won once out of six nominations; Ken MacLeod and Kim Stanley Robinson have also been nominated six times. Paul J. McAuley and Miéville have been nominated five times; McAuley has one win, whereas MacLeod and Robinson have none.
Winners and nominees
In the following table, the years correspond to the date of the ceremony, rather than when the novel was first published. Each year links to the corresponding "year in literature". Entries with a blue background and an asterisk (*) next to the writer's name have won the award; those with a white background are the other nominees on the shortlist.
* Winners
+ YearAuthorNovelPublisherRef. * McClelland & Stewart Victor Gollancz Ltd Eon Victor Gollancz Ltd Stars in My Pocket Like Grains of Sand Grafton Escape Plans Allen & Unwin Futura/Macdonald Queen of the States Green Eyes Chatto & Windus * Faber and Faber Fiasco André Deutsch Publishing Ancient of Days Grafton Aegypt Victor Gollancz Ltd Replay Grafton Gráinne Kerosina Books Memoirs of an Invisible Man Viking UK * Unquenchable Fire Century Publishing Empire of Fear Simon & Schuster UK Philip K. Dick is Dead, Alas Grafton Rumours of Spring Bantam UK Kairos Unwin Hyman Life During Wartime Grafton Whores of Babylon Grafton * Unwin Hyman Century Publishing Arrow Books Desolation Road Bantam UK Soldiers of Paradise Grafton Ivory Century Publishing Neverness Grafton * Take Back Plenty Unwin Hyman Rats and Gargoyles Bantam UK Use of Weapons Macdonald Publishing Red Spider, White Web Morrigan Publications Farewell Horizontal Grafton Pan Books * Synners HarperCollins Eternal Light Victor Gollancz Ltd Raft Grafton White Queen Victor Gollancz Ltd Subterranean Gallery Grafton Headline Publishing Group * Body of Glass Michael Joseph Red Mars HarperCollins UK Hearts, Hands and Voices Victor Gollancz Ltd Destroying Angel Headline Publishing Group Stations of the Tide Legend Publishing Correspondence Lost Futures Grafton Doomsday Book New English Library * Vurt Ringpull Millennium Ammonite Grafton Snow Crash Roc UK Millennium HarperCollins UK * Fools HarperCollins UK Mother of Storms Millennium North Wind Victor Gollancz Ltd Pasquale's Angel Victor Gollancz Ltd Towing Jehovah Arrow Books Alien Influences Millennium * Fairyland Victor Gollancz Ltd Legend Publishing Happy Policeman New English Library HarperCollins UK Simon & Schuster UK Viking UK * Picador Voyage HarperCollins Voyager HarperCollins Voyager Blue Mars HarperCollins Voyager Gibbon's Decline and Fall HarperCollins Voyager Looking for the Mahdi HarperCollins Voyager * Black Swan Titan HarperCollins Voyager Glimmering HarperCollins Voyager Days Phoenix Books Nymphomation Doubleday HarperCollins Voyager * Dreaming in Smoke Millenium Earth Made of Glass Orion Publishing Group Time on My Hands Victor Gollancz Ltd Orbit Books Simon & Schuster UK Cavalcade Millennium * Distraction Millennium Manifold: Time HarperCollins Voyager HarperCollins Voyager Silver Screen Macmillan UK Cryptonomicon Heinemann Millennium * Perdido Street Station Macmillan Publishers Parable of the Talents Ash: A Secret History Victor Gollancz Ltd Cosmonaut Keep Orbit Books Revelation Space Victor Gollancz Ltd Salt Victor Gollancz Ltd * Bold As Love Victor Gollancz Ltd Pashazade Earthlight Fallen Dragon Macmillan Publishers HarperCollins Voyager Mappa Mundi Macmillan Publishers Passage HarperCollins Voyager * Scribner UK Kiln People Orbit Books Light Victor Gollancz Ltd Macmillan Publishers Speed of Dark Orbit Books HarperCollins * Quicksilver Heinemann Coalescent Victor Gollancz Ltd Darwin's Children HarperCollins UK Pattern Recognition Viking Press Midnight Lamp Victor Gollancz Ltd Maul Orbit Books * Iron Council Macmillan Publishers River of Gods Simon & Schuster Cloud Atlas Sceptre Market Forces Victor Gollancz Ltd Jonathan Cape Heinemann * Air Victor Gollancz Ltd Learning the World Orbit Books Pushing Ice Victor Gollancz Ltd Never Let Me Go Faber and Faber Accelerando Orbit Books Banner of Souls Tor UK * Nova Swing Victor Gollancz Ltd End of the World Blues Victor Gollancz Ltd Oh Pure and Radiant Heart Heinemann Hav Faber and Faber Gradisil Victor Gollancz Ltd Streaking PS Publishing * Black Man Victor Gollancz Ltd Snowbooks Faber and Faber Canongate Books Orbit Books Faber and Faber * Song of Time PS Publishing Victor Gollancz Ltd House of Suns Victor Gollancz Ltd Anathem Atlantic Books HarperCollins Martin Martin’s on the Other Side Jonathan Cape * Macmillan Publishers Spirit: The Princess of Bois Dormant Victor Gollancz Ltd Yellow Blue Tibia Victor Gollancz Ltd Galileo's Dream HarperCollins Far North Faber and Faber Retribution Falls Victor Gollancz Ltd * Zoo City Angry Robot Monsters of Men Walker Books Victor Gollancz Ltd Generosity: An Enhancement Atlantic Books Declare Corvus Books Lightborn Orbit Books * Sandstone Press Hull Zero Three Victor Gollancz Ltd HarperCollins Voyager Embassytown Macmillan Publishers Rule 34 Orbit Books Victor Gollancz Ltd * Dark Eden Corvus 2312 Orbit Books Angelmaker Heinemann Headline Publishing Group Intrusion Orbit Books Nod Bluemoose Books * Ancillary Justice Orbit Books God's War Del Rey Books Victor Gollancz Ltd Nexus Angry Robot Victor Gollancz Ltd Blue Door * Station Eleven Picador Canongate Books Europe in Autumn Solaris Books Orbit Books Orbit Books Memory of Water HarperVoyager * Children of Time Tor Books Hodder & Stoughton Europe at Midnight Solaris Books Hodder & Stoughton Arcadia Faber and Faber Way Down Dark Hodder & Stoughton * Fleet Publishing Hodder & Stoughton Ninefox Gambit Solaris Books After Atlas Roc Books Occupy Me Gollancz Books Central Station PS Publishing * 47North American War Picador Borne HarperCollins Gather the Daughters Tinder Press Sea of Rust Gollancz Books Spaceman of Bohemia Sceptre * Rosewater Orbit Books Semiosis HarperVoyager Revenant Gun Solaris Books Frankenstein in Baghdad Oneworld Publications Simon and Schuster Unsung Stories * Hogarth Press Cage of Souls Head of Zeus Tor Books, Titan Books Hachette Saga Press, Angry Robot Tor Books * Scribe Canongate Books Titan Books Vagabonds Head of Zeus Edge of Heaven NewCon Press Chilling Effect Orbit Books * Picador Tor UK Faber and Faber Canongate Books Skyward Inn Solaris Books Wergen: The Alien Love War NewCon Press * Hodder & Stoughton Unsung Stories Bloomsbury Michael Joseph Gollancz Books Gollancz Books
References
External links
Category:1987 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:Arthur C. Clarke
Category:Awards established in 1987
Category:British fiction awards
Category:British speculative fiction awards
Category:English literary awards
Category:Lists of speculative fiction-related award winners and nominees
Category:Science fiction awards | {"Awarded for": "The best science fiction novel published in the United Kingdom in the prior calendar year", "Presented by": "British Science Fiction Association, Science Fiction Foundation, Sci-Fi-London", "Country": "United Kingdom", "First awarded": "1987", "Website": "www.clarkeaward.com"} |
Rhett Butler (Born in 1828) is a fictional character in the 1936 novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell and in the 1939 film adaptation of the same name. It is one of Clark Gable's most recognizable and significant roles.
Role
Rhett's personality is that of a cynical, charming, and mocking philanderer. He frequently declares that he has no honor, though he respects those he considers true gentlemen or ladies. He often thinks the worst of Scarlett, even as he admires and loves her. During their first meeting, he says she is no lady, just as he is no gentleman. He often mocks her attempts to be gentle, kind, or ladylike, believing it doesn't suit her, and encourages her scheming ways, even as he despises them. He presents a fickle and dapper front, saying things he doesn't mean and causing Scarlett to misunderstand him. His constant, defensive teasing causes her to distrust his true intentions, even when she manages to perceive them. In turn, he does not recognize that Scarlett uses charm and acid to protect herself, rather than out of malicious intent.
As the novel begins, Rhett is first mentioned at the Twelve Oaks Plantation barbecue, the home of John Wilkes and his son Ashley and daughters Honey and India Wilkes. The novel describes Rhett as "a visitor from Charleston", a black sheep who was expelled from West Point and is not received by any family with a reputation in the whole of Charleston, and perhaps all of South Carolina. He is considerably older than the 16-year-old Scarlett, being about 32-33 at the time, and has made a name for himself as a wealthy scoundrel and professional gambler. Rhett witnesses Scarlett's young confession to Ashley at the plantation barbecue and is immediately attracted to her boldness in breaking social conventions and her beauty. Rhett mocks Scarlett over her confession, which causes a lasting negative impression.
After Scarlett is widowed for the first time, Rhett makes significant headway in gaining her favor by showering a depressed and isolated-in-mourning Scarlett with attention, though he tells her he isn't going to marry her and keeps her flirtatious advances at arm's length. She requests that he help her return to Tara with her family in order to wait out the war. However, partway on the dangerous journey, his convoluted convictions lead him to give her a kiss and a gun before he abandons her on the road in order to enlist in the doomed American Civil war. Following, Scarlett undergoes one of the most significant and traumatizing times in her life without support, facing starvation, disease, and violence as she becomes the sole support for her family.
During the war, Rhett's wealth and influence balloon as he acts as a smuggler and blockade runner, often in and out of prison. Southern society marks him as an outsider, though they are occasionally charmed by him. An impoverished and desperate Scarlett seeks him out to request a loan of $300 to save Tara, and after leading her in circles to see how much she'd be willing to debase herself for the funds, including her offering to be his mistress (to which he replies she wouldn't be worth that much) reveals he was never going to lend her the money, lacking sufficient liquid assets. Scarlett is furious and humiliated. In response, Scarlett convinces Frank Kennedy, her sister Suellen's beau, to marry her instead in order to save her family, since her sister intended to abandon the family and enjoy Frank's wealth.
Rhett is upset, since he actually was going to lend her the money once out of prison, and later praises her scheming and ability to steal her newest husband from under her sister's nose. During this time, Rhett admires that Scarlett makes ventures as a businesswoman, running and expanding Frank's businesses, but deplores her hard-nosed and miserly tactics, which earn her few fans, and does not understand her all-consuming need to hoard money.
Her unladylike and brutal business behavior causes Scarlett to be attacked in shanty town, and when her husband, Frank, dies during a retaliatory Ku Klux Klan raid, Rhett saves Ashley Wilkes and several others by alibiing them to the Yankee captain, a man with whom he has played cards on several occasions. Though he blames her for the death of her husband, Rhett laughs at Scarlett's sincere fears that she's going to hell for her role in Frank's life and death, and proposes to the newly-widowed Scarlett, saying he always knew he'd have her, one way or another, and she should marry him for fun and their physical compatibility.
Scarlett agrees, though only for his money. In the novel, Rhett's fortune is estimated at $50,000,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) Rhett secretly hopes that Scarlett will eventually return the love he's had since the day he saw her at Twelve Oaks. But, Rhett is also determined not to show Scarlett he loves her, believing those who love Scarlett become wretched, and the pair have volcanic arguments from the start of their marriage.
Rhett's jealousy over Scarlett's continuing affection for Ashley Wilkes becomes a problem for the couple, however, as well as their low opinions of each other. Scarlett does not view Rhett as a gentleman or good person and resents that he does not see her as a lady. She does not believe or trust that he loves her, and often uses her idealized infatuation with the gentlemanly Ashley Wilkes to comfort herself from the worldly, and frequently flippant, Rhett. Rhett views her money-grubbiness as tacky, loathes the position Ashley continues to play in her heart, and is unable to sway her hardened affections with his sardonic teasing. Still, Rhett completely adores their daughter, Bonnie. Rhett is an infatuated and doting father, showering his daughter with the affection Scarlett will not accept from him, which further isolates him from his wife.
In contrast with his wife, Rhett forms a genuinely warm and fond friendship with Melanie Wilkes, Ashley Wilke's wife, and Scarlett's only friend, whom he considers a rare, true 'lady', and often performs acts of service for her and relies on her for consolation. He also continues his shadier associations, much to Scarlett's displeasure and suspicion.
The Butlers' marriage becomes tattered and eventually wrecked by scandal, the death of their daughter, an accident where Rhett causes Scarlett to tumble down the stairs and miscarry, and the final nail in the coffin, the death of Melanie, Ashley's wife. Melanie makes Scarlett promise to care for Ashley after she's gone and speaks of how much Rhett loves Scarlett. Rhett, believing Scarlett has never loved him and will jump at the chance to marry the now free and receptive Ashley, becomes apathetic to Scarlett's declarations to the contrary. Tired of it all, Rhett walks out of his marriage, seeking to abandon everything to find something left of "charm and grace" in the world.
Character
In the course of the novel, Rhett becomes increasingly enamored with Scarlett's sheer will to survive in the chaos surrounding the war. The novel contains several pieces of information about him that do not appear in the film. After being disowned by his family (mainly by his father), he became a professional gambler, and at one point was involved in the California Gold Rush, where he ended up getting a scar on his stomach in a knife fight. He seems to love his mother and his sister Rosemary, but has an adversarial relationship with his father which is never resolved. He also has a younger brother who is never named, and a sister-in-law (both of whom he has little respect or regard for), who owns a rice plantation. Rhett is the guardian of a little boy who attends boarding school in New Orleans; it is speculated among readers that this boy is Belle Watling's son (whom Belle mentions briefly to Melanie), and perhaps Rhett's illegitimate son as well.
Despite being thrown out of West Point, the Rhett of the novel is obviously very well-educated, referencing everything from Shakespeare to classical history to German philosophy. He also has an extensive knowledge of women, both physically and psychologically, which Scarlett does not consider to be "decent" (but nonetheless considers fascinating). Rhett has tremendous respect and gradually gains affection for Melanie as a friend, but very little for Ashley. Rhett's understanding of human nature extends to children as well, and he is a much better parent to Scarlett's children from her previous marriages than she is herself; he has a particular affinity with her son Wade, even before Wade is his stepson. When Bonnie is born Rhett showers her with the attention that Scarlett will no longer allow him to give to her and is a devoted, even doting and overindulgent, father.
Rhett also decides to join in the Confederate Army but only after its defeat at Atlanta, and when the "cause", as it were, was clearly understood by a man of his perception to be truly lost. This facet of the character is completely at odds with the worldly and wise predictor of Southern defeat on the eve of hostilities. Rhett has known and believed (and has said so publicly) the South is doomed to lose. And he has risked neither his life nor his fortune for the cause of the South, when to have done so at the beginning of the war might have been worth the risk to establish a new nation.
In both of the official sequels, Scarlett (1991) by Alexandra Ripley and Rhett Butler's People (2007) by Donald McCaig, and in the unofficial Winds of Tara by Kate Pinotti, Scarlett succeeds in getting Rhett back.
Family
Rhett is the eldest child. In Gone with the Wind only his younger sister Rosemary is named; his brother and sister-in-law are mentioned very briefly, but not by name. In the sequel Scarlett by Alexandra Ripley, the Butler parents are called Steven and Eleanor, the younger brother is Ross. In this sequel Rhett marries Anne Hampton after divorcing Scarlett and he reunites with Scarlett only after Anne dies. He and Scarlett have a second daughter called Katie "Cat".
In the authorized prequel and sequel Rhett Butler's People his parents are called Langston and Elizabeth, his brother is Julian. In this novel Belle Watling's son plays an important role; in the end he is revealed to be another man's son even though he believed Rhett was his father.
Searching for Rhett
In the 1939 film version of Gone with the Wind, for the role of Rhett Butler, Clark Gable was an almost immediate favorite for both the public and producer David O. Selznick (except for Gable himself). But as Selznick had no male stars under long-term contract, he needed to go through the process of negotiating to borrow an actor from another studio. Gary Cooper was thus Selznick's first choice, because Cooper's contract with Samuel Goldwyn involved a common distribution company, United Artists, with which Selznick had an eight-picture deal. However, Goldwyn remained noncommittal in negotiations.
Warner Bros. offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for the lead roles in return for the distribution rights. When Gary Cooper turned down the role of Rhett Butler, he was passionately against it. He was quoted saying, "Gone With The Wind is going to be the biggest flop in Hollywood history. I’m glad it’ll be Clark Gable who’s falling flat on his nose, not Gary Cooper".Paul Donnelley (June 1, 2003). Fade To Black: A Book Of Movie Obituaries, 2nd Edition. Omnibus Press. But by then Selznick was determined to get Clark Gable, and eventually found a way to borrow him from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Selznick's father-in-law, MGM chief Louis B. Mayer, offered in May 1938 to fund half of the movie's budget in return for a powerful package: 50% of the profits would go to MGM, the movie's distribution would be credited to MGM's parent company, Loew's, Inc., and Loew's would receive 15 percent of the movie's gross income.
Selznick accepted this offer in August, and Gable was cast. But the arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until Selznick International completed its eight-picture contract with United Artists. Gable was reluctant to play the role. At the time, he was wary of potentially disappointing a public who had formed a clear impression of the character that he might not necessarily convey in his performance.
Adaptations and sequels
In the 1939 film adaptation, Rhett was played by Clark Gable. Despite his initial reservations about playing the role, Gable ultimately enjoyed playing the part. His performance is highly critically acclaimed (as is the film generally), is considered the definitive portrayal of the character and he was nominated for Best Actor, although did not win.
In the Scarlett TV mini-series produced in 1994 (based on the above sequel novel), Rhett was played by Timothy Dalton.
In the musical production by Takarazuka Revue, Rhett had been played by several top stars of the group, including Yūki Amami (currently a film/TV actress), Yu Todoroki (currently one of the directors of the group) and Youka Wao (former leading male role of the Cosmo Troup that retired from the group in July 2006).
Alice Randall's 2001 novel The Wind Done Gone is either a parallel historical novel, or (after litigation) a parody. It is told from the slave point of view.
Donald McCaig's 2007 novel Rhett Butler's People is told from Rhett Butler's perspective.
In the 2008 Margaret Martin musical Gone with the Wind, the role of Rhett Butler was originated by Darius Danesh.
Reception
Michael Sragow of Entertainment Weekly compared Butler to James Bond, arguing that both characters share an analytical sense, are good at seducing "ambivalent" women, and are "masters of maneuvering behind enemy lines".Patterson, Troy, Ty Burr, and Stephen Whitty. "Gone With the Wind." (video review) Entertainment Weekly. October 23, 1998. Retrieved on December 23, 2013. This document has three separate reviews of the film, one per author. He also stated that "007's erotic quips follow straight from Rhett's verbal jousts with Scarlett."
References
Category:Fictional American Civil War veterans
Category:Fictional businesspeople
Category:Fictional characters from South Carolina
Category:Literary characters introduced in 1936
Category:Fictional gamblers
Category:Fictional people of the Confederate States of America
Category:Fictional rapists
Category:Fictional socialites
Category:Fictional soldiers
Category:Gone with the Wind characters
Category:Male characters in film
Category:Male characters in literature
sv:Rhett Butler | {"First appearance": "Gone with the Wind", "Last appearance": "Rhett Butler's People", "Created by": "Margaret Mitchell", "Portrayed by": "Clark Gable\n Timothy Dalton", "Gender": "Male", "Family": "Steven Butler (father, named in Scarlett; deceased)Eleanor Butler (mother, named in Scarlett)Rosemary Butler (sister)Ross Butler (brother, named in Scarlett)Margaret Butler (sister-in-law, named in Scarlett)", "Children": "Wade Hampton Hamilton (stepson)Ella Lorena Kennedy (stepdaughter)Eugenie Victoria \"Bonnie Blue\" Butler (daughter with Scarlett; deceased)Unborn child (second child with Scarlett; deceased)Katie Colum \"Cat\" Butler (daughter with Scarlett in Scarlett)Unborn child (child with Anne; deceased)", "Relatives": "Gerald O'Hara (father-in-law, deceased)Ellen O'Hara (née Robillard) (mother-in-law, deceased)Susan Elinor \"Suellen\" Benteen (née O'Hara) (sister-in-law)Caroline Irene \"Carreen\" O'Hara (sister-in-law)Gerald O'Hara Jr. (name of 3 brothers-in-law, all deceased)Will Benteen (brother-in-law)Susie Benteen (niece-in-law)Pauline Robillard (aunt-in-law)Carey Smith (uncle-in-law; Pauline's husband)Eulalie Smith (née Robillard) (aunt-in-law)James O'Hara (uncle-in-law)Andrew O'Hara (uncle-in-law)Pierre Robillard (maternal grandfather-in-law)Solange Robillard (née Prudhomme) (maternal grandmother-in-law; deceased)"} |
Autodesk 3ds Max, formerly 3D Studio and 3D Studio Max, is a professional 3D computer graphics program for making 3D animations, models, games and images. It is developed and produced by Autodesk Media and Entertainment."Autodesk | 3D Design, Engineering & Entertainment Software"' November 21, 2013 It has modeling capabilities and a flexible plugin architecture and must be used on the Microsoft Windows platform. It is frequently used by video game developers, many TV commercial studios, and architectural visualization studios. It is also used for movie effects and movie pre-visualization. 3ds Max features shaders (such as ambient occlusion and subsurface scattering), dynamic simulation, particle systems, radiosity, normal map creation and rendering, global illumination, a customizable user interface, and its own scripting language."Autodesk 3ds Max — Detailed Features" , March 25, 2008
History
The original 3D Studio product was created for the DOS platform by the Yost Group, and published by Autodesk. The release of 3D Studio made Autodesk's previous 3D rendering package AutoShade obsolete. After 3D Studio DOS Release 4, the product was rewritten for the Windows NT platform, and renamed "3D Studio MAX". This version was also originally created by the Yost Group. It was released by Kinetix, which was at that time Autodesk's division of media and entertainment.
Autodesk purchased the product at the second release update of the 3D Studio MAX version and internalized development entirely over the next two releases. Later, the product name was changed to "3ds max" (all lower case) to better comply with the naming conventions of Discreet, a Montreal-based software company which Autodesk had purchased.
When it was re-released (release 7), the product was again branded with the Autodesk logo, and the short name was again changed to "3ds Max" (upper and lower case), while the formal product name became the current "Autodesk 3ds Max".
Version history
Version Codename Year Operating system Hardware platform 3D Studio Prototype THUD 1988MS-DOS 16-bit x86 originally32-bit x86 using DOS extender 3D Studio THUD 1990 3D Studio 2 1992 3D Studio 3 1993 3D Studio 4 1994 3D Studio MAX 1.0 Jaguar 1996Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0IA-32 3D Studio MAX R2 Athena 1997Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 3D Studio MAX R3 Shiva 1999 Discreet 3dsmax 4 Magma 2000Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000 Discreet 3dsmax 5 Luna 2002 Windows 98, Windows 2000 and Windows XP Discreet 3dsmax 6 Granite 2003 Windows 2000 and Windows XP Discreet 3dsmax 7 Catalyst 2004 Autodesk 3ds Max 8 Vesper 2005 Autodesk 3ds Max 9 Makalu 2006IA-32 and x64 Autodesk 3ds Max 2008 Gouda 2007Windows XP and Windows Vista Autodesk 3ds Max 2009 Johnson 2008 Autodesk 3ds Max 2010 Renoir 2009 Autodesk 3ds Max 2011 Zelda 2010Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 Autodesk 3ds Max 2012 Excalibur / Rampage 2011 Autodesk 3ds Max 2013 SimCity 2012Windows XP and Windows 7 Autodesk 3ds Max 2014 Tekken 2013Windows 7x64 Autodesk 3ds Max 2015 Elwood 2014Windows 7 and Windows 8 Autodesk 3ds Max 2016 Phoenix 2015Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 Autodesk 3ds Max 2017 Kirin 2016Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10 Autodesk 3ds Max 2018 Imoogi 2017Autodesk 3ds Max 2019Neptune2018 Autodesk 3ds Max 2020Athena2019 Autodesk 3ds Max 2021Theseus2020Windows 10 and Windows 11System requirements for Autodesk 3ds Max 2023 | 3ds Max 2023 | Autodesk Knowledge NetworkAutodesk 3ds Max 2022Heimdall2021Autodesk 3ds Max 2023Vesta2022Autodesk 3ds Max 2024Olympus2023
Features
MAXScript
MAXScript is a built-in scripting language that can be used to automate repetitive tasks, combine existing functionality in new ways, develop new tools and user interfaces, and much more. Plugin modules can be created entirely within MAXScript.
Character Studio
Character Studio was a plugin which since version 4 of Max is now integrated in 3ds Max; it helps users to animate virtual characters. The system works using a character rig or "Biped" skeleton which has stock settings that can be modified and customized to fit the character meshes and animation needs. This tool also includes robust editing tools for IK/FK switching, Pose manipulation, Layers and Keyframing workflows, and sharing of animation data across different Biped skeletons. These "Biped" objects have other useful features that help accelerate the production of walk cycles and movement paths, as well as secondary motion.
Scene Explorer
Scene Explorer, a tool that provides a hierarchical view of scene data and analysis, facilitates working with more complex scenes. Scene Explorer has the ability to sort, filter, and search a scene by any object type or property (including metadata). Added in 3ds Max 2008, it was the first component to facilitate .NET managed code in 3ds Max outside of MAXScript.
DWG import
3ds Max supports both import and linking of .dwg files. Improved memory management in 3ds Max 2008 enables larger scenes to be imported with multiple objects.
Texture assignment/editing
3ds Max offers operations for creative texture and planar mapping, including tiling, mirroring, decals, angle, rotate, blur, UV stretching, and relaxation; Remove Distortion; Preserve UV; and UV template image export. The texture workflow includes the ability to combine an unlimited number of textures, a material/map browser with support for drag-and-drop assignment, and hierarchies with thumbnails. UV workflow features include Pelt mapping, which defines custom seams and enables users to unfold UVs according to those seams; copy/paste materials, maps and colors; and access to quick mapping types (box, cylindrical, spherical).
General keyframing
Two keying modes — set key and auto key — offer support for different keyframing workflows.
Fast and intuitive controls for keyframing — including cut, copy, and paste — let the user create animations with ease. Animation trajectories may be viewed and edited directly in the viewport.
Constrained animation
Objects can be animated along curves with controls for alignment, banking, velocity, smoothness, and looping, and along surfaces with controls for alignment. Weight path-controlled animation between multiple curves, and animate the weight. Objects can be constrained to animate with other objects in many ways — including look at, orientation in different coordinate spaces, and linking at different points in time. These constraints also support animated weighting between more than one target.
All resulting constrained animation can be collapsed into standard keyframes for further editing.
Skinning
Either the Skin or Physique modifier may be used to achieve precise control of skeletal deformation, so the character deforms smoothly as joints are moved, even in the most challenging areas, such as shoulders. Skin deformation can be controlled using direct vertex weights, volumes of vertices defined by envelopes, or both. Capabilities such as weight tables, paintable weights, and saving and loading of weights offer easy editing and proximity-based transfer between models, providing the accuracy and flexibility needed for complicated characters.
The rigid bind skinning option is useful for animating low-polygon models or as a diagnostic tool for regular skeleton animation.
Additional modifiers, such as Skin Wrap and Skin Morph, can be used to drive meshes with other meshes and make targeted weighting adjustments in tricky areas.
Skeletons and inverse kinematics (IK)
Characters can be rigged with custom skeletons using 3ds Max bones, IK solvers, and rigging tools powered by Motion Capture Data.
All animation tools — including expressions, scripts, list controllers, and wiring — can be used along with a set of utilities specific to bones to build rigs of any structure and with custom controls, so animators see only the UI necessary to get their characters animated. Four plug-in IK solvers ship with 3ds Max: history-independent solver, history-dependent solver, limb solver, and spline IK solver. These powerful solvers reduce the time it takes to create high-quality character animation. The history-independent solver delivers smooth blending between IK and FK animation and uses preferred angles to give animators more control over the positioning of affected bones. The history-dependent solver can solve within joint limits and is used for machine-like animation. IK limb is a lightweight two-bone solver, optimized for real-time interactivity, ideal for working with a character arm or leg. Spline IK solver provides a flexible animation system with nodes that can be moved anywhere in 3D space. It allows for efficient animation of skeletal chains, such as a character's spine or tail, and includes easy-to-use twist and roll controls.
Integrated Cloth solver
In addition to reactor's cloth modifier, 3ds Max software has an integrated cloth-simulation engine that enables the user to turn almost any 3D object into clothing and even build garments from scratch. Collision solving is fast and accurate even in complex simulations. Local simulation lets artists drape cloth in real time to set up an initial clothing state before setting animation keys.
Cloth simulations can be used in conjunction with other 3ds Max dynamic forces, such as Space Warps. Multiple independent cloth systems can be animated with their own objects and forces. Cloth deformation data can be cached to the hard drive to allow for nondestructive iterations and to improve playback performance.
Integration with Autodesk Vault
Autodesk Vault plug-in, which ships with 3ds Max, consolidates users' 3ds Max assets in a single location, enabling them to automatically track files and manage work in progress. Users can easily and safely find, share, and reuse 3ds Max (and design) assets in a large-scale production or visualization environment.
Max Creation Graph
Introduced with Max 2016, Max Creation Graph (MCG) enables users to create modifiers, geometry, and utility plug-ins using a visual node-based workflow.
With MCG the user can create a new plug-in for 3ds Max in minutes by simply wiring together parameter nodes, computation nodes, and output nodes. The resulting graph can then be saved in an XML file (.maxtool) or be packaged with any compounds (.maxcompound) it depends on in a ZIP file (.mcg) which can be shared easily with 3ds Max users.
Adoption
Many films have made use of 3ds Max, or previous versions of the program under previous names, in CGI animation, such as Avatar and 2012, which contain computer generated graphics from 3ds Max alongside live-action acting. Mudbox was also used in the final texturing of the set and characters in Avatar, with 3ds Max and Mudbox being closely related.
3ds Max has been used in the development of 3D computer graphics for a number of video games.
Architectural and engineering design firms use 3ds Max for developing concept art and previsualization.
Educational programs at secondary and tertiary level use 3ds Max in their courses on 3D computer graphics and computer animation. Students in the FIRST competition for 3d animation are known to use 3ds Max.
Modeling techniques
Polygon modeling
Polygon modeling is more common with game design than any other modeling technique as the very specific control over individual polygons allows for extreme optimization. Usually, the modeler begins with one of the 3ds max primitives, and using such tools as bevel and extrude, adds detail to and refines the model. Versions 4 and up feature the Editable Polygon object, which simplifies most mesh editing operations, and provides subdivision smoothing at customizable levels (see NURMS).
Version 7 introduced the edit poly modifier, which allows the use of the tools available in the editable polygon object to be used higher in the modifier stack (i.e., on top of other modifications).
NURBS in 3ds Max is a legacy feature. None of the features have been updated since version 4 and have been ignored by the development teams over the past decade. For example, the updated path deform and the updated normalize spline modifiers in version 2018 do not work on NURBS curves anymore as they did in previous versions.
NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational Based-Splines)
An alternative to polygons, it gives a smoothed out surface that eliminates the straight edges of a polygon model. NURBS is a mathematically exact representation of freeform surfaces like those used for car bodies and ship hulls, which can be exactly reproduced at any resolution whenever needed. With NURBS, a smooth sphere can be created with only one face.
The non-uniform property of NURBS brings up an important point. Because they are generated mathematically, NURBS objects have a parameter space in addition to the 3D geometric space in which they are displayed. Specifically, an array of values called knots specifies the extent of influence of each control vertex (CV) on the curve or surface. Knots are invisible in 3D space and can't be manipulated directly, but occasionally their behavior affects the visible appearance of the NURBS object. Parameter space is one-dimensional for curves, which have only a single U dimension topologically, even though they exist geometrically in 3D space. Surfaces have two dimensions in parameter space, called U and V."NURBS Curves and Surfaces", November 22, 2013
NURBS curves and surfaces have the important properties of not changing under the standard geometric affine transformations (Transforms), or under perspective projections. The CVs have local control of the object: moving a CV or changing its weight does not affect any part of the object beyond the neighboring CVs. (This property can be overridden by using the Soft Selection controls). Also, the control lattice that connects CVs surrounds the surface. This is known as the convex hull property.
Surface tool/editable patch object
Surface tool was originally a 3rd party plugin, but Kinetix acquired and included this feature since version 3.0. The surface tool is for creating common 3ds Max splines, and then applying a modifier called "surface." This modifier makes a surface from every three or four vertices in a grid. It is often seen as an alternative to "mesh" or "nurbs" modeling, as it enables a user to interpolate curved sections with straight geometry (for example a hole through a box shape). Although the surface tool is a useful way to generate parametrically accurate geometry, it lacks the "surface properties" found in the similar Edit Patch modifier, which enables a user to maintain the original parametric geometry whilst being able to adjust "smoothing groups" between faces.
Predefined primitives
This is a basic method, in which one models something using only boxes, spheres, cones, cylinders and other predefined objects from the list of Predefined Standard Primitives or a list of Predefined Extended Primitives. One may also apply boolean operations, including subtract, cut and connect. For example, one can make two spheres which will work as blobs that will connect with each other. These are called metaballs."Metaballs/Blobby Objects", November 22, 2013
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Selection of Standard Primitives in 3ds Max 9.png
| caption1 = 3ds Max Standard Primitives: Box (top right), Cone (top center), Pyramid (top left), Sphere (bottom left), Tube (bottom center) and Geosphere (bottom right)
| alt1 = 3ds Max Standard Primitives
| image2 = Selection of Extended Primitives in 3ds Max 9.png
| caption2 = 3ds Max Extended Primitives: Torus Knot (top left), ChamferCyl (top center), Hose (top right), Capsule (bottom left), Gengon (bottom, second from left), OilTank (bottom, second from right) and Prism (bottom right)
| alt2 = 3ds Max Extended Primitives
| header = Some of the 3ds Max Primitives as they appear in the wireframe view of 3ds Max 9
}}
Standard primitives
Box: Produces a rectangular prism. An alternative variation of box called Cub proportionally constrains the length, width, and height of the box. Cylinder: Produces a cylinder. Torus: Produces a torus - or a ring - with a circular cross section, sometimes referred to as a doughnut. Teapot: Produces a Utah teapot. Since the teapot is a parametric object, the user can choose which parts of the teapot to display after creation. These parts include the body, handle, spout and lid. Primarily used to test shaders (rendering settings). Cone: Produces upright or inverted cones. Sphere: Produces a full sphere, semi-sphere, or other portion of a sphere. Tube: Produces round or prismatic tubes. The tube is similar to the cylinder with a hole in it. Pyramid: Produces a pyramid with a square or rectangular base and triangular sides. Plane: Produces a special type of flat polygon mesh that can be enlarged by any amount at render time. The user can specify factors to magnify the size or number of segments or both. Modifiers such as displace can be added to a plane to simulate a hilly terrain. Geosphere: Produces spheres and hemispheres based on three classes of regular polyhedrons.
Extended primitives
Hedra: Produces objects from several families of polyhedra. ChamferBox: Produces a box with beveled or rounded edges. OilTank: Creates a cylinder with convex caps. Spindle: Creates a cylinder with conical caps. Gengon: Creates an extruded, regular-sided polygon with optionally filleted side edges. Prism: Creates a three-sided prism with independently segmented sides. Torus knot: Creates a complex or knotted torus by drawing 2D curves in the normal planes around a 3D curve. The 3D curve (called the Base Curve) can be either a circle or a torus knot. It can be converted from a torus knot object to a NURBS surface. ChamferCyl: Creates a cylinder with beveled or rounded cap edges. Capsule: Creates a cylinder with hemispherical caps. L-Ex: Creates an extruded L-shaped object. C-Ext: Creates an extruded C-shaped object. Hose: Creates a flexible object, similar to a spring.
Rendering
Scanline rendering
The default rendering method in 3ds Max is scanline rendering. Several advanced features have been added to the scanliner over the years, such as global illumination, radiosity, and ray tracing.
ART Renderer
Autodesk Raytracer Renderer (ART) is a CPU-only, physically based renderer for architectural, product, and industrial design renderings and animations. It is integrated into 3ds Max as of version 2017.
Redshift
A third-party GPU-accelerated, biased renderer with plugins for 3ds Max, Cinema 4D, Houdini, Katana and Maya.
Mental Ray
Mental ray is a third-party renderer using bucket rendering, a technique that allows distributing the rendering task for a single image between several computers. Since 3ds Max 2018, mental ray is no longer shipped with 3ds Max and needs to be obtained directly from NVIDIA.
RenderMan
A third party connection tool to RenderMan pipelines is also available for those that need to integrate Max into Renderman render farms. Used by Pixar for rendering several of their CGI animated films.
V-Ray
A third-party render engine plug-in for 3ds Max.
Brazil R/S
A third-party photorealistic rendering system. It is capable of fast ray tracing and global illumination.
Arion
A third party hybrid GPU+CPU interactive, unbiased ray tracer, based on Nvidia CUDA.
Indigo Renderer
A third-party photorealistic renderer with plugins for 3ds Max.
Maxwell Render
A third-party photorealistic rendering system providing materials and unbiased rendering.
Octane Render
A third party unbiased GPU ray tracer with plugins for 3ds Max, based on Nvidia CUDA.
Luxrender
An open-source ray tracer supporting 3ds Max, Cinema 4D, Softimage, and Blender. Focuses on photorealism by simulating real light physics as much as possible.
Arnold
Arnold is an unbiased, physically based, unidirectional path-tracing renderer.
Corona Renderer
Corona Renderer is a modern high-performance (un)biased photorealistic renderer.
Licensing
Earlier versions (up to and including 3D Studio Max R3.1) required a special copy protection device (called a dongle) to be plugged into the parallel port while the program was run, but later versions incorporated software based copy prevention methods instead. Current versions require online registration.
Due to the high price of the commercial version of the program, Autodesk also offers a free student version, which explicitly states that it is to be used for "educational purposes only". The student version has identical features to the full version, but is only for single use and cannot be installed on a network. The student license expires after three years, at which time the user, if they are still a student, may download the latest version, thus renewing the license for another three years.
See also
Comparison of 3D computer graphics software
.3ds
Autodesk Maya
Blender
Cinema 4D
Electric Image Animation System
Adobe After Effects
LightWave 3D
Modo
Cyber Studio
References
External links
Category:Autodesk products
Category:3D graphics software
Category:3D animation software
Category:Proprietary software that uses Qt
Category:Software that uses Qt
Category:1990 software | {"Developer(s)": "Autodesk", "Initial release": "1996 4Toolbox Next Generation 35 Imagine Media November 1997 27 (as 3D Studio MAX)", "Predecessor": "3D Studio", "Available in": "English, German, French, Brazilian Portuguese, Japanese, Chinese, Korean", "Written in": "C, C++, and Python", "Type": "3D computer graphics", "License": "Software as a service, Trialware", "Website": "https://www.autodesk.com/products/3ds-max/overview"} |
thumb|300px|Raiffeisen branch in Bucharest
Raiffeisen Bank is a universal bank on the Romanian market, providing a complete range of products and services to private individuals, SMEs and large corporations via multiple distribution channels: banking outlets (more than 350 throughout the country), ATM and EPOS networks, phone-banking (Raiffeisen Direct) and mobile-banking (myBanking).
History
Raiffeisen Bank Romania has resulted from the merger in June 2002 of the two Raiffeisen Group banks present on the local market Raiffeisenbank (Romania) S.A., established in 1998 as a subsidiary of RZB Austria and Banca Agricola Raiffeisen S.A. established in April 2001, after the take over by RZB Austria of the Romanian state-owned Banca Agricola.
After the privatization, Raiffeisen Bank managed a turnaround - at the end of 2004 it posted a net profit of EUR 28.3 million, six times higher than the one registered in 2003 (EUR 4.6 million). Total assets more than doubled as compared to the previous year, reaching more than EUR 2,000 million. In 2005 the bank continued to implement a significant investment plan focused mainly on the infrastructure and IT&C systems, the modernization of the branch network and extension of ATM and POS networks. The bank services more than 2 million customers.
These results were recognized by well-known foreign and Romanian publications. The British magazine Euromoney awarded Raiffeisen Bank the title “Best investment bank in Romania”, while Global Finance nominated Raiffeisen Bank “Best Bank in Romania” for two years in a row, 2004 and 2005.
On March 20, 2013 it took over the retail credit division of CitiBank Romania.
References
External links
Official Website
Category:Banks of Romania
Category:Raiffeisen Zentralbank
Category:Banks established in 2002
Category:Romanian companies established in 2002 | {"Type": "Bank", "Founded": "1998", "Headquarters": "Bucharest, Romania", "Industry": "Finance", "Products": "Financial Services, Retail Banking", "Parent": "Raiffeisen Bank International", "Website": "http://www.raiffeisen.ro"} |
The BSFA Awards are literary awards presented annually since 1970 by the British Science Fiction Association (BSFA) to honour works in the genre of science fiction. Nominees and winners are chosen based on a vote of BSFA members. More recently, members of the Eastercon convention have also been eligible to vote.
BSFA Award categories
The award originally included only a category for novels. Categories for short works and artists were added in 1980. The category for younger readers was added in 2021. The artists category became artwork in 1986 and a category for related non-fiction was added in 2002. A media category was awarded from 1979 to 1992. The ceremonies are named after the year that the eligible works were published, despite the awards being given out in the next year. The current standard award categories are:
BSFA Award for Best Novel
BSFA Award for Best Short Fiction
BSFA Award for Best Non-Fiction
BSFA Award for Best Artwork
BSFA Award for Best Fiction for Younger Readers
Previous categories:
BSFA Award for Best Media
BSFA Award winners
Year Category Work Author(s) 1969 Novel Stand on Zanzibar John Brunner 1970 Novel The Jagged Orbit John Brunner 1971 Collection The Moment of Eclipse Brian W. Aldiss 1972 No award — insufficient votes. 1973 Novel Rendezvous with Rama Arthur C. Clarke Special Award Billion Year Spree Brian W. Aldiss 1974 Novel Inverted World Christopher Priest 1975 Novel Orbitsville Bob Shaw 1976 Novel Brontomek! Michael G. Coney Special Award A Pictorial History of Science Fiction David Kyle 1977 Novel The Jonah Kit Ian Watson 1978 Novel A Scanner Darkly Philip K. Dick Collection Deathbird Stories Harlan Ellison Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (original radio series) Douglas Adams 1979 Novel The Unlimited Dream Company J. G. Ballard Short "Palely Loitering" Christopher Priest (F&SF) Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Artist Jim Burns 1980 Novel Timescape Gregory Benford Short "The Brave Little Toaster" Thomas M. Disch (F&SF) Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy second radio series Douglas Adams Artist Peter Jones 1981 Novel The Shadow of the Torturer Gene Wolfe Short "Mythago Wood" Robert Holdstock (F&SF) Media Time Bandits film Artist Bruce Pennington 1982 Novel Helliconia Spring Brian W. Aldiss Short "Kitemaster" Keith Roberts (Interzone 1) Media Blade Runner film Artist Tim White 1983Matrix issue 53 (June/July 1984) p1 Novel Tik-Tok John Sladek Short "After-Images" Malcolm Edwards (Interzone 4) Media Android film Artist Bruce Pennington 1984Matrix issue 59 (June/July 1985) pp4-6 Novel Mythago Wood Robert Holdstock Short "The Unconquered Country" Geoff Ryman (Interzone 7) Media The Company of Wolves film Artist Jim Burns 1985Matrix issue 63 (April/May 1986) p1 Novel Helliconia Winter Brian W. Aldiss Short "Cube Root" David Langford (Interzone 11) Media Brazil film Artist Jim Burns 1986Matrix issue 70 (June/July 1987) p4 Novel The Ragged Astronauts Bob Shaw Short "Kaeti and the Hangman" Keith Roberts (in collection Kaeti & Company) Media Aliens film Artist The Clocktower Girl by Keith Roberts 1987Matrix issue 76 (June/July 1988) p7 Novel Grainne Keith Roberts Short "Love Sickness" Geoff Ryman (Interzone 20/21) Media Star Cops television series Artwork Cover of Worldcon Programme Book Jim Burns 1988Matrix issue 82 (June/July 1989) p7 Novel Lavondyss Robert Holdstock Short "Dark Night in Toyland" Bob Shaw (Interzone 26) Media Who Framed Roger Rabbit film Artwork Cover of Lavondyss Alan Lee 1989Matrix issue 88 (June/July 1990) p7 Novel Pyramids Terry Pratchett Short "In Translation" Lisa Tuttle (Zenith) Media Red Dwarf television series Artwork Cover of Other Edens III Jim Burns 1990Matrix issue 94 (June/July 1991) p9 Novel Take Back Plenty Colin Greenland Short "The Original Doctor Shade" Kim Newman (Interzone 36) Media Twin Peaks television series Artist Covers of The Difference Engine and Interzone 40 Ian Miller 1991 Matrix issue 100 (June/July 1992) pp9-10 Novel The Fall of Hyperion Dan Simmons Short "Bad Timing" Molly Brown (Interzone 54) Media Terminator 2: Judgment Day film Artwork Cover of Interzone 45 Mark Harrison 1992Matrix issue 106 (June/July 1993) p3 Novel Red Mars Kim Stanley Robinson Short "Innocents" Ian McDonald (New Worlds 2) Artwork Cover of Hearts, Hands and Voices Jim Burns 1993Matrix issue 111 (April/May 1994) p21 Novel Aztec Century Christopher Evans Short "The Ragthorn" Robert Holdstock and Garry Kilworth (Interzone 74) Artwork Cover for Red Dust by Paul J. McAuley Jim Burns Special AwardThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction ed. John Clute and Peter Nicholls 1994Matrix issue 114 (April/May 1995) p3 Novel Feersum Endjinn Iain M. Banks Short "The Double Felix" Paul di Filippo (Interzone 87) Artist Cover for Interzone 79 Jim Burns 1995Matrix issue 122 (November/December 1996) p7 Novel The Time Ships Stephen Baxter Short "The Hunger and Ecstasy of Vampires" Brian Stableford (shorter version, Interzone 91/92) Artist cover for Seasons of Plenty Jim Burns 1996Matrix issue 125 (May/June 1997) p6 Novel Excession Iain M. Banks Short "A Crab Must Try" Barrington J. Bayley (Interzone 103) Artist cover for Ancient Shores Jim Burns 1997Matrix issue 131 (May/June 1998) p3 Novel The Sparrow Mary Doria Russell Short "War Birds" Stephen Baxter (Interzone 126) Artist 'The Black Blood of the Dead' cover Interzone 116 SMS 1998Matrix issue 137 (May/June 1999) p11 Novel The Extremes Christopher Priest Short "La Cenerentola" Gwyneth Jones (Interzone 136) Artwork 'Lord Prestimion' (cover, Interzone 138) Jim Burns 1999Matrix issue 144 (July/August 2000) p15 Novel The Sky Road Ken MacLeod Short "Hunting the Slarque" Eric Brown (Interzone 141) Artwork Darwinia (cover of Darwinia, Robert Charles Wilson) Jim Burns 2000Matrix issue 149 (May/June 2001) p17 Novel Ash: A Secret History Mary Gentle Short "The Suspect Genome" Peter F. Hamilton (Interzone 156) Artwork Hideaway (Cover, Interzone 157) Dominic Harman 2001Matrix issue 155 (May/June 2002) p20 Novel Chasm City Alastair Reynolds Short Story "Children of Winter" Eric Brown (Interzone 163) Artwork cover of Omegatropic Colin Odell Non-fiction Omegatropic Stephen Baxter 2002Matrix issue 162 (July/August 2003) p4 Novel The Separation Christopher Priest Short Fiction Coraline Neil Gaiman Artwork cover, Interzone 179 Dominic Harman Related Publication Introduction to Maps: The Uncollected John Sladek David Langford 2003Matrix issue 167 (May/June 2004) p4 Novel Felaheen Jon Courtenay Grimwood Short Fiction The Wolves in the Walls Neil Gaiman & Dave McKean Artwork cover, The True Knowledge of Ken MacLeod Colin Odell Non-fiction Reading Science Fiction Farah Mendlesohn 2004 Novel River of Gods Ian McDonald Short Fiction Mayflower II Stephen Baxter Artwork cover, Newton's Wake (US Edition) Stephan Martinière 2005Matrix issue 179 (June/July 2006) p5 Novel Air Geoff Ryman Short Fiction Magic for Beginners Kelly Link Artwork cover, Interzone 200 Pawel Lewandowski Non-fiction Award Soundings: Reviews 1992-1996 Gary K. Wolfe 2006Matrix issue 184 (2007) p5 Novel End of the World Blues Jon Courtenay Grimwood Short Fiction The Djinn's Wife (Asimov's Science Fiction, July 2006) Ian McDonald Artwork Angelbot, cover of Time Pieces Christopher "Fangorn" Baker 2007 Novel Brasyl Ian McDonald Short Fiction Lighting Out Ken MacLeod (disLocations) Artwork Cracked World, cover of disLocations Andy Bigwood 2008 Novel The Night Sessions Ken MacLeod Short Fiction Exhalation Ted Chiang Artwork cover of Subterfuge Andy Bigwood Non-fiction Rhetorics of Fantasy Farah Mendlesohn 2009 Novel The City & the City China Miéville Short Fiction The Beloved Time of Their Lives Ian Watson and Roberto Quaglia Artwork cover of Desolation Road Stephan Martinière Non-fiction Mutant Popcorn Nick Lowe 2010 "BSFA Award 2010 - Winners", accessed on 4 May 2011 Novel The Dervish House Ian McDonald Short Fiction The Ship Maker Aliette de Bodard Artwork cover of Zoo City Joey Hi-Fi Non-Fiction Blogging the Hugos: Decline Paul Kincaid 2011http://www.worldswithoutend.com/blog.asp?view=plink&id=832 "2011 BSFA Award winners announced", accessed on 9 April 2012 Novel The Islanders Christopher Priest Short Fiction The Copenhagen Interpretation Paul Cornell Artwork cover of The Noise Revealed Dominic Harman Non-Fiction The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction 3rd edition John Clute, Peter Nicholls, David Langford and Graham Sleight 2012 Novel Jack Glass Adam Roberts Short Fiction Adrift on the Sea of Rains Ian Sales Artwork cover of Jack Glass Blacksheep Non-Fiction The World SF Blog chief editor Lavie Tidhar 2013http://www.bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-award-winners-announced "BSFA Award winners announced", accessed on 23 April 2014 Novels (tie) Ancillary Justice Ann Leckie Ack-Ack Macaque Gareth L. Powell Short Fiction Spin Nina Allan Artwork cover of Dream London Joey Hi-Fi Non-Fiction Wonderbook Jeff VanderMeer 2014http://www.bsfa.co.uk/the-bsfa-awards-2014-winners-announced/ "The BSFA Awards 2014 Winners Announced", accessed on 10 April 2015 Novel Ancillary Sword Ann Leckie Short Fiction The Honey Trap Ruth E. J. Booth, La Femme Artwork The Wasp Factory after Iain Banks Tessa Farmer Non-Fiction Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers and the First World War Edward James 2015 Novel House of Shattered Wings Aliette de Bodard Short Fiction Three Cups of Grief, by Starlight Aliette de Bodard Artwork cover of Pelquin's Comet Jim Burns Non-Fiction Rave and Let Die: the SF and Fantasy of 2014 Adam Roberts 2016https://bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards-2016-winners-announced/ "BSFA Awards 2016 Winners Announced", accessed on 21 September 2019 Novel Europe in Winter Dave Hutchinson Short Fiction Liberty Bird Jaine Fenn Artwork cover of Central Station Sarah Anne Langton Non-Fiction 100 African Writers of SFF Geoff Ryman 2017 Novel The Rift Nina Allan Short Fiction The Enclave Anne Charnock Artwork (tie) Cover of The Ion Raider Jim Burns Waiting on a Bright Moon Victo Ngai Non-Fiction Iain M. Banks (University of Illinois Press) Paul Kincaid 2018https://bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards-2018-announced/ "BSFA Awards 2018 Announced", accessed on 21 September 2019 Novel Embers of War Gareth L Powell Short Fiction Time Was Ian McDonald Artwork In the Vanishers’ Palace: Dragon I and II Likhain Non-Fiction On motherhood and erasure: people-shaped holes, hollow characters and the illusion of impossible adventures Aliette de Bodard 2019https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RO2uB3E-U0 "BSFA 2019 Awards Announcement", accessed on 17 May 2020 Novel Children of Ruin Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction This is How You Lose the Time War Amal El-Mohtar & Max Gladstone Artwork Cover of Wourism and Other Stories (Luna Press) Chris "Fangorn" Baker Non-Fiction The Pleasant Profession of Robert A. Heinlein Farah Mendlesohn 2020https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Alt55nkjXGI "BSFA 2020 Awards Announcement", accessed on 4 April 2021 Novel The City We Became N. K. Jemisin Short Fiction Infinite Tea in the Demara Cafe Ida Keogh Artwork Shipbuilding Over the Clyde Iain Clark Non-Fiction It's the End of the World: But What Are We Really Afraid Of Adam Roberts 2021https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZT4IPV-b2WE "BSFA 2021 Awards Announcement", accessed on 25 April 2022 Novel Shards of Earth Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction Fireheart Tiger Aliette de Bodard Artwork Glasgow Green Woman Iain Clark Non-Fiction Worlds Apart: Worldbuilding in Fantasy and Science Fiction edited by Francesca T. Barbini Best Book for Younger Readers Iron Widow Xiran Jay Zhao 2022https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oa7AP81YTu8 "BSFA 2022 Awards Announcement", accessed on 8 April 2023 Novel City of Last Chances Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction Of Charms, Ghosts and Grievances Aliette de Bodard Artwork Cover of The Red Scholar's Wake (Gollancz) Alyssa Winans Non-Fiction Terry Pratchett: A Life with Footnotes Rob Wilkins Best Book for Younger Readers Unraveller Frances Hardinge
Notes
See also
Hugo Award
Nebula Award
Locus Award
References
External resources
BSFA website
List of all winning and nominated novels
Category:Awards established in 1970
Category:1970 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:British fiction awards
Category:Science fiction awards | {"Awarded for": "Awarded each year to the best Novel, Short fiction, Artwork and work of Non-Fiction published in the previous calendar year as voted for by the members of the British Science Fiction Association.", "Presented by": "British Science Fiction Association", "Country": "UK", "First awarded": "1970", "Website": "https://www.bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards/"} |
The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was a treaty which was signed on September 27, 1830, and proclaimed on February 24, 1831, between the Choctaw American Indian tribe and the United States Government. This treaty was the first removal treaty which was carried into effect under the Indian Removal Act. The treaty ceded about 11 million acres (45,000 km2) of the Choctaw Nation in what is now Mississippi in exchange for about 15 million acres (61,000 km2) in the Indian territory, now the state of Oklahoma. The principal Choctaw negotiators were Chief Greenwood LeFlore, Mosholatubbee, and Nittucachee; the U.S. negotiators were Colonel John Coffee and Secretary of War John Eaton.
The site of the signing of this treaty is in the southwest corner of Noxubee County; the site was known to the Choctaw as Bok Chukfi Ahilha (creek "bok" rabbit "chukfi" place to dance "a+hilha" or Dancing Rabbit Creek). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was the last major land cession treaty which was signed by the Choctaw. With ratification by the U.S. Congress in 1831, the treaty allowed those Choctaw who chose to remain in Mississippi to become the first major non-European ethnic group to gain recognition as U.S. citizens.
Overview
On August 25, 1830, the Choctaw were supposed to meet with President Andrew Jackson in Franklin, Tennessee, but Greenwood Leflore informed the Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, that the chiefs were fiercely opposed to attending.
The president was upset but, as the journalist Len Green wrote in 1978, "Although angered by the Choctaw refusal to meet him in Tennessee, Jackson felt from LeFlore's words that he might have a foot in the door and dispatched Secretary of War Eaton and John Coffee to meet with the Choctaws in their nation."
Jackson appointed Eaton and General John Coffee as commissioners to represent him to meet the Choctaws where the "rabbits gather to dance."
thumb|300px| The approximate areas where the Choctaw Nation and the United States leaders were seated.
The commissioners met with the chiefs and headmen on September 15, 1830, at Dancing Rabbit Creek.
In a carnival-like atmosphere, the US officials explained the policy of removal through interpreters to an audience of 6,000 men, women and children. The Choctaws faced migration west of the Mississippi River or submitting to U.S. and state law as citizens. The treaty would sign away the remaining traditional homeland to the United States; however, a provision in the treaty made removal more acceptable.
The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was one of the largest land transfers ever signed between the United States Government and American Indians in time of peace. The Choctaw ceded their remaining traditional homeland to the United States. Article 14 allowed for some Choctaw to remain in the state of Mississippi, if they wanted to become citizens:
ART. XIV. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land, to be bounded by sectional lines of survey; in like manner shall be entitled to one half that quantity for each unmarried child which is living with him over ten years of age; and a quarter section to such child as may be under 10 years of age, to adjoin the location of the parent. If they reside upon said lands intending to become citizens of the States for five years after the ratification of this Treaty, in that case a grant in fee simple shall issue; said reservation shall include the present improvement of the head of the family, or a portion of it. Persons who claim under this article shall not lose the privilege of a Choctaw citizen, but if they ever remove are not to be entitled to any portion of the Choctaw annuity.
The Choctaw were the first of the "Five Civilized Tribes" to be removed from the southeastern United States, as the federal and state governments desired Indian lands to accommodate a growing agrarian American society. Nearly 15,000 Choctaws together with 1,000 slaves made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma. The population transfer occurred in three migrations during the 1831-33 period including the devastating winter blizzard of 1830-31 and the cholera epidemic of 1832. About 2,500 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000-6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts. For the next ten years those that remained were objects of increasing legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaw that migrated, like the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole who followed them, attempted to resurrect their traditional lifestyle and government in their new homeland.
The Choctaw at this crucial time became two distinct groups: the Nation in Oklahoma and the Tribe in Mississippi. The nation retained its autonomy to regulate itself, but the tribe left in Mississippi had to submit to state and U.S. laws. Under article XIV, the Mississippi Choctaws became one of the first major non-European ethnic group to gain U.S. citizenship.
The Choctaw sought to elect a representative to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Terms
left|220px|thumb|Mosholatubbee sought to be elected to the Congress of the United States. 1834, Smithsonian American Art Museum.
right|220px|thumb|Greenwood LeFlore, the chief who led treaty negotiations. The council would later depose him in a coup.
The preamble begins with,
The following terms of the treaty were:
1. Perpetual peace and friendship.
2. Lands (in what is now Oklahoma) west of the Mississippi River to be conveyed to the Choctaw Nation.
3. Lands east of the Mississippi River to be ceded and removal to begin in 1831 and end in 1833.
4. Autonomy of the Choctaw Nation (in Oklahoma) and descendants to be secured from laws of U.S. states and territories forever.
5. U.S. will serve as protectorate of the Choctaw Nation.
6. Choctaw or party of Choctaws part of violent acts against the U.S. citizens or property will be delivered to the U.S. authorities.
7. Offenses against Choctaws and their property by U.S. citizens and other tribes will be examined and every possible degree of justice applied.
8. No harboring of U.S. fugitives with all expenses to capture him or her paid by the U.S.
9. Persons ordered from Choctaw Nation.
10. Traders require a written permit.
right|thumb|220px| John Eaton was a close personal friend of Andrew Jackson. He was Secretary of War for the Jackson administration. Painted 1873 by Robert Weir.
11. Navigable streams will be free for Choctaws, U.S. post-offices will be established in the Choctaw Nation, and U.S. military posts and roads may be created.
12. Intruders will be removed from the Choctaw Nation. U.S. citizens stealing Choctaw property shall be returned and offender punished. Choctaw offending U.S. laws shall be given a fair and impartial trial.
13. U.S. agent appointed to the Choctaws every four years.
14. Choctaws may become U.S. citizens and are entitled to of land (in Mississippi) with additional land for children.
15. Lands granted to the Choctaw chiefs (Greenwood LeFlore, Musholatubbee, and Nittucachee) with annuities granted to each of them.
16. Transportation in wagons and steamboats will be provided at the costs of the U.S. Ample food will be provided during the removal and 12 months after reaching the new homes. Reimbursements will be provided for cattle left in Mississippi Territory.
17. Annuities to Choctaws to continue from other treaties. Additional payments after removal.
18. Choctaw Country to be surveyed
19. Lands granted to I. Garland, Colonel Robert Cole, Tuppanahomer, John Pytchlynn, Charles Juzan, Johokebetubbe, Eaychahobia, and Ofehoma.
20. Improve the Choctaw condition with Education. Provide tools, weapons, and steel.
21. Choctaw Warriors who marched and fought in the army of U.S. General Wayne during the American Revolution and Northwest Indian War will receive an annuity.
22. Choctaw delegate on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.
Unratified section
The following paragraph of the treaty was not ratified:
"WHEREAS the General Assembly of the State of Mississippi has extended the laws of said State to persons and property within the chartered limits of the same, and the President of the United States has said that he cannot protect the Choctaw people from the operation of these laws; Now therefore that the Choctaw may live under their own laws in peace with the United States and the State of Mississippi they have determined to sell their lands east of the Mississippi and have accordingly agreed to the following articles of treaty".
Signatories
The main signatories included John Eaton, John Coffee, Greenwood Leflore, Musholatubbee, and Nittucachee. Nearly 200 other signatures are on the treaty.
Aftermath
left|thumb|150px| John R Coffee
After ceding nearly , the Choctaw emigrated in three stages: the first in the fall of 1831, the second in 1832 and the last in 1833.
The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was ratified by the U.S. Senate on February 25, 1831, and the President was anxious to make it a model of removal. The chief George W. Harkins wrote a letter to the American people before the removals began:
Around 15,000 Choctaws left the old Choctaw Nation for the Indian Territory, much of the state of Oklahoma today.
The name Oklahoma was created in 1886 by Principal Chief Allen Wright (Choctaw, 1826-1885). The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma states that in the Choctaw language Okla means "people" and humma means "red."
Late 20th-century estimates are that between 5,000 to 6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the first removal.
For the next ten years they were objects of increasing legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaw described their situation in 1849:
we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died.
Joseph B. Cobb, a settler who moved to Mississippi from Georgia, described the Choctaw as having
no nobility or virtue at all, and in some respect he found blacks, especially native Africans, more interesting and admirable, the red man's superior in every way. The Choctaw and Chickasaw, the tribes he knew best, were beneath contempt, that is, even worse than black slaves.
The removals continued well into the early 20th century. In 1903, three hundred Mississippi Choctaws were persuaded to move to the Nation in Oklahoma. The Choctaw did not gain a delegate on the floor of the U.S. House of Representative. Greenwood LeFlore, a Choctaw leader, stayed in Mississippi, where he was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives and Senate.
The Choctaw Nation continued to thrive until Oklahoma was created as a state. Their government was dismantled under the Curtis Act, along with those of other Native American nations in the former Indian Territory, to permit the admission of Oklahoma as a state. Their communal lands were divided and allotted to individual households under the Dawes Act to increase assimilation as American-style farmers. The US declared communal land remaining after allotment to be surplus and sold it to American settlers. In the 20th century, the Choctaw reorganized and were recognized by the government as the Choctaw Nation.
The descendants of the Choctaw who stayed in Mississippi reorganized themselves as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians in 1945 and gained federal recognition.
See also
List of Choctaw Treaties
Treaty of Hopewell
Treaty of Fort Adams
Treaty of Fort Confederation
Treaty of Hoe Buckintoopa
Treaty of Mount Dexter
Treaty of Fort St. Stephens
Treaty of Doak's Stand
Treaty of Washington City
List of treaties
References
External links
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
Category:1830 in the United States
Category:1830 treaties
Category:September 1830 events
Category:Forced migrations of Native Americans in the United States
Category:History of Mississippi
Dancing Rabbit
Category:Trail of Tears
Category:Unequal treaties
Category:Native American history of Mississippi | {"Image caption": "The approximate area that the treaty defined shaded in blue in relation to the future U.S. state of Mississippi", "Date signed": "1830 09 27 y", "Location signed": "Dancing Rabbit Creek", "Date effective": "1831 02 24 y", "Parties": "United States 1822\n Choctaw Nation", "Citations": "7 333"} |
John Henry Eaton (June 18, 1790November 17, 1856) was an American politician and ambassador from Tennessee who served as U.S. Senator and as U.S. Secretary of War in the administration of Andrew Jackson. He was 28 years, 4 months, and 29 days old when he entered the Senate, making him the youngest U.S. Senator in history.
Eaton was a lawyer in Tennessee who became part of a network that supported the political campaigns of Andrew Jackson. He also served in the militia as a major, and during the War of 1812 became an aide to Jackson; Eaton served with Jackson in all his wartime campaigns and battles, including the Battle of New Orleans. After serving in the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1815 and 1816, in 1818 Eaton was elected to the U.S. Senate, though he had not yet reached the constitutionally mandated age of 30.
Following Jackson's election to the presidency in 1828, Eaton resigned his Senate seat to join Jackson's cabinet as Secretary of War. Eaton and his wife Peggy became the focus of controversy during Jackson's first term; in the so-called Petticoat affair, Washington's society wives refused to socialize with the Eatons. The wives of the vice president, cabinet members, and members of Congress looked down on Peggy because of the circumstances of her marriage to Eaton; they had wed shortly after the death of her first husband, without waiting for the usual mourning period, giving rise to rumors that she had been unfaithful to her first husband before his death. Eaton resigned as Secretary of War as part of a strategy to resolve the controversy; he later received appointments as Governor of Florida Territory and U.S. Minister to Spain.
Upon returning to the United States in 1840, Eaton refused to endorse incumbent Martin Van Buren for reelection to the presidency, angering Jackson. In retirement, Eaton resided in Washington. He died there in 1856, and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery.
Early life
John Eaton was born on June 18, 1790, near Scotland Neck, Halifax County, North Carolina to John and Elizabeth Eaton. The elder John Eaton was a furniture maker who served as county coroner and member of the North Carolina House of Representatives. Eaton's uncle, Major Pinketham Eaton (sometimes spelled Pinkerton), was a Continental Army officer who died in combat during the Revolutionary War. The first Eaton forebear in America was Andrew Eaton, a watchmaker from Godalming, Surrey born in 1678 who emigrated to North Carolina in 1699. Eaton's father owned a large amount of land in middle Tennessee, and the 1790 census lists him as the owner of 12 slaves. The younger Eaton attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill from 1802 to 1804. He then studied law, attained admission to the bar, and moved to Franklin, Tennessee, where he established a law practice.
Eaton became active in the Tennessee militia, and attained the rank of major. He developed a close friendship with Andrew Jackson, and served as an aide to Jackson during the Creek War and the War of 1812. Eaton took part in all Jackson's major campaigns. He supported Jackson's controversial decision in November 1814 to attack Pensacola in Spanish Florida, claiming that Spain had put herself in a belligerent position by allowing its territory to be occupied by British soldiers. Eaton participated in the Battle of New Orleans. After the war, Jackson took command of the Southern U.S. Army District with his headquarters at his home, The Hermitage. Eaton served on his staff. Eaton later became a major proponent of Jackson's presidential candidacy. He also wrote the epitaph on Rachel Jackson's grave.
John Reid, another Jackson aide, began a biography of Jackson in 1816, but died after writing only four chapters. Eaton finished the book, which was published as The Life of Andrew Jackson in 1817. This book was revised and republished in 1824 and 1828. It became a major primary reference for future Jackson biographers.
Senate career
From 1815 to 1816, Eaton was a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives. In 1818, he was elected to serve as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee, and he served until 1829. His age of 28 at the time of his entry to the Senate was notable; it contradicted the U.S. Constitution's requirement that all senators be at least 30 years old. Eaton's age of 28 makes him the youngest person ever known to have served in the Senate.
thumb|right|200px|Eaton as a senator
Eaton was a slaveowner, but, unlike many Southerners, he supported the Missouri Compromise of 1820. On March 11, 1820, in a letter to Jackson, he claimed that "it has preserved piece and dissipated angry feelings, and dispelled appearances which seemed dark and horrible and threatening to the interest and harmony of the nation." He remained a close friend of Jackson, and while in the Senate supported the Jacksonian movement. He urged Jackson to accept an appointment as Governor of the newly acquired Florida Territory in 1821, which he did. From 1827 to 1829, Eaton served as Chairman of the Senate Committee on the District of Columbia.
In 1822, Eaton and William Berkeley Lewis attempted to nominate a candidate before the Tennessee legislature to oppose incumbent U.S. Senator John Williams, who was openly against Jackson's candidacy for president in 1824 presidential election. After being unable to find a viable candidate, they nominated Jackson himself. The strategy was successful, and Jackson won. Eaton also helped advance Jackson's campaign for president through the Letters of Wyoming, which were printed in newspapers. In them, Eaton praised Jackson's record. He celebrated even some of Jackson's most controversial actions, such as the suspension of habeas corpus in New Orleans in 1815. "Washington would have done the same," he asserted.
In 1825, Eaton received an honorary degree (Master of Arts) from the University of North Carolina. Eaton supported the Tariff of 1828, or the "Tariff of Abominations."
Marriages
In 1813, Eaton married his first wife, Myra Lewis (1788-1815), the daughter of William Terrell Lewis, a prominent Tennessee businessman and landowner. After the death of their father, Jackson and his wife became Myra's and her sister Mary's guardians, and Eaton's marriage to Myra Lewis strengthened his relationship with Jackson.
Eaton married his second wife Peggy O'Neill Timberlake (1799-1879) in 1829, while serving in the Senate. She was the mother of three children; a son William, who died as an infant, and daughters Virginia and Margaret. Eaton had been a longtime friend of Peggy Timberlake and her husband John B. Timberlake, and John Timberlake had died only a few months before Eaton married his widow. Jackson knew and liked Peggy Eaton and encouraged Eaton to marry her, telling him "Why yes, Major. If you love the woman, and she will have you, marry her by all means." He asked Eaton to marry her as soon as possible. Eaton had no children with either wife.
Secretary of War
Petticoat affair
Jackson, leading the new Democratic Party, won the 1828 presidential election, and in March 1829 Eaton resigned his Senate seat to accept appointment as Jackson's Secretary of War. The appointment was seemingly made because of Jackson's desire to have a personal friend in the Cabinet in whom he could confide.
Women in Washington social circles led by Floride Calhoun, the wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun, snubbed the Eatons because they married so soon after John Timberlake's death, rather than waiting for the usual mourning period; there were stories that Eaton and Peggy Timberlake had been having an affair before John Timberlake had died. Rumors held that Peggy, as a barmaid in her father's tavern, had been sexually promiscuous or had even been a prostitute. Petticoat politics emerged when the wives of cabinet members, led by Mrs. Calhoun, refused to socialize with the Eatons. They refused to attend social events at which she would be present. According to Emily Donelson, Eaton considered resigning in the first months of the administration.
Jackson refused to believe the rumors about Mrs. Eaton's past conduct, telling his Cabinet that "She is as chaste as a virgin!" In his view, the dishonorable people were the rumormongers, in part because he was reminded of the attacks that had been made, particularly in the 1828 election, against his wife over the circumstances of their marriage. Jackson also believed that John Calhoun fanned the flames of the controversy as a way to gain political leverage for a growing anti-Jackson coalition. Duff Green, a Calhoun protégé and editor of the United States Telegraph, accused Eaton of secretly working to have pro-Calhoun cabinet members Samuel D. Ingham (Treasury) and John Branch (Navy) removed from their positions.
Jackson biographers Richard B. Latner and Robert V. Remini believe that the hostility towards the Eatons was rooted less in questions of morality and proper behavior than in politics. Eaton had been in favor of the Tariff of Abominations, which Calhoun bitterly opposed and which led him to elucidate the doctrine of nullification. He was also close to Secretary of State Martin Van Buren, another supporter of the tariff and Calhoun's main rival for who would succeed Jackson as president. Calhoun may have wanted to expel Eaton from the cabinet as a way of boosting his anti-tariff agenda and increasing his standing in the Democratic Party. Many other cabinet members were Southerners and may have felt similarly, especially Ingham, a close Calhoun ally who supported his presidential aspirations.
Eaton took his revenge on Calhoun. In the spring of 1830, reports emerged accurately stating that Calhoun, while Secretary of War, had favored censuring Jackson for his 1818 invasion of Florida. These infuriated Jackson. The biggest bombshell was a letter given to Jackson on May 12 by William H. Crawford, Monroe's Secretary of the Treasury, in which Crawford stated that, contrary to Jackson's former suspicions, it was Calhoun, not himself, who vocally advocated censuring Jackson in Monroe's cabinet. For reasons unclear, Calhoun asked Eaton to approach Jackson about the possibility of Calhoun publishing his correspondence with Jackson at the time of the Seminole War. Eaton did nothing. This caused Calhoun to believe that Jackson had approved the publication of the letters. Calhoun published them in the Telegraph. This gave the appearance of Calhoun trying to justify himself against a conspiracy to damage him, and further enraged the President.
Meanwhile, Van Buren, a widower, took Jackson's side and defended the Eatons. This raised Van Buren in Jackson's esteem, and, in addition to disagreements between Jackson and Calhoun on a number of other issues, mainly the Nullification Crisis, marked him as Calhoun's likely vice presidential successor. In the spring of 1831, Van Buren helped end the Petticoat affair by offering to resign as Secretary of State. This gave Jackson the opportunity to reorganize his cabinet by asking for other resignations, and he was able to replace the anti-Eaton secretaries; only Postmaster General William T. Barry remained. Eaton, being the source of the controversy, also agreed to resign his position.
On June 17, the day before Eaton formally resigned, a text appeared in the Telegraph stating that it had been "proved" that the families of Ingham, Branch, and Attorney General John M. Berrien had refused to associate with Mr. Eaton. Eaton wrote to all three men demanding that they answer for the article. Ingham sent back a contemptuous letter stating that, while he was not the source for the article, the information was still true. On June 18, Eaton challenged Ingham to a duel through his second, his brother-in-law Dr. Philip G. Randolph, who visited Ingham twice and threatened him the second time with personal harm if he did not comply with Eaton's demands. Randolph was dismissed, and the next morning Ingham sent a note to Eaton discourteously declining the invitation. It described Eaton's situation as one of "pity and contempt." Eaton wrote a letter back to Ingham accusing him of cowardice. Ingham was then informed that Eaton, Randolph, and others were looking to assault him. He gathered together his own bodyguard, and was not immediately molested. However, he reported that for the next two nights Eaton and his men continued to lurk about his dwelling and threaten him. He then left the city, and returned safely to his home. Ingham communicated to Jackson his version of what took place, and Jackson then asked Eaton to answer for the charge. Eaton admitted that he "passed by" the place where Ingham had been staying, "but at no point attempted to enter...or besiege it."
In 1832, Jackson nominated Van Buren to be Minister to England. Calhoun killed the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it, claiming his act would "...kill him, sir, kill dead. He will never kick, sir, never kick." However, Calhoun only made Van Buren seem the victim of petty politics, which were rooted largely in the Eaton controversy. Van Buren was nominated for vice president, and was elected as Jackson's running mate when Jackson won a second term in 1832. The affair had a hand in the replacement of the Telegraph as the main propaganda instrument for the administration. Jackson enlisted the help of longtime supporter Francis Preston Blair, who in November 1830 established a newspaper known as The Washington Globe, which from then on served as the mouthpiece of the Democratic Party. It also contributed to the creation of the Kitchen Cabinet.
Indian affairs
In the summer of 1830, following the passage of the Indian Removal Act, allowing for the transportation of the "Five Civilized Tribes" from their homes in the South to lands being given to them in Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma), Jackson, Eaton, and General John Coffee negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move west by agreeing to the Treaty of Franklin in August. Jackson put Eaton and Coffee in charge of negotiating with the Choctaw. Lacking Jackson's skills at negotiation, they frequently bribed the chiefs in order to gain their submission. Their tactics typically worked, and the chiefs signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, agreeing to move west. The removal of the Choctaw took place in the winter of 1831 and 1832, and was wrought with misery and suffering.
Other activities
As Secretary of War, Eaton supported compensation upon discharge for soldiers who had served honorably. He made the Topographical Engineers a separate bureau within the War Department.
Later career
thumb|Eaton as governor of Florida
Following his resignation as Secretary of War, Eaton returned to Tennessee. His wife suffered a period of ill health after arriving. Jackson planned to replace him in the War Department with Tennessee senator Hugh Lawson White. This would vacate White's senate seat, which Eaton would presumably fill. However, White refused the cabinet position despite much prodding from Jackson. Eaton attempted to return to the Senate by running against incumbent Felix Grundy in 1832. Jackson officially remained neutral during the election, as Grundy was also a Democrat, and Eaton was defeated. He served as a delegate to the 1832 Democratic National Convention. In a letter to Jackson before the convention, Eaton declared his strong support for Jackson's choice of Van Buren for vice president. He also requested that several of his friends be given appointments in the administration.
Eaton later received appointments that took him away from Washington, D.C. He served first as Governor of the Florida Territory from 1834 to 1836. In 1835, violence began to escalate between the Seminole Indians and white settlers. Members of the Seminole had signed Treaty of Payne's Landing in which they agreed to move westward. However, many began to resist. Eaton warned Jackson against an excessive show of military force, fearing that this would only provoke the Seminole further. Jackson heeded his advice at first, but continuing to do so proved impossible, as Seminole attacks continued. The violence eventually led to the Second Seminole War.
In 1836, Eaton was replaced as governor by Richard K. Call. Later that year, he was appointed Ambassador to Spain, and he served until April 1840. His tenure was undistinguished; a predecessor in the post, Cornelius P. Van Ness, strongly castigated Eaton, reporting that the Spanish government thought little of Eaton's abilities. He believed Eaton to be "not only incapable of putting together two common ideas but of comprehending a single one," and contended that Eaton's work habits could best be described as "indolent." He also indicated that Mrs. Eaton engaged in spreading gossip about Van Buren, and that her manner was forward enough that the Spanish government considered her to be the "real" minister. Finally, Van Ness accused the Eatons of drinking excessively, writing that "he and she regularly dispose of two bottles of rum of the strongest kind in the spirit of three days; this is, four glasses each and every day, besides wine: and while they are taking it and he chewing, she smokes her cigars."
Retirement and death
Upon returning from Spain, Eaton announced that he was unwilling to support Van Buren's campaign for reelection to the presidency in 1840. He endorsed Van Buren's opponent, William Henry Harrison. Supposedly, this action was rooted in Eaton's displeasure over the way he was allegedly treated by Van Buren while serving as Ambassador to Spain. "My friend Maj. Eaton comes home not in good humor. He says he has been dismissed," Jackson wrote. The declaration deeply upset Jackson, who in a letter to Blair went so far as to accuse Eaton of having "apostatised and taken the field with the piebald opposition of abolitionists, antimasons and blue light federalists." Eaton officially joined the Whig Party, but for the remainder of his life was not politically active. He and Jackson encountered each other in 1840 while Jackson was travelling throughout Tennessee to campaign for Van Buren. According to Remini, "both men behaved properly." Jackson biographer James Parton wrote in 1860 that Eaton and Jackson remained unreconciled. However, 21st century historian John F. Marszalek claims that the two men did reconcile with each other just before Jackson's death in 1845.
Eaton and his wife lived comfortably in retirement in Washington, D.C. He resumed his law practice, and he and his wife returned to Franklin during the summers. Eaton chose not to join any church, but figured prominently in Washington social circles. He was president of the Washington Bar Association. Eaton and his wife were once again reported to have drunk to excess, and he was criticized for taking up a legal case against Amos Kendall, a staunch Jacksonian who had defended the Eatons' conduct during the Petticoat affair. Eaton died in Washington on November 17, 1856, at age 66. His funeral was conducted at his residence. Eaton was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington.
Legacy
Contemporary William Joseph Snelling, in his 1831 biography of Jackson, strongly criticizes Eaton. Of Eaton's Jackson biography, he writes, "it is hard to say which is more disgraced, the hero [Jackson] or the historian. The book contains scarcely a period of good English, but makes amends by abundance of fulsome adulation, by the omission of many disgraceful acts and the palliation of others." By 1831, Snelling says, he had become "the laughing-stock of the nation." Remini says that "the entire Eaton affair might be termed infamous. It ruined reputations and terminated friendships. And it was all so needless."
In spite of this, an obituary published in Washington's Daily National Intelligencer spoke favorably of Eaton. It noted that after his death Chief Justice Roger B. Taney had adjourned a session of the Supreme Court early in order that those present could attend the funeral.
Eaton's biography of Jackson has remained an important source for historians, particularly with regard to Jackson's military career. An edition of the work, edited by Frank Lawrence Owsley, was published in 1974. Owlsey's edition includes the original work with later changes noted in the appendages. He says in the introduction that the original work, published in 1817, is "by far the superior historical account," on account of the later editions being published for partisan purposes as campaign literature. According to Owsley, the later editions excised anything that could be seen as critical of Jackson, anything that gave credit to others over or with him, and any criticism of people that was seen as politically damaging, while adding praise for Jackson. Owsley attributes many of the unfavorable reviews of Eaton's work to people using the later editions and not realizing the extent to which they were revised from the original.
Eaton County, Michigan, is named in Eaton's honor.
See also
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
List of youngest members of the United States Congress
References
Bibliography
External links
Category:1790 births
Category:1856 deaths
Category:People from Halifax County, North Carolina
Category:Jackson administration cabinet members
Category:United States Secretaries of War
Category:Democratic-Republican Party United States senators from Tennessee
Category:Democratic Party United States senators from Tennessee
Category:Jacksonian United States senators from Tennessee
Category:Democratic Party members of the Tennessee House of Representatives
Category:Governors of Florida Territory
Category:Ambassadors of the United States to Spain
Category:Tennessee lawyers
Category:19th-century American diplomats
Category:American militia officers
Category:American militiamen in the War of 1812
Category:Military personnel from Tennessee
Category:Burials at Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)
Category:United States senators who owned slaves | {"Name": "John Eaton", "Term start": "March 16, 1836", "Term end": "May 1, 1840", "Office 2": "13th United States Secretary of War", "President 2": "Andrew Jackson", "Predecessor 2": "Peter Buell Porter", "Successor 2": "Roger B. Taney (acting)Lewis Cass", "Birth name": "John Henry Eaton", "Birth date": "1790 6 18", "Birth place": "Scotland Neck, North Carolina, U.S.", "Death date": "1856 11 17 1790 6 18", "Death place": "Washington, D.C., U.S.", "Resting place": "Oak Hill CemeteryWashington, D.C., U.S.", "Spouse(s)": "Myra Lewis 1813 1815 her deathPeggy O'Neill 1829", "Education": "University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill", "Battles fought": "Creek WarWar of 1812"} |
The Arkansas Democrat-Gazette is the newspaper of record in the U.S. state of Arkansas,History of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette printed in Little Rock with a northwest edition published in Lowell. It is distributed for sale in all 75 of Arkansas' counties.
By virtue of one of its predecessors, the Arkansas Gazette (founded in 1819), it claims to be the oldest continuously published newspaper west of the Mississippi River. The original print shop of the Gazette is preserved at the Historic Arkansas Museum in Little Rock.
History
Early years
The history of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette goes back to the earliest days of territorial Arkansas. William E. Woodruff arrived at the territorial capital at Arkansas Post in late 1819 on a dugout canoe with a second-hand wooden press. He cranked out the first edition of the Arkansas Gazette on November 20, 1819, 17 years before Arkansas became a state. Early in its history the Gazette scrupulously avoided political involvement or endorsement.
In 1821 the territorial capital was moved to Little Rock, and Woodruff moved his Gazette along with it. The Gazette led the campaign for Arkansas statehood which was accomplished in 1836 and constantly promoted new immigration to the state.
The Gazette supported Texas independence and called for volunteers from Arkansas to assist the Texans and supported the Mexican-American War. In the 1840s Woodruff lost control of the paper and established a competing paper, the Arkansas Democrat (not related to the later Democrat).
In 1850, after the Gazette had briefly failed under its new owners, Woodruff regained control and combined it with his Democrat as the Arkansas State Gazette and Democrat. Later in the 1850s, under another owner, the name was shortened to the Arkansas State Gazette.
Civil War era
The Gazette struggled through the early Civil War years facing financial problems and shortages of supplies. The Gazette had initially been pro-Union but altered its position after Lincoln's call for troops, much like Arkansas as a whole.
In 1863 Little Rock fell to Union troops and the Gazette suspended publication until May 1865 while Federal authorities used the presses for their own publications.
Competition after the Civil War
During the Reconstruction years a competitor arose called by a variety of names, under a variety of editors, and with several different owners. In 1878 J.N. Smithee bought the newspaper, changed its name to the Arkansas Democrat, and went after lucrative state printing contracts held by the Gazette.
The Gazette and the Democrat engaged in a war of words that soon escalated into an exchange of gunfire between the owner of the Democrat and a part-owner of the Gazette.
Over the years the Gazette and the Democrat supported opposing candidates and took opposite editorial positions. Throughout the simmering battle the Gazette continued to be the dominant state newspaper. The Gazette was owned and edited by John Netherland Heiskell who guided it with a firm hand through most of the 20th century.
In 1926, August Engel acquired a major interest in the Democrat. He became the newspaper's president and general manager, leading it through a period of great growth over the next 43 years. Engel gained a reputation as a hard-working, shrewd businessman who took an active part in the editorial process.
Central High crisis
The Gazette took a strong editorial stance against Governor Orval Faubus when he tried to prevent the Little Rock Nine from integrating Little Rock Central High School in 1957. In 1958 the Gazette was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its stand, and executive editor Harry Ashmore won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing. This was the first time in history that a newspaper won two Pulitzer Prizes within the same year. Despite its honors the circulation of the Gazette dropped during the crisis due to boycotts, which ended when Ashmore left the paper.
The Democrat charted a generally neutral editorial stand. Its photographer Will Counts took several important pictures of the crisis, including a famous picture of Elizabeth Eckford, one of the Nine, being shouted at by an angry white girl, later identified as Hazel Massery; the Associated Press declared it to be one of the top 100 photos of the 20th century. Counts also helped arrange the public reconciliation of Eckford and Massery in 1997.
Counts' work submitted by the Arkansas Democrat for the 1958 Pulitzer Prize, received the unanimous recommendation of the Pulitzer jurors for Best Spot News Photography. However, Counts was denied the award when the Pulitzer board overruled its jurors and gave the award to another entrant which portrayed a different local police force as friendly to its citizens.
In 2005, the Democrat-Gazette editorial cartoonist, John Deering, and his wife Cathy created a bronze sculpture of the Nine, entitled Testament, on the grounds of the Arkansas State Capitol.
The newspaper war
Heiskell died in 1972, and his family continued to run the Gazette.
In 1974 the Democrat was sold to WEHCO Media Inc., owned by the Hussman family. Walter E. Hussman Jr., 27, became the publisher. At the time of Hussman's arrival the morning Gazette was far in front of the afternoon Democrat, with daily circulation 118,702 to the Democrat's 62,405.SNPA: The First 100 Years. Southern Newspaper Publishers Association, 2003. Hussman embarked on a campaign of major cost reductions and concentrating subscription effort on the Little Rock urban market. These efforts had little success. By 1977 Hussman attempted to reach an agreement with the Gazette to combine operations but his overtures were rejected.
Hussman vigorously fought back and was intent on making the Democrat the state's largest newspaper. A war ensued between the two papers. The Democrat expanded its news operation, offered free classified advertisements, and switched from afternoon publication to morning publication.
In 1979 Hussman appointed John Robert Starr to the position of managing editor. The fiery and irascible Starr temperament and intent in the upcoming circulation war was humorously illustrated by a cover story in the monthly magazine Arkansas Times showing Starr squatting atop a Gazette newspaper box with a dagger between his teeth to show his seriousness. Starr doubled the size of the news staff and concentrated on hard news. Under Starr's direction readership increased steadily. During 1980 the Democrat was the fastest growing newspaper in the United States.
The Gazette responded by hiring new staff, going to a color format, and filing a federal antitrust suit against the Democrat in 1984. The suit accused the Hussman enterprises of predatory practices and trying to harm the Gazette. The Democrat responded that it was only trying to gain market share to be more competitive with the larger and more dominant Arkansas Gazette.
A federal jury in the court of U.S. District Judge William R. Overton rendered its verdict on March 26, 1986. The Democrat was found not guilty of all the allegations leveled against it by the Gazette.
The Heiskell family sold the Arkansas Gazette to Gannett, the nation's largest newspaper chain, on December 1, 1986.
Gannett had immense assets with which to fight the Democrat. However, it received criticism for bringing in out-of-town reporters and staff and losing the paper's local feel. The Gazette, nicknamed the "Old Lady", became flashier but critics complained that the paper had lost the respect of the readership.
Over the next five years the two newspapers dueled. The circulation of the Gazette remained steady over that period of time, but the daily circulation of the Democrat went from 81,000 to 131,000 and the Sunday circulation leapt ahead of the Gazette'''s 218,000 to achieve 230,000.
Victory of the Democrat
The financial losses of the fiercely contested battle were too much for Gannett to justify. On October 18, 1991 Gannett threw in the towel and sold the Gazette to WEHCO. The first edition of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette rolled off the presses the next morning, October 19. Most Arkansans, regardless of which paper they subscribed to, were saddened by the sudden loss of their historic newspaper.
Many of the reporters and staff of the more liberal Gazette were thrown out of work and not picked up by the more conservative Democrat-Gazette. Many of these former employees were bitter at Gannett for their management of the newspaper war and angry at the Democrat for achieving victory. Many of the "Old Lady's" employees left for other markets while some who remained aided in converting the Arkansas Times from a magazine format to a tabloid newspaper in order to provide a more liberal weekly alternative to the dominant conservative paper.
In the years since, the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette has maintained a higher circulation than newspapers in similarly sized cities. Many newspapers that defeated in-town rivals concentrated on reducing costs and reduced news coverage to meet their goals. The Arkansas Democrat-Gazette has continued to balance quality goals with profitability. Pulitzer Prize winner Paul Greenberg was appointed the Democrat-Gazette editorial page editor on April 29, 1992. Griffin Smith, a sixth-generation Arkansan, was appointed Executive Editor on June 23, 1992. Smith retired May 1, 2012. Managing editor David Bailey, who joined the paper in May 1993, took over leadership of the newsroom operation. Greenberg stepped down on August 1, 2015 and David Barham, who joined the paper in 2002, took over as editorial page editor.
Online
The Democrat-Gazette implemented a website paywall in 2002, before most other newspapers. The newspaper credits the strategy with helping it stem declines in circulation, where it has fared much better than the industry at large since that time. Most other newspapers which implemented paywalls later had been operating popular free-access websites for years, leading to reader backlash. The Economist noted that the strategy is aided by its "virtual monopoly" over news in the region.
Digital conversion
The Democrat-Gazett''e ended print delivery of its Monday-Saturday papers statewide throughout 2018 and 2019 and transitioned to a digital replica edition. All subscribers were provided a new iPad to access the replica edition, as well as one-on-one instruction, training and technical assistance. The Sunday paper remains in traditional, print circulation.
See also
Gazette Building (Little Rock, Arkansas)
References
External links
Northwest Arkansas edition
Arkansas Blog: Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
Arkansas Media Watch: Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
Category:Newspapers published in Arkansas
Category:Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers
Category:Mass media in Little Rock, Arkansas
Category:Daily newspapers published in the United States | {"Type": "Daily newspaper", "Format": "Broadsheet", "Owner(s)": "WEHCO Media, Inc.", "Headquarters": "121 East Capitol AvenueLittle Rock, Arkansas 72201US", "Editor": "Eliza Hussman Gaines, managing editor", "Circulation": "192,212 Daily284,494 Sunday2008 Top 100 Daily Newspapers (in the U.S. by Circulation) BurrellesLuce http://www.burrellesluce.com/top100/2008_Top_100List.pdf 2009-03-30 2008-03-31 https://web.archive.org/web/20090325054723/http://www.burrellesluce.com/top100/2008_Top_100List.pdf 25 March 2009 dead", "Publisher": "Walter E. Hussman, Jr.", "ISSN": "1060-4332", "Website": "www.arkansasonline.com"} |
The Tar River is a river that is approximately long, in northeast North Carolina flowing generally southeast to an estuary of Pamlico Sound. The Tar River becomes the tidal Pamlico River once it underpasses the U.S. Highway 17 Bridge in Washington, North Carolina.
North Carolina was originally a naval stores colony—that is, the blanket of long leaf pines that covered the coastal plain was used by the British Navy for ships' masts and the pine pitch was used to manufacture tar caulking for vessels. The river derives its name from its historic use as a major route for tar-laden barges as they headed to the sea. The city of Tarboro is on the banks of the river. Recent research conducted by East Carolina University, Greenville and Pitt County historians has uncovered documentation noting that before the Civil War, the North Carolina Legislature had appropriated funds to construct dams and locks on the Tar River in an attempt to facilitate almost year-round navigation for the farm products and naval stores shipping plus passenger boats which were travelling between Tarboro, through Greenville to Washington.
Among the towns and cities along its course are Louisburg, Rocky Mount, Tarboro, and Greenville. The village of Old Sparta was formerly an important riverport on the Tar, but declined in the 20th century.
One account of the significance of the river's name comes from the Civil War.
It may have been inspired by an incident back in North Carolina. As the Confederates prepared to evacuate Washington, NC, in March 1862, they sent squads up and down the Tar River to destroy all the stocks of cotton and naval stores which had been prepared by the small farms along the river, to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Union soldiers. At Taft’s store they found over 1,000 barrels of turpentine and tar. The amount was too large to burn, as it would take several houses with it. So the barrels were rolled into the river, where the hoops were cut in two and the contents dumped into the river. Three months later, in June, four hundred Union prisoners of war were sent from Salisbury, NC to Washington, NC, to be exchanged for Confederate prisoners. Before coming into Washington, the soldiers asked permission to bathe in the river and clean themselves up. Guards were posted along the river banks, and the prisoners were allowed to strip then wade into the river to wash. Instead, they stirred up the river bottom so much that the tar smeared their bodies completely, each man coming out of the water with a stick to scour the tar off their bodies and legs. One Confederate yelled out, "Hello boys, what’s the matter?" The reply from the disgusted Yankee soldier was, "We have heard of Tar River all our lives but never believed that there really was any such place, but damned if we haven’t found it, the whole bed of it is tar!"J. D. Meyers. "How the Yankees Found the Tar River." Carolina and the Southern Cross. Volume 1 (7), September 1913. Page 5.
The river was strongly affected by Hurricane Floyd in 1999 and caused much flooding in the area. The Tar River suffered the worst flooding from the hurricane, exceeding 500-year flood levels along its lower stretches; it crested 24 feet (7.3 m) above flood stage. In Greenville it crested at 29.74 ft. (9.1 m)
The river was again affected by Hurricane Matthew in 2016. It crested as much as above flood stage in some areas for up to 3 days.
An endangered species, the Tar River Spinymussel is found in limited areas of the Tar and Neuse River basins.
Sound Rivers, an environmental organization dedicated to the protection of the Tar and Neuse watersheds, maintains fifteen camping platforms and campsites for recreation along the course of the Tar-Pamlico Water Trail.
References
External links
Category:Rivers of North Carolina
Category:Rivers of Beaufort County, North Carolina
Category:Rivers of Franklin County, North Carolina
Category:Rivers of Edgecombe County, North Carolina
Category:Rivers of Pitt County, North Carolina
Category:Tributaries of Pamlico Sound | {"Mouth": "-13 ft on", "Location": "Lowland, North Carolina, United States", "Coordinates": "35 20 08 N 76 28 20 W inline,title", "Basin size": "15,920 km2 on"} |
Mute Records is a British independent record label owned and founded in 1978 by Daniel Miller. It has featured several prominent musical acts on its roster such as Depeche Mode, Erasure, Einstürzende Neubauten, Fad Gadget, Goldfrapp, Grinderman, Inspiral Carpets, Moby, New Order, Laibach, Nitzer Ebb, Yann Tiersen, Wire, Yeasayer, Fever Ray, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Yazoo, and M83.
History
Beginnings
During 1978, Daniel Miller began recording music, using synthesisers, under the name The Normal.Mute - Documentary Evidence - Biba Kopf 1986 He recorded the tracks "T.V.O.D." and "Warm Leatherette" and distributed them through Rough Trade Shops under the label name Mute Records. The label was formed initially just to release the one single.Muted Response - Daniel Miller Interview - E&MM 1984 "T.V.O.D."/"Warm Leatherette" became a cult hit ensuring the future of the label. "Warm Leatherette" was later covered by Grace Jones and Chicks on Speed as well as Rose McDowell.
After meeting Robert Rental (who had previously worked with Thomas Leer), Miller began recording and playing live as Robert Rental & The Normal. In 1979 the band went on tour supporting the punk band Stiff Little Fingers, which had just released an album distributed by Rough Trade.
1980-1989
In 1980, Miller released the single "Kebab-Träume" by the German band Deutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.), who had recently moved to London. The band's 1980 album, Die Kleinen und die Bösen, was the first album released by the new label. The album had the catalogue prefix "STUMM", a play on the record label's name, meaning "mute" in German. This prefix was used through most of the label's album catalogue.
Also in 1980, Miller recorded and released the cover single "Memphis Tennessee" under the name Silicon Teens. The band was Miller's realisation of a dream Mute Records group whose main instruments were synthesisers. In mid-1980, Mute Records released the Silicon Teens' album, titled Music For Parties.
Around this time the artist Fad Gadget had begun recording new demos, including the track "Back To Nature". This was released as a single in 1980, followed by the next single "Ricky's Hand" and the album Fireside Favourites recorded at Blackwing Studios.
left|thumb|Previous logo.
September 1980 saw the release of the double-holed, multi-speed 7" single by Non & Smegma, one of the first experimental noise releases from the label. Boyd Rice (Non) went on to release several more recordings with Mute Records. After touring with Daniel Miller as Robert Rental & The Normal, Robert Rental released his only Mute Records single, "Double Heart", a rare remaining trace of this late electronic music pioneer.
Miller approached Depeche Mode in 1980, after seeing them perform in London, wanting them to record a single for his label; that first single was "Dreaming of Me". Emerging out of the British electronic pop scene, Depeche Mode quickly asserted themselves as a radio-friendly pop group, and they had hits with their next three singles, including the UK top ten single "Just Can't Get Enough". Their loyalty to Mute was reciprocated by the label's rapid expansion to cope with their success. In defiance of the major record labels' predictions of failure, Depeche Mode became successful worldwide, even after the departure of principal songwriter Vince Clarke. Martin Gore took over the main songwriting role, opening the band up to different influences and sustaining their creativity.
Mute continued to support other experimental artists, such as NON, releasing an album of Boyd Rice's pre-NON recordings, titled Boyd Rice. 1982 began with the release of the 12-inch single, "Rise", by Boyd Rice, released under the name NON.
Fad Gadget released his third album for the label, titled Under the Flag, influenced by the current Falklands War and the feeling of being British in the most unseemly of times. The album spawned the singles "For Whom the Bells Toll" and "Life on the Line".
Mute Record's big commercial success of 1982 was the band Yazoo, the duo of Vince Clarke and Alison Moyet. After leaving Depeche Mode, Clarke had set up a studio in the Blackwing Studios complex, where he recorded the singles "Only You" and "Don’t Go".E&MM Magazine - March 1984
That year, Mute licensed the single "Fred Vom Jupiter" from the German record label Atatak. The track was recorded by Holger Hiller, Andreas Dorau and the schoolgirl Marinas. Also from Germany was the single "Los Ninos Del Parque", by Liaisons Dangereuses, later released by Mute. Liaisons Dangereuses included Chrislo Hass, who had previously been in the German band DAF.
After returning from a world tour in 1983, Depeche Mode released the industrial-influenced hit single "Everything Counts". Bruce Gilbert and Graham Lewis, of the band Wire (who had been working together under the name Dome), teamed up with Daniel Miller to form a project known as Duet Emmo, an anagram of Mute and Dome. They released an album and 12-inch single, both titled Or So It Seems. Miller also secured the rights to the back catalogue of the experimental bands Throbbing Gristle, Cabaret Voltaire and Richard H. Kirk
During 1983, the Australian band The Birthday Party transferred from 4AD to Mute Records. The band broke up after releasing their final 12-inch EP, "Mutiny". Birthday Party's singer, Nick Cave, stayed with Mute and released his debut single as Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds. The single was a cover of the song "In the Ghetto", by Mac Davis, previously made famous by Elvis Presley. Yazoo released the album You and Me Both that year and disbanded. Vince Clarke then began working at Blackwing Studios under the name The Assembly. The project's first single, "Never Never", was a hit, featuring Feargal Sharkey on vocals.
D.A.F. split up, and in 1983, ex-member Robert Görl released the single "Mit Dir" on Mute. He recorded the album Night Full of Tension the following year, including the single "Darling Don’t Leave Me", featuring Annie Lennox. In 1984, Depeche Mode had one of their biggest hits in the UK with the single "People Are People".Mute - Documentary Evidence (Album Booklet) 1986 Their album that year, Some Great Reward, reached number one in Germany and became their first hit in the United States.
Mute released an album of archive material from the German band Einstürzende Neubauten, titled Strategies Against Architecture '80-'83, compiled by Jim Thirlwell. Mute used Berlin as a recording location at this time. Einstürzende Neubauten member F.M. Einheit contributed on the recording of the Fad Gadget album Gag, along with Rowland S. Howard (ex-guitarist for The Birthday Party), who also contributed to the 1983 Fad Gadget single "I Discover Love". Einstürzende Neubauten's Blixa Bargeld began working with Nick Cave at this time, playing guitar with Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds. The resulting 1984 album, From Her to Eternity, included a cover of Leonard Cohen's song, "Avalanche".
In 1984, Bruce Gilbert extended his field of music into dance after a commission to write music for dancer Michael Clark.Bruce Gilbert - This Way (Editions Mego) CD sleeve notes. Gilbert recorded with engineer John Fryer at Blackwing Studios. The recordings were documented by Mute on the album, This Way.
The synth duo I Start Counting released their debut single, "Letters to a Friend", in June 1984, produced by Daniel Miller."Mute Records - Letters to a Friend". Retrieved 7 November 2010. In subsequent years, the band would also record for the label under the names Fortran 5, John Came and Komputer. 1984 ended with the long delayed release of Easy Listening for the Hard of Hearing by Frank Tovey and Boyd Rice. The album was originally recorded at Blackwing Studios in May 1981, using sounds created from non-musical appliances, and other studio-generated sounds. The recordings were engineered by John Fryer and Eric Radcliffe.Easy Listening for the Hard of Hearing (Mute Records) CD sleeve notes.
In 1985, a new incarnation of Simon Bonney's Crime & the City Solution formed, including ex-Birthday Party members Mick Harvey and Rowland S. Howard. The new line-up released the EP The Dangling Man and later the mini-album Just South of Heaven. Mute released the single "Hypnotized" in May 1985, by newly signed artist Mark Stewart, produced by Adrian Sherwood."Mute Records - Hypnotized". Retrieved 9 November 2010. Stewart recorded his first album for Mute, As the Veneer of Democracy Starts to Fade, in November 1985, also produced by Sherwood, under the name Mark Stewart and the Mafia."Mute Records - As the Veneer of Democracy Starts to Fade". Retrieved 9 November 2010. Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds released their second album, The Firstborn Is Dead, recorded at the Berlin recording studio, Hansa Tonstudio, co-produced by Flood."Mute Records - The Firstborn Is Dead". Retrieved 17 November 2010.
Fad Gadget began recording as Frank Tovey in 1985 and released the single "Luxury" in August that year, co-produced with Daniel Miller. Vince Clarke and Andy Bell began recording as Erasure in 1985, and released their debut album the next year.
Frank Tovey released his first album under his own name after leaving his Fad Gadget moniker behind him. The new album was titled Snakes and Ladders. The initial release included a twelve-inch single containing four Fad Gadget tracks."Mute Records - Snakes & Ladders". Retrieved 27 November 2010.
To celebrate five years of Depeche Mode, Mute released a compilation album of the band's singles, The Singles 81→85. A remastered edition was issued in October 1998 with additional tracks, including an original version of the song "Photographic", released on Some Bizzare Records."Mute Records - The Singles 81-85". Retrieved 17 November 2010. Wire member Graham Lewis launched his project in 1985, known as He Said, with Mute releasing the project's debut single, "Only One I". Lewis released his debut album the following year after two more singles."Mute Records - He Said (Discography)". Retrieved 17 November 2010.
Erasure released the single "Sometimes" in 1986, and it became a UK top ten hit. I Start Counting finished recording their debut album, My Translucent Hands, in this same year. Wire re-grouped to record a 12-inch single, "Snakedrill", produced by Daniel Miller and Gareth Jones. Band member Bruce Gilbert went on to produce the 12-inch single "Just Talk", for A.C. Marias.
Two Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds albums were released in 1986. The first was Kicking Against the Pricks, a collection of covers including All Tomorrow's Parties and Something's Gotten Hold of My Heart. The second album released in November 1986 was Your Funeral... My Trial.
Mute signed the American female singer Diamanda Galás who in her first year with Mute released The Divine Punishment and Saint of the Pit.
Mute carried out a licensing deal with the Japanese company Wave. This gave Mute the rights to release the Japanese financed album titled Oben Im Eck by Holger Hiller; the album was released in November 1986."Mute Records - Oben Im Eck". Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Crime & the City Solution released new material in 1986 including the album Room of Lights and the twelve inch single Kentucky Click/Adventure."Mute Records - Crime & the City Solution (Discography)". Retrieved 27 November 2010. The new album won the band acclaim in the European press showing the Australian band's growing popularity across Europe.
The end of 1986 saw Mute Records sign the Yugoslav band Laibach. The following year Mute released the band's album Opus Dei, which included the cover single, Life is Life. Also at the end of 1986 the band Wire returned to the studio with producer Gareth Jones. In 1987 Mute released the result of the studio sessions, the album The Ideal Copy.
1987 saw Depeche Mode recording and working with a new producer Dave Bascombe."Mute Records - Depeche Mode (Discography)" . Retrieved 29 November 2010. In September, Mute released Music for the Masses. The album was supported by a world tour. During the promotional tour for the new album, Depeche Mode became increasingly popular in the musical mainstream. The 101st concert they performed was recorded and made into a film, documenting one of their largest attended concerts. A live album of the concert was released in 1989 titled 101. The Music for the Masses tour saw new Mute artists Nitzer Ebb performing as a supporting act. They had already released two singles with Mute before releasing their debut album, That Total Age, in May 1987."Nitzer Ebb (Discography)" . Retrieved 29 November 2010.
1990-2001
Mute released Mark Stewart's album, Metatron, in May 1990, which included the single, "Hysteria". Stewart continued working with producer Adrian Sherwood."Mute Records - Metatron". Retrieved 18 November 2010. Mute signed Goldfrapp in 1999, consisting of Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory.Simpson, Dave. "The Friday Interview". The Guardian. 4 May 2001. Retrieved 29 October 2010. The duo began recording their debut album, Felt Mountain, in a hired cottage in Wiltshire, South West England. Goldfrapp completed the recording after six months, and the album was released in September 2000.
Mute was one of the first British record labels to have an Internet presence, entitled Mute Liberation Technologies."Ask Mute" . Retrieved 29 October 2010. This started out running as an FTP site, Telnet site and a bulletin board system in 1994. They continued to be run in tandem for a number of years until they were shut down. Mute Liberation Technologies has been running as a website since 1995. A newer version of the site was launched in July 2004.
In 2001, Rough Trade Records celebrated the 25th anniversary of the opening of their first retail shop.Rough Trade Shops 25 Years. Retrieved 7 November 2010. To mark the anniversary, Mute released the Rough Trade Shops 25 Years four CD box set. The album release coincided with ten days of special live events across London. Tracks appearing on the box set were carefully chosen to represent some of the most popular records sold during the past twenty five years at Rough Trade shops; these included recordings by Nick Cave, Joy Division and Stereolab.
2002-2009, the EMI years
In May 2002, Mute Records was bought by EMI for £23m. The deal was finalized even though one in four acts signed by EMI faced being dropped by the label after job cuts in March 2002."BBC News 13 May 2002 - EMI buys Moby’s label". Retrieved 7 November 2010. Daniel Miller remained in charge of the company's global activities.
During that period, the label released eleven CDs of music by The Residents. Some CDs were rereleases of albums previously published on Ralph Records in the 70s and 80s and some new work from the San Francisco's group such as Animal Lover and The Voice of Midnight.
Mute released the single "Dirty Sticky Floors" in May 2003, from Depeche Mode singer Dave Gahan's debut solo album, Paper Monsters.Dave Gahan Discography - Mute Records, accessed 7 November 2010. Gahan debuted as a songwriter on the album, written and recorded along with Gahan's friend, Knox Chandler.Dave Gahan (Paper Monsters) - Mute Records, accessed 7 November 2010. Mute released another Depeche Mode solo project that year, Counterfeit² by Martin Gore, a collection of cover songs recorded at Gore's home studio. The eleven tracks on the album included songs that were recorded originally by Iggy Pop, John Lennon, and Brian Eno.Martin Gore (Counterfeit²) - Mute Records, accessed 7 November 2010.
2010
Goldfrapp released their fifth album, Head First, in March 2010."Goldfrapp - Head First". Retrieved 7 November 2010. Recorded in 2009 in Bath and London, the album included the singles "Rocket" and "Alive".
The American band Liars also released a new album in March 2010, Sisterworld, which included the single "Scissor", as a digital download."Mute Records - Sisterworld". Retrieved 20 November 2010.
In September 2010, EMI and Daniel Miller reached an agreement in which EMI would support Miller in the establishment of a second record label."EMI - Mute to go Independent Again...", accessed 29 October 2010. The Mute brand once again became an independent record label as Mute Artists Ltd. The new label would operate under the Mute trademark, which would be licensed by EMI and will be supported by EMI via services such as sales, licensing, and distribution. Daniel Miller was given full control of the new label, which left EMI with a minority equity interest in the company. To help fund the new label, EMI licensed part of the Mute back catalogue, also giving support in areas such as royalty administration and business affairs. Current Mute artists such as Depeche Mode, Kraftwerk, and Goldfrapp remained signed to and marketed by EMI Music. Many other bands, including Erasure and Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds moved over to Miller's new independent label.
October 2010 saw the release of Dust Lane by the French artist Yann Tiersen."Yann Tiersen - Dust Lane". Retrieved 7 November 2010. The album incorporated vintage electronic sounds and textures recorded over two years in France and the Philippines. In November Mute released Einstürzende Neubauten's fourth album in the Strategies Against Architecture series. The album continues with an archive compilation of the band's output from 2002 to 2010."Mute Records—Strategies Against Architecture IV". Retrieved 20 November 2010.
2012
In 2012, albums by Cold Specks, Liars, Crime & the City Solution, and Soulsavers were released, among others.
The Germany-based BMG Rights Management acquired the original Mute back catalogue from Universal in December 2012, as part of the regulator-forced sale of European assets belonging to EMI Music that were acquired by Universal Music in September 2012. EMI kept the rights of the Mute archives when Miller took the company independent in 2010. In May 2013, the EC approved the catalogue acquisition. Months after acquiring the Mute catalogue, BMG selected INgrooves to distribute the catalogue in North America, PIAS Recordings for all other territories, and Sony Music Entertainment to distribute Depeche Mode.
2014
In the aftermath of the Universal’s acquisition of EMI, in February 2014, Mute left Caroline Distribution, once part of former parent EMI, and signed a new USA distribution deal with Alternative Distribution Alliance, returning to Warner Music Group, which was its American home 20 years prior.“Mute Partners with ADA” (21 February 2014). Retrieved from Warner Music Group on April 22, 2014. European distribution for Mute was now handled by PIAS.
In September 2014 New Order announced that it had signed with Mute Records for its tenth studio album.
2017
The wholly independent label continued to sign new artists such as Lee Ranaldo plus the catalogues of Throbbing Gristle and A Certain Ratio plus released new albums from Erasure, Goldfrapp and Ben Frost amongst others. In November 2017, the book 'Mute: A Visual Document: From 1978 - Tomorrow' was released in partnership with Thames & Hudson, the book was named Book Of The Year by Rough Trade. Additionally the label relaunched the legendary techno label NovaMute with releases from Nicolas Bougaïeff and Terence Fixmer.
Discography
Mute sub-labels
Blast First (1985-2007, now independent under the name "Blast First Petite")
The Grey Area (for reissues, 1986- )
Rhythm King (associated between 1987 and 1991)
Product Inc. (1987-1990)
The Fine Line (for soundtracks, 1988-2004, currently inactive)
Mute Film (for VHS/DVD releases, 1988- )
Mute Sonet France (1988-1993, now defunct)
Mute Czechoslovakia (1990-2001, now defunct)
Novamute (1992-2008, 2017- )
13th Hour Recordings (1994-2000, probably defunct)
Mute Corporation (in USA) (created in 1994)
Trophy Records (1995-96, for Moby's side-projects/aliases only)
Interpop (1995-2006, probably defunct)
Parallel Series (1996-1997, now independent)
Future Groove (1999-2003, probably defunct)
Mute Tonträger (in Germany) (2000-2006, probably defunct)
Live Here Now (created in 2004, 2009-2015 EMI sublabel under the name "Abbey Road/Live Here Now", now independent)
Mute Irregulars (2007-2009, probably defunct)
Liberation Technologies (2012-2016, currently inactive)
References
External links
Category:Record labels based in London
Category:1978 establishments in England
Category:Record labels established in 1978
Category:EMI
Category:Electronic music record labels
Category:Industrial record labels
Category:Synth-pop record labels
Category:New wave record labels
Category:Alternative rock record labels
Category:Depeche Mode | {"Parent company": "Mute Artists Ltd.: Independent (2010-present) \nMute Records Ltd.: Independent (1978-2002) EMI Group Limited (2002-2012) Universal Music Group (2012) BMG Rights Management (2013-present)", "Founded": "1978", "Founder": "Daniel Miller", "Distributor(s)": "Mute Artists Ltd.: PIAS Cooperative (worldwide, 2013-present) Alternative Distribution Alliance (North America, 2014-present)https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/mute-signs-us-distribution-deal-with-ada/ Mute signs US distribution deal with ADA 21 February 2014 Music Business Worldwide Mute Records Ltd.: Alternative Distribution Alliance (worldwide, 2017-present)https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/bmg-moves-distribution-8000-albums-warners-ada BMG moves distribution of 8,000 albums to Warner's ADA - Music Business Worldwide 7 March 2017 musicbusinessworldwide.com", "Genre": "Rock electronic alternative rock experimental", "Country of origin": "United Kingdom", "Location": "Hammersmith, London", "Official website": "mute.com"} |
thumb|Portrait of Hiraga Gennai by Nakamaru Seijuro was a Japanese polymath and rōnin of the Edo period. Gennai was a pharmacologist, student of Rangaku, physician, author, painter and inventor well known for his Erekiteru (electrostatic generator), Kandankei (thermometer), and Kakanpu (asbestos cloth). Gennai also composed several works of literature, including the fictional satires Furyu Shidoken den (1763), the Nenashigusa (1763), and the Nenashigusa kohen (1768), and the satirical essays On Farting and A Lousy Journey of Love. He also authored two guidebooks on the male prostitutes of Japan, the Kiku no en (1764) and the San no asa (1768). His birth name was Shiraishi Kunitomo, but he later used numerous pen names, including , (his principal literary pen name), and . He is best known by the name of Hiraga Gennai.
Biography
Family history
Hiraga Gennai was born in 1729 in the village of Shidoura, Sanuki Province (part of the modern city of Sanuki, Kagawa. He was the third son of Shiraishi Mozaemon (Yoshifusa) a ashigaru low-level provincial samurai in the service of the Takamatsu Domain. The Shiraishi clan traced their roots to Saku District in Shinano Province where they were local warlords with the surname of "Hiraga". However, after they were defeated by the Takeda clan, they fled to Mutsu Province and entered the service of the Date clan, taking the new surname of "Shiraishi" from a location in Mutsu. They accompanied a cadet branch of the Date clan to Uwajima Domain in Shikoku, but eventually moved to Takamatsu where they supplemented their meagre income as a low-ranking samurai with farming. Gennai studied Confucianism and haiku poetry, and crafted kakejiku as a child in Takamatsu.
Early life
In 1741, Gennai began his studies as an herbalist and became an apprentice to a physician at the age of 12. Later at the age of 18 Gennai was offered an official position in the herb garden of the local . In 1748, his father died, and he became head of the family.
Midlife
thumb|The Elekiter (replica) exhibited in the National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo, Japan.|left
Life in Nagasaki
Gennai visited Nagasaki around 1752, where he studied oil painting, western medicine. The western medicine Gennai studied included European pharmaceutical and surgical techniques and other rangaku topics. Soon after his return from Nagasaki, he turned the role of head of household over to his sister and abandoned his family. Nagasaki was at the time one of the only ports that foreign ships were allowed to enter and therefore the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) along with a host of Chinese traders resided in the port town, and there were able to do business under highly regulated supervision. The interaction that Gennai had with the Chinese merchants and members of the VOC introduced him to ceramics. The following year Gennai relocated to Osaka and Kyoto, where he studied medicinal herbs under Toda Kyokuzan before moving to Edo in 1757.
Life in Edo
In Edo, he studied with Tamura Ransui, and with his oversight and support Gennai began to cultivate natural specimens of ginseng. This made the transition from imports of the medicinal herb to domestic production possible. While in Edo Gennai wrote a number of books, some on scientific or nature topics, some satirical novels, in the kokkeibon and dangibon genres. Gennai was an onna-girai and composed several works on the subject, including guidebooks on the male prostitutes of his days and works of fiction exalting sex between men over heterosexuality.In his scientific experiments, Gennai prospected for various minerals, wove asbestos, calculated temperatures, and worked with static electricity. He returned to Nagasaki to study mining and the techniques of refining ores.
Mining
In 1761, he discovered iron deposits in Izu Province and worked as a broker to establish a mining venture. He also held exhibitions of his various inventions in Edo, and came to be known to Tanuma Okitsugu, a senior official in the Tokugawa shogunate, as well as the doctors Sugita Genpaku and Nakagawa Jun'an. In 1766, he assisted Kawagoe Domain to develop an asbestos mine in what is now part of Chichibu, Saitama. While these, he also studied techniques to improve the efficiency of charcoal furnaces and the construction of river boats. In 1772 Gennai was on a trip to Nagasaki and uncovered a store of clay this led to him petitioning the government to allow him to manufacture pottery on a large scale, for both exports and domestic use.
"If the Japanese ware is good, then naturally we will not spend our gold and silver on the foreign commodity. Rather to the contrary: since both the Chinese and Hollanders will come to seek out these wares and carry them home, this will be of everlasting national benefit. Since it is originally clay, no matter how much pottery we send out, there need be no anxiety about a depletion of resources". Also in 1773, he was invited by Satake Yoshiatsu to Kubota Domain to teach mining engineering, and while in Dewa Province, also gave lessons in western oil painting.
thumb|Gennai (Shido) ware sake bottle with design of scholars in garden, earthenware with clear glaze and colored enamels. Edo period, 18th century
Pottery
Gennai made or instructed a number of Japanese pottery pieces which are named Gennai ware after him. The style is unique with brilliant colours, mostly three, following the Kōchi ware style from Gennai's native island of Shikoku.
End of life
Gennai was back in Edo by the summer of 1779, where he undertook repairs to a Daimyō mansion. His final days are surrounded in mystery. The most prevalent account is that he was arrested in late 1779 for killing two carpenters on the project in a drunken rage after they had accused him of stealing the plans for the mansion. He subsequently died in prison on January 24 of then following year of tetanus. Sugita Genpaku wanted to hold a funeral service, but this was denied for unknown reasons by the Shogunate, so Sugita held a memorial service with no body and with no tombstone. This has given rise to many theories over the years that Gennai had not actually died in prison, but had been spirited away, possibly by the intervention of Tanuma Okitsugu, and lived out the rest of his life somewhere in obscurity.
Grave of Hiraga Gennai
left|thumb|Hiraga Gennai grave in Shido
Despite the original prohibition on his funeral, Hiraga Gennai had a grave at the temple of Sosen-ji in Asakusabashi (currently Hashiba, Taitō-ku, Tokyo) . In 1928, following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, the temple was relocated to Itabashi, but its cemetery remained behind. Behind his grave is the grave of Fukusuke, his long-time manservant, and next to the tombstone is a stone monument with an epitaph by Sugita Genpaku, his life-long friend. The tomb was reconstructed by Count Yorinaga Matsudaira in 1931. It received protection as a National Historic Site in 1943. The site is a 12-minute walk from Minami-Senju Station on the Hibiya Line; however, the grave is not open to the public.
In addition, Hiraga has a second grave at the Hiraga family bodaiji in Sanuki, Kagawa.
Works
On Farting
Gennai published many works over the course of his literary career. The most well known being On Farting, a satirical work which aimed at exploring the themes between high and low Ryōgoku.
Within this work Gennai himself is depicted as having a "spirited" debate with a samurai, over a peasant that had become a popular entertainer called a fart-ist. The fart-ist would entertain crowds with their manipulation of flatulence. Gennai compares the fart-ist in the same category as weightlifters and fire eaters of the Ryōgoku district. Within the piece Gennai and his friends debate if a drug is being used by the artist that allows the performance to be possible. Gennai makes the argument that the feat is impressive and commendably unique. Another character, a Confucian Samurai Ishibe Kinkichiro argues that the rudeness of the act and the stupidity of viewers goes against the rules of Confucian manners by encouraging something like this to be performed in public. Gennai in the dialogue with Kinkichiro compares conflicting values against one another. For the Confucian samurai the performance in a serious offence against conception of propriety and social order. Where as Gennai believes that it embodies wisdom and creativity, but the two agree that a fart is nothing more than a useless discharge and that is cannot compare to the officially sanctioned work which is labeled as productive. It could not compare to the mental work that comes with running Tokugawa society. However the two do disagree on what this discharge means and its implications. For Kinkichiro it goes against everything that the "true sages" taught society about human decency and etiquette. For Gennai the creativity and the discharge being nothing more that a feat of wisdom by the fart-ist, because he was able to make useless excess into music. By presenting it this way Gennai exposed a problem with the categorization of material and media as either high or low. As the story continues Gennai continues to target high culture and its custodians and its mode or preproduction.
Rootless Grass
Another of Gennai's note-able satirical works is the is Rootless Grass. A story of Enma, who falls in love with a Onnagata. In Gennai's description of hell, it is a lively place, but is currently in the midst of a large construction project. This project is due to the need for more space, in large part because of the massive growth in population that hell is enduring. King Enma tasks the Dragon King with the retrieval of the Onnagata Kinkunojo II which has become the object of Enma's affection. The Dragon King holds court to determine who will go to the mortal world to retrieve the Onnagata. However there is an issue is trying to figure out which retainer would be the best to send. In the end the Dragon king sends the gatekeeper a Kappa to complete this task. The Kappa tries seduce the actor and then attempts to drown them, in order to complete their task. In the end the Kappa ends up falling for the young actor and instead brings back a less attractive Onnagata as a consolation prize. This caused Enma to venture out to the mortal realm in search of Kinkunojo. This unfortunately caused in interaction with a hero, which leads to Enma being defeated.
A Lousy Journey of Love
Continuing the theme of satirical publications, Gennai's piece A Lousy Journey of Love is a part of his posthumous complication of short stories, Blown Blossom and Fallen Leaves. Within this piece, the reader follows the journey of two lice that are traversing the body of a boy. There are frequent plays on words within this piece which adds to the effect of exaggerating the absurdity and humor of the point of view of a louse.
Appearances in fiction
Hiraga Gennai (1989, TBS, as Gennai: Toshiyuki Nishida)
In the film, Gennai is the protagonist of a detective-like role who uses his wealth of knowledge to solve the mystery of the incident that occurred in Edo.
Gennai appears as a scholar/inventor and cross-dressing lesbian in the manga Ōoku: The Inner Chambers (2005-2020) by Fumi Yoshinaga.
In the anime OVA: Mask of Zeguy Hiraga Gennai had a prominent role (along with Hijikata Toshizo) in protecting Miki (who is a descendant of the renowned Priestess Shamus) and preventing the legendary mask from falling into the wrong hands.
In the anime OVA: T.P. Sakura, Hiraga Gennai appears in addition to his elekiter.
In the anime Oh! Edo Rocket episode 10 it is revealed that the retired resident is Gennai. The Fūrai Row-House Block, which he says is his, is also likely a nod to one of his pen names.
In the anime Gintama, there is a mechanic known as Hiraga Gengai.
The anime Zero no Tsukaima has a character by the name of Hiraga Saito. Since Saito hails from Japan, it is speculated that he is named after Gennai.
Gennai makes an appearance in the anime Read or Die, along with the clones of many other historical and legendary figures. In Read Or Die, Gennai uses his elekiter as a very high powered destructive weapon that he uses to destroy the White House and eradicate an entire fleet of combat helicopters.
A giant mechanical frog is named after him in Mai-HiME.
In the anime Flint the Time Detective, he makes an appearance with the Time Shifter Elecky as he uses it to make giant robots.
In the Square game Live-A-Live, there is a mechanic named Gennai who is responsible for the creation of mechanical traps in the Bakumatsu Chapter. Since the setting of the chapter is the Bakumatsu era, his presence is an anachronism, but considering the additional presence of Ishikawa Goemon, Yodo-Dono, and Shiro Tokisada Amakusa, it is clear that this section of the game was intentionally designed as a mash-up of popular Japanese history.
In the 36th episode of Kikaida 01 Hiraga Gennai is threatened by time traveling robots from 1974 disguised as ninja. The evil Shadow tends to take him to 1974 and have him help build better robots.
In the 30th episode of Demashita! Powerpuff Girls Z (ガールズとカレ!, "Girls and Him!"), a character by the name of Hiraga Kennai is responsible for the creation of a primitive form of Chemical Z and the Ōedo Chakichaki Musume. He also uses an elekiter to separate Him's soul (the black light) from his body.
In the 13th episode of the first season of the anime Digimon Adventure (エンジェモン覚醒!, "Angemon's Awakening!"), an elderly man named Gennai appears to the Chosen Children/Digidestined and helps them with their journey. He reappears in the second season called Digimon Adventure 02 as a younger man. His Digimon Adventure design appears to be based on old-fashioned Japanese styles, and both it and his name were likely inspired by the historical Gennai.
In the light novel Hidan no Aria, Gennai is the famous ancestor of the Amdo Butei Aya Hiraga.
In the 6th episode of the anime Sengoku Collection he is embodied in a genius and clumsy girl.
In the anime Carried by the Wind: Tsukikage Ran, Gennai makes an appearance in episode 7.
In the manga Korokoro Soushi, by Shintaro Kago, as a recurrent character.
Takashi Yamaguchi played Hiraga Gennai in Tenkagomen, an NHK drama series (1971-1972).
In a mobile card turn-based video game Valkyrie Crusade, a female version of Hiraga exists as a card. Elekiter also mentioned with "her".
In the free-to-play MMORPG Onigiri, there is a female version of Hiraga Gennai. She is part of the main quest line story. As a special partner character, players can also control her using the 'Vanguard Swap' feature.
In the web series Critical Role, in the Call of Cthulhu RPG one-shot, Gennai is a member of a secret society that wishes to cast light in every corner of the world, in order to starve The Village of the Hungry Night. Dr. Ida Codswell uses Gennai's elekiter to momentarily turn on the lights of The Crystal Palace to keep off The Village of the Hungry Night.
In the season 3, episode 9 of Star Trek: Discovery Terra Firma 1, a starship named USS Hiraga Gennai is mentioned as answering a distress call.
References
Further reading
External links
Category:1729 births
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Category:Deaths from tetanus | {"Name": "Hiraga Gennai", "Native name": "平賀 源内", "Native name language": "ja", "Caption": "1845 A Portrait of Kyūkei Hiraga (1729-80) by Momuō Kimura", "Alt": "Hiraga Gennai", "Birth date": "1729", "Birth place": "Sanuki, Sanuki Province, Japan", "Death date": "January 24, 1780 (aged 51-52)", "Other names": "Kyūkei 鳩渓, Fūrai Sanjin 風来山人, Tenjiku rōnin 天竺浪人 and Fukuchi Kigai 福内鬼外", "Education": "Student of Rangaku", "Occupation": "Physician, author, painter and inventor"} |
The Arkansas Gazette was a newspaper in Little Rock, Arkansas, that was published from 1819 to 1991. It was known as the oldest newspaper west of the Mississippi River. It was located from 1908 until its closing at the now historic Gazette Building. For many years it was the newspaper of record for Little Rock and the State of Arkansas. It was Arkansas' first newspaper.
History
The Arkansas Gazette began publication at Arkansas Post, the first capital of Arkansas Territory, on November 20, 1819. The Arkansas Gazette was established seventeen years before Arkansas became a state. When the capital was moved to Little Rock in 1821, publisher William E. Woodruff also relocated the Arkansas Gazette. The newspaper was the first to report Arkansas' statehood in 1836.
thumb|Arkansas Gazette building
Over the decades the paper was bought and sold many times. During the Civil War the paper was even shut down from September 1863 to May 1865. After the war the Gazette became the first newspaper to have telegraphic services from which they began to receive news from places like New Orleans, Louisiana, Memphis, Tennessee, and St. Louis, Missouri. In 1908 the "Gazette" added colored comics.
After the Elaine massacre of 1919, state officials concocted an elaborate cover-up, claiming that blacks were planning an insurrection. Newspapers, including the Arkansas Gazette, repeated the falsehood that blacks in Arkansas were staging an insurrection: the Gazette wrote that Elaine was "a zone of negro insurrection." Subsequent to this reporting, more than 100 African Americans were indicted, with 12 being sentenced to death by electrocution. After a years-long legal battle by the NAACP, the 12 men were acquitted.
During the Little Rock Nine Crisis the "Gazette" promoted the integration of schools which lost them millions of dollars. But in the aftermath the "Gazette" regained its status. In 1958, the "Arkansas Gazette" was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for Public Service and Harry Ashmore of the "Gazette" was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing for their coverage of the school integration crisis in Little Rock.
Through much of its history, the Gazette was in competition with the Arkansas Democrat. Competition became more intense in 1979 when the Democrat changed from publishing in the evening to publishing in the morning. After 12 years of bitter competition in the morning, the Arkansas Gazette published its final edition on October 18, 1991. The assets of the newspaper were sold to Walter E. Hussman Jr., owner and publisher of the competing Arkansas Democrat. Hussman renamed the surviving paper the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. The surviving newspaper proclaims itself a descendant of the Arkansas Gazette, but this viewpoint is disputed by the 726 full-time and 1,200 part-time employees of the Arkansas Gazette who lost their jobs with the demise of their newspaper, as well as by readers of the "Gazette" who preferred the quality of journalism found in the "Gazette" to that found in the "Arkansas Democrat," even holding a vigil for its demise. Regardless of the viewpoint of some ex-employees of the defunct paper, the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette is the successor to the Arkansas Gazette.
See also
List of newspapers in Arkansas
References
Further reading
External links
The American Era at Historical Marker Database
Category:1819 establishments in Arkansas Territory
Category:1991 disestablishments in Arkansas
Category:Defunct newspapers published in Arkansas
Category:History of Arkansas County, Arkansas
Category:History of Little Rock, Arkansas
Category:Mass media in Little Rock, Arkansas
Category:Publications established in 1819
Category:Publications disestablished in 1991
Category:Pulitzer Prize for Public Service winners
Category:Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers | {"Type": "Newspaper", "Format": "Broadsheet", "Founder(s)": "William E. Woodruff", "Language": "English", "Headquarters": "The Gazette Building112 West Third StreetLittle Rock, Arkansas72201-2702", "Country": "United States", "OCLC": "8794697"} |
was a Japanese critic and author, also known under the pseudonym .
Biography
Fukuchi Gen'ichirō was born in Nagasaki, Japan. He traveled Europe as a translator, and in 1874, became a main writer for the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun newspaper. In 1882, he formed the Constitutional Imperial Rule Party.
References
Further reading
Category:Japanese male writers
Category:1841 births
Category:1906 deaths
Category:Japanese journalists
Category:Male dramatists and playwrights
Category:Male journalists
Category:19th-century Japanese dramatists and playwrights
Category:19th-century journalists
Category:19th-century male writers
Category:Writers from Nagasaki Prefecture
Category:People from Nagasaki
Category:Members of the Iwakura Mission
Category:Members of the First Japanese Embassy to Europe | {"Name": "Fukuchi Gen'ichirō", "Caption": "Fukuchi Gen'ichirō", "Native name": "福地 源一郎", "Native name language": "ja", "Birth date": "1841 05 13", "Birth place": "Nagasaki, Japan", "Death date": "1906 01 04 1841 05 13", "Nationality": "Japanese", "Other names": "Fukuchi Ōchi"} |
was a Japanese educator, philosopher, writer, entrepreneur and samurai who founded Keio University, the newspaper Jiji-Shinpō, and the Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases.
Fukuzawa was an early advocate for reform in Japan. His ideas about the organization of government and the structure of social institutions made a lasting impression on a rapidly changing Japan during the Meiji period. He appears on the current 10,000-Japanese yen banknote.
Early life
thumb|left|Monument of Fukuzawa Yukichi's birthplace, the Nakatsu Domain warehouse-mansion, in Hotarumachi, Fukushima-ku, Osaka
Fukuzawa Yukichi was born into an impoverished low-ranking samurai (military nobility) family of the Okudaira Clan of Nakatsu Domain (present-day Ōita, Kyushu) in 1835. His family lived in Osaka, the main trading center for Japan at the time. His family was poor following the early death of his father, who was also a Confucian scholar. At the age of 5 he started Han learning, and by the time he turned 14, he had studied major writings such as the Analects, Tao Te Ching, Zuo Zhuan and Zhuangzi. Fukuzawa was greatly influenced by his lifelong teacher, Shōzan Shiraishi, who was a scholar of Confucianism and Han learning. Yukichi turned 19 in 1854, shortly after the Perry Expedition's arrival in Japan marking the beginning of the opening of Japan to trade via Gunboat diplomacy. As the family patriarch Fukuzawa's brother asked him to travel to Nagasaki, where the Dutch colony at Dejima was located, in order to enter a school of Dutch studies (rangaku). He instructed Yukichi to learn Dutch so that he might study European cannon designs and gunnery.
thumb|Sailors of the Kanrin Maru, members of the Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860). Fukuzawa Yukichi sits on the right.
thumb|Fukuzawa Yukichi (posing with the photographer's twelve year old daughter: Theodora Alice Shew) in San Francisco, 1860.
Fukuzawa’s early life consisted of the dull and backbreaking work typical of a lower-level samurai in Japan during the Tokugawa period. Although Fukuzawa did travel to Nagasaki, his stay was brief as he quickly began to outshine his host in Nagasaki, Okudaira Iki. Okudaira planned to get rid of Fukuzawa by writing a letter saying that Fukuzawa's mother was ill. Seeing through the fake letter, Fukuzawa planned to travel to Edo and continue his studies there, since he would be unable to do so in his home domain of Nakatsu. However, upon his return to Osaka, his brother persuaded him to stay and enroll at the Tekijuku school run by physician and rangaku scholar Ogata Kōan. Fukuzawa studied at Tekijuku for three years and became fully proficient in the Dutch language. In 1858, he was appointed the official Dutch teacher of Nakatsu, and was sent to Edo to teach the family's vassals there.
The following year, Japan opened up three of its ports to American and European ships, and Fukuzawa, intrigued with Western civilization, traveled to Kanagawa to see them. When he arrived, he discovered that virtually all of the European merchants there were speaking English rather than Dutch. He then began to study English, but at that time, English-Japanese interpreters were rare and dictionaries nonexistent, so his studies were slow.
In 1859, the Tokugawa shogunate sent their first diplomatic mission to the United States. Fukuzawa volunteered his services to Admiral Kimura Yoshitake. Kimura's ship, the Kanrin Maru, arrived in San Francisco, California, in 1860. The delegation stayed in the city for a month, during which time Fukuzawa had himself photographed with an American girl, and also found a Webster's Dictionary, from which he began serious study of the English language.
Political movements
thumb|left|200px|Fukuzawa Yukichi was a member of the Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860). (Washington shipyard).
thumb|right|200px|Fukuzawa posing in Utrecht as part of the First Japanese Embassy to Europe, 1862.
Upon his return in 1860, Fukuzawa became an official translator for the Tokugawa shogunate. Shortly afterwards he brought out his first publication, an English-Japanese dictionary which he called "Kaei Tsūgo" (translated from a Chinese-English dictionary) which was a beginning for his series of later books. In 1862, he visited Europe as one of the two English translators in the First Japanese Embassy to Europe. During its year in Europe, the Embassy conducted negotiations with France, England, the Netherlands, Prussia, and finally Russia. In Russia, the embassy attempted unsuccessfully to negotiate for the southern end of Sakhalin (in Japanese Karafuto), a long-standing source of dispute between the two countries.
The information collected during these travels resulted in his famous work Seiyō Jijō (, ), which he published in ten volumes in 1867, 1868 and 1870. The books describe western culture and institutions in simple, easy to understand terms, and they became immediate best-sellers. Fukuzawa was soon regarded as the foremost expert on western civilization, leading him to conclude that his mission in life was to educate his countrymen in new ways of thinking in order to enable Japan to resist European imperialism.
In 1868 he changed the name of the school he had established to teach Dutch to Keio Gijuku, and from then on devoted all his time to education. He also added Public speaking to the educational system's curriculum. While Keiō's initial identity was that of a private school of Western studies (Keio-gijuku), it expanded and established its first university faculty in 1890. Under the name Keio-Gijuku University, it became a leader in Japanese higher education.
Fukuzawa was also a strong advocate for women’s rights. He often spoke up in favor of equality between husbands and wives, the education of girls as well as boys, and the equal love of daughters and sons. At the same time, he called attention to harmful practices such as women’s inability to own property in their own name and the familial distress that took place when married men took mistresses. However, even Fukuzawa was not willing to propose completely equal rights for men and women; only for husbands and wives. He also stated in his 1899 book New Greater Learning for Women that a good marriage was always the best outcome for a young woman, and according to some of Fukuzawa's personal letters, he discouraged his friends from sending their daughters on to higher education so that they would not become less desirable marriage candidates. While some of Yukichi’s other proposed reforms, such as education reforms, found an eager audience, his ideas about women received a less enthusiastic reception.
Death
After suffering a stroke on January 25, 1901, Fukuzawa Yukichi died on February 3. He was buried at Zenpuku-ji, in the Azabu area of Tokyo. Alumni of Keio-Gijuku University hold a ceremony there every year on February 3.
Works
Fukuzawa's writings may have been the foremost of the Edo period and Meiji period. They played a large role in the introduction of Western culture into Japan.
English-Japanese Dictionary
In 1860, he published English-Japanese Dictionary ("Zōtei Kaei Tsūgo"). It was his first publication. He bought English-Chinese Dictionary ("Kaei Tsūgo") in San Francisco in 1860. He translated it to Japanese and he added the Japanese translations to the original textbook. In his book, he invented the new Japanese characters VU () to represent the pronunciation of VU, and VA () to represent the pronunciation of VA. For example, the name Beethoven is written as in modern Japanese.
All the Countries of the World, for Children Written in Verse
His famous textbook Sekai Kunizukushi ("All the Countries of the World, for Children Written in Verse", 1869) became a best seller and was used as an official school textbook. His inspiration for writing the books came when he tried to teach world geography to his sons. At the time there were no textbooks on the subject, so he decided to write one himself. He started by buying a few Japanese geography books for children, named Miyakoji ("City roads") and Edo hōgaku ("Tokyo maps"), and practiced reading them aloud. He then wrote Sekai Kunizukushi in six volumes in the same lyrical style. The first volume covered Asia, the second Africa, the third Europe, the fourth South America, and the fifth both North America and Australia. The sixth volume was an appendix that gave an introduction to world geography.
An Encouragement of Learning
thumb|200px|First edition of "An Encouragement of Learning" (1872), written by Fukuzawa Yukichi and Obata Tokujirō.
Influenced by the 1835 and 1856 editions of Elements of Moral Science by Brown University President Francis Wayland, from 1872-76 Fukuzawa published 17 volumes of Gakumon no Susume (, or more idiomatically "On Studying"). Through these writings, Fukuzawa develops his views on the importance of equality of opportunity as a principle, explores his understanding of the principle, and stresses that education is the key to taking best advantage of
the principle and achieving greatness. For these reasons, he was an avid supporter of public schools and believed in a firm mental foundation through learning and studiousness. Fukuzawa also advocated in these writings his most lasting motto, "national independence through personal independence." By creating a self-determining social morality for a Japan still reeling from both the political upheavals wrought by the unwanted end to its isolationism and the cultural upheavals caused by the inundation of so much novelty in products, methods, and ideas, Fukuzawa hoped to instill a sense of personal strength among the people of Japan so they could build a nation to rival all others. To his understanding, Western nations had become more powerful than other regions because their societies fostered education, individualism (independence), competition and exchange of ideas.
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
thumb|200px|First edition of An Outline of a Theory of Civilization (1875).
Fukuzawa published many influential essays and critical works. A particularly prominent example is Bunmeiron no Gairyaku (, ) published in 1875, in which he details his own theory of civilization. It was influenced by Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828; Eng. trans in 1846) by François Guizot and History of Civilization in England (1872-1873, 2nd London ed.) by Henry Thomas Buckle. According to Fukuzawa, civilization is relative to time and circumstance, as well in comparison. For example, at the time China was relatively civilized in comparison to some African colonies, and European nations were the most civilized of all.
Colleagues in the Meirokusha intellectual society shared many of Fukuzawa's views, which he published in his contributions to Meiroku zasshi (Meiji Six Magazine), a scholarly journal he helped publish. In his books and journals, he often wrote about the word "civilization" and what it meant. He advocated a move toward "civilization", by which he meant material and spiritual well-being, which elevated human life to a "higher plane". Because material and spiritual well-being corresponded to knowledge and "virtue", to "move toward civilization" was to advance and pursue knowledge and virtue themselves. He contended that people could find the answer to their life or their present situation from "civilization." Furthermore, the difference between the weak and the powerful and large and small was just a matter of difference between their knowledge and education.
He argued that Japan should not import guns and materials. Instead it should support the acquisition of knowledge, which would eventually take care of the material necessities. He talked of the Japanese concept of being practical or pragmatic (実学, jitsugaku) and the building of things that are basic and useful to other people. In short, to Fukuzawa, "civilization" essentially meant the furthering of knowledge and education.
Legacy
thumb|left|200px|Fukuzawa Yukichi
Fukuzawa's most important contribution to the reformation effort, though, came in the form of a newspaper called (, "Current Events"), which he started in 1882, after being prompted by Inoue Kaoru, Ōkuma Shigenobu, and Itō Hirobumi to establish a strong influence among the people, and in particular to transmit to the public the government's views on the projected national assembly, and as reforms began, Fukuzawa, whose fame was already unquestionable, began production of Jiji Shinpo, which received wide circulation, encouraging the people to enlighten themselves and to adopt a moderate political attitude towards the change that was being engineered within the social and political structures of Japan. He translated many books and journals into Japanese on a wide variety of subjects, including chemistry, the arts, military and society, and published many books (in multiple volumes) and journals himself describing Western society, his own philosophy and change, etc.
thumb|200px|Fukuzawa appears on the 10,000 yen banknote engraved by Oshikiri Katsuzō
Fukuzawa was one of the most influential people ever that helped Japan modernize into the country it is today. He never accepted any high position and remained a normal Japanese citizen for his whole life. By the time of his death, he was revered as one of the founders of modern Japan. All of his work was written and was released at a critical juncture in the Japanese society and uncertainty for the Japanese people about their future after the signing of the Unequal treaties, their realization in the weakness of the Japanese government at the time (Tokugawa Shogunate) and its inability to repel the American and European influence. It should also be noted that there were bands of samurai that forcefully opposed the Americans and Europeans and their friends through murder and destruction. Fukuzawa was in danger of his life as a samurai group killed one of his colleagues for advocating policies like those of Fukuzawa. Fukuzawa wrote at a time when the Japanese people were undecided on whether they should be bitter about the American and European forced treaties and imperialism, or to understand the West and move forward. Fukuzawa greatly aided the ultimate success of the pro-modernization forces.
Fukuzawa appears on the current 10,000-yen banknote and has been compared to Benjamin Franklin in the United States. Franklin appears on the similarly-valued $100 bill. Although all other figures appearing on Japanese banknotes changed when the recent redesign was released, Fukuzawa remained on the 10,000-yen note.
thumb|200px|Yukichi Fukuzawa's former residence in the city of Nakatsu in Ōita Prefecture
Yukichi Fukuzawa's former residence in the city of Nakatsu in Ōita Prefecture is a Nationally Designated Cultural Asset. The house and the Yukichi Fukuzawa Memorial Hall are the major tourist attractions of this city..
Yukichi Fukuzawa was a firm believer that Western education surpassed Japan's. However, he did not like the idea of parliamentary debates. As early as 1860, Yukichi Fukuzawa traveled to Europe and the United States. He believed that the problem in Japan was the undervalued mathematics and science. Also, these suffered from a "lack of the idea of independence". The Japanese conservatives were not happy about Fukuzawa's view of Western education. Since he was a family friend of conservatives, he took their stand to heart. Fukuzawa later came to state that he went a little too far..
One word sums up his entire theme and that is "independence". Yukichi Fukuzawa believed that national independence was the framework to society in the West. However, to achieve this independence, as well as personal independence, Fukuzawa advocated Western learning. He believed that public virtue would increase as people became more educated.
Bibliography
Original Japanese books
English-Japanese dictionary (増訂華英通語 Zōtei Kaei Tsūgo, 1860)
Things western (西洋事情 Seiyō Jijō, 1866, 1868 and 1870)
Rifle instruction book (雷銃操法 Raijyū Sōhō, 1867)
Guide to travel in the western world (西洋旅案内 Seiyō Tabiannai, 1867)
Our eleven treaty countries (条約十一国記 Jyōyaku Jyūichi-kokki, 1867)
Western ways of living: food, clothes, housing (西洋衣食住 Seiyō Isyokujyū, 1867)
Handbook for soldiers (兵士懐中便覧 Heishi Kaicyū Binran, 1868)
Illustrated book of physical sciences (訓蒙窮理図解 Kinmō Kyūri Zukai, 1868)
Outline of the western art of war (洋兵明鑑 Yōhei Meikan, 1869)
Pocket almanac of the world (掌中万国一覧 Shōcyū Bankoku-Ichiran, 1869)
English parliament (英国議事院談 Eikoku Gijiindan, 1869)
Sino-British diplomatic relations (清英交際始末 Shin-ei Kosai-shimatsu, 1869)
All the countries of the world, for children written in verse (世界国尽 Sekai Kunizukushi, 1869)
Daily lesson for children (ひびのおしえ Hibi no Oshie, 1871) - These books were written for Fukuzawa's first son Ichitarō and second son Sutejirō.
Book of reading and penmanship for children (啓蒙手習の文 Keimō Tenarai-no-Fumi, 1871)
Encouragement of learning (学問のすゝめ Gakumon no Susume, 1872-1876)
Junior book of ethics with many tales from western lands (童蒙教草 Dōmō Oshie-Gusa, 1872)
Deformed girl (かたわ娘 Katawa Musume, 1872)
Explanation of the new calendar (改暦弁 Kaireki-Ben, 1873)
Bookkeeping (帳合之法 Chōai-no-Hō, 1873)
Maps of Japan for children (日本地図草紙 Nihon Chizu Sōshi, 1873)
Elementary reader for children (文字之教 Moji-no-Oshie, 1873)
How to hold a conference (会議弁 Kaigi-Ben, 1874)
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization (文明論之概略 Bunmeiron no Gairyaku, 1875)
Independence of the scholar's mind (学者安心論 Gakusya Anshinron, 1876)
On decentralization of power, advocating less centralized government in Japan (分権論 Bunkenron, 1877)
Popular economics (民間経済録 Minkan Keizairoku, 1877)
Collected essays of Fukuzawa (福澤文集 Fukuzawa Bunsyū, 1878)
On currency (通貨論 Tsūkaron, 1878)
Popular discourse on people's rights (通俗民権論 Tsūzoku Minkenron, 1878)
Popular discourse on national rights (通俗国権論 Tsūzoku Kokkenron, 1878)
Transition of people's way of thinking (民情一新 Minjyō Isshin, 1879)
On national diet (国会論 Kokkairon, 1879)
Commentary on the current problems (時事小言 Jiji Shōgen, 1881)
On general trends of the times (時事大勢論 Jiji Taiseiron, 1882)
On the imperial household (帝室論 Teishitsuron, 1882)
On armament (兵論 Heiron, 1882)
On moral training (徳育如何 Tokuiku-Ikan, 1882)
On the independence of learning (学問之独立 Gakumon-no Dokuritsu, 1883)
On the national conscription (全国徴兵論 Zenkoku Cyōheiron, 1884)
Popular discourse on foreign diplomacy (通俗外交論 Tsūzoku Gaikōron, 1884)
On Japanese womanhood (日本婦人論 Nihon Fujinron, 1885)
On men's moral life (士人処世論 Shijin Syoseiron, 1885)
On moral conduct (品行論 Hinkōron, 1885)
On association of men and women (男女交際論 Nannyo Kosairon, 1886)
On Japanese manhood (日本男子論 Nihon Nanshiron, 1888)
On reverence for the Emperor (尊王論 Sonnōron, 1888)
Future of the Diet; Origin of the difficulty in the Diet; Word on the public security; On land tax (国会の前途 Kokkai-no Zento; Kokkai Nankyoku-no Yurai; Chian-Syōgen; Chisoron, 1892)
On business (実業論 Jitsugyōron, 1893)
One hundred discourses of Fukuzawa (福翁百話 Fukuō Hyakuwa, 1897)
Foreword to the collected works of Fukuzawa (福澤全集緒言 Fukuzawa Zensyū Cyogen, 1897)
Fukuzawa sensei's talk on the worldly life (福澤先生浮世談 Fukuzawa Sensei Ukiyodan, 1898)
Discourses of study for success (修業立志編 Syūgyō Rittishihen, 1898)
Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi (福翁自伝 Fukuō Jiden, 1899)
Reproof of "the essential learning for women"; New essential learning for women (女大学評論 Onnadaigaku Hyōron; 新女大学 Shin-Onnadaigaku, 1899)
More discourses of Fukuzawa (福翁百余話 Fukuō Hyakuyowa, 1901)
Commentary on the national problems of 1877; Spirit of manly defiance (明治十年丁丑公論 Meiji Jyūnen Teicyū Kōron; 瘠我慢の説 Yasegaman-no Setsu, 1901)
English translations
The Thought of Fukuzawa series, (Paperback) Keio University Press
vol.1
vol.2
vol.3
Vol.4 The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi. Revised translation and with an introduction by Helen Ballhatchet.
See also
Jiji Shinpō
Keio-Gijuku University
List of motifs on banknotes
Nakae Chōmin
Natsume Sōseki
Susumu Nishibe
Tsuneari Fukuda
Yamamoto Tsunetomo
Yukio Mishima
Zenpuku-ji
Notes
References
- French version (Archive)
Further reading
Hiruta, Kei (2023). "Fukuzawa Yukichi's Liberal Nationalism". American Political Science Review
Lefebvre, Isabelle. "La révolution chez Fukuzawa et la notion de jitsugaku Fukuzawa Yukichi sous le regard de Maruyama Masao" (Archive). Cipango. 19 | 2012 : Le Japon et le fait colonial II. pp. 79-91.
Maruyama, Masao (丸山眞男). "Introduction aux recherches philosophiques de Fukuzawa Yukichi" (Archive). Cipango. 19 | 2012 : Le Japon et le fait colonial II. pp. 191-217. Translated from Japanese by Isabelle Lefebvre.
Original version: Maruyama, Masao. "Fukuzawa ni okeru jitsugaku no tenkai. Fukuzawa Yukichi no tetsugaku kenkyū josetsu" (福沢に於ける「実学」の展開、福沢諭吉の哲学研究序説), March 1947, in Maruyama Masao shū (丸山眞男集), vol. xvi, Tōkyō, Iwanami Shoten, (1997), 2004, pp. 108-131.
(in French) Fukuzawa Yukichi, L’Appel à l’étude, complete edition, translated from Japanese, annotated and presented by Christian Galan, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, april 2018, 220 p.
External links
Fukuzawa, Yukichi | Portraits of Modern Japanese Historical Figures (National Diet Library)
"Encouragement for Learning" (Gakumon no Susume) by Fukuzawa Yukichi (Part One, English Translation)
E-texts of Fukuzawa's works at Aozora Bunko
Gakumon no Susume, first edition in the Database of Pre-Modern Japanese Works (National Institute of Japanese Literature)
Category:1835 births
Category:1901 deaths
Category:Atheist feminists
Category:Japanese atheists
Category:19th-century Japanese educators
Category:Liberalism in Japan
Category:Liberal theorists
Category:Japanese feminists
Category:Japanese journalists
Category:Japanese writers
Category:Japanese translators
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Category:Male feminists
Category:Meiji Restoration
Category:People from Nakatsu, Ōita
Category:People of Meiji-period Japan
Category:University and college founders
Category:Writers from Osaka
Category:Members of the First Japanese Embassy to Europe
Category:Members of the Japanese Embassy to the United States
Category:Japanese magazine founders | {"Name": "Fukuzawa Yukichi福澤諭吉", "Caption": "Fukuzawa in 1891", "Birth date": "1835 01 10", "Death date": "1901 02 03 1835 01 10", "Birth place": "Dojima Shinchi 5-chome, Settsu Province, Tokugawa shogunate", "Death place": "Shiba, Tokyo, Empire of Japan", "Other names": "Shi-I (子圍)Sanjyū-ikkoku-jin (三十一谷人)", "Spouse(s)": "Kin Toki"} |
Luís Fróis (1532 - 8 July 1597) was a Portuguese missionary who worked in Asia during the second half of the 16th century.
Biography
Fróis was born in Lisbon in 1532. He was educated at the court of King João III of Portugal, where a close relative served as a scribe. At an early age, he started working for the Royal Secretary's office. In 1548, he joined the Jesuits traveling to Portuguese India to study at Saint Paul's College, Goa. He arrived in Goa on September 4, 1548. One of his teachers described Fróis' character as tough and good natured but not religious.
During his stay in Goa, Fróis reported on the mass conversion of over 200 Kshatriyas to Christianity that had taken place on 25 August 1560 in the village of Batim, in a letter dated 13 November 1560:
Fróis became a priest and confessor in 1561 after completing his theological studies in Goa. A year later, he was sent to Japan along with Giovanni Battista de Monte to engage in missionary work. On June 6, 1563 - after spending several months in Macau - he arrived in Yokoseura, Japan. The following year, he travelled to Kyoto, where he met Ashikaga Yoshiteru who was then shōgun. In 1569, he befriended Oda Nobunaga and stayed in his personal residence in Gifu while writing books for a short while. His works on history were somewhat expanded by Joāo Rodrigues. Among his works was the Treatise (1585) in which is contained some brief comparisons of the behaviors between the peoples of Europe and that province of Japan (Tratado em que se contêm muito sucinta e abreviadamente algumas contradições e diferenças de costumes entre a gente de Europa e esta província de Japão).
Fróis wrote a book about the history and custom of Japan, titled Historia de Iapam. In it he gave details about the Jesuit mission in Japan and its most important figures. He described the destruction of Buddhist and Shinto temples as victories over the devil and that Jesuits like Gaspar Coelho encouraged the destruction despite resistance from Japanese Christian nobles.
Cultural references
He was portrayed by Terry O'Brien in the Japanese TV series Hideyoshi. A fictionalized version of Luis Frois appears in the Capcom game Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams.
thumb|Historia de Iapam, manuscript page.
See also
Francis Xavier
Gaspar Vilela
Francisco Cabral
Alessandro Valignano
List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868
References
Category:1532 births
Category:1597 deaths
Category:Clergy from Lisbon
Category:16th-century Portuguese Jesuits
Category:Portuguese Roman Catholic missionaries
Category:Roman Catholic missionaries in Japan
Category:Jesuit missionaries in Japan
Category:Portuguese male writers
Category:Japanologists
Category:16th-century Portuguese writers
Category:Portuguese Renaissance writers
Category:Portuguese travel writers
Category:Portuguese expatriates in Japan | {"Name": "Luís Fróis", "Caption": "Luís Fróis", "Birth date": "1532", "Birth place": "Lisbon, Portugal", "Death date": "1597 7 8 1532", "Death place": "Nagasaki, Japan", "Nationality": "Portuguese", "Occupation": "Portuguese Missionary, writer"} |
The was a Japanese samurai family who controlled the hereditary title of shikken (regent) of the Kamakura shogunate between 1203 and 1333. Despite the title, in practice the family wielded actual political power in Japan during this period compared to both the Kamakura shoguns, or the Imperial Court in Kyoto, whose authority was largely symbolic. The Hōjō are known for fostering Zen Buddhism and for leading the successful opposition to the Mongol invasions of Japan. Resentment at Hōjō rule eventually culminated in the overthrow of the clan and the establishment of the Ashikaga shogunate.
Bloodline
The Hōjō are alleged to have been an offshoot of the Taira of the Kanmu branch, originating in Izu Province. They gained power by supporting the defeat of the Taira by intermarrying with and supporting Minamoto no Yoritomo in the Genpei War. The Hōjō usurped power when Yoritomo died eighteen years later.
Rise to power
Hōjō Tokimasa helped Minamoto no Yoritomo, a son-in-law, defeat the forces of the Taira to become Japan's first shōgun. Hōjō Masako, Tokimasa's daughter, was married to Yoritomo. After the death of Yoritomo, Tokimasa became shikken (regent) to the child shōgun, thus effectively transferring control of the shogunate to his clan permanently. Consequently the shōguns became puppets and hostages of the Hōjō.
Early events
The Imperial court at Kyoto resented the decline in its authority during the Kamakura shogunate, and the clan disliked Emperor Go-Toba. and in 1221 the Jōkyū War broke out between retired Emperor Go-Toba and the second regent Hōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate, while the emperor was exiled "to a remote island off western Japan." The shōguns constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek the shōguns approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates in Kyoto.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. In 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—the Goseibai Shikimoku—in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and remained in effect for the next 635 years.
As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hōjōki describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike monogatari narrated the rise and fall of the Taira, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin Kokin Wakashū, of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.
List of Hōjō Shikken
Hōjō Tokimasa (1138-1215) (r. 1203-1205)
Hōjō Yoshitoki (1163-1224) (r. 1205-1224)
Hōjō Yasutoki (1183-1242) (r. 1224-1242)
Hōjō Tsunetoki (1224-1246) (r. 1242-1246)
Hōjō Tokiyori (1227-1263) (r. 1246-1256)
Hōjō Nagatoki (1229-1264) (r. 1256-1264)
Hōjō Masamura (1205-1273) (r. 1264-1268)
Hōjō Tokimune (1251-1284) (r. 1268-1284)
Hōjō Sadatoki (1271-1311) (r. 1284-1301)
Hōjō Morotoki (1275-1311) (r. 1301-1311)
Hōjō Munenobu (1259-1312) (r. 1311-1312)
Hōjō Hirotoki (1279-1315) (r. 1312-1315)
Hōjō Mototoki (1286-1333) (r. 1315)
Hōjō Takatoki (1303-1333) (r. 1316-1326)
Hōjō Sadaaki (1278-1333) (r. 1326)
Hōjō Moritoki (1295-1333) (r. 1327-1333)
Hōjō Sadayuki (1302-1333) (r.1333)
Aside from the regents above, those who played an important role among the Hōjō clan are:
Hōjō Sanetoki
Hōjō Masako
References in media
The Taiheiki (Japanese: 太平記) is a Japanese historical epic written in the late 14th century that details the fall of the Hōjō clan and rise of the Ashikaga, and the period of war (Nanboku-chō) between the Northern Court of Ashikaga Takauji in Kyoto, and the Southern Court of Emperor Go-Daigo in Yoshino, which forever splintered the Japanese Imperial Family. Multiple modern films have been made based on the epic novel.
The shape of the Triforce symbol from The Legend of Zelda game series looks similar to Hōjō clan's crest.
In the visual novel Policenauts, the main plot deals with protagonist Jonathan Ingram locating his estranged wife's missing husband, Kenzō Hōjō. Hōjō's crest becomes an important gameplay element later on
Hōjō Tokimune is the leader of the Japanese civilization in the strategy video game Sid Meier's Civilization VI.
Hōjō Tokiyuki, a son of the last Tokusō (head of Hōjō clan), is main character of manga by Yusei Matsui.
See also
Shikken, Hōjō hereditary post
Tokusō, title of the head of the clan
Rensho, Hōjō hereditary post
Rokuhara Tandai, security force located in Kyoto, Hōjō hereditary post
Kamakura shogunate
Mongol invasions of Japan
History of Japan
Kanazawa Bunko
Hōkoku-ji
Later Hōjō clan
References
Category:Japanese clans | {"Home province": "Izu\n Sagami", "Parent house": "Taira clan", "Titles": "Shikken\n Various others", "Founder": "Hōjō Tokimasa", "Final ruler": "Hōjō Takatoki", "Founding year": "12th century", "Dissolution": "1333", "Ruled until": "1333"} |
Howard Barton Unruh (January 21, 1921 - October 19, 2009) was an American mass murderer who shot and killed thirteen people during a twelve-minute walk through his neighborhood in Camden, New Jersey, on September 6, 1949
in an incident that became known as the Walk of Death. Unruh was found to be criminally insane and died in 2009 after a lengthy illness at the age of 88 following 60 years of confinement.
The shooting remains the deadliest mass shooting in New Jersey history, and is one of the first examples of a mass shooting in post-WW2 US history.
Background and possible motives for killings
Howard Unruh was the son of Samuel Shipley Unruh and Freda E. Vollmer. He had a younger brother, James; they were raised by their mother after their parents separated. Unruh grew up in East Camden, New Jersey, attended Cramer Junior High School and graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in January 1939.Howard Unruh, dvrbs.com. The Woodrow Wilson High School yearbook from 1939 indicated that he was shy and that his ambition was to become a government employee.Ramsland, Katherine. Rampage in Camden, truTV.com.
Unruh enlisted in the United States Army on October 27, 1942, and saw active service as an armor crewman across Europe between October 1944 and July 1945. He was remembered by his section chief, Norman E. Koehn, as a first-class soldier who never drank, swore, or chased girls and spent much time reading his Bible and writing long letters to his mother. It was also cited that Unruh kept meticulous notes on the enemies killed in battles, down to the details of the corpses. He was awarded the European Theater of Operations Medal, the Victory Medal, and the Good Conduct Medal. Unruh was honorably discharged at the end of the war and returned to New Jersey to live with his mother. Both his brother and his father later indicated that Unruh's wartime experiences had changed him, making him moody, nervous, and detached.
Unruh briefly found work as a sheet-metal worker before enrolling at the Temple University School of Pharmacy in Philadelphia but quit after a month citing "poor physical condition" as the reason. Supported by his mother's income working in a soap factory, he hung about their house, decorating it with his medals, reading his Bible, and practicing his shooting in the basement, which he'd turned into a practice range.
It was around this time that Unruh's relations with his neighbors began to deteriorate and his resentment grew over what he regarded as "derogatory remarks made about my character." His brother James pointed to an ongoing feud between Unruh and his neighbor, pharmacist Maurice Cohen, over Unruh's use of Cohen's backyard as a means to access his apartment. Prior to the killings, Unruh went to a movie theater in Philadelphia and sat through several shows before returning home around 3 a.m. He had gone to the theater to meet a man, with whom he’d been having a weeks-long affair, for a date, but was delayed and arrived to find that the man had gone. Upon his return home, a gate he had installed that day had been removed.
Shootings
At approximately 7 a.m. on September 6, 1949, Unruh ate a breakfast prepared by his mother, who then left to visit a neighbor, Carolina Pinner. At about 9:20 a.m., armed with his Luger P08 pistol, an eight-round magazine, and more ammunition carried in his pockets, he left his apartment and walked out onto River Road in Camden. Approaching a bread-delivery truck, Unruh shoved his pistol through the door and shot at the driver. He missed his shot by a few inches and the driver unsuccessfully attempted to warn residents.
Unruh visited the shop of one of his neighbors, shoemaker John Pilarchik, whom he shot and killed instantly. He next visited the barbershop of another neighbor, Clark Hoover, who was cutting the hair of six-year-old Orris Smith; shooting Hoover in the head and Smith in the neck, both fatally. Running to Cohen's pharmacy, Unruh encountered insurance man James Hutton and killed him when he didn't move out of his way.
Unruh proceeded to the rear of the pharmacy and saw Cohen and his wife Rose running up the stairs into their apartment. Once in the apartment, Cohen climbed through a window and onto the porch roof, while Rose hid herself and their son, 12-year-old Charles, in separate closets. However, Unruh discovered the closet Rose was hiding in and shot three times through the door before opening it and firing once more into her face. Walking across the apartment, he spotted Cohen's mother Minnie, age 63, trying to call the police, and shot her several times. He then followed Cohen onto a porch roof and shot him in the back, causing him to fall to the pavement below. Charles, still hiding in the second closet, managed to escape undetected.
Unruh then walked into the middle of River Road and fired at an approaching sedan, killing the driver, Alvin Day, and causing the car to careen onto the sidewalk. He then visited the business of tailor Thomas Zegrino; he was not there, but his wife Helga was and was killed by the gunman. Zegrino would be the only one of Unruh's intended targets to survive the rampage.
After firing through the locked front door of a grocery store, Unruh approached a car waiting at the intersection and shot the occupants: Helen Wilson, her son John, and mother Emma Matlack; the two women died instantly, while the boy died later at Cooper Hospital. Unruh then fired through an apartment window, killing two-year-old Thomas Hamilton. The child's caregiver, Irene Rice, collapsed upon witnessing the shooting and was treated for severe shock. Unruh would later claim that he didn't know whom he saw in the window or whether he hit them. Unruh next fired upon another car coming down the street; its occupants, Charles Peterson and James Crawford, managed to escape to a nearby tavern and survived.
Witness William McNeely saw Frank Engel run out of the tavern and shoot at Unruh, but he apparently missed and then ran back inside. In fact, he had succeeded in shooting Unruh in the leg, as police would discover only at the end of a lengthy interview with Unruh. Unruh fired at several other people across the street, missing them. He then found Madeline Harris and her son Armand outside their home hanging out blankets to dry and shot at them; both were injured but survived.
Hearing police sirens in the distance, Unruh returned to his apartment, which was soon surrounded by police. The first officer on the scene was Detective William E. Kelly, Sr. A gunfight ensued, during which journalist Philip Buxton of the Camden Evening Courier found Unruh's number in the local telephone directory and dialled it. Unruh answered in what was described as "a strong, clear voice" and had the following conversation with Buxton:
"Is this Howard?"
"Yes ... what's the last name of the party you want?"
"Unruh."
(Pause) "What's the last name of the party you want?"
"Unruh. I'm a friend, and I want to know what they're doing to you."
"They're not doing a damned thing to me, but I'm doing plenty to them."
(In a soothing, reassuring voice) "How many have you killed?"
"I don't know yet, because I haven't counted them ... (pause) but it looks like a pretty good score."
"Why are you killing people?"
"I don't know. I can't answer that yet, I'm too busy."
(At that point Buxton heard Unruh move away from the phone as gunfire was heard in the background)
"I'll have to talk to you later ... a couple of friends are coming to get me" ... (voice trails off).
The gunfight ended when police threw two tear gas bombs into the apartment, the second of which went off, filling the room with gas. Two armed officers, patrolman Charles Hance and Captain Everett Joslin, went up to the first floor of the building and shouted, "Come down with your hands up" to which Unruh replied, "I give up. Don't shoot." Unruh emerged from the room and stumbled down the stairs, fell at the feet of the officers, and was handcuffed by Sergeant Earl Wright.
Detectives found an apartment filled with what was described as an arsenal of weapons, guns, knives, bullet-making equipment, and more than 700 rounds. In a drawer were several marksmanship medals and in the basement was Unruh's target range. On a table was a Bible opened to Matthew, Chapter 24. Police also found books relating to sex hygiene.
Arrest and incarceration
Under police interrogation, Unruh gave a meticulous account of his actions, which was later released by Camden County prosecutor Mitchell Cohen (no relation to Maurice Cohen). Only at the end of this interrogation did police discover that Unruh had a bullet wound in his left thigh. He was subsequently taken to Cooper Hospital for treatment, where his thirteenth victim, John Wilson, was already dying.
Charges were filed for thirteen counts of "willful and malicious slayings with malice aforethought" and three counts of "atrocious assault and battery." Unruh was eventually diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia by psychologists and found to be insane, making him immune to criminal prosecution. When he was able to leave Cooper Hospital, Unruh was sent to the New Jersey Hospital for the Insane (now Trenton Psychiatric Hospital), to be held in a private cell in the maximum-security Vroom Building. He remained incarcerated there until his death in 2009. Unruh's last public words, made during an interview with a psychologist, were, "I'd have killed a thousand if I had enough bullets."Nash, Jay. History of World Crime. (p. 965)
Victims
Unruh killed 13 and injured three. Those killed, and their ages, are listed below:
John Joseph Pilarchik, 27
Orris Martin Smith, 6
Clark Hoover, 45
James Hutton, 46
Rose Cohen, 38
Minnie Cohen, 63
Dr. Maurice J. Cohen, 39
Alvin Day, 24
Thomas Hamilton, 2
Helga Kautzach Zegrino, 28
Emma Matlack, 68
Helen Wilson, 37
John Wilson, 9
Miscellaneous
Maurice and Rose Cohen's son Charles, then aged 12, survived the murder of his family by hiding in a closet. Charles H. Cohen (January 31, 1937 - September 4, 2009) was the maternal grandfather of Carly Novell, who survived the February 14, 2018, shooting incident at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, by hiding in a closet like her grandfather did in 1949. Charles Cohen died at the age of 72 on September 4, 2009, and was buried two days later on September 6, 2009 (on the 60th anniversary of the mass murder and just one month before Unruh's death).
Meyer Berger of The New York Times won the 1950 Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting for his 4,000-word story on the killings.1950 Pulitzer Prizes for journalism
See also
List of rampage killers
Gun violence in the United States
Mass shootings in the United States
Ernest Ingenito (1924—1995) another New Jersey-based spree killer
Notes
References
External links
The Quiet One, Time Magazine (September 19, 1949)
A Portrait of the Jersey mass killer as an old man, The New York Times (March 8, 1982)
Sixty years ago today, a Camden gunman killed 13, The Philadelphia Inquirer (September 6, 2009)
Howard Unruh, 88, Dies; Killed 13 of His Neighbors in Camden in 1949, The New York Times'' (October 19, 2009)
Howard Unruh - 1939 Woodrow Wilson High School yearbook entry
Life Magazine September 19, 1949
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Category:20th-century American criminals
Category:20th-century American LGBT people
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Category:American murderers of children
Category:LGBT people from New Jersey
Category:Mass shootings in the United States
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Category:People acquitted of assault
Category:People acquitted of murder
Category:People from Camden, New Jersey
Category:People with schizophrenia
Category:United States Army personnel of World War II
Category:United States Army soldiers
Category:Woodrow Wilson High School (New Jersey) alumni | {"Name": "Howard Unruh", "Birth name": "Howard Barton Unruh", "Birth date": "1921 1 21 y", "Birth place": "East Camden, New Jersey, U.S.", "Death date": "2009 10 19 1921 1 21 y"} |
The is a Japanese Samurai kin group or clan.細川氏 at Nihon jinmei daijiten; retrieved 2013-5-29.
Ancestors
Emperor Jimmu
Emperor Suizei
Emperor Annei
Emperor Itoku
Emperor Kōshō
Emperor Kōan
Emperor Kōrei
Emperor Kōgen
Emperor Kaika
Emperor Sujin
Emperor Suinin
Emperor Keikō
Yamato Takeru
Emperor Chūai
Emperor Ōjin
Wakanuke Futamata no Kimi
Ohohoto no Kimi
Ohi no Kimi
Ushi no Kimi
Emperor Keitai
Emperor Kinmei
Emperor Bidatsu
Prince Oshisaka
Emperor Jomei
Emperor Tenji
Prince Shiki
Emperor Kōnin
Emperor Kanmu
Emperor Saga
Emperor Ninmyō
Emperor Montoku
Emperor Seiwa
Prince Sadazumi
Minamoto no Tsunemoto
Minamoto no Mitsunaka
Minamoto no Yorinobu
Minamoto no Yoriyoshi
Minamoto no Yoshiie
Minamoto no Yoshikuni
Minamoto no Yoshiyasu
(Ashikaga) Minamoto no Yoshikiyo
(Hirosawa) Ashikaga Yoshizane
(Ashikaga) Hosokawa Yoshisue
History
thumb|Monument of the birthplace of Hosokawa clan（Okazaki, Aichi Prefecture）
The clan was descended from the Seiwa Genji, a branch of the Minamoto clan, and ultimately from Emperor Seiwa himself, through the Ashikaga clan.Berry, M.E. (1997). The Culture of Civil War in Kyoto, p.45. University of California Press. It produced many prominent officials in the Ashikaga shogunate's administration. In the Edo period, the Hosokawa clan was one of the largest landholding daimyō families in Japan. In the present day, the current clan head Morihiro Hosokawa, has served as Prime Minister of Japan.
Muromachi and Sengoku eras
Ashikaga Yoshisue, son of Ashikaga Yoshizane, was the first to take the name of Hosokawa. Hosokawa Yoriharu, a Hosokawa of the late Kamakura period, fought for the Ashikaga clan against the Kamakura shogunate. Another, Hosokawa Akiuji, helped establish the Ashikaga shogunate.
The clan wielded significant power over the course of the Muromachi (1336-1467), Sengoku (1467-1600), and Edo periods, moving, however, from Shikoku, to Kinai, and then to Kyūshū over the centuries.
The clan was also one of three families to dominate the post of Kanrei (Shōgun's deputy), under the Ashikaga shogunate. One such individual was Hosokawa Yoriyuki.Bodiford, Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan, p. 129. At the beginning of the Ashikaga's rule, the Hosokawa were given control of the entirety of Shikoku. Over the course of this period, members of the Hosokawa clan were Constables (shugo) of Awa, Awaji, Bitchū, Izumi, Sanuki, Settsu, Tanba, Tosa, and Yamashiro Provinces.
thumb|right|Hosokawa Tadaoki, retainer of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi
A conflict between Hosokawa Katsumoto, the fifth Kanrei, and his father-in-law Yamana Sōzen, over the shogunate's succession, sparked the Ōnin War, which led to the fall of the shogunate and a period of 150 years of chaos and war, known as the Sengoku period. Following the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, which was based in Kyoto, control of the city, and thus ostensibly the country, fell into the hands of the Hosokawa clan (who held the post of Kyoto Kanrei - Shōgun's deputy in Kyoto) for a few generations.
Katsumoto's son, Hosokawa Masamoto, held power in this way at the end of the 15th century, but was assassinated in 1507. After his death, the clan became divided and was weakened by internecine fighting. What power they still had, however, was centered in and around Kyoto. This gave them the leverage to consolidate their power to some extent, and came to be strong rivals with the Ōuchi clan, both politically, and in terms of dominating trade with China.Bingham, A History of Asia, p. 544. The Hosokawa remained in Kyoto for roughly one hundred years, fleeing the city when it was attacked by Oda Nobunaga. Another division of the clan whom many believed became extinct is the Saikyū clan (細九氏).
Edo period
thumb|right|Hosokawa Shigekata, mid-Edo period daimyō of the Kumamoto domain
thumb|right|Hosokawa Gyōbu mansion
thumb|Samurai lord and a palanquin with the Hosokawa kuyo-mon
The Hosokawa of Kokura (later Kumamoto) became the "main" line of the Hosokawa clan during the Edo period. Hosokawa Gracia, the wife of Hosokawa Tadaoki, was one of the most famous samurai converts to Christianity; she was also the daughter of Akechi Mitsuhide.
The Hosokawa sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu against Ishida Mitsunari during the decisive Sekigahara Campaign, and thus were made fudai (inside) daimyō under the Tokugawa shogunate. They were given Higo Province, with an income of 540,000 koku, as their han (fief).
Hosokawa Tadatoshi, the third lord of Kumamoto, was the patron of the artist and swordsman Miyamoto Musashi.Wilson, The Lone Samurai, pp. 104-105.
File:Statue of Hosokawa Tadatoshi.jpg|Statue of Hosokawa Tadatoshi within Suizen-ji Jōju-en.
File:Hidari mitsudomoe.svg|Mon of Miyamoto Musashi born in Ōhara-chō province of Mimasaka.
Though the Hosokawa domain was far from the capital, on Kyūshū, they were among the wealthiest of the daimyōs. By 1750, Higo was one of the top producers of rice, and was in fact counted as a standard by the Osaka rice brokers. The domain suffered from serious economic decline after that, as most domains did, but the sixth lord, Hosokawa Shigekata (1718-1785, r. 1747-1785) instituted a number of reforms which turned the situation around. He also founded a Han school, Jishūkan, in 1755.Motoyama, Proliferating Talent, pp. 288-289.
In later years, it produced many scholars such as Yokoi Shōnan.
In 1787, the main family line descended from Tadatoshi became extinct with the death of the 7th lord, Shigekata's son Harutoshi (1758-1787; r. 1785-1787). He was succeeded by his distant cousin Narishige, the sixth Lord of Udo (1755-c1835, r. 1787-1810) a direct descendant of Tadatoshi's younger brother Yukitaka (1615-1645). In 1810, Narishige abdicated his title in favor of his elder son Naritatsu (1788-1826, r. 1810-1826), who succeeded as the ninth lord of Kumamoto. Naritatsu died without an heir in 1826, and was succeeded by his nephew Narimori (1804-1860, r. 1826-1860), the son of Naritatsu's younger brother Tatsuyuki (1784-1818), who was the seventh lord of Udo.
Following the death of Narimori in 1860, his elder son Yoshikuni (1835-1876, r. 1860-1871) succeeded him as the eleventh and final ruling lord of Kumamoto.
There were four major branches of the Hosokawa clan in the Edo period, each of which held the title of daimyō. Another two branches of the family, under the Nagaoka surname, served the Hosokawa of Kumamoto as karō. The residence of one of those families, , is still extant, and is a Tangible Cultural Property of Kumamoto Prefecture.
Boshin War
During the Boshin War of 1868-69, the Hosokawa of Kumamoto, Kumamoto-Shinden, and Udo sided with the imperial government. Its forces took part in the Battle of Aizu and the Battle of Hakodate, among others.
Meiji and beyond
Following the abolition of the feudal class in 1871, the Hosokawa clan and its branches were made part of the new nobility in the Meiji era. The head of the main family line (Kumamoto) was given the hereditary title of marquis (kōshaku), while the heads of the secondary branches became viscounts (shishaku); the titles became obsolete in 1947. The present head of the main family line, Morihiro Hosokawa, former Prime Minister of Japan, is a descendant of the Hosokawa of Kumamoto.
Key Genealogies
Main Branch
Hosokawa Yoshisue
Hosokawa Akiuji (adopted)
Hosokawa Kimiyori
Hosokawa Kazuuji (1296-1342)
Hosokawa Kiyouji (d.1362)
Hosokawa Yoriyuki
Hosokawa Yorimoto (1343-1397)
Hosokawa Mitsumoto (1378-1426)
Hosokawa Mochimoto (1399-1429)
Hosokawa Mochiyuki (1400-1442)
Hosokawa Katsumoto
Hosokawa Masamoto
Hosokawa Sumiyuki (1489-1507)
Hosokawa Sumimoto
Hosokawa Takakuni
Hosokawa Tanekuni (1508-1525)
Hosokawa Harumoto
Hosokawa Ujitsuna (1514-1564)
Hosokawa Akimoto (1548-1615)
Hosokawa Motokatsu (1561-1628)
Hosokawa Yoshimoto
Kumamoto"Hosokawa-shi (Higo Kumamoto hanshu-ke)" (ret. 27 September 2008) (Became Main Branch)
Hosokawa Fujitaka
Hosokawa Tadaoki
Hosokawa Tadatoshi
Hosokawa Mitsunao
Hosokawa Tsunatoshi (1643-1714)
Hosokawa Nobunori (1676-1732)
Hosokawa Munetaka (1716-1747)
Hosokawa Shigekata
Hosokawa Harutoshi (1758-1787)
Hosokawa Narishige (1755-1835)
Hosokawa Naritatsu (1797-1826)
Hosokawa Narimori (1804-1860)
Hosokawa Yoshikuni (1835-1876) - Last ruling Lord of Kumamoto
Hosokawa Morihisa, 1st Marquis (1839-1893) (created 1884)
Hosokawa Morishige, 2nd Marquis (1868-1914)
Hosokawa Moritatsu, 3rd Marquis (title made obsolete in 1947) (1883-1970)
Hosokawa Morisada, titular 5th Marquis (1912-2005)
Morihiro Hosokawa, titular 6th Marquis (born 1938)
Morimitsu Hosokawa, heir (born 1972)
Branches
Kumamoto-Shinden (Takase)"Hosokawa-shi (Higo Kumamoto-shinden hanshu-ke)" (ret. 27 Sept. 2008)
Hosokawa Toshishige (1647-1687)
Hosokawa Toshimasa (1672-1715)
Hosokawa Toshiyasu (1701-1749)
Hosokawa Toshihiro (1716-1767)
Hosokawa Toshiyuki (1750-1781)
Hosokawa Toshitsune (1754-1805)
Hosokawa Toshikuni (1784-1810)
Hosokawa Toshichika (1788-1844)
Hosokawa Toshimochi (1808-1864)
Hosokawa Toshinaga (1829-1901)
Hosokawa Toshisuke
Hosokawa Teruko (1937-)
Hosokawa Kendi (1960-)
Hosokawa Sachiko (1990-)
Udo"Hosokawa-shi (Higo Udo hanshu-ke)" (ret. 27 September 2008)
Hosokawa Yukitaka (1637-1690)細川行孝 at Nihon jinmei daijiten; 細川行孝 at Reichsarchiv.jp; retrieved 2013-5-30.
Hosokawa Aritaka (1676-1733)
Hosokawa Okinari (1699-1737)
Hosokawa Okisato (1722-1745)
Hosokawa Okinori (1723-1785)
Hosokawa Tatsuhiro (1755-1835)細川立禮 at Nihon jinmei daijiten; retrieved 2013-5-30.
Hosokawa Tatsuyuki (1784-1818)
Hosokawa Tatsumasa (1804-1860)
Hosokawa Yukika (1811-1876)
Hosokawa Tatsunori (1832-1888)
Hosokawa Yukizane (1842-1902)
Hitachi-Yatabe"Hosokawa-shi (Yatabe hanshu-ke)" (ret. 27 Sept. 2008)
Hosokawa Okimoto (1564-1619)
Hosokawa Okimasa (1604-1643)
Hosokawa Okitaka (1632-1690)
Hosokawa Okinaga (1658-1737)
Hosokawa Okizane (1687-1728)
Hosokawa Okitora (1710-1737)
Hosokawa Okiharu (1737-1794)
Hosokawa Okinori (1759-1837)
Hosokawa Okitatsu (1798-1855)
Hosokawa Okitsura (1832-1907)
Hosokawa Okitsugu
Hosokawa Okiharu
See also
Matsui Okinaga
Miyamoto Musashi
Kumamoto Castle
History of Kumamoto Prefecture
Tōrin-in, former family temple
Notes
Further reading
Bodiford, William (1993). Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Bingham, Woodbridge (1964). A History of Asia. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Motoyama, Yukihiko (1997). Proliferating Talent. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334-1615. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Sansom, George (1963). A History of Japan: 1615-1867. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Wilson, William S. (2004). The Lone Samurai: The Life of Miyamoto Musashi. New York: Kodansha International.
External links
Category:Minamoto clan
Category:Japanese noble families
Category:Japanese clans
Category:History of Kumamoto Prefecture
Category:Ashikaga clan | {"Home province": "Various", "Parent house": "25px Minamoto clan15px Ashikaga clan", "Titles": "Various", "Founder": "Ashikaga Yoshisue", "Current head": "Morihiro Hosokawa", "Dissolution": "still extant", "Ruled until": "1947, Constitution of Japan renders titles obsolete", "Cadet branches": "Nagaoka clanKumamotoKumamoto-ShindenUdoHitachi-YatabeSaikyu clan"} |
Zviad Konstantines dze GamsakhurdiaParticularly in Soviet-era sources, his patronymic is sometimes given as Konstantinovich in the Russian style. (; ; 31 March 1939 - 31 December 1993) was a Georgian politician, dissident, scholar, and writer who became the first democratically elected President of Georgia in the post-Soviet era.
A prominent exponent of Georgian nationalism, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was involved in Soviet dissident movement from his early teens. In 1953, he was one of the founders of Gorgasliani, a nationalist group, which disseminated anti-Soviet proclamations in Tbilisi. His activities attracted attention of Soviet intelligence, and Gamsakhurdia was arrested and sent to imprisonment, although he was soon pardoned and released from jail. Gamsakhurdia co-founded the Georgian Helsinki Group, which sought to bring attention to human rights violations in the Soviet Union. He organized numerous pro-independence protests in Georgia, one of which in 1989 was suppressed by the Soviet Army, with Gamsakhurdia being arrested. Eventually, a number of underground political organizations united around Zviad Gamsakhurdia and formed the Round Table—Free Georgia coalition, which successfully challenged the ruling Communist Party of Georgia in the 1990 elections. Gamsakhurdia was elected as the President of Georgia in 1991, gaining 87% of votes in the election. Despite popular support, Gamsakhurdia found significant opposition from the urban intelligentsia and former Soviet nomenklatura, as well as from his own ranks. In early 1992 Gamsakhurdia was overthrown by warlords Tengiz Kitovani, Jaba Ioseliani and Tengiz Sigua, two of which were formerly allied with Gamsakhurdia. Gamsakhurdia was forced to flee to Chechnya, where he was greeted by Chechen president Dzhokhar Dudayev. His supporters continued to fight the post-coup government of Eduard Shevardnadze. In September 1993, Gamsakhurdia returned to Georgia and tried to regain power. Despite initial success, the rebellion was eventually crushed by government forces with the help of the Russian military. Gamsakhurdia was forced into hiding in Samegrelo, a Zviadist stronghold. He was found dead in early 1994 in controversial circumstances. His death remains uninvestigated to this day.
After the civil war ended, the government continued to suppress Gamsakhurdia's supporters, even with brutal tactics. He was rehabilitated by the President Mikheil Saakashvili and awarded the title and Order of National Hero of Georgia by the President Giorgi Margvelashvili. Government officials as well as people pay tribute to memory of Zviad Gamsakhurdia every year on his birthday.
Gamsakhurdia was a prominent proponent of Georgian nationalism. He campaigned against what he considered as the demographic replacement of ethnic Georgians by Communist authorities, artificial increasing of ethnic minority population in Georgia and discrimination of Georgians. Gamsakhurdia also promoted pan-Caucasian views and unity of the peoples of the Caucasus in the face of Russian imperialism. Gamsakhurdia considered Georgians to be inherently European nation and belonging to the European civilization.
Gamsakhurdia as dissident
Early career
Zviad Gamsakhurdia was born in the Georgian capital Tbilisi in 1939, in a distinguished Georgian family; his father, Academician Konstantine Gamsakhurdia (1893-1975), was one of the most famous Georgian writers of the 20th century. Perhaps influenced by his father, Zviad received training in philology and began a professional career as a translator and literary critic.
In 1955, Zviad Gamsakhurdia established a youth underground group which he called the Gorgasliani (a reference to the ancient line of Georgian kings) which sought to circulate reports of human rights abuses. In 1956, he was arrested during demonstrations in Tbilisi against the Soviet policy of de-stalinization and was arrested again in 1958 for distributing anti-communist literature and proclamations. He was confined for six months to a mental hospital in Tbilisi, where he was diagnosed as suffering from "psychopathy with decompensation", thus perhaps becoming an early victim of what became a widespread policy of using psychiatry for political purposes.
Human rights activism
Gamsakhurdia achieved wider prominence in 1972 during a campaign against the corruption associated with the appointment of a new Catholicos of the Georgian Orthodox Church, of which he was a "fervent"Kolstø, Pål. Political Construction Sites: Nation-Building in Russia and the Post-Soviet States, p. 70. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 2000. adherent.
In 1973 he co-founded the Georgian Action Group for the Defense of Human Rights (four years earlier a Moscow-based group of that name sent an appeal to the UN Human Rights Committee); in 1974 he became the first Georgian member of Amnesty International; and in 1976 he co-founded and became chairman of the Georgian Helsinki Group.When the body was revived in the late 1980s it was renamed the Georgian Helsinki Union. He was also active in the underground network of samizdat publishers, contributing to a wide variety of underground political periodicals: among them were Okros Satsmisi ("The Golden Fleece"), Sakartvelos Moambe ("The Georgian Herald"), Sakartvelo ("Georgia"), Matiane ("Annals") and Vestnik Gruzii. He contributed to the Moscow-based underground periodical Chronicle of Current Events (April 1968 - December 1982). Gamsakhurdia was also the first Georgian member of the International Society for Human Rights (ISHR-IGFM).
Perhaps seeking to emulate his father, Zviad Gamsakhurdia also pursued a distinguished academic career. He was a senior research fellow of the Institute of Georgian Literature of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (1973-1977, 1985-1990), associate professor of the Tbilisi State University (1973-1975, 1985-1990) and member of the Union of Georgia's Writers (1966-1977, 1985-1991), PhD in the field of Philology (1973) and Doctor of Sciences (Full Doctor, 1991). He wrote a number of important literary works, monographs and translations of British, French and American literature, including translations of works by T. S. Eliot, William Shakespeare, Charles Baudelaire and Oscar Wilde. He was also an outstanding Rustvelologist (Shota Rustaveli was a great Georgian poet of the 12th century) and researcher of history of the Iberian-Caucasian culture.
Although he was frequently harassed and occasionally arrested for his dissidence, for a long time Gamsakhurdia avoided serious punishment, probably as a result of his family's prestige and political connections. His luck ran out in 1977 when the activities of the Helsinki Groups in the Soviet Union became a serious embarrassment to the Soviet government of Leonid Brezhnev. A nationwide crackdown on human rights activists was instigated across the Soviet Union and members of the Helsinki Groups in Moscow, Lithuania, Ukraine, Armenia and Georgia were arrested.
In Georgia, the government of Eduard Shevardnadze (who was then First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party) arrested Gamsakhurdia and his fellow dissident Merab Kostava on 7 April 1977.
Trial, 15-19 May 1978
There remains some dispute about Gamsakhurdia's behaviour or strategy during his pre-trial detention and the trial itself. In particular, this concerns a TV broadcast in which, apparently, he recanted his activities as a human rights activist.
A contemporary and uncensored account of these events may be found in the Chronicle of Current Events. The two men were sentenced to three years in the camps plus three years' exile for "anti-Soviet activities". Gamsakhurdia did not appeal but his sentence was commuted to two years' exile in neighbouring Dagestan. Their imprisonment attracted international attention.
Kostava's appeal was rejected and he was sent to a penal colony for three years, followed by three years' exile or internal banishment to Siberia. Kostava's sentence only ended in 1987. At the end of June 1979, Gamsakhurdia was released from jail and pardoned in controversial circumstances. By then, taking pre-trial detention into account, he had served two years of his sentence.
The authorities claimed that he had confessed to the charges and recanted his beliefs; a film clip was shown on Soviet television to substantiate their claim.GEORGIA 1992: Elections and Human Rights at British Helsinki Human Rights Group website According to a transcript published by the Soviet news agency TASS, Gamsakhurdia spoke of "how wrong was the road I had taken when I disseminated literature hostile to the Soviet state. Bourgeois propaganda seized upon my mistakes and created a hullabaloo around me, which causes me pangs of remorse. I have realized the essence of the pharisaic campaign launched in the West, camouflaged under the slogan of 'upholding human rights.'"
His supporters, family and Merab Kostava claimed that his recantation was coerced by the KGB, and although he publicly acknowledged that certain aspects of his anti-Soviet endeavors were mistaken, he did not renounce his leadership of the dissident movement in Georgia. Perhaps more importantly, his actions ensured that the dissident leadership could remain active. Kostava and Gamsakhurdia later both independently stated that the latter's recantation had been a tactical move. In an open letter to Shevardnadze, dated 19 April 1992, Gamsakhurdia claimed that "my so-called confession was necessitated ... [because] if there had been no 'confession' and my release from the prison in 1979 had not taken place, then there would not have been a rise of the national movement."
Gamsakhurdia returned to dissident activities soon after his release, continuing to contribute to samizdat periodicals and campaigning for the release of Merab Kostava. In 1981 he became the spokesman of the students and others who protested in Tbilisi about the threats to Georgian identity and the Georgian cultural heritage. He handed a set of "Demands of the Georgian People" to Shevardnadze outside the Congress of the Georgian Writers Union at the end of March 1981, which earned him another spell in jail.
Moves towards independence
250px|thumb|Leaders of Georgian independence movement in late 80s, Zviad Gamsakhurdia (left) and Merab Kostava (right)
When the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated his policy of glasnost, Gamsakhurdia played a key role in organizing mass pro-independence rallies held in Georgia between 1987 and 1990, in which he was joined by Merab Kostava on the latter's release in 1987. In 1988, Gamsakhurdia became one of the founders of
the Society of Saint Ilia the Righteous (SSIR), a combination of a religious society and a political party which became the basis for his own political movement. The following year, the brutal suppression by Soviet forces of a large peaceful demonstration held in Tbilisi on 4-9 April 1989 proved to be a pivotal event in discrediting the continuation of Soviet rule over the country. The progress of democratic reforms was accelerated and led to Georgia's first democratic multiparty elections, held on 28 October 1990. Gamsakhurdia's SSIR party and the Georgian Helsinki Union joined with other opposition groups to head a reformist coalition called "Round Table — Free Georgia" ("Mrgvali Magida — Tavisupali Sakartvelo"). The coalition won a convincing victory, with 64% of the vote, as compared with the Georgian Communist Party's 29.6%. On 14 November 1990, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was elected by an overwhelming majority as chairman of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia.
Georgia held a referendum on restoring its pre-Soviet independence on 31 March 1991 in which 98.9% of those who voted declared in its favour. The Georgian parliament passed a declaration of independence on 9 April 1991, in effect restoring the 1918-1921 Georgian Sovereign state. However, it was not recognized by the Soviet Union and although a number of foreign powers granted early recognition, universal recognition did not come until the following year. Gamsakhurdia was elected president in the election of 26 May with 86.5% per cent of the vote on a turnout of over 83%.
Gamsakhurdia as president
On taking office, Gamsakhurdia was faced with major economic and political difficulties, especially regarding Georgia's relations with the Soviet Union. A key problem was the position of Georgia's many ethnic minorities (making up 30% of the population). Although minority groups had participated actively in Georgia's return to democracy, they were underrepresented in the results of the October 1990 elections with only nine of 245 deputies being non-Georgians. Even before Georgia's independence, the position of national minorities was contentious and led to outbreaks of serious inter-ethnic violence in Abkhazia during 1989.
In 1989, violent unrest broke out in South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast between the Georgian independence-minded population of the region and Ossetians loyal to the Soviet Union. South Ossetia's regional soviet announced that the region would secede from Georgia to form a "Soviet Democratic Republic". In response, the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR annulled the autonomy of South Ossetia in March 1990.
A three-way power struggle between Georgian, Ossetian and Soviet military forces broke out in the region, which resulted (by March 1991) in the deaths of 51 people and the eviction from their homes of 25,000 more. After his election as chairman of the newly renamed Supreme Council, Gamsakhurdia denounced the Ossetian move as being part of a Russian ploy to undermine Georgia, declaring the Ossetian separatists to be "direct agents of the Kremlin, its tools and terrorists." In February 1991, he sent a letter to Mikhail Gorbachev demanding the withdrawal of Soviet army units and an additional contingent of interior troops of the USSR from the territory of the former Autonomous District of South Ossetia.
According to George Khutsishvili, the nationalist "Georgia for the Georgians" hysteria launched by the followers of Gamsakhurdia "played a decisive role" in "bringing about Bosnia-like inter-ethnic violence."
Human rights violations criticism
On 27 December 1991, the U.S. based NGO Helsinki Watch issued a report on human rights violations made by the government of Gamsakhurdia.Human Rights Violations by the Government of Zviad Gamsakhurdia (Helsinki Watch via Human Rights Watch), 27 December 1991 The report included information on documented freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of the press violations in Georgia, on political imprisonment, human rights abuses by the Georgian government and paramilitary in South Ossetia, and other human rights violations.
The rise of the opposition
Gamsakhurdia's opponents were highly critical of what they regarded as "unacceptably dictatorial behaviour", which had already been the subject of criticism even before his election as president. Prime Minister Tengiz Sigua and two other senior ministers resigned on August 19 in protest against Gamsakhurdia's policies. The three ministers joined the opposition, accusing him of "being a demagogue and totalitarian" and complaining about the slow pace of economic reform. In an emotional television broadcast, Gamsakhurdia claimed that his enemies were engaging in "sabotage and betrayal" within the country.
Gamsakhurdia's response to the coup against President Gorbachev was a source of further controversy. On 19 August, Gamsakhurdia, the Georgian government, and the Presidium of the Supreme Council issued an appeal to the Georgian population to remain calm, stay at their workplaces, and perform their jobs without yielding to provocations or taking unauthorized actions. The following day, Gamsakhurdia appealed to international leaders to recognize the republics (including Georgia) that had declared themselves independent of the Soviet Union and to recognise all legal authorities, including the Soviet authorities deposed by the coup.
He claimed publicly on 21 August that Gorbachev himself had masterminded the coup in an attempt to boost his popularity before the Soviet presidential elections, an allegation rejected as "ridiculous" by US President George H. W. Bush.
In a particularly controversial development, the Russian news agency Interfax reported that Gamsakhurdia had agreed with the Soviet military that the Georgian National Guard would be disarmed, and on 23 August, he issued decrees abolishing the post of commander of the Georgian National Guard and redesignating its members as interior troops subordinate to the Georgian Ministry of Internal Affairs. In reality, the National Guard was already a part of the Ministry of the Interior, and Gamsakhurdia's opponents, who claimed he was seeking to abolish it, were asked to produce documents they claimed they possessed which verified their claims, but did not do so. Gamsakhurdia always maintained he had no intention of disbanding the National Guard. In defiance of the alleged order of Gamskhurdia, the sacked National Guard commander Tengiz Kitovani led most of his troops out of Tbilisi on 24 August. By this time, however, the coup had clearly failed and Gamsakhurdia publicly congratulated Russia's President Boris Yeltsin on his victory over the putschists.Russian Journal "Russki Curier", Paris, September 1991 Georgia had survived the coup without any violence, but Gamsakhurdia's opponents accused him of not being resolute in opposing it.
Gamsakhurdia reacted angrily, accusing shadowy forces in Moscow of conspiring with his internal enemies against Georgia's independence movement. In a rally in early September, he told his supporters: "The infernal machinery of the Kremlin will not prevent us from becoming free.... Having defeated the traitors, Georgia will achieve its ultimate freedom." He shut down an opposition newspaper, "Molodiozh Gruzii," on the grounds that it had published open calls for a national rebellion. Giorgi Chanturia, whose National Democratic Party was one of the most active opposition groups at that time, was arrested and imprisoned on charges of seeking help from Moscow to overthrow the legal government. It was also reported that Channel 2, a television station, was closed down after employees took part in rallies against the government.
The government's activities aroused controversy at home and strong criticism abroad. A visiting delegation of US Congressmen led by Representative Steny Hoyer reported that there were "severe human rights problems within the present new government, which is not willing to address them or admit them or do anything about them yet." American commentators cited the human rights issue as being one of the main reasons for Georgia's inability to secure widespread international recognition. The country had already been granted recognition by a limited number of countries (including Romania, Turkey, Canada, Finland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and others) but recognition by major countries, including the U.S., Sweden, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Pakistan, India, came only during Christmas of 1991.
The political dispute turned violent on September 2, when an anti-government demonstration in Tbilisi was dispersed by police. The most ominous development was the splintering of the Georgian National Guard into pro- and anti-government factions, with the latter setting up an armed camp outside the capital. Skirmishes between the two sides occurred across Tbilisi during October and November with occasional fatalities resulting from gunfights. Paramilitary groups — one of the largest of which was the anti-Gamsakhurdia "Mkhedrioni" ("Horsemen" or "Knights"), a nationalist militia with several thousand members — set up barricades around the city.
Coup d'état
On 22 December 1991, armed opposition supporters launched a violent coup d'état and attacked a number of official buildings including the Georgian parliament building, where Gamsakhurdia himself was sheltering. Heavy fighting continued in Tbilisi until 6 January 1992, leaving hundreds dead and the centre of the city heavily damaged. On 6 January, Gamsakhurdia and members of his government escaped through opposition lines and made their way to Azerbaijan where they were denied asylum. Armenia finally hosted Gamsakhurdia for a short period and rejected Georgian demands to extradite Gamsakhurdia back to Georgia. In order not to complicate tense relations with Georgia, Armenian authorities allowed Gamsakhurdia to move to the breakaway Russian republic of Chechnya, where he was granted asylum by the rebel government of General Dzhokhar Dudayev.
It was later claimed that Russian forces had been involved in the coup against Gamsakhurdia. On 15 December 1992 the Russian newspaper Moskovskiye Novosti printed a letter claiming that the former Vice-Commander of the Transcaucasian Military District, Colonel General Sufian Bepayev, had sent a "subdivision" to assist the armed opposition. If the intervention had not taken place, it was claimed, "Gamsakhurdia supporters would have been guaranteed victory." It was also claimed that Soviet special forces had helped the opposition to attack the state television tower on 28 December.
A Military Council made up of Gamsakhurdia opponents took over the government on an interim basis. One of its first actions was to formally depose Gamsakhurdia as president. It reconstituted itself as a State Council and, without any formal referendum or election, in March 1992 appointed Gamsakhurdia's old rival Eduard Shevardnadze as chairman, who then ruled as de facto president until the formal restoration of the presidency in November 1995.
Gamsakhurdia in exile
After his overthrow, Gamsakhurdia continued to promote himself as the legitimate president of Georgia. He was still recognized as such by some governments and international organizations, although as a matter of pragmatic politics the insurrectionist Military Council was quickly accepted as the governing authority in the country. Gamsakhurdia himself refused to accept his ouster, not least because he had been elected to the post with an overwhelming majority of the popular vote (in conspicuous contrast to the undemocratically appointed Shevardnadze). In November-December 1992, he was invited to Finland (by the Georgia Friendship Group of the Parliament of Finland) and Austria (by the International Society for Human Rights). In both countries, he held press conferences and meetings with parliamentarians and government officials (source: Georgian newspaper Iberia-Spektri, Tbilisi, December 15-21, 1992).
Clashes between pro- and anti-Gamsakhurdia forces continued throughout 1992 and 1993 with Gamsakhurdia supporters taking captive government officials and government forces retaliating with reprisal raids. One of the most serious incidents occurred in Tbilisi on 24 June 1992, when armed Gamsakhurdia supporters seized the state television center. They managed to broadcast a radio message declaring that "The legitimate government has been reinstated. The red junta is nearing its end." However, they were driven out within a few hours by the National Guard. They may have intended to prompt a mass uprising against the Shevardnadze government, but this did not materialize.
Shevardnadze's government imposed a harshly repressive regime throughout Georgia to suppress "Zviadism", with security forces and the pro-government Mkhedrioni militia carrying out widespread arrests and harassment of Gamsakhurdia supporters. Although Georgia's poor human rights record was strongly criticized by the international community, Shevardnadze's personal prestige appears to have convinced them to swallow their doubts and grant the country formal recognition. Government troops moved into Abkhazia in September 1992 in an effort to root out Gamsakhurdia's supporters among the Georgian population of the region, but well-publicized human rights abuses succeeded only in worsening already poor ethnic relations. Later, in September 1993, a full-scale war broke out between Georgian forces and Abkhazian separatists. This ended in a decisive defeat for the government, with government forces and 300,000 Georgians being driven out of Abkhazia and an estimated 10,000 people being killed in the fighting.
1993 civil war
Gamsakhurdia soon took up the apparent opportunity to bring down Shevardnadze. He returned to Georgia on 24 September 1993, a couple of days before the ultimate Fall of Sukhumi, establishing a "government in exile" in the western Georgian city of Zugdidi. He announced that he would continue "the peaceful struggle against an illegal military junta" and concentrated on building an anti-Shevardnadze coalition, drawing on the support of the regions of Samegrelo (Mingrelia) and Abkhazia. He also built up a substantial military force that was able to operate relatively freely in the face of the weak security forces of the state. After initially demanding immediate elections, Gamsakhurdia took advantage of the Georgian army's rout to seize large quantities of weapons abandoned by the retreating governmental forces. A civil war engulfed western Georgia in October 1993 as Gamsakhurdia's forces succeeded in capturing several key towns and transport hubs. Government forces fell back in disarray, leaving few obstacles between Gamsakhurdia's forces and Tbilisi. However, Gamsakhurdia's capture of the economically vital Georgian Black Sea port of Poti threatened the interests of Russia, Armenia (totally landlocked and dependent on Georgia's ports) and Azerbaijan. In an apparent and very controversial quid pro quo, all three countries expressed their support for Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States. While the support from Armenia and Azerbaijan was purely political, Russia quickly mobilized troops to aid the Georgian government. On 20 October around 2,000 Russian troops moved to protect Georgian railroads and provided logistical support and weapons to the poorly armed government forces. The uprising quickly collapsed and Zugdidi fell on 6 November.
Gamsakhurdia's death
On 31 December 1993, Zviad Gamsakhurdia died in circumstances that are still unclear. It is known that he died in the village of Dzveli Khibula in the Samegrelo region of western Georgia and later was re-buried in the village of Jikhashkari (also in the Samegrelo region). According to British press reports, his body was found with a single bullet wound to the head but, in fact, it was found with two bullet wounds to the head. A variety of reasons has been given for his death, which is still controversial and remains unresolved.
Years later Avtandil Ioseliani - counter-intelligence head of interim government - admitted that two special units were hunting Zviad on interim government's orders.
In the first days of December 1993 two members of President's personal guard also disappeared without a trace, after being sent on a scout mission. Some remains and ashes, never identified, were found 17 years later.
Assassination
According to former deputy director of Biopreparat Ken Alibek, that laboratory was possibly involved in the design of an undetectable chemical or biological agent to assassinate Gamsakhurdia.Ken Alibek and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. 1999. Delta (2000) BBC News reported that some of Gamsakhurdia's friends believed he committed suicide, "although his widow insists that he was murdered."Reburial for Georgia ex-president. The BBC News. Retrieved on April 1, 2007.
Suicide
Gamsakhurdia's widow later told the Interfax news agency that her husband shot himself on 31 December when he and a group of colleagues found the building where he was sheltering surrounded by forces of the pro-Shevardnadze Mkhedrioni militia. The Russian media reported that his bodyguards heard a muffled shot in the next room and found that Gamsakhurdia had killed himself with a shot to the head from a Stechkin pistol. The Chechen authorities published what they claimed was Gamsakhurdia's suicide note: "Being in clear state of mind, I commit this act in token of protest against the ruling regime in Georgia and because I am deprived of the possibility, acting as the president, to normalize the situation, and to restore law and order"
Died in infighting
thumb|upright=1.1|Gravestone of President Gamsakhurdia in Tbilisi.
The Georgian Interior Ministry under Shevardnadze's regime suggested that he had either been deliberately killed by his own supporters, or died following a quarrel with his former chief commander, Loti Kobalia.
Gamsakhurdia's death was announced by the Georgian government on January 5, 1994. Some refused to believe that Gamsakhurdia had died at all but the question was eventually settled when his body was recovered on 15 February 1994. Zviad Gamsakhurdia's remains were re-buried in the Chechen capital Grozny on 17 February 1994. On 3 March 2007, the newly appointed president of Chechnya Ramzan Kadyrov announced that Gamsakhurdia's grave - lost in the debris and chaos of a war-ravaged Grozny - had been found in the center of the city. Gamsakhurdia's remains were identified by Russian experts in Rostov-on-Don, and arrived in Georgia on 28 March 2007, for reburial. He was interred alongside other prominent Georgians at the Mtatsminda Pantheon on 1 April 2007. Thousands of people throughout Georgia had arrived in Mtskheta's medieval cathedral to pay tribute to Gamsakhurdia. "We are implementing the decision which was [taken] in 2004 - to bury President Gamsakhurdia on his native soil. This is a fair and absolutely correct decision," President Mikheil Saakashvili told reporters, the Civil Georgia internet news website reported on 31 March.
Investigation into death
On 14 December 2018, Constantine and Tsotne Gamsakhurdia, the former president's two sons, announced concerns about the expiration of the statute of limitations set at the end of the same year for a potential investigation into the death of their father, as Georgian law set a 25-year limit for serious crime investigations. They then announced the beginning of a hunger strike.
On 21 December, newly inaugurated President Salome Zurabishvili formally endorsed the request to expand the statute of limitations, calling Gamsakhurdia's death a “murder”, a move supported by opposition and ruling party members of Parliament. Less than a week later, Parliament approved a bill to expand the statute of limitations for serious crimes from 25 to 30 years after the crime, following Constantine Gamsakhurdia's hospitalization.
On 26 December, following the setting-up of a new investigative group under the leadership of General Prosecutor Shalva Tadumadze, Tsotne Gamsakhurdia ended his hunger strike, thus promising a new investigation into his father's death.
Personal life
Gamsakhurdia was married twice. He and his first wife, Dali Lolua, had one son, Konstantine Gamsakhurdia.
Gamsakhurdia's second wife, Manana Archvadze-Gamsakhurdia, was the inaugural First Lady of independent Georgia. The couple had two sons, Tsotne and Giorgi.
Legacy
thumb|upright=1.1|Gamsakhurdia on a 2019 postage stamp commemorating his would-be 80th birthday
On 26 January 2004, in a ceremony held at the Kashueti Church of Saint George in Tbilisi, the newly elected President Mikheil Saakashvili officially rehabilitated Gamsakhurdia to resolve the lingering political effects of his overthrow in an effort to "put an end to disunity in our society", as Saakashvili put it. He praised Gamsakhurdia's role as a "great statesman and patriot" and promulgated a decree granting permission for Gamsakhurdia's body to be reburied in the Georgian capital, declaring that the "abandon[ment of] the Georgian president's grave in a war zone ... is a shame and disrespectful of one's own self and disrespectful of one's own nation". He also renamed a major road in Tbilisi after Gamsakhurdia and released 32 Gamsakhurdia supporters imprisoned by Shevardnadze's government in 1993-1994, who were regarded by many Georgians and some international human rights organizations as being political prisoners. In 2013, he was posthumously awarded the title and Order of National Hero of Georgia.
Gamsakhurdia's supporters continue to promote his ideas through a number of public societies. In 1996, a public, cultural and educational non-governmental organization called the Zviad Gamsakhurdia Society in the Netherlands was founded in the Dutch city of 's-Hertogenbosch. It now has members in a number of European countries.
See also
List of unsolved deaths
Selected works
20th century American Poetry (a monograph). Ganatleba, Tbilisi, 1972
The Man in the Panther's Skin" in English, a monograph, Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1984, 222 pp. (In Georgian, English summary).
"Goethe's Weltanschauung from the Anthroposophic point of view.", Tsiskari, Tbilisi, No 5, 1984 , link to Georgian archive version, p.149
Tropology (Image Language) of "The Man in the Panther's Skin", monograph). Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1991
Collected articles and Essays. Khelovneba, Tbilisi, 1991
Gamsakhurdia: a Product of the Soviet Union. Janice Bohle, University of Missouri, 1997.
The Spiritual mission of Georgia (1990)
"Dilemma for Humanity", Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Moscow, May 21, 1992
"Between deserts" (about the creative works of L. N. Tolstoy), Literaturnaia Gazeta, Moscow, No 15, 1993
Fables and Tales. Nakaduli, Tbilisi, 1987
The Betrothal of the Moon (Poems). Merani, Tbilisi, 1989
References
Links and literature
Reports of the International Society for Human Rights (ISHR-IGFM)
Reports of the British Helsinki Human Rights Group (BHHRG)
Georgian Media in the 90s: a Step To Liberty
Country Studies: Georgia — U.S. Library of Congress
"The Lion in Winter — My Friend Zviad Gamsakhurdia", Todor Todorev, May 2002
Zviad Gamsakhurdia. "Open Letter to E. Shevardnadze"
"The Transcaucasian Republics and the Coup", Elizabeth Fuller, August 1991
Media articles and references
"Soviets Release Penitent Dissident" — The Washington Post, June 30, 1979
"New Leaders Show Their Old Habits; Georgia, Some Other Soviet Republics Cling to Authoritarian Ways" — The Washington Post, September 18, 1991
"Russki Curier", Paris, September 1991.
Aila Niinimaa-Keppo. "Shevardnadzen valhe" ("The Lie of Shevardnadze"), Helsinki, 1992.
Johann-Michael Ginther, "About the Putch in Georgia" — Zeitgeschehen - Der Pressespiegel (Sammatz, Germany), No 14, 1992.
"Repression Follows Putsch in Georgia!" — "Human Rights Worldwide", Frankfurt/M., No 2 (Vol. 2), 1992.
"Purges, tortures, arson, murders..." — Iltalehti (Finland), April 2, 1992.
"Entinen Neuvostoliito". Edited by Antero Leitzinger. Publishing House "Painosampo", Helsinki, 1992, pp. 114-115. .
"Attempted Coup Blitzed in Georgia; Two Killed" — Chicago Sun-Times, June 25, 1992.
"Moskovskie Novosti" ("The Moscow News"), December 15, 1992.
"Iberia-Spektri", Tbilisi, December 15-21, 1992.
J. "Soviet Analyst". Vol. 21, No: 9-10, London, 1993, pp. 15-31.
Otto von Habsburg.- ABC (Spain). November 24, 1993.
Robert W. Lee. "Dubious Reforms in Former USSR".- The New American, Vol. 9, No 2, 1993.
"Gushagi" (Journal of Georgian political émigrés), Paris, No 1/31, 1994. , .
Mark Almond. "The West Underwrites Russian Imperialism" — The Wall Street Journal, European Edition, February 7, 1994.
"Schwer verletzte Menschenrechte in Georgien" — Neue Zürcher Zeitung. August 19, 1994.
"Intrigue Marks Alleged Death Of Georgia's Deposed Leader" — The Wall Street Journal. January 6, 1994
"Georgians dispute reports of rebel leader's suicide" — The Guardian (UK). January 6, 1994
"Ousted Georgia Leader a Suicide, His Wife Says" — Los Angeles Times. January 6, 1994
"Eyewitness: Gamsakhurdia's body tells of bitter end" — The Guardian (UK). February 18, 1994.
Konstantin Gamsachurdia: "Swiad Gamsachurdia: Dissident — Präsident — Märtyrer", Perseus-Verlag, Basel, 1995, 150 pp. .
Robert W. Lee. "The "Former" Soviet Bloc." — The New American, Vol. 11, No 19, 1995.
"CAUCASUS and unholy alliance." Edited by Antero Leitzinger. . Publishing House "Kirja-Leitzinger" (Leitzinger Books), Vantaa (Finland), 1997, 348 pp.
"GEORGIE — 1997" (Report of the Netherlands Helsinki Union/NHU), s-Hertogenbosch (The Netherlands), 1997, 64 pp.
"Insider Report" — The New American, Vol. 13, No 4, 1997.
Levan Urushadze. "The role of Russia in the Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus."- CAUCASUS: War and Peace. Edited by Mehmet Tutuncu, Haarlem (The Netherlands), 1998, 224 pp. .
"Insider Report" — The New American, Vol. 15, No 20, 1999.
"Gushagi", Paris, No 2/32, 1999. .
Bas van der Plas. "GEORGIE: Traditie en tragedie in de Kaukasus." Publishing House "Papieren Tijger", Nijmegen (The Netherlands), 2000, 114 pp. .
Levan Urushadze. "About the history of Russian policy in the Caucasus."- IACERHRG's Yearbook — 2000, Tbilisi, 2001, pp. 64-73.
External links
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Category:20th-century assassinated national presidents | {"Name": "Zviad Gamsakhurdia", "Native name": "ka ზვიად გამსახურდია", "Nationality": "Georgian", "Term start": "26 May 1991", "Term end": "6 January 1992", "Office 2": "Chairman of the Supreme Council of Georgia", "Predecessor 2": "Irakli Abashidze", "Successor 2": "Himself as the Head of state;Akaki Asatiani as the Chairman of the Parliament of Georgia", "Birth date": "yes 1939 3 31", "Birth place": "Tbilisi, Georgian SSR, Soviet Union", "Death date": "1993 12 31 1939 3 31 yes", "Death place": "Dzveli Khibula, Georgia", "Spouse(s)": "Dali Lolua div Manana Archvadze-Gamsakhurdia", "Image caption": "Gamsakhurdia in 1989"} |
The Dark Ride is the ninth studio album by German power metal band Helloween, released in 2000. The album's style was quite different from Better Than Raw as it had a much darker sound, drop-tuned guitars, and gruffer vocals. The album was produced by Roy Z and Charlie Bauerfeind. It is the last studio album to feature Master of the Rings-era lineup with the dismissal of guitarist Roland Grapow and drummer Uli Kusch after completion of the supporting tour for the album. They went on to form the band Masterplan.
The album contains two singles, which are "If I Could Fly" and "Mr. Torture".
On a later interview, bassist Markus Grosskopf commented on the album, saying: "The Dark Ride was kind of constructed, all the people were telling us try this, let's do this, you know, it's a good album but it's a very difficult way to do records when there's somebody always going on your nerves all the time."
Track listing
On some copies of "The Dark Ride" and "Rabbit Don't Come Easy" (as a special two for the price of one cd) the disc has "Mr. Torture" and "All Over the Nations" in reverse order so this way the latter is track #2. The tracks are also flipped on the Japanese version of the CD. Also on copies of the special two for one cd, there is a listing for track #13, "Far Away" on Rabbit Don't Come Easy, which does not exist on the CD and is a misprint on the back label.
Personnel
Andi Deris - vocals
Michael Weikath - guitar
Roland Grapow - guitar
Markus Grosskopf - bass
Uli Kusch - drums
Charts
Chart (2000) PeakpositionItalian Albums (Musica e Dischi) Set "Tipo" on "Album". Then, in the "Artista" field, search "Helloween". 43Japanese Albums (Oricon) 11
References
Category:2000 albums
Category:Helloween albums
Category:Nuclear Blast albums
Category:Albums produced by Charlie Bauerfeind
Category:Albums produced by Roy Z | {"Released": "30 October 2000", "Recorded": "2000", "Studio": "Mi Sueño Studio, Tenerife, Spain", "Genre": "Power metal", "Label": "Nuclear Blast", "Producer": "Roy Z and Charlie Bauerfeind"} |
The Institute of International Law (French: Institut de Droit International) is an organization devoted to the study and development of international law, whose membership comprises the world's leading public international lawyers. The organization is generally considered the most authoritative world academy of international law. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1904.
History
The institute was founded by Gustave Moynier and Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns, together with 9 other renowned international lawyers, on 8 September 1873 in the Salle de l'Arsenal of the Ghent Town Hall in Belgium. The founders of 1873 were:
Pasquale Stanislao Mancini (from Rome), President;
Emile de Laveleye (from Liege);
Tobias Michael Carel Asser (from Amsterdam);
James Lorimer (from Edinburgh);
Wladimir Besobrassof (from Saint-Petersburg);
Gustave Moynier (from Geneva);
Jean Gaspar Bluntschli (from Heidelberg);
Augusto Pierantoni (from Naples);
Carlos Calvo (from Buenos Aires);
Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns (from Ghent);
David Dudley Field (from New York)
150 years anniversary
In September 2023, the Institut celebrated its 150 years anniversary on the occasion of the 81st session that took place in Angers, France.https://www.idi-iil.org/fr/session-dangers-2023-sesquicentenaire/ For the occasion, three French government ministers were invited to participate in the session and video messages from the President of France, Emmanuel Macron and the United Nations Secretary General, António Guterres were presented during the ceremony.https://www.ouest-france.fr/pays-de-la-loire/angers-49000/angers-trois-ministres-vont-lancer-les-150-ans-de-linstitut-de-droit-international-dimanche-c00a085e-40e9-11ee-b6d7-a958e5b7485d
During this session, the Institut also launched a documentary film about the history of the organization. This documentary features many prominent international legal scholars as well as current judges at the International Court of Justicehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRGGWWwE-A4
Organization
thumb|left|Members of the Institute at the 2005 Kraków Session
The Institute is a private body, made up of associates, members, and honorary members. The Statute stipulates that the number of members and associates under the age of 80 cannot be over 132. The members, elected every two years by the current members of the organization, are persons who have demonstrated notable scholarly work in the area of international law, and is restricted to those who are considered relatively free of political pressure. The organisation attempts to have members broadly distributed around the world.
The organisation holds biannual congresses for the study of international law as it currently exists, and passes resolutions proposing modifications to international law. It does not comment on specific disputes.
While its recommendations cover international law in its many forms, some of its resolutions particularly pertain to human rights law and peaceful dispute resolution. It was for that reason that the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize.
The organization remains active, with the latest congress held in Angers, France in August 2023. The location of the institute's headquarters rotates according to the origin of the Secretary General. The current headquarters are at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland.
Current members of the Institut include, prominent lawyers, legal academics, former ambassadors, judges of the International Court of Justice and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.
Recent resolutions from the organization cover many important areas such as universal jurisdiction, provisional measures, regime of wrecks, immunity, environment, use of force, etc.
The Institut publishes its Annuaire, containing the reports of the commissions, deliberations of the plenary sessions, and any resulting declarations and resolutions. The records of the administrative sessions including elections are also included in the Annuaire.
The Institut's website houses an online library of information, including, but not limited to, declarations, resolutions, and some works in progress for future inclusion in the Annuaire.
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture The Work of the Institute of International Law
Category:Belgian Nobel laureates
Category:Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes
Category:Legal research institutes
Category:Organizations established in 1873
Category:International law organizations
Category:Grez-Doiceau | {"Abbreviation": "IIL, IDI", "Named after": "Justitia et Pace", "Founded at": "Ghent, Belgium", "Type": "NGO, IGO, Society", "Legal status": "Institute", "Headquarters": "Geneva, Switzerland", "Coordinates": "46.220722 6.143681 inline, title", "Affiliations": "Consultant - ECOSOC Consultant - HCCH", "Website": "www.idi-iil.org"} |
is the name of several arts. The word kenpō is a Japanese translation of the Chinese word "quánfǎ". This term is often informally transliterated as "kempo", as a result of applying Traditional Hepburn romanization,Hepburn romanization provides for use of the letter "m" when ん precedes a labial consonant such as "p" but failing to use a macron to indicate the long vowel. The generic nature of the term combined with its widespread, cross-cultural adoption in the martial arts community has led to many divergent definitions. The word Kenpō translates thus: "Ken" meaning 'Fist' and "Po" meaning 'Method' or 'Law' as in 'Law of gravity', a correct interpretation of the word Kenpō would be 'Fist Method', the same meaning as 'Quanfa'. However, it is often misinterpreted as 'the Law of the Fist'.
Shorinji Kenpo
is claimed to be a modified version of Shaolin Kung Fu (using the same kanji). It was established in 1947 by , a Japanese martial artist and former military intelligence agent, who combined his quanfa and jujutsu practice.
Nippon Kenpo
Okinawan Kenpo
Some Okinawan martial arts groups use the term kenpō as an alternate name for their karate systems or for a distinct but related art within their association. This can be illustrated by the official full name of Motobu-ryu style named as "Nihon Denryu Heiho Motobu Kenpo" ("Japan's traditional tactics Motobu Kenpo") and by the International Shorin-ryu Karate Kobudo Federation, where Shōrin-ryū is the actual karate style practiced, whereas "hakutsuru kenpo", or "hakutsuru kenpo karate" is a related but distinctive style also taught by the association. Both the "n" and "m" romanizations are used by various groups.
Each kenpo as defined above has its own techniques and katas and its own roots even though it has the kenpo name; one thing you should pay attention to is the uniform that each kenpo practitioner wears; typically, American Kenpo practitioners wear a black uniform and Okinawan kenpo wear, typically, white uniforms.
Besides the uniform that each wear, are the names of the techniques and katas, American kenpo being in English and Okinawan kenpo in Japanese.
Okinawan Kempo refers to a martial art originating in Okinawa and governed by the International Okinawan Kempo Federation.International Okinawan Kempo Federation official website It is a distinct style of karate, with stances that are less broad than Tae Kwon Do. Sparring is notably done without protective gear, because of the great emphasis on control.
American Kenpo
Kenpo has also been used as a modern term: a name for multiple martial arts that developed in Hawaii due to cross-cultural exchange between practitioners of Okinawan martial arts, Chinese martial arts, Filipino martial arts, Japanese martial arts and multiple additional influences.Rathbone, Jim. "James Mitose and the Path of Kenpo" 2006 White Tiger Productions. In the United States, kenpo is often referred to as Kenpo Karate. The most widespread styles have their origin in the teachings of James Mitose and William Kwai Sun Chow. Mitose spent most of his early years training in Japan learning his family style, Kosho-Ryū (Old pine tree school). James Mitose would later bring that style to Hawaii where he would teach Chow, who would go on to instruct Ed Parker and Bobby Lowe. The system of kenpo taught by Mitose employed hard linear strikes and kicks, pressure point manipulation, circular movement patterns, and joint locking and breaking.
Parker is the most prominent name in the Mitose lineage. A student of Chow in Hawaii for nearly six years, Parker moved to the US mainland to attend Brigham Young University. In 1957, he began teaching the kenpo that he had learned from Chow, and throughout his life modified and refined the art until it became Ed Parker's American Kenpo. It employs a blend of circular movements and hard linear movements. Parker created techniques with names such as Thundering Hammers, Five Swords, Prance Of The Tiger, and Flashing Mace to provide a memorisation tool to the student.
These arts have spread around the world through multiple lineages, not all of which agree on a common historical narrative.
See also
American kenpo
Chinese martial arts
Martin T. Buell – founder of the Universal Kempo Karate Schools Association
Origins of Asian martial arts
Ken Ju Ryu
References
External links
History of Kenpo Karate
Kenpokaikan
Category:Japanese martial arts | {"Also known as": "Kempo, Kenpo", "Focus": "Hybrid", "Country of origin": "Japan Japan", "Creator": "Unknown"} |
The Arkansas Post () (Spanish: Puesto de Arkansas), formally the Arkansas Post National Memorial, was the first European settlement in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain and present-day U.S. state of Arkansas. In 1686, Henri de Tonti established it on behalf of Louis XIV of France for the purpose of trading with the Quapaw Nation. The French, Spanish, and Americans, who acquired the territory in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase, considered the site of strategic value. It was the capital of Arkansas from 1819 until 1821 when the territorial government relocated to Little Rock.
During the fur trade years, Arkansas Post was protected by a series of fortifications. The forts and associated settlements were located at three known sites and possibly a fourth. Some of the historic structures have been lost as the waterfront has been subject to erosion and flooding. The land encompassing the second (and fourth) Arkansas Post site (Red Bluff) was designated as a state park in 1929. In 1960, about of land at the site were protected as the Arkansas Post National Memorial, a National Memorial and National Historic Landmark.
Since the 1950s, three archeological excavations have been conducted at Arkansas Post. Experts say the most extensive cultural resources at the site are archaeological, both for the 18th and 19th-century European-American settlements, and the earlier Quapaw villages. Due to changes in the river and navigation measures, the water level has risen closer to the height of the bluffs, which used to be well above the river. The site is now considered low lying. Erosion and construction of dams, canals, and locks on the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers have resulted in the remains of three of the historic forts now being underwater in the river channel.
History
French ownership (1686-1763)
thumb|left|Henri de Tonti
First location
The Arkansas Post was founded in the summer of 1686 by Henri de Tonti, Jacques Cardinal, Jean Couture, Peter Bisaillon, and three other Frenchmen as a trading post near the site of a Quapaw village named Osotouy. It was about 35 miles upriver from the strategically significant confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi River. The post was established on land given to De Tonti for his service in René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle's 1682 expedition. The French came to an arrangement with the local Quapaw to trade French goods for beaver furs. This arrangement did not yield much profit, as the Quapaw had little interest in hunting beaver. But the trade and friendly relations with the Quapaw and other local native peoples, such as the Caddo and Osage, were integral to the post's survival for most of its operations.
The French settlers initially called the post Aux Arcs ("at the home of the Arkansas." Arkansea was the Algonquian name used by the Illinois and related tribes to refer to the Quapaw, and was adopted by the French.) The traders first built a simple wooden house and fence at the site. This was the first permanent French holding west of the Mississippi and the first European settlement in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Here the French conducted the first documented Christian services in Arkansas.
The importance of the post was fully realized in 1699, when King Louis XIV of France began to invest more resources into French Louisiana. John Law's Mississippi Company made a venture from 1717 to 1724 recruiting German settlers to develop the surrounding area as a major agricultural hub. The plan was to grow crops on the lower Arkansas for trade with Arkansas Post, New Orleans (which did not have the climate to support grain cultivation), and French Illinois. The French brought about 100 slaves and indentured servants to the area as workers, and offered land grants to German settlers. But this project failed when the company withdrew from Arkansas Post, due to financial decline related to the Mississippi Bubble. Most of the slaves and indentured servants were relocated or sold elsewhere along the Lower Mississippi River, but a few remained in or near the post, becoming hunters, farmers, and traders. By 1720, the post had lost much of its significance to the French because of the lack of profit, and the population was low. In 1723, the post was garrisoned by thirteen French soldiers, and Lieutenant Avignon Guérin de La Boulaye was the commander. Father Paul du Poisson was the priest at the post from July 1727 until his death in 1729. The post was significantly expanded in 1731, when its new commander, First Ensign Pierre Louis Petit de Coulange, built a barracks, a powder magazine, a prison, and a house for him and future commanders.
On May 10, 1749, during the Chickasaw Wars, the post engaged in its first military action. Chief Payamataha of the Chickasaw attacked the rural areas of the post with 150 of his warriors, killing and capturing several settlers.
The site of this first post is believed to be near what is now called the Menard-Hodges site, located about (but about by road) from the Arkansas Post Memorial. This property, also a National Historic Landmark, is owned by the National Park Service, and is undeveloped.
Second location (Red Bluff)
thumb|254px|Annie Hatley, Depiction of Arkansas Post in 1689, Arkansas State Archives, 1904
As a result of the Chickasaw raid and continued threats of attack, commander Ensign Louis Xavier Martin de Lino moved the post upriver. This was further from the Chickasaw territory east of the Mississippi, and closer to the Quapaw villages, the post's main trading partners and potential allies. This new location, about 45 miles from the mouth of the Arkansas, was called Écores Rouges (Red Bluff), at "the heights of the Grand Prairie". It was situated on a bend in the river, on higher ground than the previous site.
In 1752, Captain Paul Augustin Le Pelletier de La Houssaye, the next commander, rebuilt the post's major structures, such as the barrack, prison, and powder magazine. In addition, he expanded the commander's house to include a chapel and quarters for the priest. He added a storehouse, hospital, bake house, and latrine. To protect the post's new buildings, he erected a stockade eleven feet in height.
Third location
In 1756, after the start of the Seven Years' War between France and England, Captain Francois de Reggio moved the post to a location 10 miles from the confluence with the Mississippi in order for the post to better respond to British and Chickasaw attacks. Whereas the first two locations had been on the Arkansas's north bank, this one was on the south. The layout of this post was generally similar to earlier ones, containing the usual important structures protected by a stockade.
Spanish ownership (1763-1802)
After the British defeated the French in the Seven Years' War and gained most of their North American territories east of the Mississippi, France ceded the area west of the Mississippi to Spain. This was in exchange for the British to gain land in Spanish Florida and give up any claims to Cuba. The post was officially ceded to Spain in 1763, but Spain did not take up its administration until 1771.
Initially, the Spanish kept the post at the third site and built the first Fort Carlos there to defend it. The majority of the post's population remained French. This reality complicated Spain's effort for diplomacy. In 1772, Commander Fernando de Leyba was ordered to assert dominance over the local French and to reduce the amount of feasts and gifts they provided for the local Quapaw, as it was costing the colonial government too much. The Quapaw nearly came to blows with the Spanish, but eventually Commander Leyba conceded to previous practice and restored the goods, and conflict was avoided.
Fourth location (Red Bluff)
thumb|right|Diagram of the 1760s era stockade.
In 1777 and 1778, the post was partially inundated by floodwaters. The garrison captain, Balthazar de Villiers, wrote to the Spanish governor of Louisiana, Bernardo de Gálvez, requesting the post be moved upriver. De Villiers cited annual flooding and the long distance from the local Quapaw villages as concerns. In the fall of 1778, Colonel David Rogers and Capt. Robert Benham made a stop here while on their way to meet with Gálvez to convince him that Spain should support the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War.
Gálvez gave permission for de Villiers to move the post back to the site of the second French post, 36 miles upriver at Red Bluff, and in 1779, the post was relocated. The colonists hoped the settlement would be less flood-prone. Fort Carlos III was built here in July 1781, near the former Le Houssaye fort. It consisted of several small buildings surrounded by a stockade.
During the last two decades of the 18th century, several Americans from the new United States settled at the post. They developed a separate American village on the bluffs north of the river, nearer to the Quapaw villages. Many of these settlers arrived as refugees from the American Revolutionary War.
thumb|left|Counterattack! by Sidney E. King shows the sally
made by the Fixed Infantry Regiment of Louisiana and Quapaw during the April 17, 1783 British partisan raid on Fort Carlos III.
The first Battle of Arkansas Post was on April 17, 1783, when James Colbert, a British Indian trader and partisan, conducted a raid with fellow partisans and their Chickasaw allies against Spanish forces controlling Arkansas Post. This was part of a small British campaign against the Spanish on the Mississippi River during the American Revolutionary War, when power was shifting in North America. The Spanish defended it with their soldiers, Quapaw allies, and settlers acting as Indians to scare off the partisans.
Fort Carlos III was deteriorating due to erosion of the bluff by the river, so the Spanish chose a site about half a mile from the waterfront. In March 1791 they built Fort San Estevan (later called Fort Madison). The complex included a house, large barracks, storehouse and kitchen, all surrounded by a stockade.
Second French ownership (1802-1804)
Although Spain ceded Louisiana and the Arkansas Post to France in 1800, no French officials were sent to administer the post. The Spanish garrison remained to oversee the post until the Louisiana Purchase was made by the United States.
United States ownership (1804-present)
In 1804, Arkansas Post became a part of the United States as a result of the Louisiana Purchase from France. By the time the post was sold, it contained 30 houses in rows along two perpendicular streets. These were inhabited mostly by the post's ethnic French population.
The American settlers predominately lived in the separate villages north of the post, although further American settlement began after purchase by the United States. Americans built new buildings in the main part of the post alongside French and Spanish ones. The post was guarded by Fort Madison, in use until 1810, when it was abandoned in turn due to erosion and flooding. Wesley, Edgar Bruce (1935). Guarding the Frontier. University of Minnesota Press, p. 41.
In 1805, the U.S. government built a federal trading house at the north end of the post, operated by Jacob Bright. The location became a major frontier post for travelers heading west, with explorers such as Stephen Harriman Long and Thomas Nuttall passing through, althogut the government closed the federal house in 1810.
Arkansas Post was selected to be the capital of Arkansas County in 1813. In 1819, it was selected as the first capital of the new Arkansas Territory. It became the center of commercial and political life in Arkansas. The territory's first newspaper, the Arkansas Gazette, was founded in 1819 at the post by William E. Woodruff.
A tavern owned by William Montgomery was operated at the post, in Bright's trading house, from 1819 to 1821. This structure also served as the meeting place for the first Arkansas Territorial General Assembly in February 1820. During its period as territorial capital, Arkansas Post grew substantially, and two towns were established near it.
Gradually, settlement developed further into the Arkansas River Valley, and Little Rock became the territory's dominant settlement. When the territorial capital was moved there in 1821, the territory's major businesses and institutions moved as well. Arkansas Post lost much of its importance as a result.
The settlement continued to be active as a river town through the 1840s after steamboat traffic increased on the rivers. A French entrepreneur, Colonel Frederick Notrebe, came to dominate commercial life at the post. His establishment consisted of a house, a store, a brick store, a warehouse, a cotton gin, and a press. In the 1840s, the post was expanded with several new buildings, including one to serve as the Arkansas Post Branch of the State Bank of Arkansas. By the 1850s, the post was in a period of decline, and the population shrank significantly.
A well and cistern were built at the post in the early 1800s and remain intact at the memorial site to this day.
Confederate control (1861-1863)
thumb|Battle of Fort Hindman, Ark., 1863
During the American Civil War, the post remained an important strategic site militarily. In 1862, the Confederate States Army constructed a massive defensive earthwork known as Fort Hindman, named after Confederate General Thomas C. Hindman. It was located on a bluff 25 feet above the river on the north bank, with a mile view up and downriver. It was designed to prevent Union forces from going upriver to Little Rock and to disrupt Union movement on the Mississippi. On January 9-11 of 1863, Union forces conducted an amphibious assault on the fortress backed by ironclad gunboats as part of the Vicksburg campaign. Because the Union forces outnumbered the defenders (33,000 to 5,500), they won an easy victory and captured the post, with most of the Confederate garrison surrendering. During the battle, the artillery bombardments destroyed or severely damaged both the fort and the civilian areas, after which Arkansas Post lost any status it had retained since being replaced as the territorial capital, and became a mostly rural area.
The Union victory relieved much of the harassment by Confederate forces on the Mississippi and contributed to the eventual victory at Vicksburg, Mississippi.
During the period of Confederate control, the state bank building was used as a hospital. Parts of the Confederate road, trenches, and artillery positions built at the post during this era are still visible at the memorial site.
Arkansas Post National Memorial
thumb|National Park Service map (1997)
The Arkansas Post National Memorial is a protected area in Arkansas County, Arkansas, United States. The National Park Service manages of the land, and the Arkansas Department of Parks, Heritage, and Tourism manages a museum on the remaining grounds.
The Memorial commemorates the complex history of several cultures and time periods: the Quapaw, French settlers who were the first colonists to inhabit the small entrepôt, the short period of Spanish rule, an American Revolutionary War skirmish in 1783, the settlement's role as the first territorial capital of Arkansas, and as the site of an American Civil War battle in 1863.
The former site of Arkansas Post was made into a state park in 1929. The park began with 20 acres donated by Fred Quandt, a descendant of German immigrants whose family still lives in Arkansas. In the following years, additional acreage was acquired and numerous improvements made with the support of Works Progress Administration labor.
On July 6, 1960, the site was designated a National Memorial, and a National Historic Landmark on October 9, 1960. As with all National Historic Landmarks, Arkansas Post was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.
Archaeology
In 1956-1957, Preston Holder conducted the first archeological excavations at the site. His team found remains of the eighteenth-century French colonial village within the area of the current memorial. The trenches discovered there were later identified as traditional French colonial residential building patterns of poteaux-en-terre.John Walthall, "An Analysis of Late Eighteenth-Century Ceramics from Arkansas Post at Ecores Rouges", Southeastern Archeology 10:98-113 By this time, the remains of the 1752 La Houssaye fort, Fort Carlos III, 1790s Fort San Estevan, and Fort Hindman were all underwater in the former Arkansas River channel, an area then used as a navigation lake. No archeological evidence remains for those forts because of the erosion.
In 1964 the National Park Service undertook some partial reconstruction of colonial remains at the site, including Fort Carlos III built by the Spanish. Additional archeological excavations of the colonial settlement were done for the National Park Service in 1966 and 1970-1971. Nineteenth-century buildings identified include the state bank and residences. Most of the residences were built in a French or Spanish colonial style, although a house's architecture varied based on the resident's culture. Also discovered in various excavations were thousands of ceramic shards. John Walthall, the state archeologist for Arkansas, said in the 1990s that the archeological resources constitute the most valuable cultural resources within the area of the memorial, including nearly unexplored Quapaw settlements, as well as the 18th- and 19th-century European and American settlements. Archeological ventures have generally been more successful in the more northerly portion of the historic site because it was less prone to erosion and flooding. No physical traces remain of the post's historical waterfront because of such erosion.
See also
List of French forts in North America
List of newspapers in Arkansas
List of National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas
List of national memorials of the United States
National Register of Historic Places listings in Arkansas County, Arkansas
References
External links
Government
Arkansas Post Museum at Arkansas State Parks
General information
Arkansas Post at the Texas State Historical Association
Arkansas Post National Memorial at the National Park Foundation
Colonial Arkansas Post Ancestry at the University of Arkansas
Category:1686 establishments in New France
Category:American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places
Category:American Revolution on the National Register of Historic Places
Category:American Revolutionary War sites
Category:Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
Category:Arkansas in the American Civil War
Category:Arkansas populated places on the Arkansas River
Category:Battlefields of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War
Category:Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
Category:Former colonial and territorial capitals in the United States
Category:History museums in Arkansas
Category:History of New France
Category:History of New Spain
Category:Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
Category:Museums in Arkansas County, Arkansas
Category:National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas
Category:National Memorials of the United States
Category:National Park Service areas in Arkansas
Category:National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas County, Arkansas
Category:Populated places established in 1686
Category:Protected areas of Arkansas County, Arkansas
Category:Protected areas established in 1929
Category:Trading posts in the United States
Category:Trail of Tears
Category:Works Progress Administration in Arkansas | {"Nearest city": "Gillett, Arkansas, U.S.", "Coordinates": "34 01 00 N 91 20 43 W region:US-AR_type:landmark inline,title", "Area": "757.51 acre ha", "Elevation": "174 ft", "Built": "1686 1", "Built for": "Louis XIV of France", "Restored": "1929 02 27 1 1", "Restored by": "Arkansas General Assembly", "Visitors": "2019-06-13", "Governing body": "U.S. National Park Service", "Website": "nps.gov/arpo"} |
General Sir Duncan Alexander Cameron, (20 May 18088 June 1888) was a British Army officer who fought in the Crimean War and part of the New Zealand Wars. He was later a governor of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
Born into a family with a military tradition, Cameron joined the British Army in 1825. Commissioned into the 42nd Regiment of Foot, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant-colonel by 1854 and was a battalion commander. He served in the Crimean War and fought in the Battle of Alma. Afterwards, he assumed command of the Highland Brigade and led it through the Battle of Balaclava and the Siege of Sevastopol. He finished the war as a temporary major-general and received several honours for his service. He then held a series of educational and advisory posts with the British Army before becoming Commander-in-Chief, Scotland in 1860.
The following year, Cameron was appointed commander of British forces in New Zealand, which was dealing with the ongoing New Zealand Wars. At the time, the Colonial Government was engaged in a conflict with the Māori in the Taranaki region. However, by the time Cameron arrived in the Taranaki, a truce had been arranged. Two years later, he suppressed a further outbreak of fighting in the area and then led the invasion of the Waikato to deal with the King Movement, a Māori resistance that threatened British sovereignty in the country. He commanded a series of mostly successful engagements with the Kingites, followers of the King Movement, but none were decisive. By March 1864, he had advanced in the Waikato heartland and had pushed the Kingites into the King Country. At Gate Pā in April 1864, his forces suffered a major defeat. By this stage, Cameron was becoming disillusioned with the conduct of the war. Against his wishes, in early 1865 he commanded a campaign against Māori in the southern Taranaki. Coming under political pressure to wage a war he felt was inappropriate, he tendered his resignation and left New Zealand in August 1865.
In 1868, Cameron was made a lieutenant-general and was appointed as governor of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. He remained in this post until 1875, at which time he retired from military service with the rank of general and as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. He died in 1888 at the age of 80.
Early life
Born on 20 May 1808, Duncan Cameron was a son of Sir John Cameron and Lady Cameron. His mother was from Guernsey and was the niece of Admiral James Saumarez. His father, who retired with the rank of lieutenant-general, was an officer in the British Army who was serving in the Peninsular War and was of Scottish descent. A younger brother, John Cameron, went on to become a lieutenant-general in the British Army, serving in the Royal Engineers. Duncan Cameron most likely was educated at Eton College, as was his father before him.
Military career
Cameron followed his father into the British Army, joining the 42nd Regiment of Foot in April 1825. He was promoted lieutenant the following year, to captain in 1833, to major in 1839, and lieutenant-colonel in 1843, at which time he was commanding a battalion of the regiment on Malta.
On the entry of the United Kingdom into the Crimean War in 1854, the 42nd Regiment was transferred to Turkey as part of the Highland Brigade, 1st Division, with Cameron still a battalion commander. He was soon promoted to colonel and commanded his battalion during the Battle of Alma in September 1854. Shortly afterwards he was appointed commander of the Highland Brigade, and led it through the subsequent Battle of Balaclava and the Siege of Sevastopol. Receiving a promotion to temporary major-general in November 1855, he was the recipient of several awards as a result of his service in the Crimea; appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath, he was also made an Officer of the Legion of Honour, and received the Order of the Medjidie, Third Class, in 1858.
After the war in Crimea, Cameron became involved in education of British Army personnel. He was appointed to the Council for Army Education in 1857 as its vice president and carried out reforms of both the Royal Military College and the Staff College at Sandhurst. In 1859, he served on the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom, whose recommendations prompted a huge programme of fortification for British naval dockyards. The same year his rank of major-general was made substantive. In 1860, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief, Scotland, a position which saw him in command of all British forces in Scotland. By this stage of his career, Cameron was well regarded by his contemporaries.
New Zealand
In January 1861, Cameron was appointed commander of British forces in New Zealand, which at the time was engaged in the First Taranaki War. The war had broken out the previous year over disputed land sales between local Māori and settlers in the Taranaki region. Cameron's appointment was at the behest of the War Office which was dissatisfied with the performance of the incumbent, Major-General Thomas Pratt, whose conduct of the fighting in the Taranaki had been the subject of much criticism. Receiving a temporary promotion to lieutenant-general, Cameron arrived in New Zealand in March 1861 and proceeded to the town of New Plymouth where he informed Pratt that he was being replaced. Although Cameron was keen to deal with the Māori threat in Taranaki, the Governor of New Zealand, Sir Thomas Gore Browne, had negotiated a truce to end the war.
North Island Māori were now becoming increasingly reluctant to sell land and the rise of the King Movement in the Waikato was considered to be a challenge to British sovereignty and the Colonial Government. Kingites, followers of the King Movement, had even supported the Taranaki Māori during the war. Browne, supported by Cameron, began preparing for an invasion of the Waikato. Cameron believed that 2,500 infantry would be sufficient, with a further 1,000 men to secure lines of communication. However, in May 1861, Browne's current term as governor ended and rather than extending it, the Colonial Office in London replaced him with Sir George Grey.
thumb|Cameron's house near Drury, Auckland, with staff tents to the left
Grey put an immediate halt to the planned invasion, considering the existing resources inadequate. This was a major disappointment to Cameron who was eager to exercise his command and he soon submitted his resignation. It was declined and Grey encouraged Cameron to stay in his post with the prospect of leading an invasion at a later date. In the meantime, Cameron directed the main efforts of British forces in the continued construction of what is now known as the Great South Road from Drury, south of Auckland, to the Mangatāwhiri Stream, a tributary of the Waikato River that defined the northern Kingite border. This work had commenced during the early stages of preparing for the proposed invasion of Waikato.
War in Taranaki
After the cessation of hostilities in Taranaki, there was an ongoing dispute over a block of land at Waitara but by April 1863, Grey was preparing to return it to Taranaki Māori. Not knowing of Grey's plans, the following month local Māori ambushed British troops at nearby Ōakura, killing nine soldiers. In retaliation, on 4 June 1863, Cameron led a force of 870 troops on a successful assault on a party of about 50 Māori still occupying the contested Tataraimaka block beside the Katikara River, killing 24.
This fresh outbreak of fighting in Taranaki, known as the Second Taranaki War, gave Grey leverage with the Colonial Office as he used it as justification for a request for an increase in the number of British soldiers in the country. In the meantime, he proceeded with the return of Waitara to the Māori, calming tensions in the Taranaki. Cameron and his forces quickly returned to Auckland where, despite his attack on the Tataraimaka block being a minor action, it was portrayed as a major success. Grey now decided to proceed with an invasion of the Waikato to eliminate the Kingite threat.
Invasion of the Waikato
Cameron, as a result of his experience in the Crimea, was conscious of the importance of sound logistics to support a military campaign. His preparations for the invasion included the organisation of a transport corps and a telegraph line. Steamers were purchased to form a flotilla that would allow Cameron's forces to be supplied via the Waikato River. On 10 July 1863, he established his headquarters at Queen's Redoubt, near what is now Pōkeno. The invasion began on 12 July 1863 when the British forces, numbering 380 men, crossed the Mangatāwhiri Stream and established a redoubt on the opposite bank. Five days later, Cameron, leading a party of 550 men, attacked Māori warriors entrenching at Koheroa, further south of the Mangatāwhiri Stream. The advancing British soldiers faltered in the face of gunfire from the Māori and Cameron had to personally rally and urge his men forward. The Māori, which the British claimed numbered about 300 but in fact were around 150 men, retreated and escaped, leaving 15 dead. Hailed as a great victory, the British falsely claimed 150 Māori had been killed in the attack for the loss of 12 British soldiers killed or wounded. Cameron was recommended for the Victoria Cross for his role in the attack although it was declined.
However, on the same day as the assault carried out at Koheroa, a Māori party attacked a British convoy moving along the Great South Road, killing several men and capturing a number of carts carrying supplies. Further raids and ambushes were carried out by Kingites behind the British lines for the next several weeks and Cameron, concerned about the threat posed to his supply lines, decided it was not possible to continue his advance into the Waikato. Instead, he had to divert much of his forces into the establishment of a series of outposts along his lines of communication. He did attempt an attack on a camp used by the raiding parties but his approach was detected and he and his men had to withdraw. It was not until late October that Cameron could resume his advance. His initial invasion army of around 4,000 men, had more than doubled with reinforcements from overseas. Even though nearly 6,000 men were still occupied in defending his lines of communication, Cameron was able to mobilise an attack force of nearly 2,000 against his next objective, Meremere. He had also received barges, and the armoured gunboats HMS Avon and Pioneer, and this facilitated movement of his force along the Waikato River.
At Meremere, the Kingites occupied a pā (hillfort) surrounded on three sides by swamp, while the fourth side overlooked the Waikato River and thus it was a barricade to further advance south. Using his river flotilla, on 31 October 1863, Cameron landed 600 troops to the rear of Meremere, with orders to entrench themselves. The flotilla returned to Cameron's advanced base camp for a further 600 men to reinforce those already entrenching. He intended to land to the front of Meremere with the remainder of his force. However, the Kingites, numbering between 1,100 and 1,500 Māori, detected the arrival of the British and simply abandoned the pā at Meremere the next day and slipped away through the swamp. The British were able to simply walk in and seize the pā. Officially, the capture of Meremere was a success but in fact, Cameron saw it as a poor reward for the enforced delay it had caused his advance into the Waikato.
thumb|A depiction of the Battle of Rangiriri, 20 November 1863, a pen sketch by Charles Heaphy
The Kingites had established a pā at Rangiriri, overlooking the Waikato River and upstream from Meremere. The defensive position included not only the pā forming the central redoubt, but also trenches and ramparts extending to the river and to nearby Lake Waikare. About 500 Māori were present at Rangiriri although this was insufficient for a proper defence. However, the pā was well engineered, a fact conceded by Cameron after the resulting Battle of Rangiriri. On the afternoon of 20 November, Cameron attacked the front of the Māori position with a force of 900 men on 20 November while 320 men of the 40th Regiment of Foot, supplemented by 200 British Navy personnel, landed to the rear to prevent any retreat. The attack was preceded with an artillery bombardment from the cannon of the gunboats and three 6-pound Armstrong guns and while the defences on the riverside of the central pā was captured, the central redoubt and ramparts to the east, extending to Lake Waikare, were still held by the Māori. Cameron ordered further assaults later in the day but these were all beaten off and the British had to dig in for the evening. During the night, King Tāwhiao, the leader of the King Movement, Wiremu Tamihana and the mortally wounded chief Pene Te Wharepu, along with 200 warriors, were able to escape to the east. At dawn the next day, the remainder of the garrison surrendered to become prisoners. It was later claimed that the white flag hoisted to mark the surrender of the garrison was in fact intended to simply open negotiations but the British soldiers moved into the pā and demanded the weapons of the Māori. Although a victory for Cameron, who was later made a Knight of the Order of the Bath for his success, his forces had incurred losses of 130 men killed or wounded while the Māori suffered around 35 killed with 180 others made prisoner. Some colonists saw this as a poor reward for Rangiriri.
Cameron now led his force further into the Waikato heartland, seizing Ngāruawāhia, the small town at the confluence of the Waikato and Waipā Rivers that was the capital of King Tawhaio, on 8 December and raising the British flag there. The taking of the town was unchallenged; it had been abandoned while tentative terms for an end to the war were offered to, and subsequently rejected by, Grey. Cameron proceeded down the Waipā River, aiming for the valuable farming land around Te Awamutu. By late January 1864, he sighted Māori fortifications at Paterangi; these included four pā. Realising that these would be difficult to seize without significant risk to his force, he decided to bypass the fortifications and draw out its garrison into more favourable terrain for the British. He mounted a nighttime march with 1,200 soldiers on 20 February, getting past the Paterangi defences undetected and moving into a largely unoccupied Te Awamutu at 7:00 am the next day.
Beyond the town, away, was the settlement of Rangiaowhia. Cameron opted to advance against this settlement as well. It was lightly defended, with many women and children present, and 24 Māori were killed or wounded and another 33 taken prisoner. However, the commander of the Colonial Defence Forces, Colonel Marmaduke Nixon, was shot and later died of his wounds. The British then withdrew to Te Awamutu. On 22 February, the Māori garrison at Paterangi moved out with at least 700 heading for Rangiaowhia. Reaching an old pā site at Hairini, on the road to Rangiaowhia, the Māori began entrenching themselves here. Supported with two 6-pound Armstrong guns, Cameron decided to attack before they could complete their defences. His attack was a success, with at least 30, possibly even up to 70 or 80, killed out of around 400, for the loss of just two British soldiers. Paterangi was occupied by the British to deny it to the Māori. Cameron was later criticised for the Rangiaowhia attack; it was not a fighting pā and the Kingites considered the action contrary to established conduct of warfare. There were also accusations that one or more whare to which some had fled during the Rangiaowhia attack had been set on fire with them inside and that one man attempting to surrender was shot. The following day, Cameron led his troops in the sacking of the nearby village of Kihikihi, the home of Rewi Maniapoto, a prominent Māori chief in the King Movement. Like Rangiaowhia, Kihikihi was productive farmland for the Kingites and its loss to the Māori was significant.
In early March, Cameron went to Auckland to consult with Grey and the government for the next steps in the campaign and it was decided to continue with the strategy of depriving the Kingites of supplies. To this end, Cameron, moved most of his army towards Maungatautari leaving a garrison for redoubts being built at Kihikihi, Rangiaowhia, and Te Awamutu, where a strike force of 900 men under Colonel Robert Carey was also based. In the meantime, Maniapoto started construction of a pā at Ōrākau, which was from Kihikihi.
The pā, with its garrison of around 300 Māori, including around 250 warriors, had yet to be completed when British forces attacked on 31 March, having detected its presence the previous day. The initial assaults mounted by Carey's strike force were repelled but were able to surround the pā. This prevented Māori reinforcements, newly arrived from Maungatautari, from entering the pā. Carey, realising an opportunity to inflict a serious blow to the Kingites was possible, requested reinforcements from Cameron, who dispatched 370 soldiers to Ōrākau, now under bombardment while a sap was dug by engineers in order to breach the pā defences. Cameron arrived at the battle site in the morning of 2 April with more reinforcements. Carey was preparing for a further frontal assault but Cameron put a halt to this and issued terms to the defenders of the pā. This was declined despite an invitation from Cameron, impressed with the resiliency of the defenders, to send out the 50-odd women and children present. By now the defenders lacked food, water and ammunition and that afternoon proceeded with a breakout from the southeast corner of the pā. The British lines at this point were thinly held by the 40th Regiment, and the majority of the Māori were able to escape into the surrounding swamp. They were hotly pursued by the British soldiers as well as local militia and numerous Māori were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. In total, around 80 to 150 Māori were killed at Ōrākau for the loss of only 16 British soldiers with a further 53 wounded. However, while most media of the time reported the Battle of Ōrākau as a victory for the British, as did the Kingites, Cameron saw it as a missed opportunity to inflict a decisive victory in the Waikato.
Cameron now returned to Maungatautari, where the Māori had established a defence line of several pā. He moved his forces up to face the Te Tiki o te Ihingarangi pā. It was strongly built and defended; Cameron understood this and chose to simply wait out the defenders rather than engage in a frontal attack. Having exhausted their supplies, it was abandoned by the Māori within a few days, on 5 April. Cameron had intended to move to winter quarters following his move against Maungatautari due to the expected difficulty in maintaining supply lines over the winter months. Accordingly, he withdrew his main force back to Auckland, leaving garrisons in place to secure the key gains of the campaign. The Kingites were now south of the Puniu River, which became a boundary between what became known as the King Country and the territory captured by the British. It would transpire that there would be no further fighting in the Waikato.
Tauranga Campaign
A local tribe, Ngai-te-Rangi, had begun construction of Gate Pā, close to Camp Te Papa, set up by the British at Tauranga. The camp was established earlier in the year as a means of preventing reinforcements travelling from the East Cape to join up with Waikato Māori and had already been subject to raids by the tribe. The camp commandant requested reinforcements so that an attack could be mounted. Cameron, now back in Auckland with the bulk of his army, realised that with Te Papa being close to a harbour, he was readily able to transport enough manpower and artillery to allow a sufficient concentration for a decisive battle. Seizing his opportunity, he arrived at Te Papa on 21 April 1864 and his attack force followed a few days later.
thumb|left|Cameron with a group of soldiers of the Colonial Defence Force on the morning of 29 April 1864, prior to the attack on Gate Pā. Cameron is standing at right, leaning against the centre of the wheel of the gun carriage
On 27 April, Cameron mounted a reconnaissance of Gate Pā and determined that it was formed of two redoubts, garrisoned by about 235 warriors. He moved up his attacking force of about 1,700 men, plus a large artillery train which started bombarding the walls of the Māori position, and the pā was surrounded by the afternoon of 29 April, with a major breach in the walls. He had already sent 730 men of the 68th Regiment of Foot behind the pā to cut off any retreat. He then ordered 300 men of the 43rd Regiment of Foot and marines of the Royal Navy to exploit the breach but the attempt to do so was beaten back with the attacking soldiers engaged in a full scale retreat. On seeing the attacking force fleeing the battle, Cameron attempted to rally them but was unable to do so and retreated to his tent to brood.
thumb|right|A depiction of the British attack at Gate Pā, 29 April 1864
Although the pā was abandoned overnight, the garrison was able to slip away practically unmolested. With losses of over 100 killed and wounded, the Battle of Gate Pā was a major defeat for Cameron. Already criticised for his overly cautious approach to the campaign in the Waikato, Cameron's conduct of the battle came under question. He struggled to explain the poor performance of the troops making the attack, but noted the losses among the officers may have affected the rank and file. In fact, the attackers had been deceived by a lack of defensive fire from the pā and once drawn in, were set upon by well-concealed warriors.
Cameron met with Grey on 12 May and shortly afterwards decided to cease offensive engagements in Tauranga. He returned to Auckland with the bulk of his forces, citing unfavourable weather as an excuse. He left the local commander, Lieutenant-Colonel H. Greer, with instructions to maintain a defensive posture while Grey, stunned at the outcome of the battle, negotiated terms with Ngai-te-Rangi for an end to hostilities in the area. Within a few weeks, Greer, while conducting defensive patrols in accordance with Cameron's directives, inflicted a defeat on a large force of Māori attempting to establish defensive positions at Te Ranga, from Te Papa. The majority of the Ngai-te-Rangi tribe surrendered shortly afterwards on relatively favourable terms, thus ending the fighting in Tauranga. This prompted the Colonial Government to urge Cameron to resume his offensive operations but he declined to do so, disillusioned about the prospects of a successful outcome to a military campaign. Although the British did not destroy the King Movement, the defeats at Te Ranga and Orakau effectively ended the fighting in the Waikato and the tribes there would eventually cede their land to the colonial government.
Return to Taranaki
As the Tauranga Campaign wound down, fighting flared up again in the Taranaki and in the Wanganui. Both Grey and the colonial government, considering this a further attempt at Māori independence, wanted to suppress this latest outbreak. At this time, the British forces were beginning the process of withdrawing from New Zealand, transferring responsibility for the colony's internal security to its own military. This added impetus to the colonial government's need to take action in the Taranaki while British soldiers were still available.
With reservations, Cameron agreed to mount a campaign in the Wanganui. However, he saw this conflict as unnecessary, and nothing more than a desire by the Colonial Government for more Māori land and believed that British soldiers should not be used to achieve this. Furthermore, he considered that he would need at least two years to achieve success and reinforcements for his existing army would be required. He commenced the campaign on 24 January 1865, moving with 1,200 soldiers from Wanganui northward across southern Taranaki to Nukumaru. Here, his force resisted attacks from a large force of over 400 Māori warriors. After two days, having killed 14 soldiers for the loss of 23 warriors, the Māori withdrew. They moved to a robust pā at Weraroa, expecting Cameron to come after them. Despite urging from Grey to do so, he refused, fully aware of the futility of frontal attacks on pā. Instead, he moved further north leaving a garrison and a series of redoubts facing the Weraroa pā. On 13 March, he encountered a force of 200 warriors from the Ngati Ruanui tribe and soundly beat them on open ground at Te Ngaio. At the end of March, he reached the Waingongoro River and halted his advance there, from Wanganui.
By now relations between Cameron and Grey had broken down over the former's refusal to attack the Weraroa pā. There were already tensions between the two as a result of Cameron's reports to the War Office often being at odds with Grey's own sometimes deliberately misleading communications to London. Cameron's campaign was heavily criticised by colonists as being slow, but this opinion lacked awareness of the need to ensure the security of his lines of communication along his advance. Even the Māori were contemptuous, apparently giving him the nickname The Lame Seagull for the pace of his advance. Cameron, having already resigned his command on 7 February 1865, left for Auckland in April and departed the country on 1 August 1865.
Later life
thumb|right|Cameron's funerary monument at Brompton Cemetery, London
After his return to England, Cameron continued to hold his honorary position as regimental colonel of his old unit, the 42nd Regiment of Foot, to which he had been appointed in 1863, only relinquishing it in 1881 when the regiment merged with the 73rd Regiment of Foot to form the Black Watch. He then became regimental colonel of the 1st Battalion of the Black Watch up until his death. In 1868, his temporary rank of lieutenant-general was made substantive, and he was appointed Commissioner "to enquire into the present state of Military Education in this country". The same year, he was appointed as Governor of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. On 10 September 1873, he married Louisa Flora, the fourth daughter of Andrew Maclean, the deputy inspector-general of the Royal Military College.
As governor at Sandhurst, Cameron attempted various reforms until 1875, at which time he retired from the British Army. Two years previously, he had been promoted to full general and was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. In his later years, he had to deal with published criticism of his conduct of the campaigns in New Zealand. However, these would typically downplay the fighting qualities and tactics of the Kingites. He was also involved in defending himself from a particularly aggrieved dispute with a relative of an officer killed at the Battle of Rangiriri. In his final years, his health deteriorated and he died at Kidbrook, in Kent, on 7 June 1888. Survived only by his wife as the couple had no children, he was buried at Brompton Cemetery in London. The Chapel of the Royal Military Academy includes a memorial to Cameron, which reads:
In Memory of General Sir Duncan Cameron, G.C.B., Colonel of the Black Watch. Died 8 June 1888, aged 80. He served through the Eastern Campaign, 1854-55; commanded the 42nd Regiment at the Alma, and the Highland Brigade at Balaclava. Commanded the Forces in New Zealand during the War of 1863-65. Was Governor of this College, 1868-75.
Notes
References
Sources
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Category:1808 births
Category:1888 deaths
Category:Military personnel from Hampshire
Category:British Army generals
Category:British military personnel of the New Zealand Wars
Category:Burials at Brompton Cemetery
Category:Governors of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Category:Military leaders of the New Zealand Wars
Category:42nd Regiment of Foot officers
Category:British Army personnel of the Crimean War
Category:Officers of the Legion of Honour
Category:19th-century British Army personnel
Category:40th Regiment of Foot officers
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie, 3rd class | {"Born": "Thorncliffe, Hampshire", "Died": "Kidbrook, Kent", "Allegiance": "United Kingdom", "Commands held": "Royal Military College, SandhurstBritish forces in New ZealandCommander-in-Chief, ScotlandHighland Brigade42nd Regiment of Foot", "Awards": "Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the BathOfficer of the Legion of Honour (France)Order of the Medjidie, Third Class (Ottoman Empire)", "Relations": "Lieutenant-General Sir John Cameron (father)Lieutenant-General John Cameron (brother)"} |
Hassan Nasrallah ( ; born 31 August 1960) is a Lebanese cleric and political leader who has served as the 3rd secretary-general of Hezbollah since his predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi, was assassinated by the Israel Defense Forces in February 1992.
Early life and education
Hasan Nasrallah was born the ninth of ten children into a Shia family in Bourj Hammoud, Matn District (an eastern suburb of Beirut) on 31 August 1960. His father, Abdul Karim Nasrallah, was born in Bazourieh, a village in Jabal Amel (South Republic of Lebanon) located near Tyre and worked as a fruit and vegetables seller. Although his family was not particularly religious, Hassan was interested in theological studies. He attended the al-Najah school and later a public school in the predominantly Christian neighborhood of Sin el Fil Beirut.
In 1975, the Lebanese Civil War forced the family, including Nasrallah who was 15 at the time, to move to their ancestral home in Bazourieh, where Nasrallah completed his secondary education at the public school of Sour (Tyre). There he attended secondary school, and briefly joined the Amal Movement, a Lebanese Shi'a political group.
Nasrallah studied at the Shi'a seminary in the Beqaa Valley town of Baalbek. The school followed the teachings of Iraqi-born Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr, who founded the Dawa movement in Najaf, Iraq during the early 1960s. -"He has lived up to our initial assessment," said an Israeli intelligence source. "He is tough, but more intellectual in a broader sense than Musawi. But he has steered close to Musawi's line and kept good relations with Amal, the Syrians, and [Iran]." The source said Nasrallah has kept an eye on making Hezbollah a legitimate political force as well as a military one.
In 1976, aged sixteen, Nasrallah travelled to Iraq where he was admitted into Ayatollah al-Sadr's seminary in Najaf. Al-Sadr is said to have recognised Nasrallah's qualities and is quoted as saying "I scent in you the aroma of leadership; you are one of the Ansar [followers] of the Mahdi ...". Nasrallah was expelled from Iraq, along with dozens of other Lebanese students, in 1978. Al-Sadr was imprisoned, tortured and brutally murdered.Hirst, David (2010) Beware of Small States. Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East. Faber and Faber. p.244 Nasrallah was forced to return to Lebanon in 1979, by that time having completed the first part of his study, as Saddam Hussein was expelling many Shia's, including Ruhollah Khomeini (Ayatollah Khomeini) and Abbas Musawi.Ehteshami, Anoushiravan and Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Syria and Iran - Middle Powers in a Penetrated Regional System, Routledge (1997), p. 140
Back in Lebanon, he studied and taught at the school of Amal's leader Abbas al-Musawi, later being selected as Amal's political delegate in Beqaa, and making him a member of the central political office. Around the same time, in 1980, Saddam Hussein had Sadr executed.
Early activities
Nasrallah joined Hezbollah after the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon. In 1989, Hassan Nasrallah traveled to Qom, Iran, where he furthered his religious studies.
Nasrallah believes that Islam holds the solution to the problems of any society, once saying, "With respect to us, briefly, Islam is not a simple religion including only prayers and praises, rather it is a divine message that was designed for humanity, and it can answer any question man might ask concerning his general and personal life. Islam is a religion designed for a society that can revolt and build a community."
In 1991, Nasrallah returned to Lebanon and replaced Musawi as Hezbollah's leader after the latter was killed by an Israeli airstrike the following year.Profile: Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah . CFR Retrieved 8 December 2011.
Leadership of Hezbollah
thumb|Nasrallah with Ali Khamenei and Qods Force commander Qassem Soleimani.
Nasrallah became the leader of Hezbollah after the Israelis assassinated the previous leader, Musawi, in 1992. During Nasrallah's leadership, Hezbollah acquired rockets with a longer range, which allowed them to strike at northern Israel despite the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon. In 1993 Israel carried out Operation Accountability. Much Lebanese infrastructure was destroyed during the operation, which Israel claimed was successful. An agreement was eventually reached whereby, Israel ended its attacks in Lebanon and Hezbollah agreed to stop attacks on northern Israel.
However, after a short pause, hostilities resumed. In 1996 Israel launched Operation Grapes of Wrath, blocking important Lebanese harbour cities and bombing a Syrian military base. After 16 days of Israeli attacks in Lebanon, the Israeli-Lebanese Ceasefire Understanding was agreed upon. Again, Hezbollah agreed to stop rocket attacks in exchange for Israel halting its attacks. However, as in 1993, the peace did not last for long.
thumb|Nasrallah giving a speech in May 2000, just after the Israeli withdrawal
In Israel, it was increasingly debated whether the presence of Israeli forces in southern Lebanon was working, since it was clear that the 'security zone' could not stop Hezbollah rockets reaching into Israel. After heavy Israeli casualties in south Lebanon, some Israeli politicians argued that the conflict would only end if Israel withdrew from Lebanon. In 2000 Ehud Barak finally withdrew Israeli forces from Lebanon. Following the Israeli withdrawal, the South Lebanon Army, which was supported by Israel, was quickly overrun by Hezbollah. Some SLA members escaped to Israel, but many were captured by Hezbollah. This success against Israel greatly increased Hezbollah's popularity within Lebanon and the Islamic world.
Consequently, Nasrallah is credited in Lebanon and the Arab world for ending the Israeli occupation of the South of Lebanon, something which has greatly bolstered the party's political standing within Lebanon.The Brooking Institution - Hezbollah's Popularity Exposes al-Qaeda's Failure to Win the Hearts. Brookings.edu (30 July 2006). Retrieved 8 December 2011
Nasrallah played a major role in a complex prisoner exchange deal between Israel and Hezbollah in 2004, resulting in hundreds of Palestinian and Lebanese prisoners being freed and many human remains, including that of his son, being returned to Lebanon. The agreement was described across the Arab world as a magnificent victory for Hezbollah, and Nasrallah was personally praised for achieving these gains.
A December article in the London-based Asharq Al-Awsat stated that command of the organization's military wing was transferred from Nasrallah to his deputy, Na'im Qasim in August 2007.Report: Nasrallah replaced as head of Hizbullah military wing. Ynetnews.com (20 June 1995). Retrieved 8 December 2011. Hezbollah denied this suggestion, declaring it an attempt to "weaken the popularity" of the movement.Resistance dismisses 'rumors' of high-level shakeup. The Daily Star (Lebanon). Retrieved 8 December 2011
In October 2008, Hashim Safi Al Din, his cousin, was assigned to succeed Nasrallah as secretary general of Hezbollah.
Widespread protests in Lebanon in October 2019 due to a deepening financial and economic crisis put pressure on the government leaders to resign, including Nasrallah himself.Joffre, Tzvi, Wolf, Rachel, and Reuters. (19 October 2019). "Lebanon shaken by third day of protests with some denouncing Hezbollah." Jerusalem Post website Retrieved 19 October 2019.
Under his tenure, Hezbollah has been designated a terrorist organization, either wholly or in part, by the United States and other nations, as well as by the European Union. Russia rejects the claims that Hezbollah is a terrorist organization, and considers Hezbollah a legitimate sociopolitical organization.' Russia says Hezbollah, Hamas not terror groups,' The Times of Israel 16 November 2015. China remains neutral, and maintains contacts with Hezbollah.Omar Nashabe, 'China's Ambassador in Lebanon: Hezbollah Arms a Trade Matter,' 4 May Al-Akhbar, 2012
Memorandum of Understanding with Free Patriotic Movement
Nasrallah negotiated a Memorandum of Understanding with the Free Patriotic Movement headed by Michel Aoun, the former premier and a Maronite Christian. Aoun described the ten-point MoU in an op-ed in The Wall Street Journal published on 31 July 2006. Hezbollah agreed to disarm upon the return of its prisoners and the occupied Shebaa Farms. It also agreed to the pardon and return of fugitive South Lebanon Army (SLA) members. The Free Patriotic Movement in turn agreed to work for reform of the confessional electoral system of the Parliament of Lebanon and move it in the direction of one man, one vote. Aoun made the point that the political process was in effect disarming Hezbollah without any loss in lives from unnecessary wars.Aoun, Michel. (31 July 2006) See History Will Judge Us All On Our Actions. Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 2011-12-08. Critics of this agreement say that is not very clear concerning the disarmament, and that it served to strengthen Hezbollah internally, giving it a non-Shiite cover inside .
2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict
thumb|Nashrallah in 2005
Following an ambush by Hezbollah in Israeli territory that left three soldiers dead and two abducted, the 2006 Lebanon War started. During the war Israeli bombardments seeking Hezbollah targets caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the poorer and largely Shiite South Beirut, which is controlled by Hezbollah. On 3 August 2006, Hasan Nasrallah vowed to strike Tel Aviv in retaliation for Israel's bombardment of Lebanon's capital. "If you hit Beirut, the Islamic resistance will hit Tel Aviv and is able to do that with God's help," Nasrallah said in a televised address. He added that Hezbollah forces were inflicting heavy casualties on Israeli ground troops.
During the conflict, Nasrallah came under intense criticism from Arab countries, including Jordan, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Jordan's King Abdullah II and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak warned on 14 July of the risk of "the region being dragged into adventurism that does not serve Arab interests," while the Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud Al-Faisal called the Hezbollah attacks "unexpected, inappropriate and irresponsible acts." He went further, saying, "These acts will pull the whole region back to years ago, and we cannot simply accept them."
Nasrallah also came under intense criticism from some in Lebanon. Walid Jumblatt, leader of the Progressive Socialist Party of the Republic of Lebanon and the most prominent leader of the Druze community, spoke out quite forcefully: "Great, so he's a hero. But I'd like to challenge this heroism of his. I have the right to challenge it, because my country is in flames. Besides, we did not agree". Jumblatt is also quoted as saying: "He is willing to let the Lebanese capital burn while he haggles over terms of surrender".
Following the war, came what is known as the "Green Flood" (Al-sayl al-akhdhar), according to Iranian-born journalist Amir Taheri. "This refers to the massive amounts of U.S. dollar notes that Hezbollah is distributing among all the citizens that were effected from the war in Beirut and the south. The dollars from Iran are ferried to Beirut via Syria and distributed through networks of militants. Anyone who can prove that his home was damaged in the war receives $12,000, a tidy sum in wartorn Lebanon".
In a TV interview aired on Lebanon's New TV station on 27 August 2006, Nasrallah said that he would not have ordered the capture of two Israeli soldiers if he had known it would lead to such a war: "We do not think, even one percent, that the capture led to a war at this time and of this magnitude. I'm convinced and sure that this war was planned and that the capture of these hostages was just their excuse to start their pre-planned war, but if I had known on July 11 ... that the operation would lead to such a war, would I do it? I say no, absolutely not".
Syrian Civil War
On 25 May 2013, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah is fighting in the Syrian civil war against "Islamist extremists" and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon". He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Qusair on the same side as the Syrian army. In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period."
In July 2014, Nasrallah's nephew was killed fighting in Syria.
Personal life
Nasrallah lives in South Beirut with his wife Fatimah Yasin (who comes from the Lebanese village of Al-Abbasiyah) and four of his children: Muhammad Javed, Zainab, Muhammad Ali and Muhammad Mahdi.
On the night of 12/13 September 1997 four Hizbullah fighters were killed in an Israeli ambush near Mlikh. One of the dead was 18-year-old Muhammad Hadi, Nasrallah's eldest son. Five Lebanese soldiers and a woman were killed in a simultaneous airstrike north of the 'security zone'. The attacks were seen as a response to the operation a week earlier in which twelve Israeli commandos were killed. Nasrallah is quoted as saying on receiving the news of his son's death "I am proud to be the father of one of the martyrs". When the IDF released photos of his son's body and offered to exchange it for body parts of those killed in the earlier ambush his response was "Keep it. We have many more men like Hadi ready to offer themselves to the struggle". There was a seven-day mourning period held in south Beirut which was attended by an estimated 200,000 people daily.Middle East International No 559, 26 September 1997; Publishers Lord Mayhew, Dennis Walters MP; Michael Jansen pp.10-11; No 560, 10 October 1997; Barbara Nimn-Aziz p.24
Views on international politics
Pre-2000 Israeli occupation of Lebanon
"If we are to expel the Israeli occupation from our country, how do we do this? We noticed what happened in Palestine, in the West Bank, in the Gaza Strip, in the Golan, in the Sinai. We reached a conclusion that we cannot rely on the Arab League states, nor on the United Nations .... The only way that we have is to take up arms and fight the occupation forces."Wright, Robin. "Inside the Mind of Hezbollah." The Washington Post. 16 July 2006. 18 November 2006.
On Israel and the Arab-Israeli conflict
In an interview with The Washington Post, in 2000, Nasrallah said "I am against any reconciliation with Israel. I do not even recognize the presence of a state that is called 'Israel.' I consider its presence both unjust and unlawful. That is why if Lebanon concludes a peace agreement with Israel and brings that accord to the Parliament our deputies will reject it; Hezbollah refuses any conciliation with Israel in principle."
On 26 May 2000, after the Israeli withdrawal from south Lebanon Hasan Nassrallah said: "I tell you: this "Israel" that owns nuclear weapons and the strongest air force in this region is more fragile than a spiderweb."
In 2006, Nasrallah said "There is no solution to the conflict in this region except with the disappearance of Israel."
Despite declaring "death to Israel" and "death to America" in his public appearances, Nasrallah said in an interview to The New Yorker in 2003, "At the end of the road, no one can go to war on behalf of the Palestinians, even if that one is not in agreement with what the Palestinians agreed on." When asked in 2004 whether he was prepared to live with a two-state settlement between Israel and Palestine, he said he would not sabotage what is a "Palestinian matter", but that until such a settlement is reached, he will continue to encourage Palestinian resistance.
On 30 November 2009, while reading the party's new political manifesto, Hasan Nasrallah declared "Our problem with [the Israelis] is not that they are Jews, but that they are occupiers who are raping our land and holy places."Hezbollah cuts Islamist rhetoric in new manifesto". "Reuters. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
Speaking on Al Quds Day on 2 August 2013, Nasrallah said that Israel "is a cancer that must be eradicated."
On 11 September 2001 attacks and the United States
"What do the people who worked in those two World Trade Center towers, along with thousands of employees, women and men, have to do with war that is taking place in the Middle East? ? ... Therefore we condemned this act—and any similar act we condemn. ... I said nothing about the Pentagon, meaning we remain silent. We neither favored nor opposed that act .... Well, of course, the method of Osama bin Laden, and the fashion of bin Laden, we do not endorse them. And many of the operations that they have carried out, we condemned them very clearly."
Views attributed to Nasrallah
thumb|Nasrallah visiting Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei in Tehran, 1 August 2005
According to Saudi state-owned Al Arabiya, a video posted on their site is of Nasrallah giving a speech circa 1988 in which he states, "Our plan, to which we, as faithful believers, have no alternative, is to establish an Islamic state ... Lebanon should not be an Islamic republic on its own, but rather, part of the Greater Islamic Republic, governed by the Master of Time [the Mahdi], and his rightful deputy, the Jurisprudent Ruler, Imam Khomeini,"
According to the pro-Israeli group CAMERA, Nasrallah stated that "The Lebanese refuse to give the Palestinians residing in Lebanon Lebanese citizenship, and we refuse their resettlement in Lebanon. There is Lebanese consensus on this... we thank God that we all agree on one clear and definite result; namely, that we reject the resettlement of the Palestinians in Lebanon." There is broad consensus in Lebanon against the permanent resettlement of Palestinians, due to fears that it could reignite Lebanon's civil war.Journal of Refugee Studies Vol. 10, No. 3 1997. Permanent Settlement of Palestinians in Lebanon: A Recipe for Conflict by Farid el Khazen. Likewise, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon consistently favor right of return over Lebanese naturalization.U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. With Palestine, against the Palestinians: The Warehousing of Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon by Lisa Raffonelli.
Lebanese writer, Amal Saad-Ghorayeb quotes Hasan Nasrallah as saying, "If we searched the entire world for a person more cowardly, despicable, weak and feeble in psyche, mind, ideology and religion, we would not find anyone like the Jew. Notice, I do not say the Israeli." Charles Glass questions the attribution of the quote to Nasrallah, noting that both the footnote in Saad-Ghorayeb's book and her original dissertation instead attribute the quote to an interview she conducted with a Hezbollah member of the Lebanese Parliament, Muhammad Fneish.London Review of Books. "Letters - Vol. 29, No. 1".Muhammad Fnaysh, 15 August 1997. qtd. in Saad-Ghorayeb, 2002, p. 170.
According to Israeli military source Shaul Shay, Nasrallah has often made anti-Semitic statements that not only revile Israel as a state, but also the entire Jewish people, while using themes taken from classic and Muslim antisemitism.Shaul Shay "Islamic Terror Abductions in the Middle East", Sussex Academic Press, 2007, , p. 78 Two of the claims he makes are that:
In a 1998 speech marking the Day of Ashura, and published in what was Hasan Nasrallah's official websiteAaron Mannes "Profiles in Terror: The Guide to Middle East Terrorist Organizations", Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, , p. 178Barbara Allen Roberson "Shaping the Current Islamic Reformation", Routledge, 2003, , p. 245
Sarah Oates, Diana Marie Owen, Rachel Kay Gibson, Diana Owen "The Internet and Politics: Citizens, Voters and Activists", Routledge, 2006, , p. 109 at that time, Nasrallah referred to Israel as "the state of the grandsons of apes and pigs - the Zionist Jews" and condemned them as "the murderers of the prophets."Gabriel Weimann "Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges", United States Institute of Peace Press, 2006, , p. 90Shaul Shai "The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hizballah, And The Palestinian Terror", Transaction Publishers, 2005, , p. 131 The Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA), a pro-Israel media watchdog group, MEMRI, and Shaul Shai interpret this language as broadly antisemitic.
Nasrallah said in a speech delivered in Beirut and aired on Al-Manar TV on 28 September 2001: "What do the Jews want? They want security and money. Throughout history the Jews have been Allah's most cowardly and avaricious creatures. If you look all over the world, you will find no one more miserly or greedy than they are."
According to Newsweek, the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Robert Satloff, in a speech carried during Ashura on 9 April 2000, Hasan Nasrallah said that: "The Jews invented the legend of the Nazi atrocities. It is clear that the numbers they talk about are greatly exaggerated".
Journalist Badih Chayban in a 23 October 2002 article in The Daily Star wrote that Nasrallah said, "If they [the Jews] all gather in Israel, it will save us the trouble of going after them worldwide." Charles Glass believes that the quotation was likely a fabrication, citing other published accounts of Nasrallah's speech that had no reference to the anti-Semitic comment, and unconfirmed statements by an unnamed person who Glass said is the editor-in-chief of the Lebanese newspaper which published the quotes, that questioned both the translation and the "agenda of the translator." However, the Nasrallah speech in question is published on Hezbollah's website. Mr. Chayban shared this link with Mr. Glass, who did not correct his accusations accordingly. Glass also wrote that a Hezbollah spokeswoman, Wafa Hoteit, denied that Nasrallah made the statement.Letters. London Review of Books. Vol. 28 No. 19 More recently, the relevant excerpt from the speech, along with Arabic transcription and English translation, have been published online here.
According to the US-Israeli organisation MEMRI, in a speech aired on Al-Manar and Al-Jazeera in 2006, Nasrallah expressed support for Holocaust denier Roger Garaudy calling him a "great French philosopher" who "proved (sic) that this Holocaust is a myth".
During the 2006 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, Nasrallah declared in a speech aired on Al-Manar TV and Al-Jazeera TV that: "If there had been a Muslim to carry out Imam Khomeini's fatwā against the renegade Salman Rushdie, this rabble who insult our Prophet Mohammed in Denmark, Norway and France would not have dared to do so. I am sure there are millions of Muslims who are ready to give their lives to defend our prophet's honour and we have to be ready to do anything for that."
On 24 February 2012, in a speech in Nabi Sheet for the "remembrance of the fallen martyrs Abbas al-Musawi, Ragheb Harb, and Imad Mughniyah," Hasan Nasrallah said, "I say that the American administration and the American mentality lacks nothing from Satanism. But that kind of behavior and that kind of mistreatment of holy books [referring to the Quran burning incident in Afghanistan in February 2012] and prophets, and the prophets' sanctities, and others' sanctities; this behavior is Israeli and let us say it is Jewish, between quotation marks, - now they will say that this is anti-Semitism - [but] the Holy Quran told us about this people: how they attacked their prophets, and how they killed their prophets, and how they affronted their prophets, and how they affronted Jesus Christ, peace be upon him, and how they affronted Mary, peace be upon her, and how they affronted Allah's great messenger Mohammad, May God exalt and bring peace upon him and his family. This [behavior] pattern about affronting holy books, and prophets, and messengers, and sanctities; this is their mentality, and maybe they want to push things more and more toward a religious war worldwide."
On 2 September, a day after rocket strikes toward Israeli's border, Hassan Nasrallah said Hezbollah would begin targeting Israeli drones flying in Lebanese airspace, and announced there were "no more red lines" in the fight against Israel. If attacked again, he said, Hezbollah would strike "deep inside" Israel.
Alleged 2008 assassination attempt
Almalaf, an Iraqi news source on 15 October 2008, quoted sources in Lebanon saying Hezbollah leader Hasan Nasrallah had been poisoned the previous week and that he was saved by Iranian doctors who went to Lebanon to treat him. The sources told the paper that a particularly poisonous chemical substance was used against the Shi'a militia leader. His medical condition was apparently critical for several days until Iranian doctors came and managed to save his life. Almalaf claimed that the sources believed it was highly likely that the poisoning was an Israeli assassination attempt.
Hezbollah denied that Nasrallah had been poisoned. Lebanese parliament member Al-Hajj Hassan, a member of Hezbollah, said: "This is a lie and a fabrication. It's true that I haven't seen Nasrallah this past week, but he's okay." The Iranian doctors arrived on Sunday at approximately 11:00 P.M., apparently on a special military flight. According to Almalaf officials considered flying Nasrallah to Iran for further treatment.
In September 1997, an Israeli Mossad team tried to assassinate Hamas political chief Khaled Mashal by drizzling poison in his ear. The attempt failed, and two of the agents were captured while others took refuge in the Israeli embassy in Amman. Nasrallah's second-in-command Imad Mughniyah was assassinated in February 2008 in a Damascus bomb blast. Hezbollah accused Israel of responsibility for the explosion, although Israel denied responsibility for the act. Nasrallah's predecessor Abbas al-Musawi was killed in an Israeli airstrike in southern Lebanon in 1992.
Nasrallah's denial of the alleged attempt
On 25 October 2008 in an interview with the Hezbollah owned Al-Manar channel, Nasrallah denied the assassination attempt, accusing the Israelis and Americans of fabricating the story and considering it as part of the ongoing psychological war against Hezbollah that aimed to imply that the party was suffering from internal disputes and assassination plots.Nasrallah denies poison attack . AlBawaba. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
He also explained that "if research was done on the internet websites posting such unfounded information, it would reveal that they are all being run from that same dark room, and that their aim is to serve American-Israeli interests."
He added that at first the organization had considered denying the false information with a written message, "but when the news agencies began to publish it we decided to hold a televised interview, and here I am before you telling you I was not poisoned."Nasrallah denies poisoning reports. Ynetnews.com (20 June 1995). Retrieved 8 December 2011.
Image
By playing a key part in ending the Israeli occupation, Nasrallah became a "national hero". The New York Times article reported that an Arab politician called him as the "most powerful man in the Middle East" and the "only Arab leader who actually does what he says he's going to do". Al Jazeera compared him to other Arab leaders such as Yasser Arafat and Gamal Abdel Nasser, and leftist revolutionaries like Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, while journalist Annia Ciezadlo described him as an "emblem of Islam and Arab pride". Professor Amal Saad-Ghorayeb said that he is "passionate" but also "plainspoken and practical".
Nasrallah is often referred to as "al-Sayyid Hassan" (), the honorific "Sayyid" denoting a claim of descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his grandson Husain ibn Ali.
In popular culture
thumb|234x234px|Portrait by Abbas Godarzi
Two popular songs were written about Nasrallah during the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah War, with vastly different views of the Hezbollah leader: The Hawk of Lebanon in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and Yalla Ya Nasrallah, against Nasrallah, in Israel.
In 2007, Lebanese singer Alaa Zalzali composed a tribute song entitled "Ya Nasrallah". Another popular song composed in tribute to him was by Lebanese Christian singer Julia Boutros, called "Ahebba'i" meaning "my loved ones", which was inspired by Nasrallah's words in a televised message he sent to Hezbollah fighters in southern Lebanon during the 2006 War.
See also
Iran-Lebanon relations
Bashar Assad
Ali Khamenei
References
Sources
Further reading
Bergman, Ronen. "The Fall of Hezbollah's Leader." Bloomberg. 24 June 2013.
External links
"The Multilingual Website of Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah" Updated source of contents related to him in 31 languages. Its archive is being completed from the link below:
"The Multilingual Page of Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah"
"Hizballah: A Primer", Lara Deeb, 31 July 2006
"Inside the Mind of Hezbollah", Washington Post, 16 July 2006.
Nasrallah: Israel temporary country YNET
"Seyyed Hasan Nasrallah's Autobiography", Ya Lesarat Ol-Hoseyn (Tehran), Federation of American Scientists Intelligence Resource Program, 10 August 2006
Speeches and interviews
Nasrallah's Sun Video
Speech given on 26 May 2008
Interview on 11 August 2007
Interview with Al-Jazeera on 20 July 2006
Speech on 8 August 2006
Speech on 3 August 2006
Speech on 31 July 2006
Speech on 14 July 2006
Speech on 8 March 2005
Video Clip of Victory Speech on 22 September 2006
Interview with Al-Jazeera
The Beirut File: An Interview with Hassan Nasrallah by Mahir Tan (May 2003)
Category:1960 births
Category:Lebanese conspiracy theorists
Category:Lebanese Islamists
Category:Lebanese Shia clerics
Category:Lebanese Shia Muslims
Category:Living people
Category:People from Matn District
Category:People from South Lebanon
Category:Secretaries-general of Hezbollah
Category:People of the Lebanese Civil War | {"Name": "Hassan Nasrallah", "Native name": "حسن نصر الله", "Native name language": "ar", "Nationality": "Lebanese", "Image caption": "Nasrallah in 2019", "Term start": "16 February 1992", "Birth date": "yes 1960 08 31", "Birth place": "Bourj Hammoud, Lebanon", "Spouse(s)": "Fatimah Yasin", "Other political party": "Amal (1978-1982)"} |
thumb|Statue of a reclining Attis at the Shrine of Attis in Ostia Antica near Rome.
Attis (; , also , , )
was the consort of Cybele, in Phrygian and Greek mythology.
His priests were eunuchs, the Galli, as explained by origin myths pertaining to Attis castrating himself. Attis was also a Phrygian vegetation deity. His self-mutilation, death, and resurrection represents the fruits of the earth, which die in winter only to rise again in the spring.
According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, Attis transformed himself into a pine tree.
No connection to the god Atys
Nineteenth century scholarship wrongly identified the god Attis with the similar-sounding name of the god Atys. The name "Atys" is often seen in ancient Aegean cultures; it was mentioned by Herodotus,
however Herodotus was describing Atys, the son of Croesus, a human in a historical account. The 19th century conflation of the man Atys's name with the mythology of the god he was presumably named after, "Atys the sun god, slain by the boar's tusk of winter", and hence a connection to similar-sounding Attis was a mistake, but the long-standing error is still found in modern sources.
History
An Attis cult began around 1250 BCE in Dindymon (today's Murat Dağı of Gediz, Kütahya, Turkey). He was originally a local semi-deity of Phrygia, associated with the great Phrygian trading city of Pessinos, which lay under the lee of Mount Agdistis. The mountain was personified as a daemon, whom foreigners associated with the Great Mother Cybele.
In the late 4th century BCE, a cult of Attis became a feature of the Greek world. The story of his origins at Agdistis recorded by the traveller Pausanias have some distinctly non-Greek elements.
Pausanias was told that the daemon Agdistis initially bore both male and female sexual organs. The Olympian gods feared Agdistis and they conspired to cause Agditis to accidentally castrate themself, ridding them of their male organ. From the hemorrhage of Agdistis germinated an almond tree. When the fruits ripened, Nana, daughter of the river Sangarius, took an almond, put it in her bosom, and later became pregnant. Later, Nana abandoned baby Attis.
The infant was tended by a he-goat. As Attis grew, his long-haired beauty was godlike, and his parent, Agdistis (as Cybele) then fell in love with him. But Attis' foster parents sent him to Pessinos, where he was to wed the king's daughter.
According to some versions the king of Pessinos was Midas. Just as the marriage-song was being sung, Agdistis / Cybele appeared in her transcendent power, and Attis went mad and
Castrated himself under a pine. When he died, violets grew from his blood. Attis' father-in-law-to-be, the king who was giving his daughter in marriage, followed suit, prefiguring the self-castrating corybantes who devoted themselves to Cybele. Agdistis asked Zeus to bring the young man back to life, but Zeus could only make sure that his body did not decompose, his hair continued to grow, and he moved his little finger.
At the temple of Cybele in Pessinus, the mother of the gods was still called Agdistis, the geographer Strabo recounted.
As neighbouring Lydia came to control Phrygia, the cult of Attis was given a Lydian context too. Attis is said to have introduced to Lydia the cult of the Mother Goddess Cybele, incurring the jealousy of Zeus, who sent a boar to destroy the Lydian crops. Then certain Lydians, with Attis himself, were killed by the boar. Pausanias adds, to corroborate this story, that the Gauls who inhabited Pessinos abstained from pork. This myth element may have been invented solely to explain the unusual dietary laws of the Lydian Gauls. In Rome, the eunuch followers of Cybele were called galli.
Julian describes the orgiastic cult of Cybele and its spread.
It began in Anatolia and was adopted in Greece, and eventually Republican Rome; the cult of Attis, her reborn eunuch consort, accompanied her.
Literature
The first literary reference to Attis is the subject of one of the most famous poems by Catullus (Catullus 63),
apparently before Attis had begun to be worshipped in Rome, as Attis' worship began in the early Empire.
[includes French language summary]
In 1675, Jean-Baptiste Lully, who was attached to Louis XIV's court, composed an opera titled Atys. In 1780, Niccolo Piccinni composed his own Atys.
Oscar Wilde mentions Attis' self-mutilation in his poem The Sphinx, published in 1894:
"And Atys with his blood-stained knife
were better than the thing I am."
Philosophy
Emperor Julian's "Hymn to the Mother of Gods" contains a detailed Neoplatonic analysis of Attis. In that work Julian says: "Of him [Attis] the myth relates that, after being exposed at birth near the eddying stream of the river Gallus, he grew up like a flower, and when he had grown to be fair and tall, he was beloved by the Mother of the Gods. And she entrusted all things to him, and moreover set on his head the starry cap." On this passage, the scholiast (Wright) says: "The whole passage implies the identification of Attis with nature...cf. 162A where Attis is called 'Nature,' φύσις."
Archaeological finds
The most important representation of Attis is the lifesize statue discovered at Ostia Antica, near the mouth of Rome's river. The statue is of a reclining Attis, after the emasculation. In his left hand is a shepherd's crook, in his right hand a pomegranate. His head is crowned with a pine garland with fruits, bronze rays of the sun, and on his Phrygian cap is a crescent moon. It was discovered in 1867 at the Campus of the Magna Mater together with other statues. The objects seem to have been hidden there in late antiquity. A plaster cast of it sits in the apse of the Sanctuary of Attis at the Campus of the Magna Mater, while the original was moved to the Vatican Museums.
A marble bas-relief depicting Cybele in her chariot and Attis, from Magna Graecia, is in the archaeological museum in Venice. The pair also feature prominently on the silver Parabiago plate.
A finely executed silvery brass Attis that had been ritually consigned to the Moselle River was recovered during construction in 1963 and is kept at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum of Trier. It shows the typically Anatolian costume of the god: trousers fastened together down the front of the legs with toggles and the Phrygian cap.
In 2007, in the ruins of Herculaneum a wooden throne was discovered adorned with a relief of Attis beneath a sacred pine tree, gathering cones. Various finds suggest that the cult of Attis was popular in Herculaneum at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.
— A picture accompanies the article.
Photo gallery
Image:Statue of a reclining Attis at the Shrine of Attis 2.jpg|Plaster cast of the Attis statue at the Shrine of Attis situated in the Campus of the Magna Mater in Ostia Antica, Italy.
Image:Attis thymiaterion Louvre Tarse61.jpg|Attis wearing the Phrygian cap. Terracotta thymiaterion at the Louvre from Tarsus
Image:Attis Efes Museum.JPG|Sculpture of Attis. Ephesus Archaeological Museum, Efes, Turkey.
File:The_great_mother_of_the_gods_(1901)_(14594571307).jpg|Ancient Roman statue of god Attis found at Ostia (Rome), now in the Lateran Museum.
File:Figurine van Attis in brons, 75 tot 150 NC, vindplaats- Tongeren, Kielenstraat, 1992, collectie Gallo-Romeins Museum Tongeren, TO92-020-093.jpg|Bronze figurine of Attis, with typical attributes: Hare and shepherd's staff, 75-150 CE, found in Tongeren, Belgium, Gallo-Roman Museum (Tongeren)
Notes
References
Further reading
[includes French language summary]
Reviewed by
External links
The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Attis)
Category:Phrygian gods
Category:Cybele
Category:Life-death-rebirth gods
Category:Agricultural gods
Category:Castration
Category:Nature gods
Category:Metamorphoses into trees in Greek mythology | {"Name": "Attis", "Caption": "Statue of Attis from Roman Hierapolis", "Death cause": "Castrated/Emasculated himself and died", "Known For": "Phrygian vegetation deity; his self-mutilation, death, and resurrection represents the fruits of the earth, which die in winter only to rise again in the spring", "Title": "The ancient Phrygian god of vegetation and consort of the great Mother of the Gods Kybele (Cybele)", "Mother": "Nana, the daughter of the river Sangarius, and almond tree grown from the amputated sexual Male organ of the hermaphrodite Agdistishttps://www.maicar.com/GML/Attis.html Attis maicar.com April 7, 2023"} |
thumb|NZ Army minute describing the incident as a simple brawl between merchant seamen and servicemen
The Battle of Manners Street refers to a riot involving American servicemen and New Zealand servicemen and civilians outside the Allied Services Club in Manners Street, Te Aro, Wellington in 1943. The club was a social centre, open to all military personnel.
Background
In 1942-44 there were anywhere between 15,000 and 45,000 American servicemen stationed in New Zealand, most camped around major urban centres of the country. While New Zealand was then an isolated country with 1.6 million inhabitants, many of the American servicemen were coming from major American urban centres to New Zealand.
Riot
Some American servicemen in the Services Club objected to Māori soldiers also using the Club, and on 3 April 1943 began stopping Māori soldiers from entering. Many New Zealand soldiers in the area, both white (Pākehā) and Māori, combined in opposition. The stand-off escalated when Americans took off their belts to attack those who wanted to let the Māori in. Fights broke out and at one point at least a thousand servicemen, as well as several hundreds of civilians, were involved in the subsequent fracas, which was broken up by civil and military police. The major brawl lasted from 6 pm to 8 pm, with some brawls lasting for perhaps another two hours. Dozens of people were injured. The fighting spread to the ANA (Army, Navy and Air Force) Club in Willis Street and to Cuba Street. At the time, hotel bars closed at 6 pm, the six o'clock swill, and inebriated patrons were then ejected into the streets.
News of the riot was censored at the time, hence much of the mythology about the event, including the claim that two Americans were killed remain hard to verify. Twenty years after the riot, the finding of the Court of Inquiry was released.
Other riots
Around the same time as the Battle of Manners Street a similar riot between American and New Zealand service men was taking place in Auckland and one month later during the Mayfair Cabaret, in Cuba Street, Wellington, on 12 May 1945 another riot took place. Later in October a group of American servicemen and Māori civilians came to blows at Ōtaki in October 1943.
See also
The Battle of Brisbane, a similar riot in Australia, 1942
Zoot Suit Riots in 1943 in Los Angeles
Battle of Bamber Bridge, a similar riot in England, June 1943
Bibliography
Notes
References
- Total pages: 191
The Yanks are Coming: The American Invasion of New Zealand 1942-1944 by Harry Bioletti (1989, Century Hutchinson, Auckland)
United States Forces in New Zealand 1942-1945 by Denys Bevan (1992, Macpherson Publishing, Alexandra)
Category:1943 in New Zealand
Manners Street
Category:Race riots
Category:1943 riots
Category:History of the Wellington Region
Category:Riots and civil disorder in New Zealand
Category:Wellington City
Category:April 1943 events
Category:Military discipline and World War II
Category:Racism in New Zealand | {"Date": "3 April 1943", "Location": "-41.2904 174.7757 region:NZ_type:event", "Caused by": "U.S. Army soldiers refusal to allow entrance of New Zealand Army Māori soldiers to the Allied Services Club", "Methods": "Rioting, race riots, protests, looting, attacks", "Death(s)": "0 confirmed, 2 possible Americans", "Injuries": "Dozens in both sides", "Arrested": "1 New Zealand serviceman"} |
Vidhana Soudha () in Bangalore, India, is the seat of the state legislature of Karnataka. It is constructed in a style described as Neo-Dravidian, and incorporates elements of various Dravidian styles. Construction was started in 1952 and completed in 1956.
Information
The two houses of legislature of the princely state of Mysore, the legislative assembly and the legislative council, were established in 1881 and 1907 respectively. Sessions of the two houses took place in Mysore (with joint sessions taking place in the Bangalore Town Hall) until India's independence from British rule on 15 August 1947, when Mysore acceded to India. The state's capital was shifted to Bangalore; the two houses moved into Attara Kacheri, a British-built building in Cubbon Park that housed the High Court of Mysore.
A need was felt for more spacious quarters for the legislature than Attara Kacheri, and in April 1951. The foundation stone of the building was laid by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, on 13 July 1951. The structure was planned to be a two-storeyed building housing the assembly and the council.
Kengal Hanumanthaiah succeeded K. C. Reddy as Chief Minister of Mysore after a 1952 election. Calling the existing plan a "plain and simple type of American architecture", Hanumanthaiah ordered extensive revisions to produce "a work of art in keeping with the tradition of Mysore State". Apart from house chambers, the revised plan included government offices, archives, a library and a banquet hall. Construction of the building was completed in 1956. Hanumanthiah personally supervised and ordered several particular aspects of the construction; one of them was to inscribe "Government Work Is God's Work" and its Kannada equivalent on the entablature of the front facade. The final design was meant to dwarf the British-built Attara Kacheri, currently the seat of the Karnataka High Court, opposite which Vidhana Soudha was being built.
Construction
White granite from Magadi and Turuvekere was used in the construction. Around 5,000 labourers and 1,500 stonecutters were employed.
Estimates of construction costs for the original two-storied structure stood at 33 lakh (3.3 million) rupees. The final cost of construction of the redesigned building was 180 lakh (18 million) rupees. Hanumanthaiah was criticised for the inflated sum - equivalent to ₹170 crore, or in 2019 - spent on construction.
Architecture
Built with granite, Vidhana Soudha is the largest legislative building in India. It measures on the ground and is tall. The architecture includes elements of styles from the mediaeval Chalukya, Hoysala and Vijayanagara empires of Karnataka. Its east-facing front facade has a porch with 12 granite columns, tall. Leading to the porch is a flight of stairs with 45 steps, more than wide. The central dome, in diameter, is crowned by a likeness of the State Emblem of India.
The phrase "Government Work is God's Work" and its Kannada equivalent "Sarkarada kelasa devara kelasa" (in Kannada script as "ಸರ್ಕಾರದ ಕೆಲಸ ದೇವರ ಕೆಲಸ") are inscribed on the entablature. In 1957, the Mysore government planned to replace the inscription with Satyameva Jayate at a cost of , but the change did not take place. In 1996, the inscription inspired a visiting US state governor, George Voinovich of Ohio, to propose etching "With God, all things are possible" onto the Ohio Statehouse, prompting a high-profile lawsuit.
The cost of construction at that time wasc . Currently, annual maintenance cost is more than including repairs, painting, and other miscellaneous expenses.
Replicas
Vikasa Soudha
The Karnataka government constructed a replica named Vikasa Soudha to the south of the building. Initiated by the then Chief Minister S. M. Krishna and inaugurated in February 2005, it is intended to be an annexe building, housing some of the ministries and legislative offices.
Suvarna Vidhana Soudha
The Suvarna Vidhana Soudha () is the legislature building of the State of Karnataka in Belgaum in the Belgaum district of Northern Karnataka. It was inaugurated on 11 October 2012 by President Pranab Mukherjee.
Location
It is located on Ambedkar Veedhi or Dr Ambedkar Rd, Seshadripuram. Across from Vidhana Soudha is the High Court of Karnataka. Both buildings are in Cubbon Park, which is located near the Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association (KSLTA).
References
External links
Vidhana Soudha
vidhanasoudha.com
Category:Government buildings completed in 1956
Category:Buildings and structures in Bangalore
Category:Legislative buildings in India
Category:Tourist attractions in Bangalore
Category:Karnataka Legislature
Category:20th-century architecture in India | {"Type": "Legislative building", "Architectural style": "Neo-Dravidian", "Location": "Bangalore, Karnataka", "Coordinates": "12.9796 77.5906 region:IN-KA inline,title", "Construction started": "1952"} |
, abbreviated to , or YNU, is a national university located in Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Founded in 1876, it became a national university in 1949, and currently comprises five graduate schools and four undergraduate faculties.
The university has been evaluated highly from the business world and was ranked first in Kantō (including Greater Tokyo Area) and Kōshin'etsu region and second in Japan by personnel departments of leading companies in Japan in 2020. The university was also ranked tenth in Japan according to the ratio of the number of officers and managers produced to the number of graduates.
History
left|thumb|Central Library of Yokohama National University
The predecessor of the university, Yokohama Normal School, was founded in 1876. It became a Japanese national university in 1949 by the amalgamation of Kanagawa Normal School, Kanagawa Youth Normal School, Yokohama College of Economics and the Yokohama Institute of Technology.
The university was originally planned to be named as "Yokohama University", but at the time the former Yokohama City Economics College and Yokohama Vocational School also wanted to apply their names as Yokohama University. They had a consultation about the name and decided not to use name "Yokohama University".
The Faculty of Business Administration was founded in 1967. The university has master's degree programs in engineering (1962), economics (1972), business administration (1972), and education (1979). The Institute of Environmental Science and Technology was established in 1973 under the botanist Akira Miyawaki, and the Graduate School of International and Business Law was established in 1990. The Graduate School of International Development Studies was created in 1994 and the School of Law in 2004.
Faculties
Faculty of Education and Human Sciences
Faculty of Economics
Faculty of Business Administration
School of Engineering Science
College of Urban Sciences
Graduate Schools
Graduate School of Education
International Graduate School of Social Sciences
Graduate School of Engineering/ Faculty of Engineering
Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences/ Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences
Graduate School of Urban Innovation
YNU Interfaculty Graduate School
College and Faculty of Economics
Established in 1949 as one of the three original colleges, the College of Economics follows the great tradition of the former Yokohama Commercial College. The college (undergraduate) prides itself in contributing to the advancement of economic theory and empirics. Every year many aspiring students apply for entrance, and after an intensive four-year period of training in economic thought and research, they successfully graduate as competent experts in their fields. Recognized internationally as a center of economic study, an array of nationalities are represented in the college as lecturers, researchers and students. The College of Economics promotes cultural diversity and host many international students both on scholarships and self-funded. At the Master's level, the Faculty of Economics is host to the Joint Japan World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program. In the fall of 2013, YNU Economics began offering M.A. and Ph.D. degrees where the course content, advising, etc. is offered entirely in the English language.
Faculty of Business Administration
Yokohama National University's Faculty of Business Administration was established in 1967, and currently composed of four disciplinary areas: the Division of Business Administration, the Division of Accounting and Information, the Division of Management System Science and the Division of International Business. The faculty places emphasis on internationalization, with not only Japanese students, but also many students from overseas currently enrolled. Students are free to register subjects outside of their own division, and so are able to gain an education that covers all aspects of business administration. In the latter half of second year, students are assigned to a seminar, where they do research in a specialized area of an advising professor.
College of Urban Sciences
Urban Sciences is an academic field that focuses on an important theme—how cities should be in the future—from a scientific point of view. The College of Urban Sciences was newly established in April 2017, and comprises the following four departments: (1) the Department of Urban and Social Collaboration for studying cultural and social sciences, with the objective of create a pleasant urban society and culture; (2) the Department of Architecture and Building Science for studying creative architecture, urban environments, and town development; (3) the Department of Civil Engineering for studying technology and management relating to the infrastructure supporting urban activities; and (4) the Department of Risk Management and Environmental Science for studying sustainable urban development with the understanding of natural and social environmental risks. The college pursues the development of talented people who can commit themselves to creating cities from broad perspectives that include liberal arts and scientific viewpoint.
Evaluation from Business World
+ The university ranking of the ratio of "president and chief executive officer of listed company" in Japan Ranking all universities in Japan 19thWeekly Diamond The ranking of the universities which produced the high ratio of the graduates who hold the position of "president and chief executive officer of listed company" to all the graduates of each university out of all the 744The number of universities and students｜National Universities Association universities which existed as of 2006 Source 2006 Survey by Weekly Diamond on the ranking of the universities which produced the high ratio of the graduates who hold the position of "president and chief executive officer of listed company" to all the graduates of each university
+ The university ranking according to the ratio of the number of the officers & managers produced by each university to the number of graduates Ranking all universities in Japan tenth out of all the 778University reform reference materials / Cabinet Secretariat universities which existed as of 2010 10th out of all the 778University reform reference materials / Cabinet Secretariat universities which existed as of 2010 Source 2010 SurveyIs it a story of the past that graduates from famous universities can easily move up the career ladder? / RECRUIT AGENT by Weekly Economist on the ranking of universities according to the ratio of the number of the officers & managers produced by each university to the number of graduates
+ The ranking according to the evaluation by Personnel Departments of Leading Companies in Japan Ranking Kantō & Kōshin'etsu region 1stImage held by human resources personnel of companies of Japan / Yokohama National University ranked 1st in Kantō & Kōshin'etsu region / Valuation from the ex-students already employed / The Nikkei・Nikkei HR Survey 2020-06-04 17:27 (out of 262The number of universities by prefecture universities which existed in Kantō & Kōshin'etsu region as of 2020) Japan 2ndSurvey on the image seen from human resources personnel：Ranking of the ability to get jobs｜Nikkei HR 2020.06.03 release (out of 781The number of universities in Japan is 781 as of April 1, 2020. About 80% are private universities.｜Ōbun Sha universities which existed in Japan as of 2020) Source 2020 Nikkei Survey to all listed (3,714Number of listed companies & listed shares of stock｜JPX) and leading unlisted (1,100), totally 4,814 companies
Notable alumni
thumb|Vietnam's Le Thi Tuyet Mai
Takuzo Aida polymer chemist in University of Tokyo
Akira Fujishima chemist, and the President of Tokyo University of Science
Koshi Inaba lead singer of the rock duo B'z
Shunji Iwai film director
Katsuhiko Kawasoe former President and chief executive officer of Mitsubishi Motors
Le Thi Tuyet Mai, Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Permanent Mission of Viet Nam to the United Nations Office and the World Trade Organization
Kaori Manabe Japanese television personality and model
Chisato Minamimura dancer and choreographer
Masaya Nakamura the founder of Namco Co., Ltd and the "Father of Pacman".
Ryue Nishizawa a professor of Yokohama National University and Architect (awarded the Pritzker Prize)
Sumio Mabuchi Japanese politician of the Democratic Party of Japan
Hironobu Sakaguchi game designer
Shinichiro Sakurai automotive engineer
Akira Satō photographer
Hiromichi Tanaka game designer
External links
University website
References
Category:Japanese national universities
Category:Universities and colleges established in 1876
Category:American football in Japan
Category:1876 establishments in Japan | {"Motto": "グローバルな学術の共創", "Type": "National", "President": "Izuru Umehara", "Undergraduates": "7,298 as of 1 May 2020", "Postgraduates": "2,302 as of 1 May 2020", "Website": "https://www.ynu.ac.jp"} |
Roberto Vigoreaux Lorenzana (born January 12, 1956, in San Juan, Puerto Rico) is a Puerto Rican producer, TV show host, actor, singer, and former Senator. He is the son of TV producer Luis Vigoreaux, and the younger brother of Luisito Vigoreaux.
Early years and studies
Roberto Vigoreaux was born on January 12, 1956, to producer Luis Vigoreaux and Rosaura Lorenzana. He is the youngest of two sons, the other being Luisito Vigoreaux.
Vigoreaux studied at the University of Puerto Rico, and then at Loyola University New Orleans.
Career in the media
In 1970, Vigoreaux starred as Chago in the Walt Disney Production Cristobalito, the Calypso Colt, when he was still a young teenager.Cristobalito, the Calypso Colt on Internet Movie Database After growing up, he worked as a radio broadcaster in several stations, as well as acting in plays. Throughout his career, he has worked for stations like Radio Rock, WAPA Radio, Radio Aeropuerto and Radio Luz.
In 1984, Vigoreaux hosted the show Son del Caribe. Some time later, he moved to WAPA-TV where he starred hosting a game show called Parejo, doble, y triple with his brother, Luisito. He also hosted the show Sábado en Grande. After performing a duet on his show Sábado en Grande, with singer Lourdes Robles, Vigoreaux decided to start a musical career. In 1988, he released his first and only album titled Amores de mi vida. The album received a lukewarm response.
In 1986, both Roberto and his brother Luisito appeared in a Burger King commercial for the Puerto Rican market, where they acted and sang.
Vigoreaux has also worked as a host of several beauty pageants. He also had roles in comedies and shows like Generaciones, and musicals like Clemente, where he played the role of his father, Luis Vigoreaux. In the late 1980s he played the role of Joe Hardy in a revival of the Broadway musical Damn Yankees, with Marian Pabón.
Career as entrepreneur
Vigoreaux opened a series of ice cream franchises called Scoops, with stores in San Juan, Cayey, and Bayamón.
Career in politics: 1996-2004
Representative: 1996-2000
In 1993, Vigoreaux retired from show business and began to pursue a career as a politician. In 1996, he was elected as a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives for the Popular Democratic Party (PPD).Consulta de Resultados Legislativos: lecciones Generales de 1996 - Representantes por Acumulación on CEEPUR
Senator: 2000-2004
Vigoreaux was elected in 2000 as a senator.Elecciones Generales 2000: Escrutinio de Senadores on CEEPUR
Candidate for Mayor of San Juan: 2003
Vigoreaux announced his interest in running for mayor of the city of San Juan during the elections of 2004. However, he lost in the 2003 primaries against Eduardo Bhatia.Primarias PPD 2003 on CEEPUR After that, he has continued to work as an adviser to the Senate of Puerto Rico.Roberto Vigoreaux: Una vida entre cámaras on El Nuevo Día
Return to politics: 2011-present
In September 2011, Vigoreaux announced his candidacy to the House of Representatives for the 2012 general elections.Vigoreaux retará a Nuno López on El Nuevo Día; Rodríguez Sánchez, Israel (September 17, 2011) However, he lost at the PPD primaries held on March 18.
Personal life
Vigoreaux has been married to Mary Ann Cortés since 1987. They have three children.
In 1983, when Roberto was in his 20s, his father Luis Vigoreaux, was brutally murdered. The investigation revealed that Vigoreaux's second wife, Lydia Echevarria, was complicit in his murder, after allegedly she paid two men to beat Vigoreaux.Roberto Vigoreaux parece haber perdonado al coautor del asesinato de su padre on Primera Hora; Martínez Cabello, Belén (May 14, 2010)
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
French immigration to Puerto Rico
References
External links
Fundacion Nacional Cultura biography
Category:1956 births
Category:Living people
Category:Popular Democratic Party members of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico
Category:Members of the Senate of Puerto Rico
Category:Puerto Rican people of French descent
Category:Puerto Rican Roman Catholics
Category:Puerto Rican television hosts | {"Name": "Roberto Vigoreaux Lorenzana", "State senate": "Puerto Rico", "Term start": "January 2, 2001", "Term end": "January 1, 2005", "Office 2": "Member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives", "Term 2": "January 2, 1997 - January 1, 2001", "Other political party": "Popular Democratic Party", "Birth date": "1956 01 12", "Birth place": "San Juan, Puerto Rico", "Alma mater": "University of Puerto RicoLoyola University New Orleans"} |
Candice Patricia Bergen (born May 9, 1946) is an American actress. She won five Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards for her portrayal of the title character on the CBS sitcom Murphy Brown (1988-1998, 2018). She is also known for her role as Shirley Schmidt on the ABC drama Boston Legal (2005-2008). In films, Bergen was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Starting Over (1979), and for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Gandhi (1982).
Bergen began her career as a fashion model and appeared on the cover of Vogue before she made her screen debut in the film The Group (1966). She starred in The Sand Pebbles (1966), Soldier Blue (1970), Carnal Knowledge (1971), and The Wind and the Lion (1975). She made her Broadway debut in the 1984 play Hurlyburly and starred in the revivals of The Best Man (2012) and Love Letters (2014). From 2002 to 2004, she appeared in three episodes of the HBO series Sex and the City. Her other film roles include Miss Congeniality (2000), Sweet Home Alabama (2002), The Women (2008), Bride Wars (2009), Book Club (2018) and Let Them All Talk (2020).
Early life
Candice Patricia Bergen was born May 9, 1946, at Hollywood Presbyterian Hospital in Los Angeles, California. Her mother, Frances Bergen (née Westerman), was a Powers model who was known professionally as Frances Westcott. Her father, Edgar Bergen, was a ventriloquist, comedian, and actor. Her paternal grandparents were Swedish immigrants who anglicized their surname, which was originally Berggren ("mountain branch").
Bergen was raised in Beverly Hills, California, and attended the Harvard-Westlake School. As a child, she was often described as "Charlie McCarthy's little sister", which irritated her (referring to her father's star dummy)."So when I was born, it was only natural that I was known in the press not as Candice Bergen, but as "Charlie's sister."" (Bergen, "My Dad, Charlie and Me' in Jack Canfield, et al., A Second Chicken Soup for the Woman's Soul 1998:36
She began appearing on her father's radio program at a young age,"Bergen & McCarthy 55-12-25 Christmas (Guest Candice Bergen)", listed on Golden Age OTR's playlist on Live365.com and in 1958, at age 11, with her father on Groucho Marx's quiz show You Bet Your Life, as Candy Bergen. She said that when she grew up, she wanted to design clothes.
She later attended the University of Pennsylvania, where she was elected both Homecoming Queen and Miss University, but, as Bergen later acknowledged, she failed to take her education seriously and after failing two courses in art and opera, she was asked to leave at the end of her sophomore year. She ultimately received an honorary doctorate from Penn in May 1992.
She worked as a fashion model before she took up acting, featured on the covers of Vogue. She received her acting training at HB Studio in New York City.
Career
Early work
Bergen made her screen debut playing a university student in the ensemble film The Group (1966), directed by Sidney Lumet, who knew Bergen's family. The film delicately touched on the subject of lesbianism. The film was a critical and financial success.
After the film's success, Bergen left college to focus on her career. She played the role of Shirley Eckert, an assistant school teacher, in The Sand Pebbles (1966) with Steve McQueen. The movie was nominated for several Academy Awards and was a big financial success. It was made for 20th Century Fox.
She guest starred on an episode of Coronet Blue, whose director Sam Wanamaker recommended her for a part in the comedy The Day the Fish Came Out (1967) directed by Michael Cacoyannis, distributed by Fox. The film was a box-office flop, but Fox nevertheless signed her to a long-term contract.
Films
Bergen was announced for the role of Anne in Valley of the Dolls, but did not appear in the film.
Bergen went to France to appear in Claude Lelouch's romantic drama Live for Life (1967) opposite Yves Montand, popular in France but not the US.
In 1968, she played the leading female role in The Magus, a British mystery film for Fox starring Michael Caine and Anthony Quinn that was almost universally ridiculed on its release and was another major flop.
She was featured in a 1970 political satire, The Adventurers, based on a novel by Harold Robbins, playing a frustrated socialite. Her salary was $200,000. The film received negative reviews, and while it did respectable business at the box office, it did not help her career. Bergen called it a "movie out of the 1940s."
Bergen played the girlfriend of Elliott Gould in Getting Straight (1970), a counterculture movie which drew another spate of bad reviews, but was commercially profitable. She said it took her career in "a new direction... my first experience with democratic, communal movie making."
She also starred in the controversial Western Soldier Blue (1970), an overseas success but a failure in its homeland, perhaps because of its unflattering portrayal of the U.S. Cavalry. The film's European success led to Bergen's being voted by British exhibitors as the seventh-most popular star at the British box office in 1971.Peter Waymark. "Richard Burton top draw in British cinemas." Times [London, England] 30 Dec. 1971: 2. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 11 July 2012. Bergen appeared with Oliver Reed in The Hunting Party (1971), a violent Western which drew terrible reviews and flopped at the box office.
Bergen received some strong reviews for her support role in Carnal Knowledge (1971), directed by Mike Nichols. She then had the lead role in the drama T.R. Baskin (1971) and earned the best reviews of her career up to that time. She described the latter as the first role "that is really sort of a vehicle, where I have to act and not just be a sort of decoration" saying she'd decided "it was time for me to get serious about acting."
Bergen was absent from screens for a few years. She returned with a support part in a British heist film, 11 Harrowhouse (1974), then did a Western with Gene Hackman and James Coburn, Bite the Bullet (1975). Both films were modest successes. In 1975, she replaced Faye Dunaway at the last minute to co-star with Sean Connery in The Wind and the Lion (1976), as a strong-willed American widow kidnapped in the Moroccan desert. The film drew mixed reviews and broke even at the box office.
Bergen was reunited with Hackman in The Domino Principle (1977) for Stanley Kramer, another failure.At the Movies
Flatley, Guy. New York Times 10 Dec 1976: 62.
She appeared in A Night Full of Rain (1978) for Lina Wertmüller and was the love interest of Ryan O'Neal's character in the Love Story sequel, Oliver's Story (1978), but both films failed critically and financially.
Bergen appeared in the Burt Reynolds romantic comedy Starting Over (1979), for which she received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for best supporting actress.
She portrayed a best-selling author in Rich and Famous (1981) with Jacqueline Bisset.'The Cool, Elegant Woman?: This Isn't Me
The Times of India 22 Mar 1981: 16. A remake of the Bette Davis film Old Acquaintance, it was not a success.
In 1982, Bergen appeared in the Oscar-winning film Gandhi in which she portrayed documentary photographer Margaret Bourke-White. Bergen was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
Television and other work
Beginning in the 1970s, Bergen became a frequent guest host of Saturday Night Live. She was the first woman to host the show, and the first host to do a second show. She was also the first woman to join the Five-Timers Club, when she hosted for the fifth time in 1990. Bergen also guest-starred on The Muppet Show in its first year.
In 1984 she joined the Broadway cast of Hurlyburly.
On television, Bergen appeared as Morgan Le Fay in Arthur the King (1985) and in the miniseries Hollywood Wives (1985). She was Burt Reynolds' romantic interest in Stick (1985), and for TV appeared in Murder: By Reason of Insanity (1985) and Mayflower Madam (1987).
Murphy Brown
In 1988, she took the lead role in the sitcom Murphy Brown, in which she played a tough television reporter. This role provided her with the opportunity to show her little-seen comic talent. The series made frequent reference to politicians and political issues of the day, and although it was primarily a conventional sitcom, the show did tackle important issues. For example, Murphy was a recovering alcoholic who became a single mother and later battled breast cancer. In 1992, Vice President Dan Quayle criticized prime-time TV for showing the Murphy Brown character "mocking the importance of fathers by bearing a child alone and calling it just another lifestyle choice."
Quayle's disparaging remarks were subsequently written into the show, with Murphy shown watching Quayle's speech in disbelief at his insensitivity and ignorance of the reality of the lives of single mothers. A subsequent episode explored the subject of family values within a diverse set of families. The Brown character arranges for a truckload of potatoes to be dumped in front of Quayle's residence, an allusion to an infamous incident in which Quayle erroneously directed a school child to spell the word "potato" as "potatoe". In reality, Bergen agreed with at least some of Quayle's observations, saying that while the particular remark was "an arrogant and uninformed posture", as a whole, it was "a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did."
Bergen's run on Murphy Brown was extremely successful. The show ran for ten seasons, and between 1989 and 1998, Bergen was nominated for an Emmy Award seven times and won five. After her fifth win, she declined future nominations for the role.Candice Bergen, Straight Up: Murphy Brown explains herself—not that she has to. Rewriting Murphy's Law Everything that can go right seems to have gone right for Candice Bergen. Even her show is enjoying a renaissance. But then there's this thing called reality
Newman, Bruce. Los Angeles Times 26 Nov 1995: F1
Post-Murphy Brown
thumb|Bergen at the 65th Annual Peabody Awards in New York City, 2006
After playing the role of Murphy Brown, Bergen was offered a chance to work as a real-life journalist: After the show ended in 1998, CBS approached her to cover stories for 60 Minutes. She declined the offer, saying she did not want to blur the lines between actor and journalist.
Subsequently, Bergen hosted Exhale with Candice Bergen on the Oxygen network.More Intriguing Guests, More Stimulating Conversation, and More Candice Bergen; "Exhale With Candice Bergen" Returns To Oxygen For Season Two
Business Editors. Business Wire; New York 10 Oct 2000: 1.
From 1991 to 1998 Bergen also appeared as the main spokesperson for the Sprint long-distance phone company.
She produced and starred in the TV movie Mary & Tim (1996).
She also appeared in character roles in films, including Miss Congeniality (2000), where she played villainous pageant host Kathy Morningside; she also portrayed the mayor of New York in Sweet Home Alabama (2002) and appeared in the Gwyneth Paltrow flight-attendant comedy, View from the Top (2003).
She had roles in The In-Laws (2003), Footsteps (2003), a thriller, and appeared in 3 episodes of Sex and the City as Enid Frick, Carrie Bradshaw's editor at Vogue.Candice Bergen's Casting Problem
Hepola, Sarah. New York Times25 May 2003: 2.9.
Boston Legal and beyond
In January 2005, Bergen joined the cast of the television series Boston Legal as Shirley Schmidt, a founding partner in the law firm of Crane, Poole & Schmidt. She played the role for five seasons. In 2006 and 2008, she received Emmy nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
She has also made guest appearances on many other TV shows, including Seinfeld (as herself playing Murphy Brown), Law & Order, Family Guy, and Will & Grace (playing herself). She has also featured in a long-running "Dime Lady" ad campaign for the Sprint phone company.
Bergen could be seen in The Women (2008) and Bride Wars (2009) as Marion St. Claire, New York's most sought-after wedding planner, who also serves as the narrator of the story.
From its launch in 2008, Candice Bergen was a contributor for wowOwow.com, a website for women to talk culture, politics and gossip. The website closed in 2010.
She was in The Romantics (2010) and had an occasional role on House as Lisa Cuddy's mother, starting in Season 7, including the 2011 episodes "Larger Than Life" and "Family Practice".
In 2010, she appeared in a one-night only concert: a semi-staged reading of Evening Primrose by Stephen Sondheim. She has also appeared on Broadway in the 2012 revival of Gore Vidal's The Best Man and the 2014 revival of Love Letters.
Later performances included A Merry Friggin' Christmas (2014), Beautiful & Twisted (2015), Rules Don't Apply (2016),The Meyerowitz Stories (New and Selected) (2017), Home Again (2017) and Book Club (2018).
Murphy Brown reboot
On January 24, 2018, it was announced that Candice Bergen would be reprising her role as Murphy Brown. The reboot aired on CBS in fall 2018 for 13 episodes. On May 10, 2019, the reboot was canceled by CBS.
Beyond acting
In addition to acting, Bergen studied photography and worked as a photojournalist. She has written numerous articles and a play, as well as two memoirs, Knock Wood in 1984, and A Fine Romance in 2015.
In 2016, Bergen began painting, with paint pens, on handbags, with the business overseen by her daughter, Chloé Malle, and the proceeds benefiting charity.
Personal life
thumb|Candice Bergen and her mother, actress Frances Bergen, at the 62nd Academy Awards March 26, 1990
Bergen is a political activist who once accepted a date with Henry Kissinger. In 1967, she participated in a Yippie prank when she, Abbie Hoffman, and others threw dollar bills onto the floor of the New York Stock Exchange, leading to its temporary shutdown. In the late 1960s, Bergen was in a relationship with Doris Day's son Terry Melcher. In 1972, she served as a fundraiser and organizer for George McGovern's presidential campaign.McGovern, George S., Grassroots: The Autobiography of George McGovern, New York: Random House, 1977, pp. 173, 247
From 1971 to circa 1975, Bergen was in a relationship with late Hollywood producer and writer Bert Schneider.
Bergen's father died in 1978. In her memoir A Fine Romance, she mentions that she was left out of his will, while he bequeathed $10,000 to his dummy, Charlie McCarthy, adding that she felt her father had a stronger bond with Charlie than with her. She later said:
On September 27, 1980, she married French film director Louis Malle. They had one child, a daughter named Chloe Françoise, in 1985. The couple were married until Malle's death from cancer on Thanksgiving Day in 1995. Bergen and Malle were introduced at Diane von Fürstenberg's home, Cloudwalk Farm, located in the Merryall area of New Milford, Connecticut.
She has been married to New York real estate magnate and philanthropist Marshall Rose since 2000.
Bergen has traveled extensively and speaks French fluently.
Filmography
Film
Year Title Role Notes 1966 The Group 'Lakey' Eastlake The Sand Pebbles Shirley Eckert 1967 The Day the Fish Came Out Electra Brown Live for Life Candice 1968 The Magus Lily 1970 The Adventurers Sue Ann Daley Getting Straight Jan Soldier Blue Cresta Maribel Lee 1971 Carnal Knowledge Susan The Hunting Party Melissa Ruger T.R. Baskin T.R. Baskin 1974 11 Harrowhouse Maren Shirell 1975 The Wind and the Lion Eden Pedecaris Bite the Bullet Miss Jones 1977 The Domino Principle Ellie Tucker 1978 A Night Full of Rain Lizzy Oliver's Story Marcie Bonwit 1979 Starting Over Jessica Potter 1981 Rich and Famous Merry Noel Blake 1982 Gandhi Margaret Bourke-White 1984 2010 SAL 9000 Voice only; credited as Olga Mallsnerd 1985 Stick Kyle McClaren 2000 Miss Congeniality Kathy Morningside 2002 Sweet Home Alabama Mayor Kate Hennings 2003 View from the Top Sally Weston The In-Laws Judy Tobias 2008 Sex and the City Enid Frick The Women Catherine Frazier 2009 Bride Wars Marion St. Claire 2010 The Romantics Augusta Hayes 2014 A Merry Friggin' Christmas Donna Mitchler 2016 Rules Don't Apply Nadine Henly 2017 The Meyerowitz Stories Julia Home Again Lillian Stewart 2018 Book Club Sharon Myers 2020 Let Them All Talk Roberta 2022 As They Made Us Barbara 2023 Book Club: The Next Chapter Sharon Myers
Television
Year Title Role Notes 1967 Coronet Blue Enid Toler Episode: "The Rebels" 1969 The Woody Allen Special Various Roles Television special 1975-2022 Saturday Night Live Herself 8 episodes 1976 The Muppet Show Episode: "Candice Bergen" 1985 Hollywood Wives Elaine Conti 2 episodes Merlin and the Sword Morgan le Fay Television film Murder: By Reason of Insanity Ewa Berwid Television film 1987 Trying Times Barbara Episode: "Moving Day" Mayflower Madam Sydney Biddle Barrows Television film 1988-1998; 2018 Murphy Brown Murphy Brown 260 episodes; also executive producer 1992 Seinfeld Murphy Brown Episode: "The Keys" 1994-1995 Understanding Narrator 4 episodes 1996 Mary & Tim Mary Horton Television film 1997 Ink Murphy Brown Episode: "Murphy's Law" 2000 Family Guy Gloria Ironbachs/Murphy Brown Episodes: "I Am Peter, Hear Me Roar"/"A Picture's Worth a Thousand Bucks" 2002-04 Sex and the City Enid Frick 3 episodes 2003 Footsteps Daisy Lowendahl TV film 2004 Law & Order Judge Amanda Anderlee Episode: "The Brotherhood" Will & Grace Herself Episode: "Strangers with Candice" 2005 Law & Order: Trial by Jury Judge Amanda Anderlee 3 episodes 2005-2008 Boston Legal Shirley Schmidt 84 episodes 2011 House Arlene Cuddy 3 episodes 2013 The Michael J. Fox Show Beth Henry Episode: "Thanksgiving" 2014 Beautiful & Twisted Bernice Novack TV film 2015 Battle Creek Constance Episode: "Mama's Boy" 2016 BoJack Horseman The Closer (voice) Episode: "Stop the Presses" 2021 The Conners Barb 3 episodes 2023 And Just Like That... Enid Frick Episode: "Alive!"
Awards and nominations
References
Sources
External links
Candice Bergen at wowOwow
Category:1946 births
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Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni | {"Name": "Candice Bergen", "Caption": "Bergen at the 2006 Peabody Awards", "Birth name": "Candice Patricia Bergen", "Birth date": "1946 5 9", "Birth place": "Los Angeles, California, U.S.", "Alma mater": "University of Pennsylvania", "Occupation": "Actress", "Years active": "1958-present", "Spouse(s)": "Louis Malle September 27, 1980 November 23, 1995 died\n Marshall Rose 2000", "Children": "1", "Parent(s)": "Edgar Bergen Frances Bergen", "Awards": "Full list"} |
Barbara Bach, Lady Starkey (born Barbara Goldbach; August 27, 1946 or 1947) is an American actress and former model. She played the Bond girl Anya Amasova in The Spy Who Loved Me. She is married to former Beatles drummer Ringo Starr.
Early life
Bach is a native of Jackson Heights, Queens and was raised Roman Catholic. She graduated from Dominican Commercial High School, an all-girls school, in 1964. The following year, she shortened her surname to Bach and began modeling professionally, appearing in catalogs and fashion magazines.
Career
Bach was one of the most sought-after faces of the 1960s, working with the Eileen Ford Agency in New York, appearing on catalogs and the front covers of several international fashion magazines such as Seventeen (1965 and 1966), Vogue USA (July 1966) photographed by Richard Avedon, ELLE France (1966), Gioia Italy (1967-1970), and Figurino Brazil (1970).
Her acting career started in Italy, where she played Nausicaa in L'Odissea in 1968, an eight-hour long TV adaptation of Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, directed by Franco Rossi and produced by Dino de Laurentiis.
In 1971, Bach co-starred with two other Bond girls, Claudine Auger and Barbara Bouchet, in the mystery Black Belly of the Tarantula (a giallo film) and appeared in other Italian films.
thumb|left|Bach and Jean Sorel in a scene from Short Night of Glass Dolls (1971)
In 1977, Bach portrayed the Russian spy Anya Amasova in the James Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me. Bach remarked after the film that Bond is "a chauvinist pig who uses girls to shield him against bullets."upright|thumb|Bach alongside Roger Moore The following year she appeared in the movie Force 10 from Navarone. She lost a role to actress Shelley Hack when she auditioned for season four of the television series Charlie's Angels. During an interview with Johnny Carson on May 9, 1979, she said that she lost the audition for Charlie's Angels because they felt she was too sophisticated in attitude and look, and thought that she was not American, even though she was born in Rosedale and grew up in Jackson Heights, both in Queens, New York City. They asked her manager if she could play an American.
Bach has 28 films to her credit. She was featured in a pictorial in Playboy in January 1981. She also had a cameo in a September 1987 special issue on the Bond girls.
Charity work
In 1991, Bach co-founded the Self Help Addiction Recovery Program (SHARP) with Pattie Boyd, the former wife of George Harrison and Eric Clapton, both of whom assisted in the venture. Bach and Ringo Starr created The Lotus Foundation, a charity with many sub-charities.
Personal life
Bach's first marriage was to Italian businessman Augusto, Count Gregorini di Savignano di Romagna. The couple had two children together, daughter Francesca and son Gianni, before divorcing in 1975. Bach married British musician Ringo Starr, formerly of the Beatles, at Marylebone Town Hall on April 27, 1981. The two met in 1980, on the set of the film Caveman (1981).
Bach struggled with alcoholism and heavy drug use and, along with her husband, Ringo Starr, checked into a rehab in 1988 for four weeks. The couple has remained sober ever since.
According to the International Vegetarian Union, Bach and Starr practice vegetarianism.
She is fluent in Italian and has a working knowledge of French and Spanish.
Filmography
Year Title Role Notes 1968 Odissea Nausicaa 1971 Mio padre Monsignore Chiara The Black Belly of the Tarantula Jenny Short Night of Glass Dolls Mira Svoboda A Few Hours of Sunlight Héloïse / Elvire 1973 The Sensual Man Anna Il maschio ruspante Rema Stateline Motel Emily 1974 Street Law Barbara 1975 Legend of the Sea Wolf Maud Brewster 1977 Ecco noi per esempio Ludovica The Spy Who Loved Me Major Anya Amasova 1978 Force 10 from Navarone Maritza Petrovich 1979 Island of the Fishmen Amanda Marvin The Humanoid Lady Agatha Jaguar Lives! Anna Thompson The Great Alligator River Alice Brandt 1980 Up the Academy Bliss 1981 Caveman Lana The Unseen Jennifer Fast 1983 Princess Daisy Vanessa Valerian 1984 Give My Regards to Broad Street Journalist Cameo 1986 To the North of Katmandu Polo Player Cameo
References
External links
!colspan="3" style="background:#C1D8FF;"| James Bond
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Category:1947 births | {"Name": "Barbara Bach", "Caption": "Bach in 1978", "Birth name": "Barbara Goldbach", "Birth date": "1946 8 27 or 1947 8 27", "Birth place": "New York City, U.S.", "Occupation": "Actress, model", "Years active": "1965-present", "Spouse(s)": "Augusto Gregorini 1966 1975 divorced\n Ringo Starr April 27, 1981", "Children": "2, including Francesca Gregorini"} |
Karl Gerhart "Gert" Fröbe (; 25 February 1913 - 5 September 1988) was a German actor. He was best known in English-speaking countries for his work as Auric Goldfinger in the James Bond film Goldfinger, as Peachum in The Threepenny Opera, as Baron Bomburst in Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, as Hotzenplotz in Der Räuber Hotzenplotz, General Dietrich von Choltitz in Is Paris Burning? and Colonel Manfred von Holstein in Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines.
Early life and education
Fröbe was born in Oberplanitz, today part of Zwickau. He was initially a violinist, but he abandoned it for Kabarett and theatre work.
He joined the Nazi Party in 1929 at the age of 16 and left in 1937.
In September 1944, theatres in Germany were closed down and Fröbe was drafted into the German Army, where he served until the end of the war.
After his party membership became known after World War II, Israel banned Fröbe's films until Mario Blumenau, a Jewish survivor, revealed just eight weeks later that his life and his mother's were probably saved when Fröbe hid them from the Nazis.
Career
Fröbe gained fame in one of the first German films made after the Second World War, called Berliner Ballade (The Ballad of Berlin, 1948). His character's name, "Otto Normalverbraucher" ( Otto Average Consumer), became the German term equivalent to "Average Joe".
He was cast as the villain in the Swiss-West German-Spanish film Es geschah am hellichten Tag (It Happened in Broad Daylight, 1958), with the original screenplay written by Friedrich Dürrenmatt. His role as a serial killer of children drew the attention of the producers of the James Bond movie Goldfinger (1964) and he was chosen to play one of the best remembered villains of the series, gold tycoon Auric Goldfinger. He later remarked, "The ridiculous thing is that since I played Goldfinger in the James Bond film there are some people who still insist on seeing me as a cold, ruthless villain - a man without laughs."
thumb|Fröbe in 1965
Fröbe made several appearances in all-star casts in the 1960s, including the films The Longest Day (1962), Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965), Is Paris Burning? (1966),Triple Cross (1966), Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968), and Monte Carlo or Bust (1969).
During the 1980s, Fröbe played small parts in Mercedes Benz W123 commercials, helping to promote the coupé and the sedan.
Death
Fröbe died in Munich in September 1988 at age 75 from a heart attack. He was buried at the Waldfriedhof cemetery in Icking.
Filmography
Year Title Role LanguageNotes 1948 Extra German Uncredited The Berliner Otto Normalverbraucher German 1949 After the Rain Comes Sunshine Konstantin German 1951 Decision Before Dawn German Corporal English Uncredited 1952 The Day Before the Wedding Rundfunkreporter German 1953 Man on a Tightrope Police Agent English Uncredited Salto Mortale Jan German A Heart Plays False Briefüberbringer German The Postponed Wedding Night Gondoliere German Arlette Conquers Paris Manager Edmond Duval German Wedding in Transit Herr Mengwasser German 1954 The Little Town Will Go to Sleep Oskar Blume German Daybreak Bit part German The Hunter's Cross Kobbe German They Were So Young Lobos English A Double Life Mittelmeier German The Eternal Waltz Gawriloff German 1955 Special Delivery Olaf English The Dark Star Deltorri German I Know What I'm Living For Pfeifer, Inspektor Jugendfürsorge German Mr. Arkadin Munich Detective English The Heroes Are Tired Hermann French The Forest House in Tyrol Bäuerle, Kaufmann German 1956 The Girl from Flanders Rittmeister Kupfer German Heubacher German Winter in the Woods Gerstenberg German 1957 Typhoon Over Nagasaki Ritter French The Girl and the Legend Mr. Gillis German He Who Must Die Patriarcheos French The Mad Bomberg Kommerzienrat Gustav-Eberhard Mühlberg German Charming Boys Edmond Petersen French The Heart of St. Pauli Jabowski German 1958 Hans French Nasser Asphalt Jupp German It Happened in Broad Daylight Schrott German Rosemary Willy Bruster German Titu Goritsch German The Crammer Freddy Blei German Tessmann German 1959 Nick Knatterton's Adventure Hugo German Prisoner of the Volga Professor English Blanche French Jons und Erdme Smailus German The Forests Sing Forever Dag German Menschen im Hotel Preysing German The Day the Rains Came Doctor Albert Maurer German Johannes Grohmann German Old Heidelberg Doctor Jüttner German 1960 The High Life Doctor Kölling German The General French Soldatensender Calais Der Chef German The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse Inspector Kras German Until Money Departs You Jupp Grapsch German Paul Wittkowski German 1961 The Green Archer Abel Bellamy German Via Mala Jonas Lauretz German The Return of Doctor Mabuse Also known as The Phantom Fiend. Kommissar Lohmann German Auf Wiedersehen Angelo Pirrone German 1962 Redhead Kramer German The Testament of Dr. Mabuse Kommissar Lohmann German The Longest Day Sgt. Kaffeekanne English 1963 Enough Rope Melchior Kimmel French Alfred Paulsen German Peachum German Banana Peel Raymond Lachard French 1964 Greed in the Sun Castigliano French Tonio Kröger Policeman Peterson German Backfire Karl Fehrman French Goldfinger Auric Goldfinger English 1965 A High Wind in Jamaica Dutch Captain English Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines Colonel Manfred von Holstein English Who Wants to Sleep? Emil Claasen German 1966 The Upper Hand Walter French Importen-Paul German Is Paris Burning? General Dietrich von Choltitz English Triple Cross Colonel Steinhager English 1967 I Killed Rasputin Grigori Rasputin English Jules Verne's Rocket to the Moon Professor von Bulow English 1968 Darling Caroline Doctor Belhomme French Chitty Chitty Bang Bang Baron Bomburst English 1969 Monte Carlo or Bust Also known as Those Daring Young Men in Their Jaunty Jalopies. Willi SchickelHorst Muller English 1971 $ Mr. Kessel English 1972 Ludwig Father Hoffmann English 1974 Hotzenplotz German And Then There Were None Wilhelm Blore English Nuits Rouges Commissaire Sorbier French 1975 Max Orwall French 1976 Death Rite Vestar French 1977 Philip Brown German The Serpent's Egg Inspector Bauer English Graf von Buttlar German 1978 The Rider on the White Horse Tede Volkerts German Felix von Korn German 1979 Bloodline Inspector Max Hornung English 1980 The Umbrella Coup Otto Krampe ("Whale") French 1981 The Falcon Jug Bogdan Serbo-Croatian 1983 Emanuel Striese German TV film 1986-1987 The Little Vampire Detective Gurrmeyer German TV series, 13 episodes
Notes
References
External links
!colspan="3" style="background:#C1D8FF;"| James Bond
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Category:1913 births
Category:1988 deaths
Category:20th-century German male actors
Category:Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Category:German Army personnel of World War II
Category:German male film actors
Category:German male television actors
Category:German resistance members
Category:Nazi Party members
Category:People from Zwickau
Category:German people who rescued Jews during the Holocaust
Category:Deaths from coronary thrombosis | {"Name": "Gert Fröbe", "Caption": "Fröbe at the premiere of Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines in 1965", "Birth name": "Karl Gerhart Fröbe", "Birth date": "1913 2 25 y", "Birth place": "Oberplanitz (near Zwickau), Kingdom of Saxony, German Empire", "Death date": "1988 09 05 1913 02 25 y", "Death place": "Munich, West Germany", "Occupation": "Actor", "Party": "Nazi Party (1929-1937)", "Years active": "1948-1987", "Spouse(s)": "Karin Kuderer-Pistorius (1970-?)Beate Bach (1962-1968)Hannelore Görtz (1953-1959)Tatjana IwanowClara Peter", "Children": "2"} |
The Hadassah convoy massacre took place on April 13, 1948, when a convoy, escorted by Haganah militia, bringing medical and military supplies and personnel to Hadassah Hospital on Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, was ambushed by Arab forces. Seventy-eight Jewish doctors, nurses, students, patients, faculty members and Haganah fighters, and one British soldier were killed in the attack, including twenty three women. Dozens of unidentified bodies, burned beyond recognition, were buried in a mass grave in the Sanhedria Cemetery.
The Jewish Agency claimed that the massacre was a gross violation of international humanitarian law, and demanded action be taken against a breach of the Geneva Conventions. The Arabs claimed they had attacked a military formation, that all members of the convoy had engaged in combat, and that it had been impossible to distinguish combatants from civilians. An enquiry was conducted. Eventually an agreement was reached to separate military from humanitarian convoys.
Mount Scopus blockade
In 1948, following the UN Partition Plan and anticipating Israel's declaration of independence, Arab troops blocked access to Hadassah Hospital and the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus, Jerusalem. The only access was via a narrow road, a mile and a half long passing through the Arab neighbourhood of Sheikh Jarrah,Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, O Jerusalem!, 1972, pp. 284-285, Simon & Schuster, New York; which the Arabs had seeded with mines that could be detonated by electrical triggering at a distance. The Haganah had used Mount Scopus as an outpost and a base for a raid on the village of Wadi al-Joz on February 26, as part of the struggle between Jewish and Arab militias over control of transportation routes in north Jerusalem. Meir Avizohar, מוריה בירושלים בתש"ח (Moriah in Jerusalem, 1948), chapter 3, Mahbarot Lesafrut, 2002. The area covered by the Hadassah hospital had great strategic importance, since it allowed one to take the Arab lines from their rear.
At 2:05 pm March 2, the operator at Hadassah Hospital in Jerusalem received a phone call from an Arab caller who warned that the hospital would be blown up within 90 minutes, but there was no bomb.The Convoy , Hadassah.Marlin Levin,It Takes a Dream: The Story of Hadassah, Gefen Publishing House, , 2002 p. 22
At a press conference on March 17, the leader of the Arab forces in Jerusalem, Abdul Kader Husseini, threatened that Hadassah Hospital and Hebrew University would be captured or destroyed. He went on record as declaring, "Since Jews have been attacking us and blowing up houses containing women and children from bases in Hadassah Hospital and Hebrew University, I have given orders to occupy or even demolish them.""Husseini Threatens Hadassah", The Palestine Post, March 18, 1948, p. 1. Husseini was subsequently killed on April 8 while reconnoitering the Kastel to block relief convoys to Jerusalem. This factor, according to Marlin Levin, also influenced the decision to attack the convoy. Revenge for this and retaliation for the Deir Yassin Massacre five days earlier on April 9Meron Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape: Buried History of the Holy Land Since 1948,University of California Press, 2002 p.116. inspired two of Husseini's lieutenants, Mohammed Abdel Najar and Adil Abd Latif, to undertake the assault.Dan Kurzman, Genesis: The 1948 First Arab-Israeli War,New American Library, 1970 pp. 188ff.
Arab sniper fire on vehicles moving along the access route had become a regular occurrence, and road mines had been laid. The British Colonial Secretary and the High Commissioner had given assurances that the relief convoys would be given British protection. The Red Cross had offered to put Mount Scopus under its flag on condition that the area be demilitarized, but the Hadassah leaders declined the proposal, though a plan was prepared for an eventual evacuation if the authorities could not ensure the daily passage of three convoys. Unless this could be done, the only alternative was to accept the Red Cross offer. Jerusalem's 100,000 Jews depended on its services, wherever it was located. Dr Yassky had found suitable quarters for the hospital in Jerusalem and was preparing to make arrangements for the transfer of the hospital there.
When food and supplies at the hospital begun to dwindle, a large convoy carrying doctors and supplies set out for the besieged hospital, marked by a "red shield", which should have guaranteed its neutrality.Jacques de Reynier, "À Jérusalem un drapeau flottait sur la ligne de feu", La Baconnière, Neuchâtel 1950 p. 79:'Ce convoi était muni d'emblèmes du Bouclier Rouge et devait donc être considéré comme neutre.' The British commander of Jerusalem assured the Jews that the road was safe. For the preceding month, a tacit truce had been in place and the passage of convoys had taken place without serious incident. On April 11, the regional British commander gave assurances the road was safe, but noted that, after the Deir Yassin massacre, tensions were high. According to Henry Laurens, an Australian officer tipped off the combatants of the Arab quarter through which the convoy had to pass, that the men of the Haganah had a mission to use the enclave to attack the Arab quarters and cut the route to Ramallah, and that, acting on this information, the Arabs then set up an ambush.Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine: L'accomplissement des prophéties, 1947-1967, t. 3, Fayard, 2007 p. 76.
thumb|An ambulance preparing to join the convoy to Mount Scopus. April 13, 1948
Attack
On April 13, the convoy, comprising 10 vehiclesThe Palestine Post, April 14, 1948 (two ambulances, three buses of medical staff, and three logistical trucks, escorted by two Haganah armoured cars), set off for the hospital at 9.30 am.Dov Joseph, The Faithful City - The Siege of Jerusalem, 1948, Simon and Schuster, New York. 1960 p.74. They carried 105 passengers. It was commanded by the Jerusalem Haganah Lieutenant Asher Rahav, who escorted convoys in an armoured Ford truck. The line was ordered so that Rahav's vehicle headed the column, followed by the two ambulances, then the buses and the three supply trucks, with another escort car taking up the rear. The Sheikh Jarrah Quarter provided an ideal position for an ambush in a small stretch of the road between Nashashibi Bend and the Shepherd Hotel, where a small unit of 12 men from the British Highland Light Infantry armed with a heavy machine gun and bazookas were stationed. It stood some from the eventual site of the ambush. The local British inspector, Robert J. Webb, head of the Mea Shearim police station, usually travelled the road beforehand to ascertain if the route was safe. On this particular day, he said over the phone that the route was secure, but did not make his customary excursion to the Nashashibi bend where he could confirm this.
Rahav noticed several odd circumstances along the road: little traffic, closed shops, and Arabs in Iraqi uniform with bandoliers. At approximately 9:45 am, a mine was electrically detonated five feet in front of Rahav's Ford, which contained a contingent of 10 soldiers and two hitchhiking Haganah members. The truck tilted into a ditch. At the same time, the convoy came under raking fire from Arab forces. Five vehicles managed to back out and return to base, while the rear Haganah escort car inexplicably wheeled about and returned to Jerusalem. Abdel Najar's ambush unit numbered around 40, and were later joined by men commanded by Mohammed Gharbieh, and many other fighters alerted to the battle.
British and Palmach forces were slow to come to the convoy's assistance.Hadassah marches on The Jewish liaison officer with the British army asked for permission to send in a Haganah relief force, which was denied on the grounds it might interfere with a cease-fire negotiation. British forces in the area did not intervene initially, the reason, according to Meron Benvenisti, being to "let the Arabs take revenge for Deir Yassin, so as to calm somewhat the rage of the Arab world." Marlin Levin suggests that the Arabs had an understanding whereby their operation would not be blocked if they refrained from firing on British units. One of the first men on the scene was Major Jack Churchill, who arrived on the scene at 11:15 am and banged on a bus, offering to evacuate members of the convoy in an APC. His offer was refused in the belief that the Haganah would come to their aid in an organized rescue. When no relief arrived, Churchill and his 12 men provided what cover fire they could against hundreds of Arabs.Fighting Jack Churchill survived a wartime odyssey beyond compare , Robert Barr Smith, WWII History Magazine, July 2005.Bertha Spafford Vester (and Evelyn Wells), 'Our Jerusalem'. Lebanon, 1950. p.353: "about one hundred and fifty insurgents, armed with weapons varying from blunder-busses and old flintlocks to modern Sten and Bren guns, took cover behind a cactus patch in the grounds of the American Colony ... I went out and faced them"p.376: "About 250 rifle-men were on the edge of our property shooting at the convoy.... I begged them to desist from using the grounds of the American Colony for such a dastardly purpose." The Army unit tried to arrange a cease-fire between "11 and noon". Shortly after 1 pm, two British armoured cars, one occupied by the commander of British forces in Palestine, General Gordon MacMillan, approached the area from the Nablus road, observed the firefight, but refrained from risking British lives by intervening, preferring to let the Jews and Arabs fight it out themselves. As they passed Nashashibi bend, according to one testimony, they blocked the retreat, and Rahav ordered his men to fire at them in order to have them get out of the way. They left the scene at 2 pm, returning at 3 pm with heavier weapons. Negotiations were conducted between one of the leaders of the Arab ambush, Adil Latif, two Haganah men and a British officer, the Arabs proposing that all Jewish arms be surrendered, and all Jewish men capable of combat taken prisoner. The talks were suddenly interrupted when Latif was shot down.
At around 2 pm, the first of the buses was set on fire, and shortly after the second was enveloped in flames, both from Molotov cocktails. Only one man from each bus survived, Shalom Nissan and Nathan Sandowsky, the latter testifying that passing British convoys refused to render help despite their pleas. Arab shouts of "Minshan Deir Yassin" ("For Deir Yassin") could be heard. Dr. Chaim Yassky was mortally wounded by a ricocheting bullet in the white ambulance, which had the thickest armour of all, at around 2.30 pm. The Haganah made one further attempt to mount a rescue by towing out vehicles with an armoured car, but failed. Throughout the day, pleas had been made for British intervention without result. Brigadier Jones eventually received permission at 4 pm, reached the British outpost behind the convoy with three armoured cars, and their fire raked Arab forces, shooting 15 Arabs, while bazookas were also employed as half-tracks were despatched to collect the survivors. At 5 pm, the Army "laid down smoke", and began retrieving the 28 survivors, by which time one bus was burnt out and a second on fire.Palestine Post, April 14, 1948 (front page).Harry Levin, 'Jerusalem Embattled - A diary of the city under siege.' Cassel, London. 1997 (text copyright 1950); . p. 8: States that there were 130 people in the convoy. 50 killed, 20 injured and 'many more missing or unidentified.' He blames the British for not intervening, mentions the 'Haganah rescue party.' The buses set on fire at 3 pm and the smoke screen at 4:30 pm. Following the massacre, Churchill oversaw the evacuation of 700 patients and staff from the hospital.
Two Irgun militants injured at Deir Yassin were among the patients being transported in the convoy.
Casualties
thumb|250px|Hadassah convoy memorial at Hadassah University Hospital, Mount Scopus
thumb|250px|Hadassah convoy story at Hadassah University Hospital, Mount Scopus
thumb|250px|Ha Ayin-Het Street, named for the slain 78 of the convoy to Har HaTzofim
In the attack, 78 Jews and one British soldier were killed by gunfire or were burnt when their vehicles were set on fire. Twenty-three were women. Among the dead were Dr. Chaim Yassky, director of the hospital, and Dr. Moshe Ben-David, slated to head the new medical school (which was eventually established by the Hebrew University in the 1950s).The Palestine Post published an estimate of 35 killed and 30 wounded. It also says only seven people out of a party of more than sixty were unhurt. The Scotsman initially reported more than 35 killed, but on April 16, reported 77 killed. The Times has 34 dead increasing to 39.
Most of the bodies were burned beyond recognition. The 31 victims that could be identified were buried individually. The remaining 47 Jews were purportedly buried in a mass grave in the Sanhedria Cemetery. However, in the mid-1970s, Yehoshua Levanon, the son of one of the victims, discovered that a commission of inquiry convened at the time of the attack reported that only 25 were buried in the mass grave and 22 victims were missing. Going in search of the missing bodies, in 1993 he met an Arab who had participated in the ambush, who claimed that the attackers had buried stray body parts in a mass grave near the Lions' Gate. In 1996 Levinson petitioned the Israeli High Court to force the Defense Ministry to set up a genetic database to identify the 25 bodies buried in the Sanhedria cemetery. The mass grave was never opened. (subscription required) One British soldier also died in the attack, making the total of fatalities 79.
Aftermath
The day after the attack, several thousand Orthodox Jews demonstrated in the Jewish Quarter, demanding a "cease fire". In a statement they claimed that the demonstration was broken up by the Haganah.The Scotsman, April 15, 1948: "A procession of several thousand Orthodox Jews marched through the streets of the Jewish Quarter with banners demanding peace and a 'cease fire'. The Orthodox Jews' statement said that Haganah troops tore down the banners and beat the demonstrators. Later a larger Haganah force, which arrived in buses, fired their guns in the air and 'also beat the demonstrators without mercy, using their rifle butts.'"
British soldier Jack Churchill coordinated the evacuation of 700 Jewish doctors, students and patients from the Hadassah hospital on the Hebrew University campus on Mount Scopus in Jerusalem.Fighting Jack Churchill Survived A Wartime Odyssey Beyond Compare , wwiihistorymagazine.com; accessed April 20, 2015.
Inquiry
On that same day, April 12, the Jewish Agency requested that the Red Cross intervene over what they called a grave Arab violation of the conventions. An inquiry conducted among the Arabs, Jews and the British suggested the circumstances were more complex. The firefight had lasted several hours, indicating that the convoy was armed. The Arabs claimed that they had attacked the military formation by blowing up the armoured cars. They were unable to make a distinction between military and civilians because, they maintained, all the Jews, including the medical personnel, had taken part in the battle. The Jews claimed that they had the right to protect their medical convoys with troops. They admitted in the end, according to Jacques de Reynier, that they had been relieving the unit at the Hadassah hospital and furnishing the troop there with ammunition with the same convoys as those of the Red Shield. That practice was justified, they said, because the role of that troop was exclusively one of defending the hospital.
De Reynier repeated the position of the Red Cross that a mobile medical unit must move around unarmed and always separately from combat units. One had a choice between having recourse to armed protection or the protection of the Geneva Conventions and the Red Cross flag. Both staging troops in a position of strategic importance and refurnishing them with supplies, de Reynier argued, had nothing to do with the hospital's functions. The Jewish Agency had been prepared to have the troop stationed there withdrawn and its protection entrusted to the Red Cross but was overruled by the Haganah, which insisted that convoys to the hospital could not pass unless they went under military escort. De Reynier then volunteered to put this to the test with a practical proof that an unarmed convoy could pass.
The following day, without warning the Arabs, he led a small column of vehicles under a Red Cross flag while the following cars displayed the red shield. Their passage passed without a shot, and de Reynier argued that to be proof that the Arabs respected the Red Cross. The result was that leaders on both sides eventually ordered that military operations were to be separated from activities associated with medical assistance and the Red Cross.
The situation in the compound became grim, and the decision was made to evacuate the hospital in early May, leaving a staff of 200 to run a reduced 50 beds. The hospital was effectively closed by the end of May, as no supplies could reach it, though a small number of doctors and students remained.Marlin Levin,It Takes a Dream: The Story of Hadassah, Gefen Publishing House, , 2002 p. 235. In July, a deal was worked out where Mount Scopus became a United Nations area, with 84 Jewish policemen assigned to guard the now-shuttered hospital.
thumb|right|200px|Haim Yassky Street, named for doctor killed in the convoy to Har HaTzofim
In the armistice agreement with Jordan, signed on April 3, 1949, the hospital became a demilitarized Israeli enclave, with a small adjacent no-man's-land (containing a World War I Allied military cemetery under British supervision) and the rest of Mount Scopus and East Jerusalem becoming Jordanian. The Israeli government and Hadassah donors then re-founded the hospital in Israeli West Jerusalem, with the original hospital staff (Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital).
The Mount Scopus hospital resumed medical services only after the Six-Day War.
On the 60th anniversary of the massacre, the city of Jerusalem named a street in honor of Dr. Yassky.
See also
1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine
List of massacres in Israel
Killings and massacres during the 1948 Palestine War
Convoy of 35
References
Further reading
Jacques de Reynier, A Jerusalem un drapeau flottait sur la ligne de feu.
External links
Hadassah Medical Center website
Re-enactment of the attack in the film House on the Hill
Guide to the Hadassah Archives on Long-term Deposit at the American Jewish Historical Society
Guide to the Hadassah Medical Organization Records in the Hadassah Archives, 1918-2011 on Long-term Deposit at the American Jewish Historical Society
Category:1948 Arab-Israeli War
Category:Massacres in Mandatory Palestine
Category:April 1948 events in Asia
Category:Ambushes in Asia
Category:Sheikh Jarrah
Category:Massacres in 1948
Category:Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America
Category:1948 murders in Asia | {"Title": "Hadassah convoy massacre", "Part of": "1947-48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine", "Image size": "240px", "Caption": "Aftermath of attack on convoy. Dr Chaim Yassky died in the ambulance on left.", "Location": "Mount Scopus, Jerusalem", "Target": "Mixed military and medical convoy", "Date": "1948 4 13", "Fatalities": "79 (including doctors, nurses, students, patients, faculty members, Haganah fighters and a British soldier)", "Injuries": "20", "Perpetrators": "Arab forces in Jerusalem", "Weapons": "Small arms fire, Molotov cocktails, machine guns", "Defender": "Haganah"} |
John Welsh (7 November 1914 - 21 April 1985) was an Irish actor.
Biography
Welsh was born in Wexford. After an early stage career in Dublin, he moved into British film and television in the 1950s. His roles included James Forsyte in the 1967 BBC dramatisation of John Galsworthy's The Forsyte Saga and Sir Pitt Crawley in Thackeray's Vanity Fair, as well as the waiter, Merriman in The Duchess of Duke Street, Sgt. Cuff in The Moonstone and a brief scene as the barber in Brideshead Revisited. He also appeared in Hancock's Half Hour, The Brothers, Prince Regent, To Serve Them All My Days, 'The Frighteners' ('Bed and Breakfast' episode, 1972), and The Citadel, and played the assistant chief constable in the early series of Softly, Softly. Welsh also appeared in a number of different roles in Danger Man that included British diplomats and butlers. He died in London.
Filmography
The Accused (1953) - Mr. Tennant
The Clue of the Missing Ape (1953) - Army Intelligence Officer (uncredited)
An Inspector Calls (1954) - Shop Walker
Diplomatic Passport (1954) - US Embassy Official (uncredited)
The Divided Heart (1954) - Chief Marshall
Isn't Life Wonderful! (1954) - Uncle James
The Dark Avenger (1955) - Gurd
Confession (1955) - Father Neil
Track the Man Down (1955) - 'Smiling' Sam (uncredited)
Lost (1956) - Police Scientist (uncredited)
The Man in the Road (1956) - George White - the Gamekeeper
The Man Who Never Was (1956) - Bank Manager (uncredited)
Women Without Men (1956) - Prison Chaplain
The Long Arm (1956) - House Agent at Shepperton
The Counterfeit Plan (1957) - Police Insp. Grant
The Secret Place (1957) - Mr. Christian (uncredited)
Brothers in Law (1957) - Mr. Justice Fanshawe
The Long Haul (1957) - Doctor
Man in the Shadow (1957) - Inspector Hunt
Lucky Jim (1957) - The Principal
The Surgeon's Knife (1957) - Insp. Austen
The Birthday Present (1957) - Chief Customs Officer
The Man Who Wouldn't Talk (1958) - George Fraser (uncredited)
The Safecracker (1958) - Inspector Owing
Dunkirk (1958) - Staff Colonel
Indiscreet (1958) - Passport Official (uncredited)
The Revenge of Frankenstein (1958) - Bergman
Next to No Time (1958) - Steve, Bar Steward
She Didn't Say No! (1958) - Inspector
Behind the Mask (1958) - Colonel Langley
Nowhere to Go (1958) - Second Mr. Dodds (uncredited)
Room at the Top (1959) - Mayor (uncredited)
Operation Bullshine (1959) - Brigadier
Bobbikins (1959) - Admiral
The Rough and the Smooth (1959) - Dr. Thompson
The Night We Dropped a Clanger (1959) - Squadron Leader Grant
Beyond the Curtain (1960) - Turner
The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960) - Cafe Royal Manager
Follow That Horse! (1960) - Major Turner
A Circle of Deception (1960) - Maj. Taylor
Snowball (1960) - Ted Wylie
Konga (1961) - First Plain Clothes Officer
Francis of Assisi (1961) - Canon Cattanei
Johnny Nobody (1961) - Judge
Scotland Yard (film series) (1961) - The Square Mile Murder - Inspector Hicks
Go to Blazes (1962) - Chief Fire Officer
The Inspector (1962) - Agriculture Officer
Fog for a Killer (1962) - Governor
Life for Ruth (1962) - Marshall
The Quare Fellow (1962) - Carroll
The Wild and the Willing (1962) - Publican
The Playboy of the Western World (1963) - Philly Cullen
Nightmare (1964) - Doctor
Rasputin: The Mad Monk (1966) - The Abbot
Attack on the Iron Coast (1968) - Admiral of the Fleet Lord William Cansley
Subterfuge (1968) - Heiner
Journey into Darkness (1968) - Bart Brereton (episode 'Paper Dolls')
The Man Who Haunted Himself (1970) - Sir Charles Freeman
Cromwell (1970) - Bishop Juxon
Catweazle (1971) - The Walking Trees - Colonel Arnold Dickenson
Lord Peter Wimsey (TV series), (The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club, episode) (1972) - Mr. Murbles
The Pied Piper (1972) - Chancellor
A Story of Tutankhamun (1973) - Grandfather
Yellow Dog (1973) - Bewsley
Edward the King (1975) - Duke of Wellington
Kizzy (1976) - Admiral Twiss
Grayeagle (1977) - Lum Stroud
The Norseman (1978) - Norseman
The Thirty Nine Steps (1978) - Lord Belthane
Les soeurs Brontë (1979)
From a Far Country (1981) - Priest
Brideshead Revisited (1981) - Barber
Krull (1983) - The Emerald Seer
Blott on the Landscape (1985) - Lord Leakham
References
External links
Category:Irish male stage actors
Category:Irish male television actors
Category:Irish male film actors
Category:Actors from County Wexford
Category:1914 births
Category:1985 deaths
Category:20th-century Irish male actors | {"Name": "John Welsh", "Birth date": "1914 11 7 yeshttp://www.allmovie.com/artist/john-welsh-p75496 John Welsh - Biography, Movie Highlights and Photos - AllMovie Hal Erickson AllMovie", "Birth place": "Wexford, County Wexford, Republic of Ireland", "Death date": "1985 4 21 1914 11 7 yes", "Death place": "London, England, UK", "Occupation": "Actor", "Years active": "1953-1985"} |
John Welsh (-1622) was a Scottish Presbyterian leader. He was born in Dumfriesshire and attended the University of Edinburgh to obtain his MA in 1588. He became a minister in Selkirk and married Elizabeth Knox, a daughter of John and Margaret Knox, before leaving Selkirk. Welsh later ministered at Kirkcudbright and Ayr, the latter of which was where he spent five years. His preaching resulted in his imprisonment by the order of King James VI of Scotland. The lawyer Thomas Hamilton wrote to James VI about Welsh, John Forbes, and others; the case was important because many Scottish subjects of James were devoted to the ministers.Melros Papers, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1837), pp. 10-12. In 1606 Welsh was exiled to France, where he continued to preach. John Welsh of Ayr was the father of Josias Welsh and the grandfather of John Welsh of Irongray.
Life
thumb|A Chapbook of the History of the life & sufferings of the Rev. John Welch
John Welsh was the son of the laird of Collieston (or Colliston), and was born in the parish of Dunscore, Dumfriesshire around 1570. When he was young he ran away from home and joined a band of border reivers. After he learned being a reiver was less glamorous than expected, he sought reconciliation with his father, and was sent to the University of Edinburgh, where he obtained an MA in 1588. On 6 March 1589 he was nominated by the Privy Council as one of three people for maintaining the true religion in the Forest and Tweeddale, and was settled at Selkirk. In 1594 he was transferred to Kirkcudbright, and on 29 March 1596 he was appointed one of the visitors for Nithsdale, Annandale, Lauderdale, Eskdale, and Ewesdale.
On 18 December, while occupying the pulpit of St Giles' Cathedral, Welsh preached against King James VI of Scotland's conduct shortly after the Presbyterians revolted against the king. He "[alleged] that his majesty was possessed of a devil, and after the outputting of that devil there joined to his highness seven devils, quhilk was his majesty's council"; and that as it was lawful for a son to bind a lunatic father, it was equally lawful "to his highness's subjects to bind his majesty, being in the like case".David Masson, Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, 1592-1599, vol. 5 (Edinburgh, 1882), p. 359. After failing to answer the charge of having justified the tumult, Welsh was denounced as a rebel on 17 January (ib.). On the petition of the assembly in the following March he was, mainly through the intervention of Lord Ochiltree (Moysie, Memoirs, p. 133), allowed to return to his charge.
Welsh was re-appointed as one of the visitors for Nithsdale at the assembly held at Montrose in March 1599 (Calderwood, vi. 23), and in August of the same year, he was transferred to the parish of Ayr as an assistant to John Porterfield. When he arrived he succeeded in quelling feuds and riots, and effected the reformation in public manners. His preaching attracted crowds such that the town council resolved to build a new church on 26 May 1603. He succeeded Porterfield after the latter died in 1604.
Although Welsh did not arrive in Aberdeen until two days after the July 1605 General Assembly had been held, he was ordered to become a ward or prisoner in Blackness Castle.David Masson, 'Register Privy Council of Scotland, vol. 7 (Edinburgh, 1885), p. 104. As they had put in a declinature of the jurisdiction of the council in the matter the king decided to put them on trial for high treason, which was done at an assize held at Linlithgow, the majority was declared guilty.David Masson, Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, 1604-7, vol. 7 (Edinburgh, 1885), pp. 478-86, 493-6: Declaration of the Just Causes of his Majesty's Proceedings against those Ministers who are now lying in Prison attainted of High Treason, Edinburgh, printed by Robert Charteris, 1606, reprinted in Reg. P. C. Scotland vol. 7, pp 189-202, and in Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland, vi. pp. 419-37; and Forbes, Records touching the Estate of the Kirk in the Years 1605 and 1606''. The punishment for high treason was normally death, but by the king's direction the sentence was commuted on 23 October 1606 to perpetual banishment from the king's dominion, and they were commanded to board a ship on 1 November that sailed from Leith to Bordeaux.
When Welsh arrived in France he immediately began to learn the French language, and within fourteen weeks he was able to preach in French. Shortly afterwards he became the pastors of the Protestant churches of Nerac, Jonsac, and eventually Saint-Jean-d'Angély in Saintonge, where he remained for sixteen years. The town council of Ayr continued to regularly remit his stipend as minister of the parish to him for several years after his banishment.
When Saint-Jean-d'Angély, a strongly fortified town, was besieged by King Louis XIII during the war against the Protestants in 1620, Welsh encouraged the citizens to form a resistance and helped operate the guns on the walls. After the town surrendered, he continued to preach as usual until he was summoned before the king, who reprimanded him for violating the law forbidding anyone from providing religious services other than the standard. Welsh replied that if the king knew what he preached he would himself both come to hear him and make all his subjects do the same, for what he preached was that there was none on earth above the king, which none who had adhered to the pope would say. His answer impressed the king, who answered, "Very well, father, you shall be my minister", and promised him his protection. When the town was captured again in the following year, the king ordered guards to be placed around the house of Welch and provided horses and wagons to convey him, his family, and his household goods to Rochelle in safety.
Welsh never returned to his charge and went to Zealand. He sent a petition to King James asking for permission to return to his native country, and obtained the freedom to go to London. Through John Young, Dean of Winchester, an attempt was unsuccessfully made to obtain a general approval of episcopacy from Welsh. When Welsh's wife went to King James to ask his remission, the king answered that he would pardon him if she would induce him to submit to the bishops. She replied that she would rather receive his decapitated head in her lap. On hearing that Welsh would die soon, the king granted his request for permission to preach in London. He died on 2 April 1622, two hours after concluding the services. He was survived by his wife Elizabeth, youngest daughter of John Knox the reformer, and four sons and two daughters, of whom Josias became minister of Temple Bar, or Temple Patrick, Ireland. Jane Welsh, the wife of Thomas Carlyle, claimed descent from Welsh.
Family
Welsh married previous to 8 April 1596, Elizabeth (died at Ayr, 8 Jan. 1625), youngest daughter of John Knox the Reformer, and had issue—
John, baptised 8 June 1606
William, doctor of physic, died before 1633
Josias, minister of Temple-patrick, Ireland, died 1634
Nathaniel
Lucy
and another.
Works
"Reply against Mr. Gilbert Browne, priest" (Edinburgh, 1602; another edition, Glasgow, 1672)
"L'Armageddon de la Babylon Apocalyptique," Jonsac, 1612
"Forty-eight Select Sermons … to which is prefixed the History of His Life and Sufferings," Glasgow, 1771, 8vo
"Letters to Mr. Robert Boyd of Tochrig," in the Wodrow Society.
Reply against Mr Gilbert Brown, priest (Edinburgh, 1602) [reprinted as Popery Anatomized by Matthew Crawford, minister of Eastwood (Glasgow, 1672)]
Thirty-Five Sermons (Edinburgh, 1744)
Discourses (1752)
"Letters to Mr Robert Boyd of Trochrig" (Woodrow Miscell.)
A Cry to the Whole Earth (Glasgow, 1785)
Forty-eight Select Sermons (Glasgow, 1811)
Bibliography
Select Biographies in the Wodrow Society
Hew Scott's Fasti Ecclesiæ Scoticanæ, ii. 85-6
The History of Mr. John Welsh, Minister at Aire, Glasgow, 1703
McCrie's Life of John Knox
Chambers's Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen
Reg. Assig.
Life (Sermons)
Livingston's Charac.
Select Biog., L, 1-61
Edinburgh Christian Instructor, xxii.
Glasgow Testates.
Edin. Reg. (Bapt.)
Young's Life of Welsh
Calderwood's History, v., 420, 621, 685, et passim
National Records of Scotland Register of Deeds, cccclxiii., 282
Dictionary of National Biography
Notes and Queries, 9th ser., iv., 433
Craig-Brown's Selkirkshire, ii., 220
M'Crie s Knox, App., p. 417.
See also
Rev John Munro of Tain
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Biographical sketch
The Original Secession Magazine, J. Maclaren 1866, page 562.
Category:16th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Category:Scottish Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Category:Scottish evangelicals
Category:1568 births
Category:1622 deaths
Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Category:16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Category:17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Category:16th-century Scottish writers
Category:16th-century male writers
Category:17th-century male writers
Category:People of Linlithgow Palace | {"Quashed": "<!-- or", "Retired": "-->", "Born": "Dunscore", "Died": "London", "Nationality": "Scottish", "Denomination": "Presbyterian"} |
thumb|Morning light at Irongray
thumb|John Welsh ejected from Irongray
thumb|Irongray Vista
thumb|Covenanters Communion Monument and stones- Skeoch Hill
thumb|Kirkcudbrightshire, Civil Parish mapMap of Parishes in the Counties of Wigtown & Kircudbright, ScotlandsFamily
thumb|Hilltop cairn on Bishop Forest Hill
thumb|obelisk at Irongray
thumb|The Castle Golf Course Clubhouse built on the site of Kinkell Castle in whose grounds Welsh and Blackader held conventicles.
John Michael Welsh of Irongray (c. 1624-1681) was a leader of the Scottish Covenanter movement. Dunlop, an early 20th century writer, says: "It is a noteworthy fact that there exists no memoir of John Welsh of Irongray, though from the Battle of Rullion Green till Bothwell Bridge he was the most conspicuous Covenanting minister in Scotland. Had he glorified God in the Grassmarket, or fallen in some scuffle with Claverhouse's dragoons, or even like his friend Blackadder of Troqueer languished in prison on the Bass Rock, some pious hand would have been moved to write his story." Dunlop also wrote: "The events of Welsh's life must be sought for in the pages of Wodrow and Kirkton and in the letters and State papers of the reign of Charles II. After spending a fortnight hunting him in the British Museum, I have come to sympathise with Clavers and his dragoons. Mr John Welsh is a most elusive gentleman."
Early life and ministry
John Welsh was born, probably in 1624, son of Josias Welsh, minister at Templepatrick, County Antrim, grandson of John Welsh of Ayr, and great-grandson of John Knox. He graduated with an M.A. from Glasgow University in 1647, and was admitted to Irongray on the Cluden Water, Dumfrieshire, on 21 January 1653. At the instance of a heritor, David M'Brear of Newark and Almagill, M.P. for the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, he was accused before the Privy Council, June 1662, of having called Middleton's Parliament "a drunken Parliament", but was acquitted since the witnesses' testimony did not agree. Soon after the restoration of Episcopacy he was deprived. His congregation used force to prevent a new minister being settled. The Privy Council imposed their will with increased force. It was probably in February, 1663, that John Welsh was outed from Irongray. He seems to have sought refuge with John Neilson of Corsack, where other outed preachers, Gabriel Semple of Kirkpatrick-Durham and Blackadder of Troqueer also found shelter. Ejected ministers were forbidden to reside within twenty miles of their parishes, six miles of Edinburgh or any cathedral church, or three miles of any royal burgh. "Conditions which," as Wodrow remarks, " the nicest geographer would find hard to satisfy." They were pretty nearly satisfied in Welsh's case. At Corsack Welsh's first wife died. (Wodrow ii., 4, 5, 6, Veitch's Memoirs, Blackadder 24.) It was probably too at Corsack that Welsh penned his pamphlet, " Fifty and Two Directions to Irongray."
Field preaching and Rullion Green
Welsh was among the first who decided to preach in the fields against law, indeed, he is credited with being the inventor of the field conventicles of the Covenanters. In January, 1666, he was proclaimed for this, along with Semple and Blackadder, by the Privy Council. "Particularly the said Mr John Welsh does presume frequently, at least once every week, to preach in the parish of Irongray in the Presbytery of Dumfries, and himself and those who frequent his conventicles do convene together armed with swords and pistols; at which meetings he also baptizes children which are brought to him by disaffected persons."
He is recorded as giving communion to between 3000 and 6000 people along with John Blackadder at Bishop's Forest, Irongray. There is a monument and Communion Stones at Skeoch Hill.
He was probably the first of the field-preachers; was concerned in the Pentland Rising, and fled before Dalyell's troopers at Rullion Green. Welsh was at the battle, and left it with the insurgent leader, Colonel Wallace. Whether he fled with Wallace to Holland is not known, but for nearly two years we hear nothing about him. Two parishioners and namesakes of Welsh were present at the battle, Welsh of Skaar and Welsh of Cornlee. They were among those who were exempted from the indemnity after Pentland.
A wanted man
In 1667 he was hiding in a friend's house in Edinburgh, but soon afterwards he ventured into Clydesdale.
Welsh may have found shelter in his own parish, but probably he was nearer his pursuers than they imagined; at
any rate in 1668 he was lurking at the house of one Robert Grey in Edinburgh. (Kirkton, 1668.) Towards the end of the year he was preaching. The Earl of Tweeddale writes in November, 1668, to the Earl of Lauderdale that Mr John Welsh was running about Clydesdale and keeping conventicles both in houses and in the Church of Cambusnethan.
In Fife
He preached in Fife to large crowds drawn from all classes. On one occasion, John Welsh preached to a large crowd at Kinkell, near St Andrews.
Philip Standfield, son of Sir James Standfield and a student at St Andrews University, attended the sermon and threw some missile that struck the preacher. Welsh said "I do not know who has put this public affront on Christ; but, be he who he may, there shall be more at his death than hearing me preach today". This turned out to be true, for the young man was later hanged for murdering his father.
In Northern England
Robert Traill spent much time with him. When in England he spent some time in Carlisle.
In August 1671 he was in Northumberland, where, says Wodrow, " he dwelt for some time very pleasantly." He preached "when Tweed was frozen in the midst of the river, that either he might shun the offence of both nations, or that two kingdoms might dispute his crime."
In 1677 he dispensed the Communion at Skeochhill, in Irongray, where the "Communion Stones" are still pointed out. He was present at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge.
Return to Scotland
In the spring of 1677 Welsh and other Covenanting preachers wece back in Scotland. With Blackader and
Riddel he held a communion at Eckford in Teviotdale.
In London
About 1679 he went to London, where he died on 9 January 1681, and was buried in St Botulph Churchyard, Bishopsgate. In a note of Miss Foxcroft to the supplement to
Burnet's History (p. 103) it stated that he lived principally with Shaftesbury after Bothwell Bridge, and may thus have supplied Burnet with materials for his History.
His death caused no small stir in London. Lord Fountainhall mentions it in his Diary, adding : - "He was not so
gross as to disown the King, as the Cameronians did: his grandfather, Mr John Welsh, was a great enemy of the
bishops, and died in France." Wodrow, on the authority of a son of Hamilton of Kinkell, says that "Mr Welsh's burial was the greatest that for many years had been seen in London; that most of the Dissenters changed their
text that Sabbath he was buried; that their congregations were invited to the burial, at which there was a vast number of ministers, persons of fashion, and, if my memory fails me not, some hundreds of coaches."
Family life
He married his first wife at Holyrood, on 18 February 1653, Elizabeth Somerville, who died at Corsock. He then remarried in 1674, a lady whose name is unknown.
Son: Edward Alexander Welsh md (married) Sarah Gaines: Grandson: Robert Alexander Welsh md Judith Barr: Great Grandson: John Robert Welsh md Anne Elizabeth Heggerty: 2nd Great Grandson: William Patrick Welsh md Johanna Cloughlan: 3rd Great Grandson Michael Patrick Welsh md Mary Ann Dunn.
Works
A Preface, Lecture, and a Sermon (1686) ;
Fifty and Two Directions . . . to his Paroch of Irongray (Edinburgh, 1703);
A Sermon preached at Nemphlar Brae in Clidsdale (Edinburgh, 1703) ;
An Alarm to the Impenitent (1710) ;
The Great Gospel Sumonds to Close with Christ (Edinburgh, 1710) ;
The Church's Paradox (n.d.) ;
Two Sermons appear in Faithful Contendings Displayed, See also Sermons Delivered in Times of Persecution, and Simpson's Voice from the Desert
Bibliography
Memoirs of Blackader, 241 ;
Wodrow's Hist., ii., 342, passim ;
Treasury of the Scottish Covenant. 352 ;
Transactions of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1912-13
References
Citations
Sources
Category:Scottish Protestant religious leaders
Category:1624 births
Category:1681 deaths
Category:Covenanters
Category:17th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland | {"Church": "Church of Scotland", "Quashed": "<!-- or", "Retired": "-->", "Died": "London", "Nationality": "Scottish", "Denomination": "Presbyterian", "Occupation": "minister"} |
thumb|250px|A Bezeq telephone exchange in Or Yehuda
thumb|250px|Bezeq company van
200px|thumb|An old crooked and crowded telephone pole in the city of Nesher in Israel
Bezeq () is an Israeli telecommunications company. Bezeq and its subsidiaries offer a range of telecom services, including fixed-line, mobile telephony, high-speed Internet, transmission, and pay TV (via Yes).
History
Bezeq was founded in 1984 as a government-owned corporation, taking over the provision of telephony services in Israel, which had been run directly by the Ministry of Communications. The previous system was highly bureaucratic, requiring customers to wait lengthy periods of time for a telephone line.
In the late 1980s Anat Hoffman founded a group to protect the interests of Bezeq customers. A major complaint was that Bezeq did not send customers itemized bills. 46 cases were brought to small claims court and the consumers won 43 of them. Within two years of the campaign. consumers began to receive itemized bills."Ahren, Raphael: A gadfly on the Wall (4 September 2013)"http://www.timesofisrael.com/a-gadfly-on-the-wall/
In 1994, Bezeq acquired 50% ownership of Pelephone, Israel's first mobile communication company, in 2004 acquired full ownership of the company from its co-owner Motorola.
In 1998, Bezeq co-founded Yes, a direct-broadcast satellite provider, which began broadcasting in July 2000.
In January 2012, Bezeq International Optical System was completed, a submarine telecommunication cable linking Tel Aviv and Bari in Italy. The system spans 2,300 km of cable, and extended terrestrially from Bari through Interoute's network to major European cities.
In April 2012, Bezeq acquired full ownership of Walla! Communications, Israel's leading Internet portal, which has more than 2.5 million monthly unique users. In December 2020, Bezeq sold its 100% stake in Walla! Communications. Bezeq operates the B144 directory enquiries service.
In February 2015, Bezeq acquired full ownership of Yes, Israel's leading television provider, for ₪680 million.
Loss of monopoly status
In 1994, Cellcom a new Mobile communication company was founded, breaking Pelephone's monopoly in this area. In 1999, a third competitor, Partner Communications Company, was established.
In 1997, two new competitors were introduced in international calling services (Barak and Golden Lines), and Bezeq was obliged to establish a new subsidiarity to compete with them named Bezeq International.
Until the mid-first decade of the 21st century when it was owned by the Israeli government, Bezeq had a monopoly on landline telephony and Internet access infrastructure (ADSL VDSL2). Though still the most dominant provider of telephone services, it has had competition from the sole cable provider in the country (since September 2006), Hot, which offers a cables based telephone and internet access services as of 2005, and with 012 Smile and more recently 013 netvision and Orange.
Privatization
On 9 May 2005, Israel's Government Companies Authority, headed by Eyal Gabbai privatized Bezeq when 30% of its shares were sold by the state to the Apax-Saban-Arkin investment group for $972 million.
The cellular communications provider Pelephone is a fully owned subsidiary of Bezeq. Bezeq is also the largest shareholder in D.B.S. Satellite Services (1998) Ltd., known by its trademark name, Yes, the DBS television provider in Israel.
In April 2010, the controlling interest in Bezeq, held by the Apax-Saban-Arkin group, was sold to B Communications, a subsidiary of Shaul Elovitch's Eurocom Group, for $1.75 billion.
In late 2017, bank filed a petition against Elovitch to break up Eurocom Group to pay back loans totaling $275 million. This would directly impact the 10% shareholding in Bezeq, including Elovitch's 26% controlling stake. Meir Shamir has expressed interest in buying a controlling stake, effectively cancelling the debt to the banks. Two other investors have also expressed interest in purchasing a stake in Bezeq, including Argentine investor Eduardo Elsztain and Elliott Management, who announced they had recently purchased a 4,8% stake.
Police investigation and graft probe
In 2018 the company announced that company CEO Stella Handler would be resigning her position. She is one of several Bezeq employees under investigation by the Israel Securities Authority and the Israel Police regarding Bezeq's purchase of Yes shares and allegations of improper dealings with the Israeli Ministry of Communication. Also in 2018, board members Shaul Elovitch, Or Elovitch and Orna Elovitch resigned as a result of Case 4000, an ongoing corruption investigation involving the former Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu.
Involvement in Israeli settlements
On 12 February 2020, the United Nations published a database of 112 companies helping to further Israeli settlement activity in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, as well as in the occupied Golan Heights. These settlements are considered illegal under international law. Bezeq was listed on the database on account of its "provision of services and utilities supporting the maintenance and existence of settlements" and "the use of natural resources, in particular water and land, for business
purposes" in these occupied territories.
On 5 July 2021, Norway's largest pension fund KLP said it would divest from Bezeq together with 15 other business entities implicated in the UN report for their links to Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank.
Operations
The company's fixed-line domestic communications segment offers domestic carrier services, including basic telephony, Internet infrastructure and access services, and transmission and data communications services. This segment also provides infrastructure, transmission, billing, leasing space, and related services for other communications operators, operates and maintains radio transmitters, carries out set-up and operation works of networks or sub-networks for various customers and offers virtual private networks, data center, and search engine services.
Parent company
B Communications, founded in 1999 as 012 Smile.Communications, is a publicly traded company. It currently functions as a holding company of Bezeq and is headquartered in Ramat Gan, Israel. Its shares are traded on the NASDAQ Global Select Market and on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. B Communications is controlled by Searchlight II BZQ L.P (60%) and TNR investments Ltd (11%).
See also
Communications in Israel
Economy of Israel
References
Category:1984 establishments in Israel
Category:Companies based in Tel Aviv
Category:Companies listed on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange
Category:Internet service providers of Israel
Category:Israeli brands
Category:Telecommunications companies of Israel
Category:Formerly government-owned companies of Israel
Category:Holding companies established in 1999 | {"Type": "Public", "Founded": "1984", "Headquarters": "Israel", "Industry": "Telecommunications", "Products": "Fixed line, Mobile telephony, Internet, Cable television", "Revenue": "₪9.98 billion (2015)http://maya.tase.co.il/bursa/CompanyDetails.asp?CompanyCd=230 דף הבית - מאיה - מערכת אינטרנט להודעות - הבורסה לניירות ערך TASE 26 December 2016", "Subsidiaries": "Pelephone, Bezeq International, yes", "Website": "www.bezeq.co.il"} |
thumb|Signature
Charles Albert Gobat (; 21 May 1843 – 16 March 1914) was a Swiss lawyer, educational administrator, and politician who jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize with Élie Ducommun in 1902 for their leadership of the Permanent International Peace Bureau.
Birth and education
Gobat was born on 21 May 1843 at Tramelan, Switzerland. He was the son of a Protestant pastor and the nephew of Samuel Gobat, a missionary who became bishop of Jerusalem. He was educated at the University of Basel, University of Heidelberg, University of Bern, and University of Paris. He received his doctorate in law, summa cum laude, from the University of Heidelberg in 1867.
Career in law and politics
After completing his Ph.D., Gobat began his practicing law in Bern and also lectured on French civil law at Bern University. He then opened an office in Delémont in the canton of Bern, which soon became the leading legal firm of the district.
After practicing law for fifteen years, he became involved in politics and education. In 1882, he was appointed superintendent of public instruction for the canton of Bern, a position he held for thirty years. He was a progressive in educational philosophy and he made many important reforms in the education system. He reformed the system of primary training, obtained increased budgetary support to improve the teacher-pupil ratio, supported the study of living languages, and provided pupils with an alternative to the traditionally narrow classical education by establishing curricula in vocational & professional training.
He won acclaim for his erudite République de Berne et la France pendant les guerres de religion, which was published in 1891 and also widespread recognition for A People's History of Switzerland, which was published in 1900.
He also pursued a career in politics. He was elected to many important positions. He was elected to the Grand Council of Bern in 1882. From 1884 to 1890, he was a member of the Council of States of Switzerland and from 1890 until his death in 1914, he was a member of the National Council, the other chamber of the central Swiss legislative body. In both politics and education, he was a liberal reformer. In 1902, he sponsored several legislation which applied the principle of arbitration to commercial treaties.
Gobat worked with the Inter-Parliamentary Union, which was founded by William Randal Cremer, the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1903, in 1889. In 1892 he became the president of the union's fourth conference, which was held in Bern and which founded the Bureau Interparlementaire. He served as general secretary of the bureau, an information office dealing with peace movements, international conciliation, and communication among national parliamentary bodies. The third conference of the union, held in Rome in 1891, established the International Peace Bureau, of which Gobat was director when it was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1910.
Later years
In 1902, Gobat jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1902 with Élie Ducommun for their leadership of the Permanent International Peace Bureau.
After the death of Élie Ducommun in 1906, Gobat took over the direction of the International Peace Bureau.
Gobat died on 16 March 1914 in Bern, Switzerland. While attending meeting of the peace conference at Bern, he arose as if to speak but collapsed, dying about an hour later.
External links and references
including the Nobel Lecture, July 18, 1906 The Development of the Hague Conventions of July 29, 1899
Category:1843 births
Category:1914 deaths
Category:People from the Bernese Jura
Category:Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates
Category:Swiss Nobel laureates
Category:Inter-Parliamentary Union
Category:Heidelberg University alumni | {"Name": "Charles Albert Gobat", "Birth date": "1843 5 21 y", "Birth place": "Tramelan, Switzerland", "Death date": "1914 3 16 1843 5 21 y", "Death place": "Bern, Switzerland", "Awards": "Nobel Peace Prize, 1902"} |
Princess Beatrice (Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore; 14 April 1857 - 26 October 1944), later Princess Henry of Battenberg, was the fifth daughter and youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Beatrice was also the last of Queen Victoria's children to die, nearly 66 years after the first, her elder sister Alice.
Beatrice's childhood coincided with Queen Victoria's grief following the death of her husband on 14 December 1861. As her elder sisters married and left their mother, the Queen came to rely on the company of her youngest daughter, whom she called "Baby" for most of her childhood. Beatrice was brought up to stay with her mother always and she soon resigned herself to her fate. The Queen was so set against her youngest daughter marrying that she refused to discuss the possibility. Nevertheless, many suitors were put forward, including Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial, the son of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France, and Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, the widower of Beatrice's older sister Alice. She was attracted to the Prince Imperial and there was talk of a possible marriage, but he was killed in the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879.
Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg, the son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia von Hauke and brother-in-law of her niece Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. After a year of persuasion, the Queen, whose consent was required pursuant to the Royal Marriages Act, finally agreed to the marriage, which took place at Whippingham on the Isle of Wight on 23 July 1885. Queen Victoria consented on condition that Beatrice and Henry make their home with her and that Beatrice continue her duties as the Queen's unofficial secretary. The Prince and Princess had four children, but 10 years into their marriage, on 20 January 1896, Prince Henry died of malaria while fighting in the Anglo-Asante War. Beatrice remained at her mother's side until Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. Beatrice devoted the next 30 years to editing Queen Victoria's journals as her designated literary executor and continued to make public appearances. She died aged 87 in 1944.
Early life
left|thumb|Queen Victoria holding Princess Beatrice in 1862
Princess Beatrice was born on 14 April 1857 at Buckingham Palace, London.Dennison, p. 2 She was the fifth daughter and youngest of the nine children of the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria, and her husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (later the Prince Consort). The birth caused controversy when it was announced that Queen Victoria would seek relief from the pains of delivery through the use of chloroform administered by Dr John Snow. Chloroform was considered dangerous to mother and child and was frowned upon by the Church of England and the medical authorities.Dennison, p. 3 Queen Victoria was undeterred and used "that blessed chloroform" for her last pregnancy.Longford, (Victoria R. I.), p. 234 A fortnight later, Queen Victoria reported in her journal, "I was amply rewarded and forgot all I had gone through when I heard dearest Albert say 'It's a fine child, and a girl!'"Quoted in Dennison, p. 3 Albert and Queen Victoria chose the names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore: Mary after Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, the last surviving child of King George III of the United Kingdom; Victoria after the Queen; and Feodore after Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, the Queen's older half-sister. She was baptised in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace on 16 June 1857. Her godparents were the Duchess of Kent (maternal grandmother); the Princess Royal (eldest sister); and the Prince Frederick of Prussia (her future brother-in-law).Dennison, p. 8
right|thumb|The daughters of Queen Victoria mourn the loss of their father. Beatrice is standing in the centre.
From birth, Beatrice became a favoured child.Dennison, p. 13 The elder favourite daughter of Prince Albert, the Princess Royal, was about to take up residence in Germany with her new husband, Frederick ("Fritz") of Prussia. At the same time, the newly arrived Beatrice showed promise. Albert wrote to Augusta, Fritz's mother, that "Baby practises her scales like a good prima donna before a performance and has a good voice!"Jagow, p. 272 Although Queen Victoria was known to dislike most babies, she liked Beatrice, whom she considered attractive. This provided Beatrice with an advantage over her elder siblings. Queen Victoria once remarked that Beatrice was "a pretty, plump and flourishing child ... with fine large blue eyes, [a] pretty little mouth and very fine skin".Quoted in Dennison, p. 11 Her long, golden hair was the focus of paintings commissioned by Queen Victoria, who enjoyed giving Beatrice her bath, in marked contrast to her bathing preferences for her other children. Beatrice showed intelligence, which further endeared her to the Prince Consort, who was amused by her childhood precociousness.
He wrote to Baron Stockmar that Beatrice was "the most amusing baby we have had." Despite sharing the rigorous education programme designed by Prince Albert and his close adviser, Baron Stockmar, Beatrice had a more relaxed infancy than her siblings because of her relationship with her parents.Dennison, p. 22 By four years of age, the youngest, and the acknowledged last royal child, Beatrice was not forced to share her parents' attention the way her siblings had, and her amusing ways provided comfort to her faltering father.
Queen Victoria's devoted companion
left|upright|thumb|Princess Beatrice in 1868
In March 1861, Queen Victoria's mother Victoria, Duchess of Kent, died at Frogmore. The Queen broke down in grief and guilt over their estrangement at the beginning of her reign.Longford, (Victoria, Duchess of Kent) Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Beatrice tried to console her mother by reminding her that the Duchess of Kent was "in heaven, but Beatrice hopes she will return".Quoted in Epton, p. 92 This comfort was significant because Queen Victoria had isolated herself from her children except the eldest unmarried daughter, Princess Alice, and Beatrice.Bolitho, p. 104 Queen Victoria again relied on Beatrice and Alice after the death of Albert, of typhoid fever, on 14 December.Bolitho, pp. 195-196
The depth of the Queen's grief over the death of her husband surprised her family, courtiers, politicians and general populace. As when her mother died, she shut herself off from her family—most particularly, the Prince of Wales, (whom she blamed for her husband's death),Matthew, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography with the exception of Alice and Beatrice. Queen Victoria often took Beatrice from her cot, hurried to her bed and "lay there sleepless, clasping to her child, wrapped in the nightclothes of a man who would wear them no more."Duff, p. 10 After 1871, when the last of Beatrice's elder sisters married,Victoria, Princess Royal in 1858; Alice in 1862; Helena in 1866; Louise in 1871 Queen Victoria came to rely upon her youngest daughter, who had declared from an early age: "I don't like weddings at all. I shall never be married. I shall stay with my mother."Quoted in Dennison, p. 38 As her mother's secretary, she performed duties such as writing on the Queen's behalf and helping with political correspondence.Dennison, p. 204 These mundane duties mirrored those that had been performed in succession by her sisters, Alice, Helena and Louise.Dennison, p. 92 However, to these the Queen soon added more personal tasks. During a serious illness in 1871, the Queen dictated her journal entries to Beatrice, and in 1876 she allowed Beatrice to sort the music she and the Prince Consort had played, unused since his death fifteen years earlier.
The devotion that Beatrice showed to her mother was acknowledged in the Queen's letters and journals, but her constant need for Beatrice grew stronger.Bolitho, p. 301After a failed assassination attempt on the Queen in 1882, she wrote of Beatrice: "Nothing can exceed dearest Beatrice's courage and calmness, for she saw the whole thing, the man take aim, and fire straight into the carriage, but she never said a word, observing that I was not frightened." The Queen suffered another bereavement in 1883, when her highland servant, John Brown, died at Balmoral.Buckle, p. 418 Once again, the Queen plunged into public mourning and relied on Beatrice for support. Unlike her siblings, Beatrice had not shown dislike for Brown, and the two had often been seen in each other's company; indeed, they had worked together to carry out the Queen's wishes.Dennison, pp. 95-101
Marriage
Possible suitors
Although the Queen was set against Beatrice marrying anyone in the expectation that she would always stay at home with her, a number of possible suitors were put forward before Beatrice's marriage to Prince Henry of Battenberg. One of these was Napoléon Eugéne, the French Prince Imperial, son and heir of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France and his wife, Empress Eugénie. After Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon was deposed and moved his family to England in 1870.Corley, p. 349 After the Emperor's death in 1873, Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie formed a close attachment, and the newspapers reported the imminent engagement of Beatrice to the Prince Imperial.Dennison, pp. 86-87 These rumours ended with the death of the Prince Imperial in the Anglo-Zulu War on 1 June 1879. Queen Victoria's journal records their grief: "Dear Beatrice, crying very much as I did too, gave me the telegram ... It was dawning and little sleep did I get ... Beatrice is so distressed; everyone quite stunned."Quoted in Dennison, p. 89
left|thumb|upright|Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial, to whom Beatrice was romantically attached in the 1870s
After the death of the Prince Imperial, the Prince of Wales suggested that Beatrice marry their sister Alice's widower, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse. Alice had died in 1878, and the Prince argued that Beatrice could act as replacement mother for Louis's young children and spend most of her time in England looking after her mother. He further suggested the Queen could oversee the upbringing of her Hessian grandchildren with greater ease.Dennison, pp. 103-106 However, at the time, it was forbidden by law for Beatrice to marry her sister's widower. This was countered by the Prince of Wales, who vehemently supported passage by the Houses of Parliament of the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill, which would have removed the obstacle. Despite popular support for this measure and although it passed in the House of Commons, it was rejected by the House of Lords because of opposition from the Lords Spiritual. Although the Queen was disappointed that the bill had failed, she was happy to keep her daughter at her side.
Other candidates, including two of Prince Henry's brothers, Prince Alexander ("Sandro") and Prince Louis of Battenberg, were put forward to be Beatrice's husband, but they did not succeed. Although Alexander never formally pursued Beatrice, merely claiming that he "might even at one time have become engaged to the friend of my childhood, Beatrice of England",Quoted in Dennison, p. 126 Louis was more interested. Queen Victoria invited him to dinner but sat between him and Beatrice, who had been told by the Queen to ignore Louis to discourage his suit.Dennison, p. 116 Louis, not realising for several years the reasons for this silence, married Beatrice's niece, Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. Although her marriage hopes had been dealt another blow, while attending Louis's wedding at Darmstadt, Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry, who returned her affections.Dennison, p. 124
Engagement and wedding
right|thumb|Princess Beatrice in her wedding dress, Osborne, 1885. Beatrice wore her mother's wedding veil of Honiton lace.
When Beatrice, after returning from Darmstadt, told her mother she planned to marry, the Queen reacted with frightening silence. Although they remained side by side, the Queen did not talk to her for seven months, instead communicating by note.Dennison, p. 130 Queen Victoria's behaviour, unexpected even by her family, seemed prompted by the threatened loss of her daughter. The Queen regarded Beatrice as her "Baby" - her innocent child - and viewed the physical sex that would come with marriage as an end to innocence.Dennison, pp. 127-129
Subtle persuasions by the Princess of Wales and the Crown Princess of Prussia, who reminded her mother of the happiness that Beatrice had brought the Prince Consort, induced the Queen to resume talking to Beatrice. Queen Victoria consented to the marriage on condition that Henry give up his German commitments and live permanently with Beatrice and the Queen.Purdue, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Beatrice and Henry were married at Saint Mildred's Church at Whippingham, near Osborne,Beatrice and her siblings were confirmed here on 23 July 1885. Beatrice, who wore her mother's wedding veil of Honiton lace, was escorted by the Queen and Beatrice's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales.Dennison, pp. 152-153 Princess Beatrice was attended by ten royal bridesmaids from among her nieces: Princesses Louise (18), Victoria and Maud of Wales; Princesses Irene and Alix of Hesse and by Rhine; Princesses Marie, Victoria Melita and Alexandra of Edinburgh; and Princesses Helena Victoria and Marie Louise of Schleswig-Holstein. The bridegroom's supporters were his brothers, Prince Alexander of Bulgaria and Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg.
The ceremony - which was not attended by her eldest sister and brother-in-law, the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia, who were detained in Germany; William Ewart Gladstone; or Beatrice's cousin, Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck, who was in mourning for her father-in-lawDennison, p. 153 - ended with the couple's departure for their honeymoon at Quarr Abbey House, a few miles from Osborne. The Queen, taking leave of them, "bore up bravely till the departure and then fairly gave way", as she later admitted to the Crown Princess.Hibbert, p. 294
Queen Victoria's last years
thumb|left|Prince Henry of Battenberg, who was married to Beatrice from 1885 until his death in 1896
After a short honeymoon, Beatrice and her husband fulfilled their promise and returned to the Queen's side. The Queen made it clear that she could not cope on her own and that the couple could not travel without her.Dennison, pp. 179-180 Although the Queen relaxed this restriction shortly after the marriage, Beatrice and Henry travelled only to make short visits with his family. Beatrice's love for Henry, like that of the Queen's for the Prince Consort, seemed to increase the longer they were married. When Henry travelled without Beatrice, she appeared happier when he returned.
The addition of Prince Henry to the family gave new reasons for Beatrice and the Queen to look forward, and the court was brighter than it had been since the Prince Consort's death.Dennison, p. 171 Even so, Henry, supported by Beatrice, was determined to take part in military campaigns, and this annoyed the Queen, who opposed his participation in life-threatening warfare. Conflicts also arose when Henry attended the Ajaccio carnival and kept "low company",Dennison, pp. 185-186 and Beatrice sent a Royal Navy officer to remove him from temptation. On one occasion, Henry slipped away to Corsica with his brother Louis; the Queen sent a warship to bring him back. Henry was feeling oppressed by the Queen's constant need for his and his wife's company.
Despite being married, Beatrice fulfilled her promise to the Queen by continuing as her full-time confidante and secretary. Queen Victoria warmed to Henry.Bolitho, p. 27 However, the Queen criticised Beatrice's conduct during her first pregnancy. When Beatrice stopped coming to the Queen's dinners a week before giving birth, preferring to eat alone in her room, the Queen wrote angrily to her physician, Dr James Reid, that, "I [urged the Princess to continue] coming to dinner, and not simply moping in her own room, which is very bad for her. In my case I regularly came to dinner, except when I was really unwell (even when suffering a great deal) up to the very last day."Quoted in Dennison, p. 164 Beatrice, aided by chloroform, gave birth the following week to her first son, Alexander. Despite suffering a miscarriage in the early months of her marriage,Dennison, p. 161 Beatrice gave birth to four children: Alexander, called "Drino", was born in 1886; Victoria Eugenie, called "Ena", in 1887; Leopold in 1889; and Maurice in 1891. Following this, she took a polite and encouraging interest in social issues, such as conditions in the coal mines. However, this interest did not extend to changing the conditions of poverty, as it had done with her brother, the Prince of Wales.
Although court entertainments were few after the Prince Consort's death, Beatrice and the Queen enjoyed tableau vivant photography, which was often performed at the royal residences. Henry, increasingly bored by the lack of activity at court, longed for employment, and in response, the Queen made him Governor of the Isle of Wight in 1889. However, he yearned for military adventure and pleaded with his mother-in-law to let him join the Ashanti expedition fighting in the Anglo-Asante war. Despite misgivings, the Queen consented, and Henry and Beatrice parted on 6 December 1895; they would not meet again. Henry contracted malaria and was sent home. On 22 January 1896, Beatrice, who was waiting for her husband at Madeira, received a telegram informing her of Henry's death two days earlier.Dennison, p. 190
Devastated, she left court for a month of mourning before returning to her post at her mother's side. The Queen's journal reports that Queen Victoria "[w]ent over to Beatrice's room and sat a while with her. She is so piteous in her misery."Quoted in Dennison, p. 192 Despite her grief, Beatrice remained her mother's faithful companion, and as Queen Victoria aged, she relied more heavily on Beatrice for dealing with correspondence. However, realising that Beatrice needed a place of her own, she gave her the Kensington Palace apartments once occupied by the Queen and her mother.Dennison, p. 203 The Queen appointed Beatrice to the governorship of the Isle of Wight, vacated by Prince Henry's death. In response to Beatrice's interest in photography, the Queen had a darkroom installed at Osborne House. The changes in the family, including Beatrice's preoccupation with her mother, may have affected her children, who rebelled at school. Beatrice wrote that Ena was "troublesome and rebellious", and that Alexander was telling "unwarrantable untruths".Dennison, pp. 210-212
Later life
right|thumb|Princess Beatrice with her mother, Queen Victoria
Beatrice's life was overturned by the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. She wrote to the Principal of the University of Glasgow in March, "... you may imagine what the grief is. I, who had hardly ever been separated from my dear mother, can hardly realise what life will be like without her, who was the centre of everything."Quoted in Dennison, p. 213 Beatrice's public appearances continued, but her position at court was diminished. She, unlike her sister Louise, was not close to her brother, now Edward VII, and was not included in the King's inner circle. Although their relationship did not break down completely, it was occasionally strained, for example when she accidentally (but noisily) dropped her service book from the royal gallery onto a table of gold plate during his coronation.Dennison, pp. 233-234
After inheriting Osborne, the King had his mother's personal photographs and belongings removed and some of them destroyed, especially material relating to John Brown, whom he detested.Magnus, p. 290 Queen Victoria had intended the house to be a private, secluded residence for her descendants, away from the pomp and ceremony of mainland life.Benson, p. 302 However, the new king had no need for the house and consulted his lawyers about disposing of it, transforming the main wing into a convalescent home, opening the state apartments to the public, and constructing a Naval College on the grounds. His plans met with strong disapproval from Beatrice and Louise. Queen Victoria had bequeathed them houses on the estate, and the privacy promised to them by their mother was threatened. When Edward discussed the fate of the house with them, Beatrice argued against allowing the house to leave the family, citing its importance to their parents.
However, the King did not want the house himself, and he offered it to his heir-apparent, Beatrice's nephew George, who declined, objecting to the high cost of maintenance. Edward subsequently extended the grounds of Beatrice's home, Osborne Cottage, to compensate her for the impending loss of her privacy. Shortly afterwards, the King declared to Arthur Balfour, the prime minister, that the main house would go to the nation as a gift. An exception was made for the private apartments, which were closed to all but the royal family members, who made it a shrine to their mother's memory.Dennison, pp. 225-228
Queen Victoria's journals
Upon Queen Victoria's death, Beatrice began the momentous task of transcribing and editing her mother's journals. The hundreds of volumes from 1831 onwards contained the Queen's personal views of the day-to-day business of her life and included personal and family matters as well as matters of state.
Queen Victoria had given Beatrice the task of editing the journals for publication, which meant removing private material as well as passages that, if published, might be hurtful to living people. Beatrice deleted so much material that the edited journals are only a third as long as the originals. The destruction of such large passages of Queen Victoria's diaries distressed Beatrice's nephew, George V, and his wife Queen Mary, who were powerless to intervene.Magnus, p. 461 Beatrice copied a draft from the original and then copied her draft into a set of blue notebooks. Both the originals and her first drafts were destroyed as she progressed. The task took thirty years and was finished in 1931. The surviving 111 notebooks are kept in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle.
Retirement from public life
Beatrice continued to appear in public after her mother's death. The public engagements she carried out were often related to her mother, Queen Victoria, as the public had always associated Beatrice with the deceased monarch.Dennison, p. 215
left|thumb|upright|Prince Maurice of Battenberg. After his death during the First World War, Beatrice began to retire from public life.
The beauty of Beatrice's daughter, Ena, was known throughout Europe, and, despite her low rank, she was a desirable bride.Noel, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Her chosen suitor was Alfonso XIII of Spain. However, the marriage caused controversy in Britain, since it required Ena to convert to Catholicism.Lee, p. 513 This step was opposed by Beatrice's brother, Edward VII, and Spanish ultra-conservatives were against the King's marriage to a Protestant of low birth, as her father, Prince Henry, was the son of a morganatic marriage. Thus, they considered Ena to be only partly royal and thus unfit to be Queen of Spain. Nonetheless, the couple wed on 31 May 1906. The marriage began inauspiciously when an anarchist attempted to bomb them on their wedding day. Apparently close at first, the couple grew apart. Ena became unpopular in Spain and grew more so when it was discovered that her son, the heir-apparent to the throne, suffered from haemophilia. Alfonso held Beatrice responsible Noel (Spain's English Queen), p. 10 for having brought the disease to the Spanish royal house and turned bitterly against Ena.
During her time as Queen of Spain, Ena returned many times to visit her mother in Britain, but always without Alfonso and usually without her children. Meanwhile, Beatrice lived at Osborne Cottage in East Cowes until she sold it in 1913, when Carisbrooke Castle, home of the Governor of the Isle of Wight, became vacant. She moved into the Castle while keeping an apartment at Kensington Palace in London. She had been much involved in collecting material for the Carisbrooke Castle museum, which she opened in 1898.
thumb|right|upright|Portrait by Philip de László, 1912
Her presence at court further decreased as she aged. Devastated by the death of her favourite son, Maurice, during the First World War in 1914, she began to retire from public life.Dennison, p. 245 In response to war with Germany, George V changed the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor and at the same time adopted it as the family surname, to downplay their German origins. Subsequently, Beatrice and her family renounced their German titles; Beatrice stopped using the style Princess Henry of Battenberg, reverting to only using her birth style, HRH The Princess Beatrice. Her sons gave up their style, Prince of Battenberg. Alexander, the eldest, became Sir Alexander Mountbatten and was later given the title Marquess of Carisbrooke in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Her younger son, Leopold, became Lord Leopold Mountbatten and was given the rank of a younger son of a marquess. He was a haemophiliac, having inherited the "royal disease" from his mother, and died during a knee operation in 1922 one month short of his 33rd birthday.
Following the war, Beatrice was one of several members of the royal family who became patrons of The Ypres League, a society founded for veterans of the Ypres Salient and bereaved relatives of those killed in fighting in the Salient.The Ypres League webpage , Aftermath - when the boys came home, accessed 16 January 2010 She was herself a bereaved mother, as her son, Prince Maurice of Battenberg, had been killed in action during the First Battle of Ypres. Rare public appearances after his death included commemorations, including laying wreaths at the Cenotaph in 1930 and 1935 to mark the 10th and 15th anniversaries of the founding of the League."To celebrate the tenth anniversary ...", Reading Eagle, 9 December 1930, p. 10"Beatrice Lays Wreath", Getty Images, image number 3294671, from the Hulton Archive, accessed 16 January 2010
Last years
thumb|right|upright|Princess Beatrice in later life
Even in her seventies, Beatrice continued to correspond with her friends and relatives and to make rare public appearances, such as when, pushed in a wheelchair, she viewed the wreaths laid after the death of George V in 1936. She published her last work of translation in 1941. Entitled "In Napoleonic Days", it was the personal diary of Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She corresponded with the publisher, John Murray, who greatly approved of the work.Dennison, p. 262 She made her last home at Brantridge Park in West Sussex, which was owned by Queen Mary's brother, Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, and his wife, Princess Alice, who was Beatrice's niece; the Athlones were at the time in Canada where the Earl was governor-general. There, Beatrice died in her sleep on 26 October 1944, aged eighty-seven (the day before the 30th anniversary of her son, Prince Maurice's death). After her funeral service in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, her coffin was placed in the royal vault on 3 November. On 27 August 1945, her body was transferred and placed inside a joint tomb, alongside her husband, in St Mildred's Church, Whippingham. Beatrice's final wish, to be buried with her husband on the island most familiar to her, was fulfilled in a private service at Whippingham attended only by her son, the Marquess of Carisbrooke, and his wife.
Legacy
Beatrice was the shyest of all of Queen Victoria's children. However, because she accompanied Queen Victoria almost wherever she went, she became among the best known.Dennison, p. 157 Despite her shyness, she was an able actress and dancer as well as a keen artist and photographer.Dennison: (dancing) pp. 44, 53; (acting) 174-175; (musician) 232-233; (photographer) 121-122 She was devoted to her children and was concerned when they misbehaved at school. To those who enjoyed her friendship, she was loyal and had a sense of humour, and as a public figure she was driven by a strong sense of duty.Dennison, p. 112 She was Patron of the Isle of Wight Branch of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1920 until her death. Music, a passion that was shared by her mother and the Prince Consort, was something in which Beatrice excelled. She played the piano to professional standards and was an occasional composer.Dennison, p. 58'Retrospection', published in The Girl's Own Paper (1897) Like her mother, she was a devout Christian, fascinated by theology until her death.Dennison, pp. 84-85 With her calm temperament and personal warmth, the princess won wide approval.Dennison, p. 193
The demands made on Beatrice during her mother's reign were high. Despite suffering from rheumatism, Beatrice was forced to endure her mother's love of cold weather.Dennison, p. 110 Beatrice's piano playing suffered as her rheumatism got gradually worse, eliminating an enjoyment in which she excelled; however, this did not change her willingness to cater to her mother's needs. Her effort did not go unnoticed by the British public.
thumb|Tomb of Prince Henry of Battenberg and Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom in St Mildred's Church, Whippingham, Isle of Wight
In 1886, when she agreed to open the Show of the Royal Horticultural Society of Southampton, the organisers sent her a proclamation of thanks, expressing their "admiration of the affectionate manner in which you have comforted and assisted your widowed mother our Gracious Sovereign the Queen". As a wedding present, Sir Moses Montefiore, a banker and philanthropist, presented Beatrice and Henry with a silver tea service inscribed: "Many daughters have acted virtuously, but thou excellest them all."Dennison, p. 134 The Times newspaper, shortly before Beatrice's marriage, wrote: "The devotion of your Royal Highness to our beloved Sovereign has won our warmest admiration and our deepest gratitude. May those blessings which it has hitherto been your constant aim to confer on others now be returned in full measure to yourself."The Times newspaper, 29 July 1885 The sentence was, as far as it dared, criticising the Queen's hold over her daughter.
She died at Brantridge Park, the home of her niece, Princess Alice, and her husband, the Earl of Athlone, at the time serving as Governor General of Canada. Osborne House, her mother's favourite home, is accessible to the public.
Her Osborne residences, Osborne and Albert Cottages, remain in private ownership after their sale in 1912.Dennison, p. 230
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles
14 April 1857 - 23 July 1885: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice
23 July 1885 - 14 July 1917: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberge.g.
17 July 1917 - 26 October 1944: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatricee.g.
Honours
British honours
1 January 1878: Order of the Crown of India
8 January 1919: Dame Grand Cross of the British Empire
12 June 1926: Dame Grand Cross of St John
11 May 1937: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Royal Order of Victoria and Albert
Royal Red Cross
Foreign honours
Grand Cross of St. Catherine
11 September 1875: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel
25 April 1885: Dame of the Golden LionSullivan, p. 224
27 May 1889: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa
Arms
In 1858, Beatrice and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent. On Beatrice's arms, the outer points bore roses gules, and the centre a heart gules. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V.
200px|centerPrincess Beatrice's coat of arms (1858-1917)
Issue
PortraitNameBirthDeathNotes 90px Prince Alexander of Battenberg later Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke 23 November 188623 February 1960married Lady Irene Denison (4 July 1890 - 16 July 1956) on 19 July 1917.1 daughter (Lady Iris Mountbatten, 1920-1982). 90px Princess Victoria Eugénie of Battenberg later Queen of Spain24 October 188715 April 1969married Alfonso XIII of Spain (17 May 1886 - 28 February 1941) on 31 May 1906 2 daughters, 5 sons (1 stillborn), (including Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, 1913-1993, father of Juan Carlos I of Spain). 90px Prince Leopold of Battenberg later Lord Leopold Mountbatten21 May 188923 April 1922Suffered from haemophilia; died unmarried and without issue during a knee operation. 90px Prince Maurice of Battenberg3 October 189127 October 1914Died of wounds from action during World War I.
Ancestry
Notes
References
Aspinall-Oglander, C. F., "Princess Beatrice (1857-1944)", Dictionary of National Biography (archive), Oxford University Press, 1959; accessed 26 December 2007
Beatrice, HRH The Princess, A Birthday Book (Smith, Elder & Co. London, 1881)
The Adventures of Count Georg Albert of Erbach (John Murray, London, 1890)
In Napoleonic Days: Extracts from the private diary of Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, 1806 to 1821 (John Murray, London, 1941)
Benson, E. F., Queen Victoria's Daughters (Appleton and Company, 1938)
Bolitho, Hector, Reign of Queen Victoria (Macmillan, London, 1948)
Buckle, George Earle, The Letters of Queen Victoria (Second Series [3rd volume]) (John Murray, London, 1928)
Corley, T. A. B., Democratic Despot: A Life of Napoleon III (Barrie and Rockliff, London, 1961)
Dennison, Matthew, The Last Princess: The Devoted Life of Queen Victoria's Youngest Daughter (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Great Britain, 2007);
Duff, David, The Shy Princess (Evans Brothers, Great Britain, 1958)
Epton, Nina, Victoria and her Daughters (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Great Britain, 1971)
Jagow, Kurt, Letters of the Prince Consort 1831-1861 (John Murray, London, 1938)
Hibbert, Christopher, Queen Victoria in her letters and journals (Sutton Publishing Ltd, 2000);
Lee, Sir Sidney, King Edward VII: A Biography (Volume I) (Macmillan company, 1925)
Longford, Elizabeth Victoria R. I. (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Great Britain, 1964)
Magnus, Philip, Edward the Seventh (John Murray, London, 1964)
Noel, Gerard, Ena: Spain's English Queen (Constable, London, 1985);
External links
Ceremonial observed at Beatrice's wedding:
Information about Queen Victoria's journals
Carisbrooke Castle Museum
Osborne House
Princess Beatrice letter, MSS SC 1247 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
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Category:Women who experienced pregnancy loss | {"Father": "Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "Mother": "Queen Victoria", "Born": "Buckingham Palace, London, England", "Died": "Brantridge Park, Sussex, England", "Burial": "St George's Chapel, Windsor 27 August 1945St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham"} |
Ramiro de León Carpio (12 January 1942 – 16 April 2002) was the President of Guatemala from 6 June 1993 until 14 January 1996.
Career
De León studied law at the University of San Carlos and then at the Rafael Landívar University, where he ran the Sol Bolivariano ("Bolivarian Sun") newspaper. After graduating he became a state civil servant, working in the Common Market division of the Ministry of Economy between 1967 and 1969, when he became the permanent secretary of the tariff committee. In 1970 he became permanent secretary for the National Committee for Economic and Political integration. During this time he joined the right wing National Liberation Movement (MLN), whose candidate Carlos Arana won the 1970 presidential elections, and during Arana's four-year term de León served as secretary general of the State Advisory Board. He then moved to the private sector, joining the Guatemala Association of Sugar Producers, serving as their legal advisor between 1978 and 1981, and then as their general administrator until 1983. He then became involved in the bloodless coup that saw President Efraín Ríos Montt replaced by Óscar Humberto Mejía.
Along with his cousin Jorge Carpio de Leon co-founded the center-right Unity of the National Center (UCN) party.Ramiro de Leon Carpio Biografias y Vidas. (accessed January 22, 2010) It opposed authoritarianism, and instead proposed a social liberalism. He became one of the party's 21 deputies in 1984. He played an important role in creating the 1985 Constitution, still in force to this day. He supported his cousin in the latter's attempt to win the presidential elections of 1985. Carpio got to the second round, but was then defeated by Vinicio Cerezo. De León then resigned from the UCN.
In 1989 de Leon became Defensor del Pueblo ("People's Defender"), Guatemala's human rights ombudsman. While this gave him the ability to denounce human rights abuses by the powers-that-be (and be heard when he did it), he did not have any actual power to combat these abuses.
President (1993-1996)
On 25 May 1993, President Jorge Serrano led an autocoup - a coup d'état by someone(s) in the country's own governmentdissolving the constitution and the National Congress with the apparent support of the army. He further ordered the arrest of de León.Wilkinson, Tracy. "Guatemala Leader Seizes Total Power," LA Times, 26 May 1993. (accessed January 22, 2010) He avoided arrest by escaping over the roofs of the adjacent houses, and was then able to send out a condemnation of the coup. Amid protests and suspension of foreign aid, on 1 June, Serrano was forced to flee the country. The army wanted to install the conservative Gustavo Espina, Vice-President under Serrano, as the new President. De León had already accused him of violating the constitution during the autocoup. On 5 June Espina resigned, and after an overwhelming vote of confidence from the reconvened National Congress, de León was quickly sworn in as President until 14 January 1996, the day Serrano had been due to finish his term.
De León promised to defend public freedoms and the rule of law, as well as make progress in the negotiations with the guerrillas, and purge the armed forces of their bad apples. He fired the defence minister General José Domingo García Samayoa, replacing him with General Jorge Roberto Perussina Rivera, who had been implicated in the massacres of the 1980s. On 3 July, his cousin Jorge Carpio, who was playing a vital role in the peace negotiations, was assassinated by right-wingers. On 26 August, he demanded that both all the deputies in the National Congress and all the members of the Supreme Court of Justice resign. This created a crisis that was not resolved until 16 November resulting in 43 amendments to the 1985 constitution, which were approved in a referendum on 30 January 1994.
On 6 January, negotiations began with the main guerrilla group, the URNG, but this time under the auspices of both the United Nations and the Organization of American States (OAS), and with a reduced role of the Guatemalan military in comparison with the previous negotiations. On 29 March, he signed the Global Accord on Human Rights, which amongst other things demanded the disbandment of the Autodefence Civil Patrols (PAC), which had been accused of involvement in the massacres occurring during the Civil War.
Both the murder of Supreme Court chief Eduardo Epaminondas González Dubón on 3 April, and a massacre of civilians by soldiers in Xamán, department of Alta Verapaz, on 5 October 1995, created high levels of tension in the country, and put strains on the peace process. Yet in spite of these tensions free elections were able to be held under de León's rule. On 14 August 1994, 80 of the 116 seats in the National Congress came up for election, unusual in Guatemala where the members of Congress normally stand for election to coincide with the presidential election. On 12 November 1995, a new presidential election was held, and in the second round on 7 January 1996, Álvaro Arzú won to replace de León.
Post-presidency
In October 1996, de Leon became a deputy in the Central American Parliament. During the next few years he worked as an international advisor and was an election monitor for the OAS. In 1999 he joined the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG), and was elected to the Congress in the November elections. Then, on 11 March 2002, he resigned his seat in the Congress and from the FRG, declaring that he wished he had never accepted their leader Efraín Ríos Montt's invitation to join the party. His intention was to write his memoirs and reinvolve himself in international work but he died while visiting Miami, United States, on 16 April; probably from a diabetic coma."Ramiro de Leon Carpio, 60; Former Guatemala Leader", Associated Press, April 17, 2002. (accessed January 22, 2010) National mourning was declared, he was given a state funeral and was posthumously awarded the Grand Collar of the Sovereign National Congress.
References
External links
Biography by CIDOB
Category:Presidents of Guatemala
Category:Members of the Congress of Guatemala
Category:Ombudspersons in Guatemala
Category:1942 births
Category:2002 deaths
Category:Institutional Republican Party politicians
Category:National Liberation Movement (Guatemala) politicians
Category:Human rights in Guatemala
Category:Politicians from Guatemala City
Category:20th-century Guatemalan people | {"Name": "Ramiro de León Carpio", "Vice president": "Arturo Herbruger", "Term start": "6 June 1993", "Term end": "14 January 1996", "Birth date": "1942 01 12 y", "Birth place": "Guatemala City, Guatemala", "Death date": "2002 04 16 1942 01 12 y", "Death place": "Miami, United States", "Spouse(s)": "Mayra Duque, Maria Eugenia Morales", "Other political party": "Guatemalan Republican Front (1999 – 2002)"} |
Presidential elections were held in Croatia for the first time on 2 August 1992 alongside simultaneous parliamentary elections.Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p410 The result was a victory for incumbent Franjo Tuđman of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), who received 57.8% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president of Croatia. Voter turnout was 74.9%.Nohlen & Stöver, p419
The 1,519,000 votes received by Tuđman remains the highest number of votes won by any president to date. Having previously been selected as president by Parliament, he was sworn in for his first constitutional five-year term as president on 12 August 1992 at Saint Mark's square in Zagreb.
Conduct
The elections were criticised by international observers, who noted several problems, including issues with opposition access to state media, the timing of the election and the impartiality of officials.Elections in the Republic of Croatia: 2 August 1992 International Republican Institute The timing was deemed to be favourable to the HDZ government, who had delayed approving electoral laws in violation of the country's new constitution. The period of time between the announcement of the elections and the election date itself was considered "unusually short", making it difficult for opposition parties and election officials to prepare. The elections were also scheduled for a holiday, when a significant number of people would be away from their home towns and unable to vote.
Results
References
Croatia
Presidential
Category:August 1992 events in Europe
Category:Presidential elections in Croatia
Category:Modern history of Croatia
Category:Franjo Tuđman | {"Country": "Croatia", "Type": "presidential", "Next election": "1997 Croatian presidential election", "Next year": "1997", "Election date": "2 August 1992", "Turnout": "74.90%", "Image 1": "FranjoTudman.JPG", "Nominee 1": "Franjo Tuđman", "Party 1": "Croatian Democratic Union", "Popular vote 1": "1,519,100", "Percentage 1": "57.83%", "Nominee 2": "Dražen Budiša", "Party 2": "Croatian Social Liberal Party", "Popular vote 2": "585,535", "Percentage 2": "22.29%", "Nominee 4": "Savka Dabčević-Kučar", "Party 4": "Croatian People's Party", "Popular vote 4": "161,242", "Percentage 4": "6.14%", "Nominee 5": "Dobroslav Paraga", "Party 5": "Croatian Party of Rights", "Popular vote 5": "144,695", "Percentage 5": "5.51%", "Title": "President", "Before election": "Franjo Tuđman", "Before party": "Croatian Democratic Union", "After election": "Franjo Tuđman", "After party": "Croatian Democratic Union"} |
Presidential elections were held in Croatia on 15 June 1997.Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p410 They were the second presidential elections held since independence in 1991. The result was a victory for incumbent president Franjo Tuđman, the leader of the Croatian Democratic Union party (HDZ), who received 61.40% of the vote and was re-elected to a second five-year term. As Tuđman received a majority of the valid votes cast on election day there was no need for a run-off. President Tuđman received a plurality of the votes in 20 of Croatia's 21 counties, while Vlado Gotovac did so in Istria County.
Voter turnout in the election was 54.62%, which was a large decline from the 74.9% turnout registered five years previous. Furthermore, about 459.000 fewer votes were cast in comparison to the previous election in 1992.Nohlen & Stöver, p419 The elections also featured the smallest number of presidential candidates to date, with only three taking part: Franjo Tuđman, Zdravko Tomac and Vlado Gotovac. The margin of victory (over 40%) is also the largest in any election to date.
OSCE delegation observing the elections concluded that "the process leading up to the election was fundamentally flawed, and did not meet the minimum standards for a meaningful and democratic election in line with OSCE standards."STATEMENT: PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IN THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA , OSCE, Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Observation Delegation to the 1997 Croatian Presidential Elections, June 15th, 1997
Background
On February 22, the incumbent president Tudman was re-nominated by his party HDZ to seek a re-election bid.
In April, two months earlier, local elections and elections for the upper chamber of the parliament were held. Local elections showed weakening of HDZ position in urban centers.Jeffries, Ian. The Former Yugoslavia at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. 1 edition, Routledge, 2002. The aftermath of Zagreb crisis and the protests against silencing Radio 101, an independent and critical media outlet, additionally led to a drop of government approval. It was also widely rumoured that 75-year-old president Tudman is suffering from cancer and his health was a major topic of speculation.
Political parties in opposition to the ruling HDZ pondered agreeing on a single candidate to challenge Tudman. Scholar Ivan Supek was mentioned, but nothing came out of it. SDP and HNS toyed with the idea to jointly support HSLS candidate, poet and philosopher, MP Vlado Gotovac, but SDP ended up supporting Tomac's bid. The rift in the united opposition was evident during the local elections earlier in the year, when HSS and HSLS distanced themselves from SDP. According to journalist Vlado Vurusic, SDP's Tomac chose to run knowing he stood little chance in order to legitimize the elections and build further visibility for the opposition. Analysts believed that opposition's goal was to at least secure a run-off, preventing an absolute majority in the first round.
Before the start of the official campaign, president Tudman's 75th birthday on May 14 was lavishly celebrated in Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb, culminating with a three-hour play showing his presidency as a peak of Croatian national history. Croatian National Bank minted a commemorative coin, while Croatian Post issued a stamp celebrating his birthday. State television broadcast an extensive multi-part documentary about Tudjman's life as well. In a state-funded campaign, charity concert "All Croatian Victories for Vukovar" was promoted throughout the country with billboards and posters depicting the president.
There were further concerns regarding access to polls. According to the OSCE, "as many as 300,000 lifelong (primarily ethnic Serb) residents who fled the country" during the 1991-5 war were disenfranchised, facing severe political, legal and administrative hurdles preventing them from voting. On the other hand, approximately 330,000 Bosnian Croats were given the vote due to their Croatian citizenship. Citizens living in the eastern Slavonia, formerly Serb rebel-held areas and under UN administration at the time, were to vote for the first time in national elections. They had already voted in local elections in April.
Candidates
Candidate Party affiliation Political remarks80pxFranjo TudmanCroatian Democratic UnionIncumbent President of Croatia since 1990. Tudman won the presidential elections in 1992 and was standing a re-election bid for his last term in the office, as limited by the constitution. He was re-nominated by his party HDZ on February 22. At the time he was also party chairman. Tudman ran on a centre-right platform of continuity,Juresko, Goranka. (29.05.1997.) "TUDMAN: NASTAVIT CU POLITIKU KOJOM JE STVORENA I OBRANJENA HRVATSKA DRZAVA", Vjesnik boasting success in ending the war in Croatia with a military victory in 1995, peace settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and peaceful re-integration of secessionist Serb-occupied Eastern Slavonia, including Vukovar.Vlado GotovacCroatian Social Liberal PartyA member of Sabor, writer, philosopher and a poet, Gotovac was HSLS party chairman at the time. Endorsed by HNS, HSS, IDS, IDF, DA, ASD, ZZ, and SDA-Croatia. Dražen Budiša, HSLS chairman hopeful and his opponent, did not publicly support him. Gotovac campaigned on improving civil liberties, depoliticizing state affairs, strengthening local self-government, alleviation of poverty, and reducing then-hefty presidential powers.Marija Pulic (29.05.1997) GOTOVAC: POBIJEDIM LI-RASPISAT CU PARLAMENTARNE IZBORE, Vjesnik His ads played the tune of European anthem, promoting the Eurointegration agenda.80pxZdravko TomacSocial Democratic Party A member of Sabor, candidate of the centre-left Social Democratic Party (SDP) and party vice-chairman. Former Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia in war-time national unity government (1991-2). Tomac campaigned on social justice issues and income inequality topics, pledging to continue with his humble lifestyle if elected president.Sandra Bartolovic (06.06.1997) TOMAC: NUDIM KONCEPCIJU SICIJALDEMOKRATSKE DRZAVE KOJA POBJEDUJE U EUROPI, VjesnikSandra Bartolovic (29.05.1997) TOMAC: SVJEDOCIT CU SOCIJALDEMOKRATSKI PROGRAM OSOBNIM PRIMJEROM, Vjesnik He pointed out Olof Palme as his role model.
Failed candidacies
Dobroslav Paraga, chairman of HSP-1861, gathered just 8,462 signatures supporting his bid, thus failing to reach 10,000 hurdle.
Campaign
Tudman officially launched his campaign on May 28, presenting his manifesto at a reception in Klovićevi Dvori Gallery in Zagreb. On May 30, Statehood Day, a military parade was organized along Jarun lake in Zagreb, prominently featuring Tudman as the commander-in-chief. At an estimated cost of 16 million DEM, parade's exact purpose was questioned by media."JARUNSKI VOJNI MIMOHOD: Rasipnost u brzom naletu", TJEDNIK, no. 15, Zagreb, June 6, 1997. HDZ campaign committee published an election manifesto in all daily newspapers including a list of 800 public personas and celebrities officially supporting Tudman's re-election bid. However, several of the listed were under-age, while a number of artists and celebrities listed afterwards issued a public rebuttal, stating that they were never consulted on the matter. The list included public broadcaster director as well.
On June 8, president Tudjman visited Vukovar and eastern Slavonia for the second time. The area was previously occupied by rebel ethnic Serb authorities and was under the transitional authority of United Nations' administration at the time. Peaceful local elections took place throughout the region in April and gradual reintegration in Croatia was going according to plan and scheduled to be completed in 1998. Now, however, Tudjman visited Vukovar in a 21-car railway composition dubbed "The Peace Train," bringing many politicians, dignitaries and celebrities with him and stopping for whistle-stop rallies on his way from Zagreb. In a Zagreb whistle-stop rally, he viciously attacked the opposition in general as "a handful of sold-out Judas' sons." Holding a conciliatory speech in Vukovar, Tudman fostered responsibility, cooperation and reconciliation between Croats and ethnic Serbs. However, he explicitly rejected the return of all Serb refugees to Croatia.Lasic, Igor: Predizborni spektakli - Vlak u Vukovar, vlak iz Vukovara, TJEDNIK, no. 16, 13 June 1997. All of these events were given significant coverage by state-owned media, which virtually avoided any display of (or news on) other candidates and opposition's activities, campaign, etc. Croatian Television was also criticized for a particularly slanted approach, heavily promoting Tudman. HDZ ran a fierce defamation campaign against Tomac and Gotovac.
With unemployment running at 17%, Tomac and Gotovac campaigned against nepotism, corruption, and economic inequality, also attacking Tudman's authoritarianism and politicization of army, police, and public broadcaster. Tudman dismissed the unemployment figures, claiming that only 9% were "actually" unemployed. Tomac's slogan was "a president with neither Brijuni nor the [presidential] plane", hinting at the high-end Tudman's lifestyle and the cost of the president's office and his Brijuni summer residence. While Tomac promoted social justice, addressing people depending on wages not capital income, and spoke about labour-capital conflict, Gotovac was more focused on civil liberties. They both advocated changing the constitution and transitioning towards full parliamentary democracy and curtailing presidential powers.
Tudman believed not to be on par with the other two candidates, thus dismissing interviews and press statements as unnecessary and unworthy of his position. (he did give a pre-arranged interview, broadcast on public TV). As a consequence, his deputy head of staff, Vesna Škare-Ožbolt, answered many questions in his name without Tudman's knowledge. No debates were held.
Access to marketing and campaign funding was severely unequal; Tudman's ads on TV ran for more than 2,000 seconds during the last week of the campaign, while Gotovac and Tomac combined had a total of 101 seconds. Gotovac and Tomac's posters and billboards were virtually absent from sight. Furthermore, Tomac's campaign van was stoned near Zadar.
Pula incident
On June 5, opposition candidate, Vlado Gotovac from HSLS, was physically attacked during his rally in Pula by Croatian Army captain Tomislav Brzović of the elite 1st Guards Corps, who wore dress uniform. The attacker hit him in the head with his belt, shouting "I am an ustasha, long live Ante Pavelić!", later threatening to kill everyone present. Gotovac suffered a concussion and was hospitalised for four days. Having to suspend his activities for further 10 days, the opposition jointly - albeit unsuccessfully - petitioned the electoral commission to suspend the campaign altogether until Gotovac recovers. Captain Brzovic was suspended for several months from active duty and received a conditional sentence, but was not ultimately discharged from army and resumed his commissioned duties. President Tudman neither reached out to Gotovac nor condemned the attack, even going as far as calling opposition candidates "headless" and "confused" in Vukovar.Vlade Gotovca: Hrvatski Sakal", TJEDNIK, no. 16, 13 June 1997.
Opinion polls
DatePollsterTuđmanTomacGotovacUndecidedRefused to reply4/5 JuneMetronM.Saric (10.06.1997): BIRACIMA PRESUDNO- POSTENJE, Vecernji list56,310,1 6,2 12,1 15,3
Results
Tomac and Gotovac fared better in cities, with Gotovac coming second in Split (32%-21%) and narrowly third in Rijeka.
Out of 377,705 citizens living abroad eligible to vote, 88,728 (23.5%) eventually did so, predominantly in Bosnia and Herzegovina (48 thousand out of 140,742 eligible to vote) and Germany (23 thousand). In total, 81,107 (91.4%) voted for Tudman, 2,676 for Tomac, and 4,463 for Gotovac.
Voter turnout was fairly low in Eastern Slavonia, then under UN administration and with an ethnic Serb majority. UNTAES complained that Croatian authorities did not update voting records in time, which left some 10% of those who did turn out to cast a ballot without a vote.S.Canic: UNTAES O IZBORIMA, Vjesnik, 18.06.1997 Voter turnout was also low in some opposition-friendly regions; for instance, in Krapina-Zagorje county it stood around 40%. Turnout was highest in Pozega-Slavonia County (51,38%), while Zadar county reported lowest figures - just 34,5%.Sandra Bartolovic (16.06.1997.) TUDMANOVA UVJERLJIVA POBJEDA VEC U PRVOM KRUGU PREDSJEDNICKIH IZBORA, Vjesnik
Maps
File:Croatia 1997 results runoff.PNG|Results in all of Croatia's counties: the candidate with the majority of votes in each administrative division.
File:Predsjednički izbori u Hrvatskoj 1997.png|Results of the election based on the majority of votes in each municipality of Croatia
Aftermath
U.S. Senator Paul Simon, special OSCE coordinator for monitoring the elections, reported that "Croatia has experienced a free but not fair election. While candidates were able to speak freely, the process leading up to the election was fundamentally flawed. It did not meet the minimum standards for democracies. By contrast the election itself was - with some exceptions - conducted efficiently."STATEMENT OF SENATOR PAUL SIMON, SPECIAL COORDINATOR FOR MONITORING OF THE CROATIAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, JUNE 16, 1997
HDZ fell short of its proclaimed 70% vote target, but still celebrated with fireworks and an open-air party in Zagreb. Government-friendlyVjesnik commented that the electorate had rejected political experiments, opting for continuity.IVANKOVIC, NENAD (17.06.1997) "I POBJEDA I PORAZ UVJERLJIVI", Vjesnik Tuđman took the oath of office for a second term on 5 August 1997 at Saint Mark's Square. He chose the inauguration date to coincide with the anniversary of the military operation "Storm" that ended the war in Croatia two years earlier. Croatian jurist and constitutional expert, Branko Smerdel, in 2000 opined that the 1997 elections saw a transition from Tudman's "imperial war-time presidency" to "an elective monarchy", as Tudman afterwards hoarded power in his various councils, advisory bodies and committees. However, he served only a little more than two years of his new 5-year term, as he died on 10 December 1999, triggering early elections being called for January 2000. Vlatko Pavletić assumed the post of Acting President as the Speaker of the Croatian Parliament.
SDP's result as runners-up, prevailing over HSLS, was important in establishing them as a leading opposition party and a senior partner in building the coalition (August 1998) that eventually won the 2000 parliamentary elections and formed the first post-HDZ government. SDP showed further growth continuity in the polls and stabilized its vote share. In 1998, SDP chairman Ivica Račan was far ahead of president Tudman in popularity polls. In 1998, HDZ could not form a majority in two counties (Primorje-Gorski Kotar and Dubrovnik-Neretva) and was forced to call the elections, which were won by the united opposition.
Gotovac was disappointed with his result and the "lack of a political centre in Croatia," warning against "bi-polarization" of Croatian politics. His 17% vote share as a candidate of several largest opposition parties in Sabor showed their loss of credibility as an alternative. Much lower turnout than at both April local elections (70%) and previous presidential elections in 1992 was seen by some as a sign of voter apathy and their perception of the unfairness of the electoral process, but also as a loss of credibility in HSS, HSLS and HNS, whose councilors frequently crossed the floor after the elections, thus enabling HDZ to form the majority in several cities and counties despite their failure to achieve so at the ballot. Gotovac's failure to beat Tomac was a trigger for an intra-party clash in HSLS, exposing the rift between more nationalist-friendly Budisa (who flirted with HDZ during local elections) and Zagreb party organization on one side and Gotovac on the other. Budisa was elected party chairman, while Gotovac left the party, forming a splinter Liberal Party in January 1998.
According to political scientist Trevor Waters, after the elections "support for Tudjman and the HDZ fell sharply amid widespread allegations of corruption, cronyism and nepotism, particularly with regard to the privatisation of state-owned assets." Fractional in-fighting amongst HDZ became apparent as the united opposition started rising in the opinion polls.
References
External links
Interview with Vlado Gotovac, Tjednik 15, Zagreb, 6 June 1997.
TV ads and news footage from elections
Election results by cities and municipalities, State Electoral Commission
Presidential
Croatia
Category:1997 in Croatia
Category:June 1997 events in Europe
Category:Presidential elections in Croatia
Category:Modern history of Croatia
Category:Franjo Tuđman | {"Name": "1997 Croatian presidential election", "Country": "Croatia", "Type": "presidential", "Ongoing?": "no", "Previous election": "1992 Croatian presidential election", "Previous year": "1992", "Next election": "2000 Croatian presidential election", "Next year": "2000", "Election date": "15 June 1997", "Turnout": "54.62%", "Image size": "130x130px", "Nominee 1": "Franjo Tuđman", "Party 1": "Croatian Democratic Union", "Popular vote 1": "1,337,990", "Percentage 1": "61.41%", "Nominee 2": "Zdravko Tomac", "Party 2": "Social Democratic Party of Croatia", "Popular vote 2": "458,172", "Percentage 2": "21.03%", "Nominee 3": "Vlado Gotovac", "Party 3": "Croatian Social Liberal Party", "Popular vote 3": "382,630", "Percentage 3": "17.56%", "Title": "President", "Before election": "Franjo Tuđman", "Before party": "Croatian Democratic Union", "After election": "Franjo Tuđman", "After party": "Croatian Democratic Union"} |
Gustavo Adolfo Espina Salguero (born 26 November 1946) was Vice President of Guatemala for President Jorge Serrano from 1991 to 1993, and President from June 1-5, 1993.
Presidency
Serrano attempted a self-coup on May 25, 1993, but was forced to flee into exile on June 1.Jorge Serrano Elias CIDOB.org. (accessed January 22, 2010) Espina served as the interim president for four days until June 5, when he was forced to resign by Congress after evidence surfaced that he was involved in the coup. He spent the following years in exile, and in 1997 returned voluntarily to stand trial for his involvement in the coup. He was convicted of violating the constitution, but his sentence was commuted to a small fine.
References
Category:1946 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Jutiapa Department
Category:Presidents of Guatemala
Category:Vice presidents of Guatemala
Category:Guatemalan politicians convicted of crimes | {"Name": "Gustavo Espina", "Term start": "1 June 1993", "Term end": "5 June 1993", "Vice president": "None", "Order 2": "Vice President of Guatemala", "President 2": "Jorge Serrano", "Predecessor 2": "Roberto Carpio", "Successor 2": "Arturo Herbruger", "Birth date": "1946 11 26 y", "Birth place": "Horcones, Jutiapa Department, Guatemala", "Image caption": "Official portrait"} |
Presidential elections were held in Croatia in January 2000,Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p410 the third since independence in 1991. They were also the first early presidential elections, as they were held due to the death of incumbent president Franjo Tuđman on 10 December 1999, as well as being the last elections held under the semi-presidential system of government, by which the President was the most powerful official in the government structure and could appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister and their cabinet.
As no candidate received the required majority (50%+1 vote of the valid votes cast) in the first round on 24 January, a second round was held on 7 February, the first time a second round had been required in the country's history. The result was a victory for Stjepan Mesić of the Croatian People's Party, who received 56.01% of the vote. Voter turnout was 62.98% in the first round and 60.88% in the second round.Nohlen & Stöver, p420
Mesić was inaugurated for a five-year term as the second president of Croatia on 18 February 2000 at St Mark's Square in front of the justices of the Constitutional Court.
Results
First round results by county
CountyElectorateTotalvotesTurnoutMesićBudišaGranićLeticaĐapićLedićMerčepPrkačinŠeparovićVotes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Votes%Bjelovar-Bilogora 115,464 81,756 70.81%34,93642.73% 23,746 29.04% 17,109 20.93% 2,024 2.48% 1,767 2.16% 425 0.52% 917 1.12% 217 0.27% 139 0.17%Brod-Posavina 145,948 98,066 67.19%42,78243.63% 20,477 20.88% 26,389 26.91% 3,228 3.29% 2,205 2.25% 564 0.58%1,2651.29%3390.35%2280.23%Dubrovnik-Neretva 106,738 71,714 67.19%24,32833.92% 19,437 27.10% 20,483 28.56% 3,988 5.56%1,2791.78%6630.92%4440.62%2270.32%5090.71%Istria 181,971 129,491 71.16%79,83461.65% 30,016 23.18% 11,531 8.90% 5,001 3.86%8760.68%6400.49%5470.42%2490.19%1700.13%Karlovac 133,419 86,521 64.85%32,773 37.88% 22,201 25.66% 22,945 26.52% 3,282 3.79%2,9583.42%5220.60%8040.93%2560.30%1880.22%Koprivnica-Križevci 104,394 76,386 73.17%33,788 44.23% 23,571 30.86% 14,510 19.00% 1,975 2.59%1,0001.31%3600.47%5580.73%1780.23%1170.15%Krapina-Zagorje 116,767 83,329 71.36%44,34353.21% 18,821 22.59% 15,373 18.45% 2,110 2.53%6550.79%4480.54%6980.84%1480.18%1750.21%Lika-Senj 54,777 29,085 53.10%11,71140.26% 5,451 18.74% 9,170 31.53% 608 2.09%1,222 4.20%1310.45%4691.61%740.25%490.17%Međimurje 96,453 67,721 70.21% 26,808 39.59%26,88139.69% 10,002 14.77% 2,142 3.16%4680.69%3940.58%3360.50%1600.24%1520.22%Osijek-Baranja 286,877 190,343 66.35%84,91244.61% 52,913 27.80% 37,152 19.52% 6,256 3.29%4,2532.23%1,0130.53%1,8540.97%4750.25%5060.27%Požega-Slavonia 72,114 50,351 69.82%24,414 48.49% 10,138 20.13% 11,659 23.16% 1,345 2.67%9961.98%3350.67%9381.86%1280.25%1100.22% 276,501 191,448 69.24%76,28139.84% 69,254 36.17% 29,467 15.39% 9,863 5.15%2,5371.33%1,2610.66%1,0920.57%5050.26%4280.22%Sisak-Moslavina 166,038 103,513 62.34%38,668 37.36% 27,380 26.45% 26,511 25.61% 3,241 3.13%4,5814.43%5940.57%1,3661.32%3210.31%1930.19%Split-Dalmatia 382,290 254,740 66.64% 70,132 27.53%79,07831.04% 77,352 30.37% 15,935 6.26%3,6131.42%4,2061.65%1,7270.68%7480.29%6430.25%Šibenik-Knin 104,033 60,227 57.89% 15,798 26.23%19,41732.24% 18,492 30.70% 3,383 5.62%1,7442.90%4320.72%3210.53%1030.17%1650.27%Varaždin 151,498 113,131 74.67%49,70143.93% 36,219 32.02% 20,119 17.78% 3,337 2.95%1,387 1.23%5690.50%7270.64%2070.18%2860.25%Virovitica-Podravina 80,463 56,416 70.11%29,38252.08% 13,067 23.16% 9,769 17.32% 1,327 2.35%1,6152.86%2220.39%4620.82%1000.18%970.17%Vukovar-Syrmia 191,096 99,698 52.17%35,92536.03% 28,678 28.76% 25,369 25.45% 2,994 3.00%2,458 2.47%6990.70%2,328 2.34%2450.25%3060.31%Zadar 146,812 85,605 58.31%30,46435.59% 23,042 26.92% 21,951 25.64% 6,161 7.20%1,5081.76%7440.87%7600.893180.37%1890.22%Zagreb County 252,221 187,806 74.46%93,95650.03% 42,743 22.76% 36,930 19.66% 6,866 3.66%2,5381.35%1,528 0.81%1,5590.83%5530.29%3450.18%City of Zagreb 688,910 485,053 70.41%210,77843.45% 140,702 29.01% 88,457 18.24% 24,911 5.14%5,954 1.23%6,6181.36%3,0390.63%1,7380.36%1,3700.28%Voting abroad 396,325 75,161 18.96% 8,957 11.92% 8,605 11.45%50,84867.65% 805 1.07%3,6744.89%5070.67%4610.61%1200.16%8621.15%TOTAL 4,251,109 2,677,561 62.98%1,100,67141.11%741,83727.71% 601,588 22.47% 110,782 4.14%49,288 1.84%22,875 0.85%22,672 0.85%7,401 0.28%7,235 0.27%Source: State Election Committee
Second round results by county
thumb|Results of the 2nd round of the election based on the majority of votes in each municipality of Croatia
CountyElectorateTotalvotesTurnoutMesićBudišaVotes%Votes%Bjelovar-Bilogora 115,553 80,032 69.26%48,75161.57% 30,428 38.43%Brod-Posavina 145,955 95,504 65.43%44,92868.22% 29,995 31.78%Dubrovnik-Neretva 106,752 66,978 62.74%34,266 52.30% 31,250 47.70%Istria 182,085 126,155 69.28%88,802 70.89% 36,467 29.11%Karlovac 133,358 83,55562.65%49,36359.98% 32,936 40.02%Koprivnica-Križevci 104,398 74,941 71.78%44,458 59.78% 29,911 40.22%Krapina-Zagorje 116,795 82,395 70.55%57,454 70.38% 24,183 29.62%Lika-Senj 55,341 29,329 53.00%20,331 70.53% 8,496 29.47%Međimurje 96,515 66,654 69.06% 30,824 46.64%35,26153.36%Osijek-Baranja 287,153 185,695 64.67%112,066 60.91% 71,919 39.09%Požega-Slavonia 72,169 49,371 68.41%34,94271.52% 13,914 28.48%Primorje-Gorski Kotar 276,665 183,521 66.33% 89,167 49.08%92,498 50.92%Sisak-Moslavina 166,086 101,236 60.95%58,081 58.14% 41,811 41.86%Split-Dalmatia 382,509 242,414 63.37% 98,572 41.50%138,951 58.50%Šibenik-Knin 104,088 58,284 55.99% 22,548 39.33%34,788 60.67%Varaždin 151,508 109,924 72.55%61,860 56.75% 47,141 43.25%Virovitica-Podravina80,495 55,620 69.10%39,06770.93% 16,011 29.07%Vukovar-Syrmia 191,168 96,979 50.73%57,117 59.58% 38,755 40.42%Zadar 146,765 80,400 54.78%42,929 54.22% 36,253 45.78%Zagreb County 252,433 182,413 72.26%115,843 61.41% 64,887 35.90%City of Zagreb 691,102 467,610 67.66%246,811 53.31% 216,145 46.69%Voting abroad 394,028 70,110 17.79% 15,723 22.56%53,969 77.44%TOTAL 4,252,921 2,589,120 60.88%1,433,37256.01% 1,125,969 43.99%Source: State Election Committee
References
Category:Presidential elections in Croatia
Croatia
Category:2000 in Croatia
Category:January 2000 events in Europe
Category:February 2000 events in Europe
Category:2000 elections in Croatia
Category:Modern history of Croatia | {"Name": "2000 Croatian presidential election", "Country": "Croatia", "Type": "presidential", "Ongoing?": "no", "Previous election": "1997 Croatian presidential election", "Previous year": "1997", "Next election": "2005 Croatian presidential election", "Next year": "2005", "Election date": "24 January 2000 (first round)7 February 2000 (second round)", "Turnout": "62.98% (first round)60.88% (second round)", "Nominee 1": "Stjepan Mesić", "Party 1": "Croatian People's Party", "Popular vote 1": "1,433,372", "Percentage 1": "56.01%", "Nominee 2": "Dražen Budiša", "Party 2": "Croatian Social Liberal Party", "Popular vote 2": "1,125,969", "Percentage 2": "43.99%", "Map image": "Croatia 2005 results runoff (1).PNG", "Map size": "300px", "Map caption": "Results of the second round in all of Croatia's counties: the candidate with the majority of votes in each administrative division.Croatian People's Party Stjepan Mesić Croatian Social Liberal Party Dražen Budiša", "Title": "President", "Before election": "Zlatko Tomčić (Acting)", "Before party": "Croatian Peasant Party", "After election": "Stjepan Mesić", "After party": "Croatian People's Party"} |
Álvaro Enrique Arzú Irigoyen (; 14 March 1946 - 27 April 2018) was a Guatemalan politician and businessman who served as the 32nd President of Guatemala from 14 January 1996 until 14 January 2000. He was elected Mayor of Guatemala City on six occasions: in 1982, when he declined taking office because of a coup d'état; in 1986; in 2003, after serving as president; in 2007; in 2011, and in 2015, for a term that would see him die in office.
Early career
Born in Guatemala City, Arzú studied Social and Legal Sciences at Rafael Landívar University. In 1978 he became director of the Guatemalan Institute of Tourism (INGUAT); he occupied this position until 1981, when he was elected mayor of Guatemala City for the Guatemalan Christian Democracy (DCG) party. But in 1982 there was a military coup d'état and, although the elections were annulled, the military offered him to be the municipal intendent, which he declined. In 1986 he became mayor, after winning the election under the umbrella of the Plan for National Advancement civic committee.
In 1989 the civic committee became the National Advancement Party (PAN). Arzú was their presidential candidate for the 1990 elections, where he finished in fourth place with 17.3 percent of the vote. The winner, Jorge Serrano, appointed Arzú as minister for foreign affairs in 1991, but he resigned later that year in protest against Serrano's decision to normalize relations with Belize, over most of whose territory Guatemala has long-standing claims.
Presidency
Arzú won the first round of the 1995 general elections in November, and then narrowly beat Alfonso Portillo of the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG, Frente Republicano Guatemalteco) in the second round, which took place in January 1996. He obtained 51.2 percent of the vote.
The main achievement of Arzú's presidency was the signature of a peace accord with the guerrilla group Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which ended Guatemala's 36-year-long civil war. The negotiations had been going on since 1990, and Arzú gave them a vital new impulse when he met the URNG in Mexico on 26 February 1996. A ceasefire followed on 20 March and various peace agreements were signed as the year progressed. On 12 December an accord legalizing the URNG was signed in Madrid. On 18 December Congress passed a law giving a partial amnesty to the combatants, before the final accord for a firm and lasting peace was signed on 29 December.
As part of this peace accord, Arzú's government proposed a series of reforms to the Constitution of Guatemala; these reforms included disbanding the Presidential Guard, reducing the armed forces and recognizing the rights of indigenous communities. The proposed reforms were rejected in a referendum which took place in 1999.
Under Arzú's presidency, there was a significant investment in the country's infrastructure; particularly, the roads were improved, and electric and telephone coverage was increased. As part of this process, several public transportation and utility companies were privatized, which drew heavy criticism due to accusations of irregularities during the process. Some of these companies were the electric utility Empresa Eléctrica de Guatemala (EEGSA), the telephone service provider GUATEL, the national airline Aviateca, and the railway company FEGUA.
Among other challenges faced by Arzú's government were the murder of Archbishop Juan José Gerardi in 1998, which was later attributed to members of the Presidential Guard. Also, the destruction caused by Hurricane Mitch that same year, and the increase in the crime rate. Despite this, the gross domestic product grew about 3 percent annually and inflation was reduced to 5 percent.
Officers close to his government carried out assassinations of activists of social organizations.
Later career and death
After his presidential term, Arzú became a member of the Central American Parliament; he occupied this seat from 2000 to 2004. He was elected for a second term as mayor of Guatemala City in 2003, and was elected again in 2007, 2011, and 2015. His last term was set to finish in 2020.
During this period, Arzú established the Transmetro bus rapid transit system and worked on restoring the historical center of Guatemala City.
In his final years, 2017 and 2018, Arzú crusaded against the United Nations Commissioner of the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), Iván Velásquez, and against the Attorney General, Thelma Aldana, openly accusing them of carrying out a slow coup d'état against President Morales under the cover of a fight against corruption and impunity. In the meantime, he had come under fire himself. On 27 April 2018, Arzú had a heart attack while playing golf in Guatemala City. He died in hospital later that day.
Personal life
Arzú had three children with his first wife, Sylvia García Granados, and two children with his second wife, Patricia Escobar. His son, Álvaro Arzú Escobar, was president of the Congress of Guatemala.
He was Guatemala's national squash rackets champion on several occasions.
Awards
1996: UNESCO's Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize
1997: During his presidency, the government of Guatemala was awarded Spain's Prince of Asturias Award for International Co-operation.
Monseñor Leonidas Proaño Human Rights Prize (ALDHU)
2005: Ranked third in the World Mayor contest.
References
External links
Biography and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation
Profile citymayors
Arzú Alcalde 2007 mayoral campaign website
Category:1946 births
Category:2018 deaths
Category:Presidents of Guatemala
Category:Mayors of Guatemala City
Category:Foreign ministers of Guatemala
Category:People from Guatemala City
Category:National Advancement Party politicians
Category:Unionist Party (Guatemala) politicians
Category:Guatemalan people of Spanish descent
Category:Arzú family
Category:Grand Crosses with Diamonds of the Order of the Sun of Peru | {"Name": "Álvaro Arzú", "Image caption": "Official portrait, 1996", "Office 2": "Mayor of Guatemala City", "Deputy 2": "Ricardo Quiñónez Lemus", "Predecessor 2": "Fritz García Gallont", "Successor 2": "Ricardo Quiñónez Lemus", "Birth name": "Álvaro Enrique Arzú Irigoyen", "Birth date": "1946 03 14 y", "Birth place": "Guatemala City, Guatemala", "Death date": "2018 04 27 1946 03 14 y", "Death place": "Guatemala City, Guatemala", "Spouse(s)": "Sylvia García Granados (1969-1981)Patricia Escobar de Arzú (1981-2018; his death)"} |
The Western Cape ( ; ) is a province of South Africa, situated on the south-western coast of the country. It is the fourth largest of the nine provinces with an area of , and the third most populous, with an estimated 7 million inhabitants in 2020.Statistics South Africa, 2020. Mid- year population estimates. Available: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022020.pdf About two-thirds of these inhabitants live in the metropolitan area of Cape Town, which is also the provincial capital. The Western Cape was created in 1994 from part of the former Cape Province. The two largest cities are Cape Town and George.
Geography
thumb|400px|left|Topography of the Western Cape. The Roggeveld and Nuweveld mountains are part of the Great Escarpment (see diagrams below). The other mountain ranges belong to the Cape Fold Belt, also shown in the diagrams below. The Western Cape's inland boundary lies for the most part at the foot of the Great Escarpment.
The Western Cape Province is roughly L-shaped, extending north and east from the Cape of Good Hope, in the southwestern corner of South Africa. It stretches about northwards along the Atlantic coast and about eastwards along the South African south coast (Southern Indian Ocean). It is bordered on the north by the Northern Cape and on the east by the Eastern Cape. The total land area of the province is , about 10.6% of the country's total. It is roughly the size of England or the State of Louisiana. Its capital city and largest city is Cape Town, and some other major cities include Stellenbosch, Worcester, Paarl, and George. The Garden Route and the Overberg are popular coastal tourism areas.
The Western Cape is the southernmost region of the African continent with Cape Agulhas as its southernmost point, only 3800 km from the Antarctic coastline. The coastline varies from sandy between capes, to rocky to steep and mountainous in places. The only natural harbour is Saldanha Bay on the west coast, about 140 km north of Cape Town. However a lack of fresh water in the region meant that it has only recently been used as a harbour. The province's main harbour was built in Table Bay, which in its natural state was fully exposed to the northwesterly storms that bring rain to the province in winter, as well as the almost uninterrupted dry southeasterly winds in summer. But fresh water coming off Table Mountain and Devil's Peak allowed the early European settlers to build Cape Town on the shores of this less than satisfactory anchorage.
Topography
The province is topographically exceptionally diverse. Most of the province falls within the Cape Fold Belt, a set of nearly parallel ranges of sandstone folded mountains of Cambrian-Ordovician age (the age of the rocks is from 510 to about 330 million years ago; their folding into mountains occurred about 350 to about 270 million years ago).Compton, J. S. (2004). The Rocks and Mountains of Cape Town. pp. 24-26, 44-70. Double Storey Books, Cape Town.McCarthy, T., Rubridge, B. (2005). The Story of Earth and Life. pp. 188-195, 262-266. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.Truswell, J.F. (1977). The Geological Evolution of South Africa. pp. 93-96, 114-159. Purnell, Cape Town. The height of the mountain peaks in the different ranges varies from 1000 m to 2300 m. The valleys between ranges are generally very fertile, as they contain the weathered loamy soils of the Bokkeveld mudstones (see the diagrams below).
The far interior forms part of the Karoo. This region of the province is generally arid and hilly, with a prominent escarpment that runs close to the Province's most inland boundary.
File:NS cross section Southern Cape.jpg|A diagrammatic 400 km north-south crosssection through the Cape at approximately 21° 30' E (i.e. near Calitzdorp in the Little Karoo), showing the relationship between the Cape Fold Mountains (and their geological structure) and the geology of the Little and Great Karoo, as well as the position of the Great Escarpment. The colour code for the geological layers is the same as those used in the diagram above. The heavy black line flanked by opposing arrows is the fault that runs for nearly 300 km along the southern edge of the Swartberg Mountains. The Swartberg Mountain range owes some of its great height to upliftment along this fault line. The subsurface structures are not to scale.
Escarpment
The escarpment marks the southwestern edge of South Africa's central plateau (see the middle and bottom diagrams on the left).Atlas of Southern Africa. (1984). p. 13. Reader's Digest Association, Cape Town It runs parallel to the entire South African coastline, except in the very far northeast, where it is interrupted by the Limpopo River valley, and in the far northwest, where it is interrupted by the Orange River valley. The 1000 km-long northeastern stretch of the escarpment is called the Drakensberg, which is geographically and geologically quite distinct from the Cape Fold Mountains, which originated much earlier and totally independently of the origin of the escarpment.McCarthy, T.S. (2013) The Okavango delta and its place in the geomorphological evolution of Southern Africa. South African Journal of Geology 116: 1-54.Norman, n. & Whitfield, G. (2006). Geological Journeys. p.290-300. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
Rivers
The principal rivers of the province are the Berg and Olifants which drain into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Breede and Gourits which drain into the Indian Ocean.
Flora
The vegetation of the region is also extremely diverse, with one of the world's seven floral kingdoms almost exclusively endemic to the province, namely the Cape Floral Kingdom, most of which is covered by Fynbos (from the Afrikaans meaning "Fine Bush" (Dutch: Fijnbosch), though precisely how it came to be referred to as such, is uncertain.). These evergreen heathlands are extremely rich in species diversity, with at least as many plant species occurring on Table Mountain as in the entire United Kingdom. It is characterised by various types of shrubs, thousands of herbaceous flowering plant species and some grasses. With the exception of the Silver tree, Leucadendron argenteum, which only grows on the granite and clay soils of the Cape Peninsula, open fynbos is generally treeless except in the wetter mountain ravines where patches of Afromontane forest persist.
The arid interior is dominated by Karoo drought-resistant shrubbery. The West Coast and Little Karoo are semi-arid regions and are typified by many species of succulents and drought-resistant shrubs and acacia trees. The Garden Route on the south coast (between the Outeniqua Mountains and the Southern Indian Ocean) is extremely lush, with temperate rainforest (or Afromontane Forest) covering many areas adjacent to the coast, in the deep river valleys and along the southern slopes of the Outeniqua mountain range. Typical species are hardwoods of exceptional height, such as Yellowwood, Stinkwood and Ironwood trees.
Climate
The Western Cape is climatologically diverse, with many distinct micro- and macroclimates created by the varied topography and the influence of the surrounding ocean currents. These are the warm Agulhas Current which flows southwards along South Africa's east coast, and the cold Benguela Current which is an upwelling current from the depths of the South Atlantic Ocean along South Africa's west coast.Branch, M & Branch G. (1981). The Living Shores of Southern Africa. pp. 14-18. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.Tyson, P.D., Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2000) The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa. pp. 221-223. Oxford University Press, Cape Town Thus climatic statistics can vary greatly over short distances. Most of the province is considered to have a Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers. Both the Great Karoo and Little Karoo, in the interior, have an arid to semi-arid climate with cold, frosty winters and hot summers with occasional thunderstorms. The Garden Route and the Overberg on the south coast have a maritime climate with cool, moist winters and mild, moist summers. Mossel Bay in the Garden Route is considered to have the second mildest climate worldwide after Hawaii. The La Niña phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle tends to increase rainfall in this region in the dry season (November to April).
Thunderstorms are generally rare in the province (except in the Karoo) with most precipitation being of a frontal or orographic nature. Extremes of heat and cold are common inland, but rare near the coast. Snow is a common winter occurrence on the Western Cape Mountains occasionally reaching down into the more inland valleys. Otherwise, frost is relatively rare in coastal areas and many of the heavily cultivated valleys.
Political history
Cape Liberal Tradition
The Cape has had a long tradition of holding liberal values.J. Lewis: The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry: A Critique and Reassessment. Journal of Southern African Studies, XI, 1. 1984. For example, the Cape Qualified Franchise before the Union of South Africa.
Cape Qualified Franchise
The Cape Qualified Franchise was the system of non-racial franchise that was adhered to in the Cape Colony, and in the Cape Province in the early years of the Union of South Africa. Qualifications for the right to vote at parliamentary elections were applied equally to all men, regardless of race.
This local system of multi-racial suffrage was later gradually restricted, and eventually abolished, under various National Party and United Party governments. In 1930 white women were enfranchised, and in 1931 property qualifications for white voters were removed. In 1936 black voters were then removed from the common voters' rolls and allowed only to elect separate members in 1936, and subsequently denied all representation in the House of Assembly in 1960. Coloured voters similarly followed in 1958 and 1970, respectively.
Contribution of the Western Cape in the National Youth Uprisings
The Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) was a grassroots anti-Apartheid activist movement that emerged in South Africa in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum created by the jailing and banning of the African National Congress and Pan Africanist Congress leadership after the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960. The BCM represented a social movement for political consciousness.
In December 1968, the South African Student Organization (SASO) was formed at a conference held in Marianhill, Natal. The conference was exclusively attended by Black students. After its launch, SASO became the medium through which black consciousness ideology spread to schools and other university campuses across the country.
In 1974, South African Minister of Bantu Education and Development MC Botha, constituted the imposition of using Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in black schools, effective with students in Grade 7 (Standard 5) upwards. As early as March 1976, students began passive resistance against Afrikaans, fueling the outbreak of the Soweto Uprising on 16 June 1976. Consequently, the student protests spread to other parts of the country, and Cape Town became a pivotal site for Western Cape student revolt.
Student leaders at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) and the University of Cape Town (UCT) organised marches. Poster parades by UWC and Black Power Salute marches by UCT was broken by the police, resulting in 73 students getting arrested and detained at Victor Verster Prison, near Paarl.
On 1 September 1976, the unrest spread to the city of Cape Town itself. Approximately 2000 black students from Western Cape townships, namely Langa, Nyanga and Gugulethu, matched the Cape Town central business district (CBD). Coloured students also contributed to the protests by peacefully marching to the city, but were blockaded by the police in the CBD. The protests turned violent when coloured students started burning schools, libraries and a magistrate's court in support of the student revolt. Thereafter, 200,000 coloured workers partook in a two-day strike staying away from work in the Cape Town area.
According to a report by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), the Western Cape experienced the second highest number of deaths and casualties associated with the 1976 uprising protests.
1994 and the Western Cape post-apartheid
In 1994, at the introduction of the Interim Constitution and the first non-racial election, South Africa's original provinces and bantustans were abolished and nine new provinces were established. The former Cape Province was divided into the Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape and part of North West.
In the 1994 election, the Western Cape was one of two provinces that did not elect an African National Congress (ANC) provincial government (the other being KwaZulu-Natal). The National Party (NP) won 53% of the votes and 23 seats in the 42-seat provincial legislature, and Hernus Kriel, a former Minister of Law and Order, was elected Premier. He resigned in 1998 and was replaced by Gerald Morkel.
The 1999 election marked the beginning of a period of great turbulence in Western Cape politics. No party achieved an absolute majority in the provincial parliament, as the ANC won 18 seats while the New National Party (NNP), successor to the NP, won 17. The NNP went into coalition with the Democratic Party (DP), which won 5 seats, to form a government, and Morkel remained Premier. In 2000 the DP and the NNP formalised their coalition by forming the Democratic Alliance (DA).
In 2001, however, the NNP broke with the DA over the removal of Peter Marais from office as Mayor of Cape Town by DA leader Tony Leon. The NNP instead went into coalition with the ANC; Gerald Morkel, who was opposed to the split, resigned as Premier and was replaced by Peter Marais. In 2002 Marais resigned as Premier due to a sexual harassment scandal, and was replaced by NNP leader Marthinus van Schalkwyk. During the 2003 floor-crossing period four members of the provincial parliament crossed to the ANC, giving it an absolute majority of 22 seats in the 42-seat house. However, the ANC remained in coalition with the NNP and van Schalkwyk remained as Premier.
In the 2004 election, there was again no absolute winner in the provincial parliament; this time the ANC won 19 seats, the DA won 12, and the NNP won 5. The ANC-NNP coalition continued in power, but van Schalkwyk took up a ministerial post in the national cabinet and was replaced as Premier by the ANC's Ebrahim Rasool. The NNP was finally dissolved after the 2005 floor-crossing period and its members joined the ANC, again giving that party an absolute majority of 24 seats. In the 2007 floor-crossing period the ANC gained a further three members of the provincial parliament. In 2008 Rasool resigned as Premier due to internal party politics, and was replaced by Lynne Brown.
The 2009 election marked a significant change in Western Cape politics, as the Democratic Alliance won 51% of the votes and an absolute majority of 22 seats in the provincial parliament, while the ANC won 14 seats with 31% of the vote. The DA leader Helen Zille was elected Premier. In 2010 the Independent Democrats, which had won 3 seats with 5% of the vote, merged with the DA. In the 2014 election the DA won 59% of the votes and an absolute majority of 26 seats in the provincial parliament, while the ANC won 14 seats with 32% of the vote. In 2018 King Khoebaha Cornelius III Declared the independence of the "Sovereign State of Good Hope".
In the 2019 election, the DA retained their majority in the province, but with a reduction in support. It had won 24 seats with 55%. Helen Zille was term-limited and the DA premier candidate Alan Winde succeeded her. The ANC also lost support. It had received 12 seats with 28% support, its lowest showing since 1994. Veteran politician Peter Marais returned to the provincial parliament as the sole representative of the Freedom Front Plus. Patricia de Lille formed another party, Good, and it achieved a seat.
Cape Independence Movement
Since the late 2000s there has been growing support for Western Cape, or Greater Cape, independence from South Africa. Political parties such as the Cape Independence Party and organisations such as the Cape Independence Advocacy Group and CapeXit, wish to bring forth the constitutional and peaceful secession of the Cape. The Freedom Front Plus and Cape Coloured Congress have also stated that they support Cape independence.
There is substantial support for the idea with CapeXit garnering over 800,000 signed mandates in May 2021. A poll conducted in 2020 indicated that 36% of the Western Cape's population would support independence, while 47% would support a referendum on the issue. In 2021, a new poll indicated that 58% of the population would now support a referendum on independence, and 46% would support outright independence.
Law and government
thumb|left|Provincial government headquarters in Cape Town
The provincial government is established under the Constitution of the Western Cape, which was adopted in 1998. The people of the province elect the 42-member Western Cape Provincial Parliament every five years by a system of party-list proportional representation. The fifth provincial parliament was elected in the election of 8 May 2019; 24 seats are held by the Democratic Alliance, 12 by the African National Congress, 2 by the Economic Freedom Fighters, and 1 each by Good, the African Christian Democratic Party, Al Jama-ah, and the Freedom Front Plus. The provincial parliament is responsible for legislating within its responsibilities as set out by the national constitution; these responsibilities include agriculture, education, environment, health services, housing, language policies, tourism, trade, and welfare.
The provincial parliament also elects the Premier of the Western Cape to lead the provincial executive. Since 2019 the Premiership has been held by Alan Winde, former Provincial Minister of Community Safety. The Premier appoints ten members of the provincial legislature to serve as a cabinet of ministers, overseeing the departments of the provincial government. These departments are Agriculture, Community Safety, Cultural Affairs and Sport, Economic Development and Tourism, Education, Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, Health, Human Settlements, Local Government, Social Development, Transport and Public Works, and the Provincial Treasury.
Municipalities
The Western Cape Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and five district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 24 local municipalities.
In the following interactive map, the district and metropolitan municipalities are labelled in capital letters and shaded in various different colours.
Clicking on the district on the map loads the appropriate article:
Image:Map of the Western Cape with municipalities named and districts shaded (2016).svg|border|500px|alt=Western Cape Municipalities - Clickable Image|Western Cape districts and local municipalities. Clicking on the district on the map loads the appropriate article.
poly 38 136 122 70 178 212 100 226 64 170 w:Matzikama Local Municipality
poly 108 260 212 256 230 314 190 326 116 298 w:Cederberg Local Municipality
poly 116 328 176 348 194 392 138 366 98 368 w:Bergrivier Local Municipality
poly 62 366 114 402 84 432 50 398 w:Saldanha Bay Local Municipality
poly 100 446 140 424 140 396 176 448 160 470 110 456 w:Swartland Local Municipality
poly 124 482 152 496 130 576 w:City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality
poly 222 342 320 330 338 402 288 426 240 422 206 454 w:Witzenberg Local Municipality
poly 184 502 212 506 196 440 w:Drakenstein Local Municipality
poly 176 512 218 516 172 536 w:Stellenbosch Local Municipality
poly 204 544 254 534 306 546 276 576 226 570 w:Theewaterskloof Local Municipality
poly 184 580 230 586 276 602 284 638 w:Overstrand Local Municipality
poly 292 588 326 564 354 600 398 588 316 644 w:Cape Agulhas Local Municipality
poly 322 552 366 578 390 554 394 512 424 508 398 478 376 522 352 550 w:Swellendam Local Municipality
poly 216 480 242 520 272 482 256 458 w:Breede Valley Local Municipality
poly 280 468 366 470 310 534 w:Langeberg Local Municipality
poly 352 420 380 374 438 358 462 326 494 408 408 444 w:Laingsburg Local Municipality
poly 400 460 530 434 540 472 444 494 w:Kannaland Local Municipality
poly 526 504 542 570 590 568 578 508 w:Mossel Bay Local Municipality
poly 428 526 510 506 524 578 434 578 w:Hessequa Local Municipality
poly 550 436 638 440 640 466 554 482 w:Oudtshoorn Local Municipality
poly 598 526 610 490 652 484 632 530 w:George Local Municipality
poly 656 502 660 534 692 534 690 500 w:Knysna Local Municipality
poly 710 532 752 532 732 494 w:Bitou Local Municipality
poly 508 350 522 420 636 426 650 380 562 352 w:Prince Albert Local Municipality
poly 474 300 502 316 696 336 794 240 732 200 588 210 w:Beaufort West Local Municipality
poly 656 446 668 480 746 464 w:George Local Municipality
District and metropolitan municipalities
Name Code Seat Area(km2) Population(2016) Pop. density(per km2) Cape Winelands District Municipality DC2 Worcester 21,473 866,001 40.3 Central Karoo District Municipality DC5 Beaufort West 38,854 74,247 1.9 City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality CPT Cape Town 2,446 4,005,016 1,637.6 Garden Route District Municipality DC4 George 23,331 611,278 26.2 Overberg District Municipality DC3 Bredasdorp 12,239 286,786 23.4 West Coast District Municipality DC1 Moorreesburg 31,119 436,403 14.0
Local and metropolitan municipalities
Name Code District Seat Area(km2) Population(2016) Pop. density(per km2) Beaufort West Local Municipality WC053 Central Karoo Beaufort West 21,917 51,080 2.3 Bergrivier Local Municipality WC013 West Coast Piketberg 4,407 67,474 15.3 Bitou Local Municipality WC047 Garden Route Plettenberg Bay 992 59,157 59.6 Breede Valley Local Municipality WC025 Cape Winelands Worcester 3,834 176,578 46.1 Cape Agulhas Local Municipality WC033 Overberg Bredasdorp 3,471 36,000 10.4 Cederberg Local Municipality WC012 West Coast Clanwilliam 8,007 52,949 6.6 City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality CPT Cape Town 2,446 4,005,016 1,637.6 Drakenstein Local Municipality WC023 Cape Winelands Paarl 1,538 280,195 182.2 George Local Municipality WC044 Garden Route George 5,191 208,237 40.1 Hessequa Local Municipality WC042 Garden Route Riversdale 5,733 54,237 9.5 Kannaland Local Municipality WC041 Garden Route Ladismith 4,765 24,168 5.1 Knysna Local Municipality WC048 Garden Route Knysna 1,109 73,835 66.6 Laingsburg Local Municipality WC051 Central Karoo Laingsburg 8,784 8,895 1.0 Langeberg Local Municipality WC026 Cape Winelands Ashton 4,518 105,483 23.3 Matzikama Local Municipality WC011 West Coast Vredendal 12,981 71,045 5.5 Mossel Bay Local Municipality WC043 Garden Route Mossel Bay 2,001 94,135 47.0 Oudtshoorn Local Municipality WC045 Garden Route Oudtshoorn 3,540 97,509 27.5 Overstrand Local Municipality WC032 Overberg Hermanus 1,675 93,407 55.8 Prince Albert Local Municipality WC052 Central Karoo Prince Albert 8,153 14,272 1.8 Saldanha Bay Local Municipality WC014 West Coast Vredenburg 2,015 111,173 55.2 Stellenbosch Local Municipality WC024 Cape Winelands Stellenbosch 831 173,197 208.4 Swartland Local Municipality WC015 West Coast Malmesbury 3,707 133,762 36.1 Swellendam Local Municipality WC034 Overberg Swellendam 3,835 40,211 10.5 Theewaterskloof Local Municipality WC031 Overberg Caledon 3,259 117,167 36.0 Witzenberg Local Municipality WC022 Cape Winelands Ceres 10,753 130,548 12.1
Economy
thumb|500px|A wheat field near Porterville in the Bergriver Municipality. Wheat is a common agricultural crop in the area.
The Western Cape's total GDP for 2008 was R268bn, 14% of the country's total GDP, and R97,664 per capita. Provincially, it is the third highest contributor to the country's GDP behind Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal. It also has one of the fastest growing economies in the country, growing at 4% in 2008. At 19.3% the province has a lower unemployment rate than the national average standing at 20% in 2018. The Western Cape's Human Development Index is the highest in South Africa at 0.741 compared to the South African average of 0.705 in 2018.
The biggest sector in the Western Cape's economy is the financial, business services and real estate sectors contributing approximately R77 billion in 2008. Manufacturing was the second largest contributor valued at R43.7 billion in 2008 with the agricultural sector being the fastest growing at 10.6% in the same year. High-tech industries, international call centres, fashion design, advertising and TV production are niche industries rapidly gaining in importance.
The city of Cape Town accounts for roughly 80% of the Western Cape's GDP.
95% of wine produced in South Africa is produced in the Western Cape. South Africa is the 7th largest wine producing region in the world.
Transport
The Western Cape has an excellent network of highways comparable with any first-world country. The primary highways are the N1 (from Cape Town to Three Sisters, continuing outside the province towards Bloemfontein and Johannesburg), N2 (from Cape Town to Bloukrans River, towards Port Elizabeth), N7 (from Cape Town to Bitterfontein, continuing towards Springbok and Namibia) and N12 (from George to Three Sisters, continuing towards Kimberley and Johannesburg). Other routes are the "R" roads which connect the smaller towns. All major roads are tarred with major rural gravel roads well maintained. Limited access motorways are limited to the Cape Metropolitan Area, Winelands and Garden Route, however due to the low population density of the remainder of the province, the highways remain efficient and high-speed, except during peak holiday travel seasons, when travel can be slow-going in places due to heavy traffic.
Demographics
The 2011 Census recorded the population of the Western Cape as 5,822,734 people living in 1,634,000 households. As the province covers an area of , the population density was and the household density .
The age distribution of the province was as follows: 25.1% were under the age of 15, 18.3% from 15 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 18.0% from 45 to 64, and 5.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 28 years. For every 100 women there are 96 men.
49% of the people of the Western Cape described themselves as "Coloured", while 33% described themselves as "Black African", 17% as "White", and 1% as "Indian or Asian". Afrikaans is the plurality language, spoken as the first language of 50% of the province's population. IsiXhosa is the first language of 25% of the population, while English is the first language of 20%.
In 1996, the Western Cape province was 54.2% Coloured, 20.7% White, 20.9% black, 1% Indian/Asian, and 3.1% unspecified.
Roughly 16% (894,289 people) of the Western Cape's population in 2011 were born in the Eastern Cape, 3% (167,524) in Gauteng and 1% (61,945) in KwaZulu-Natal. People born outside of South Africa amounted to 4% of the province's population or 260,952 people. Between 2001 and 2007 the Western Cape received 41% of all internal migrants within South Africa with a large majority of these new Western Cape residents coming from the former Transkei region of the Eastern Cape; who were drawn by better economic prospects and higher standards of living.
Economic status
90% of households in the province have a flush toilet and 90% have refuse removed by the local council at least once a week. 75% of households have piped tap water inside the dwelling, while a further 13% have piped water on their property; 11% receive piped water at a community tap, while 1% have no access to piped water. One in seven people live in an informal dwelling. 86.9% of households use electricity for cooking, and 93% use it for lighting. 89% of households have a cellphone and 31% have a landline telephone, while 86% own a television, 81% own a refrigerator, and 34% own a computer. 44% of households have access to the Internet.
right|thumb|Towns and main roads in the Western Cape
The average annual household income was R143,460, the second-highest in the country after Gauteng. , 69% of the population aged 15-64 are economically active, and of these 25% are unemployed. Overall, 52% of the working-age population are employed. Around 2 million people in the Western Cape labour market (those aged 16 to 64) are employed, 1.3 million are not economically active, 552,733 are unemployed with an additional 122,753 who are discouraged work seekers who want to work but have given up looking for it.
Education
2.7% of residents aged 20 and over have received no schooling, 10.7% have had only some primary, 5.6% have completed primary school but gone no further, 38% have had some secondary education without finishing Grade 12, 28% have finished Grade 12 but gone no further, and 14% have higher education beyond the secondary level. Overall, 43% of residents have completed high school.
Cities and towns
Education
The Western Cape province has the most highly educated residents with a very skilled workforce in comparison to any other African region. The high school graduation rate is consistently around 80%, higher than any other province. The proportion of adults with a degree or higher was 4.8% (2005), the highest in the country.
The province also boasts four universities:
Cape Peninsula University of Technology
Stellenbosch University
University of Cape Town
University of the Western Cape
The province is also home to the South African Military Academy.
Culture
Cuisine
Types of cuisine originating from the Western Cape include Dutch and Malay cuisines. Other types of South African cuisine are also found and commonly enjoyed in the province. Over 50% of all cheese in South Africa is produced in the Western Cape. Four of the top ten entries in Trip Advisor's Best Fine Dining Restaurants - Africa list for 2021 are in the Western Cape.
Winelands
The Western Cape is known for its wine production and vineyards. The winelands are divided into six main regions: Boberg, Breede River Valley, Cape South Coast, Coastal Region, Klein Karoo and Olifants River. Each has unique climate, topography and fertile soil. Distilled wine or brandy is produced in the Cape Winelands, Overberg, and Garden Route districts of the province. Brandy from these regions is regarded as amongst the best in the world due to the high, legally-enforced distilling standards in the region, technically making it equivalent to Cognac.
See also
Cape Colony
Cape Independence
Cape Qualified Franchise
References
External links
Provincial Government of the Western Cape
Western Cape Tourism
Western Cape Investment and Trade Promotion Agency
Municipal Demarcation Board
Western Cape on Wazimap.co.za
Category:Provinces of South Africa
Category:States and territories established in 1994
Category:1994 establishments in South Africa | {"Type": "Parliamentary system", "Rank": "2325", "Density": "auto", "ISO 3166 code": "ZA-WC", "Website": "http://www.westerncape.gov.za/"} |
{{Infobox settlement
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| flag_size = 120px
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| motto = Omnia labor vincit (Labour will conquer all)
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| map_caption = Location of Mpumalanga in South Africa
| subdivision_type = Country
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| established_title = Established
| established_date = 27 April 1994
| seat_type = Capital
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| p2 = Nkangala
| p3 = Ehlanzeni
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| leader_name2 = Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature
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| area_rank = 8th in South Africa
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Mpumalanga () is a province of South Africa. The name means "East", or literally "The Place Where the Sun Rises" in the Nguni languages. Mpumalanga lies in eastern South Africa, bordering Eswatini and Mozambique. It shares borders with the South African provinces of Limpopo to the north, Gauteng to the west, the Free State to the southwest, and KwaZulu-Natal to the south. The capital is Mbombela.
Mpumalanga was formed in 1994, when the area that was the Eastern Transvaal was merged with the former bantustans KaNgwane, KwaNdebele and parts of Lebowa and Gazankulu. Although the contemporary borders of the province were only formed at the end of apartheid, the region and its surroundings have a history that extends back thousands of years. Much of its history, and current significance is as a region of trade.
History
Precolonial Era
alt=Lydenburg Head |thumb|One of the Lydenburg Heads from around A.D. 500 found in Mpumalanga
Archeological sites in the Mpumalanga region indicate settlement by humans and their ancestors dating back 1.7 million years. Rock paintings, engravings and other archeological evidence throughout the province indicate that Mpumalanga has a long history of human habitation by groups of hunter gathers. Excavations not far from the Mpumalanga border in the Origstad district, show evidence of Middle Stone Age habitation dating back to 40,000 years ago. The Lion Cavern, in Ngwenya on the Eswatini border, shows evidence of people mining iron ore in the Mpumalanga region and surrounding areas from at least 28 000 years ago.
Evidence from mine shafts and trade goods shows that there was notable industry in tin, copper, gold, iron, ochre, and bronze. The Lydenburg Heads, from around 500 CE, are Africa's oldest Iron Age artworks south of the equator and were found in Mpumalanga. Evidence from a site near Mbombela shows evidence of agricultural societies from between the 6th to 17th century.
Bokoni stone-walled sites on the Mpumalanga highveld are indicative of a large precolonial agropastoral society between ~1500 and 1820 CE. These societies became centers of trade, with increasingly large and centralised populations This pattern increased as they connected to the Portuguese trading post in Maputo Bay.
In this era, groups that would become the Swazi, Pedi, Ndebele, Mapulana and others established themselves in the area that is now Mpumalanga.
Colonial era
In 1845, as part of the Great Trek, the first Dutch-speaking colonial settlers arrived in what they called the eastern Transvaal. The rest of the 19th century in the region was characterised by colonial encroachment and conflict over land and political control. In 1852, the Boers established the South African Republic. The well established Pedi, Swazi and Zulu kingdoms put up significant resistance against the settlers. The Pedi fought wars with the Boers in 1876 (see Sekhukhune Wars) and the Zulu fought with British settlers in 1879 (see Anglo-Zulu War). These interconnected conflicts played a role in shifting the balance of power in southern Africa to colonial control. After 1860, missionaries, especially German missionaries like Alexander Merensky set up mission stations in the region, spreading Christianity and European values.
Just as the region had been a center for trade in the precolonial era, in the colonial era, the Eastern Transvaal region became an important thoroughfare for trade between Johannesburg and Delagoa Bay (now Maputo). Gold mining around areas like Pilgrims Rest and Barberton and farming were the main forms of economic activity. On farms in the Transvaal, under a system known as Inboekstelsel, Boers carried out raids to capture children and forced them into indentured labour. During the South African War, the region was the site of notable battles.
Apartheid
When the National Party came to power in 1948, their policy of apartheid intensified the segregation that had defined communities in the Transvaal. Under a policy of forced removals, Black South Africans were evicted from areas reserved for white people and moved into homelands, including KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, Lebowa and Gazankulu. As the apartheid regime implemented oppressive policies that defined almost every aspect of life, activists responded with resistance.
In 1959, the small town of Bethal on what is now the Mpumalanga highveld was the center of the anti-apartheid consumer potato boycott in response to the working conditions Black South African labourers faced on farms in the area. The region was influenced by dynamics in exile and elsewhere in the country, for instance Black Consciousness, the Sharpeville Massacre and the 1976 Soweto Uprisings. In the 1980s, under intense repression, youth and labour organizations moblized against the government and townships and Bantustans erupted in political unrest and violence.
In 1986, an avoidable disaster killed 177 mine workers in Kinross Mine in the region's highveld. The response to the disaster by the National Union of Mineworkers was a key point in the South African labour struggle. By the late 1980s, the intensity of resistance across South Africa (including areas like Mpumalanga, which hadn't previously been seen as key areas of resistance) combined with economic factors and international pressure was strong enough to end apartheid. On 27 April 1994, when South Africa held its first democratic elections, Mpumalanga province was formed. It was originally called the "Eastern Transvaal" province, but the name was later changed to Mpumalanga on 24 August 1995.
Post-apartheid
The liberation movement turned leading party, the African National Congress (ANC) came into power in Mpumalanga after white minority rule ended. A program of land redistribution, aimed at granting land back to the black communities who were forcibly moved during apartheid, had redistributed tens of thousands of hectares to these communities and their descendants. However, the process has been marked by corruption, controversy and has been seen as inadequate to address the extent of apartheid spatial planning.
In 2001, 1,270 hectares of the Boomplaats farm near Mashishing was the first farm in South Africa to be expropriated.
Geography
alt=A view of mountains near Barberton in Mpumalanga. The image shows rocks in the foreground and steep, grassy green mounains covered in mist at their peaks.|thumb|A view from the mountains of the Barberton Geotrail, where evidence of earliest signs of life (3.2 billion-years-old) was found.
The Drakensberg escarpment divides Mpumalanga into a westerly half consisting mainly of high-altitude grassland called the Highveld and an eastern half situated in low-altitude subtropical Lowveld/Bushveld, mostly savanna habitat. The southern half of the Kruger National Park is in the latter region. The Drakensberg exceeds heights of 2000 m in most places, with this central region of Mpumalanga being very mountainous. These regions have alpine grasslands and small pockets of Afromontane forest. The Lowveld is relatively flat with interspersed rocky outcrops. The Lebombo Mountains form a low range in the far east, on the border with Mozambique.
Some of the oldest rocks on earth have been found in the Barberton area; these ancient greenstones and metamorphosed granites form the Crocodile River Mountains in the southeast of the province. The Lowveld is underlaid by African Cratonic Basement rocks of ages in excess of 2 billion years. The Highveld is mostly Karoo Sequence sedimentary rock of a younger, Carboniferous to Permian age.
Mpumalanga is the only South African province to border two provinces of Mozambique (Gaza Province to the northeast and Maputo Province to the east), as well as all four regions of Eswatini (Lubombo, Hhohho, Manzini, and Shiselweni districts).
Climate
The Lowveld is subtropical, due to its latitude and proximity to the warm Indian Ocean. The Highveld is comparatively much cooler and drier, due to its elevation of 1700 m to 2300 m above sea level. The Drakensberg escarpment receives the most precipitation, with all other areas being moderately well-watered by mostly-summer thunderstorms. The Highveld often experiences considerable freezing, while the Lowveld is mostly frost-free. Winter rainfall is rare, except for some drizzle on the escarpment. The differences in climate are demonstrated by comparing the capital, Mbombela, which is in the Lowveld, with Belfast, which is an hour away on the Highveld:
Mbombela averages: January maximum: 29 °C (min: 19 °C), July maximum: 23 °C (min: 6 °C), annual precipitation: 767 mm
Belfast averages: January maximum: 23 °C (min: 12 °C), June maximum: 15 °C (min: 1 °C), annual precipitation: 878 mm
With climate change in the province, rainfall is becoming more variable, temperatures and evaporation rates are rising and extreme weather events are becoming more frequent. It is predicted that these changes will shift biomes so that most of the province will be savanna. thumb|Proteas near Sabie
Ecology
Some of the earliest signs of life on Earth have been found in Mpumalanga. In the Makhonjwa mountain range's greenstone belt near Barberton, a fossil layer shows microbial activity that is 3.22 billion years old. This discovery indicates that life emerged on Earth 300 million years earlier than previously thought.
Mpumalanga has a high plant and animal diversity. Many species are endemic to the province.
Endemic species
A partial list of species that are endemic to Mpumalanga
Roust Golden Mole (Amblysomus robustus), a mammal in the golden mole family.
Treur River Barb (Enteromius treurensis), a river fish.
Barberton sugarbush (Protea curvata), a protea plant threatened by mining activity.
Sim's Spotted Aloe (Aloe simii) an aloe threatened by road construction.
Komati Waterberry (Syzygium komatiense) a species of waterberry tree.
Thorncroftia lotterii , a flowering plant.
Acontias albigularis, a lizard species.
Procrica mariepskopa, a moth species.
Inkomati Mountain Catfish (Amphilius engelbrechti)
Yellow Baberton Grass Aloe (Aloe craibii)
Longtom oneye (Monopsis kowynensis)
Graskop cliff aloe (Aloe nubigena)
alt=A view of a river in midsummer in the Kruger National Park. It features a river surrounded by lush, green vegetation.|thumb|Kruger National Park, South Africa's largest conservation area
Conservation areas
The diverse and special flora and fauna of the province enjoys protection in a range of nature reserves.
Barberton Nature Reserve
Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve
Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, previously known as Gaza-Kruger-Gonarezhou Transfrontier Park. This international game park brings together some of the best and most established wildlife areas in southern Africa. The park is managed as an integrated unit across an unprecedented three international boundaries which includes the Kruger National Park (South Africa), Limpopo National Park (Mozambique) and Gonarezhou National Park (Zimbabwe).
Lowveld National Botanical Garden in Mbombela
Sabi Sand Game Reserve, which is built up of numerous private reserves: Nottens Bush Camp, Idube Safari Lodge, Chitwa Chitwa Game Lodge, Djuma Game Reserve, Exeter Game Lodge, Inyati Private Game Reserve, Leopard Hills Private Game Reserve, Lion Sands Private Game Reserve, Londolozi Game Reserve, Mala Mala Game Reserve, Savanna Private Game Reserve and Ulusaba Game Lodge.
Verloren Vallei near Dullstroom
Many species of plants are unique to the different geological formations within Mpumalanga. Some examples of these formations include serpentines of Barberton Mountains, norites of Sekhukhuneland, quartzites of Blyde River Canyon, and the dolomites in the northern plateaus.
Law and government
Mpumalanga is governed by the Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature, a unichameral system of 30 legislators democratically elected though a closed list system. Under the constitution of South Africa, the legislature is intended to create laws, promote public participation and provide oversight. From 1994 to the present, the African National Congress has been the leading party in the Mpumalanga legislature. As of the 2019 elections, the Economic Freedom Fighters, Democratic Alliance and Freedom Front Plus are in opposition in the legislature. Elected every five years, the premier of Mpumalanga is the head of government in the province. Since 2018, Refilwe Mtsweni-Tsipane has held the office of premier.
Municipalities
thumb|Mpumalanga districts and local municipalities
Mpumalanga Province is divided into three district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 18 local municipalities:
District municipalities
Ehlanzeni District
Bushbruckridge
Mbombela
Nkomazi
Thaba Chweu
Umjindi
Gert Sibande District
Albert Luthuli
Dipaleseng
Govan Mbeki
Lekwa
Mkhondo
Msukaligwa
Pixley ka Seme
Nkangala District
Delmas
Dr JS Moroka
Emalahleni
Highlands
Steve Tshwete
Thembisile
Economy
Farming
alt=Recently planted fields in Mpumalanga|thumb|Farm in Mpumalanga highveld
68% of land area in the province is used by agriculture. The climatic contrasts between the drier Highveld region, with its cold winters, and the hot, humid Lowveld allow for a variety of agricultural activities. Mpumalanga has been an important supplier of fruit and vegetables for local and international markets for decades. A history of dispossession mean that farming land is largely white owned, although policies of land redistribution era aim to address this.
Crops include maize, wheat, sorghum, barley, sunflower seed, soybeans, macadamias, groundnuts, sugar cane, vegetables, coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, citrus, subtropical and deciduous fruit. Natural grazing covers approximately 14% of Mpumalanga. The main products are beef, mutton, wool, poultry and dairy.
Farming in the province is driven by both a combination of seasonal, permanent and temporary labourers. Conditions on farms vary widely but seasonal and temporary workers, many of whom are migrant workers from nearby Mozambique, face intense insecurity.
Forestry is extensive around Sabie and Graskop. Located near the forests, Ngodwana is the site of one of South Africa's largest paper mills (Sappi).Mpumalanga in brief: The economy of the province (URL accessed 30 April 2006)
Mining
Extensive mining is done and the minerals found include gold, platinum group metals, silica, chromite, vanadiferous magnetite, argentiferous zinc, antimony, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, tin, coal, andalusite, chrysotile asbestos, kieselguhr, limestone, magnesite, talc and shale.
Gold was first discovered in Mpumalanga province in 1883 by Auguste Roberts in the mountains surrounding what is now Barberton. Gold is still mined in the Barberton area today."Barberton" , Mpumalanga South Africa, ExploreSouthAfrica.net. (URL accessed 30 April 2006)
Mpumalanga accounts for 83% of South Africa's coal production. 90% of South Africa's coal consumption is used for electricity generation and the synthetic fuel industry. Coal power stations are in proximity to the coal deposits. A coal liquefaction plant in Secunda (Secunda CTL) is one of the country's two petroleum-from-coal extraction plants, which is operated by the synthetic fuel company Sasol."Coal", South Africa Country Analysis Brief, Energy Information Administration. (URL accessed 30 April 2006)
The high density of coal power stations on the Mpumalanga highveld means that the region has the highest levels of nitrogen dioxide pollution in the world.
Attractions
Mpumalanga is popular with tourists. Kruger National Park, established in 1898 for the protection of Lowveld wildlife, covering , is a popular destination."Kruger National Park", South Africa Explored. The other major tourist attractions include the Sudwala Caves and the Blyde River Canyon.
Many activities including the big jump, mountain and quad biking, horse trails, river rafting and big game viewing are endemic to the region. This is "Big Five" territory. Towns in the Lowveld are Barberton, Mbombela, White River, Sabie, Graskop, Hazyview, Malelane, Pilgrim's Rest, Lydenburg and Nkomazi.
In 2008, a Haute Cuisine route was formed, trickling from Mbombela down to Hazyview. The Lowveld Gourmet Route covers the four top fine dining restaurants the area has to offer. The restaurants include Summerfields Kitchen, Oliver's Restaurant, Orange and Salt.Mpumalanga Haute Cuisine
Culture
alt=Brightly coloured and boldly patterned Ndebele beadwork and clothing|thumb|Ndebele traditional dress
Mpumalanga is home to a diverse range of cultures, including Swazi, Ndebele, Afrikaans, Tsonga, Zulu, Mapulana, Portuguese and Pedi communities.
The Ndebele Cultural Village at Botshabelo is a renowned center of cultural heritage, with displays of Ndebele house painting. Ndebele artist Esther Mahalangu gained international acclaim for her artwork rooted in Ndebele traditions and geometric patterns. Prominent South African artist Gerard Sekoto was born in Botshabelo.
Many celebrated South African musicians, such as Ray Phiri, Rebecca Malope and Pretty Yende, are from Mpumalanga.
Since 2003, Mpumalanga's capital city, Mbombela, has hosted the Afrikaans national arts festival Innibos. The festival features music, comedy, arts, crafts and theatre.
Gallery
File:Landscape kruger-park.jpg|Kruger National Park.
File:Motlatse Canyon Bourke's Luck Potholes bridge (2).jpg|Bourke's Luck Potholes.
File:Three Rondavels Blyde River Canyon.jpg|Three Rondavels of the Blyde River Canyon.
File:Eastern Transvaal.jpg|Escarpment.
File:Lisbon Falls - Tvl.jpg|Lisbon Falls.
File:Pilgrim Rest.jpg|Pilgrim's Rest.
File:Blyde.jpg|Treur River
Demographics
thumb|Population density in Mpumalanga
thumb|Dominant home languages in Mpumalanga
Mpumalanga's population is 4,039,939 people (according to the 2011 census). The average population density is 52.81 people per km².
Some 30% of the people speak siSwati, the language of neighbouring Eswatini, with 26% speaking isiZulu, 10.3% isiNdebele, 10.2% Sepedi and 11.6% Xitsonga. As of the 2011 census, approximately 90.65% of Mpumalanga's population are Black, 7.51% are White, and 0.91% are Coloured and 0.69% are Indian or Asian.
See also
List of heritage sites in Mpumalanga
List of speakers of the Mpumalanga Provincial Legislature
References
External links
Mpumalanga Provincial Government
Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Agency
Category:Provinces of South Africa
Category:States and territories established in 1994
Category:1994 establishments in South Africa | {"Zulu": "iMpumalanga", "Afrikaans": "Mpumalanga", "Swazi": "iMpumpalanga", "Southern Ndebele": "iPumalanga"} |
Richard Charles Albert Holbrooke (April 24, 1941 - December 13, 2010) was an American diplomat and author. He was the only person to have held the position of Assistant Secretary of State for two different regions of the world (Asia from 1977 to 1981 and Europe from 1994 to 1996).
From 1993 to 1994, he was U.S. Ambassador to Germany. He was long well-known among journalists and in diplomatic circles. Holbrooke became familiar to the wider public in 1995 when, with former Swedish prime minister Carl Bildt, they brokered a peace agreement among the warring factions in Bosnia leading to the signing of the Dayton Peace Accords. Holbrooke was a prime contender to succeed Warren Christopher as Secretary of State but was passed over in 1996 as President Bill Clinton chose Madeleine Albright instead. From 1999 to 2001, Holbrooke served as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations.
He was an adviser to the presidential campaign of Senator John Kerry in 2004. Holbrooke then joined the 2008 presidential campaign of Senator Hillary Clinton and became a top foreign policy adviser. Holbrooke was considered a likely candidate for Secretary of State had Kerry or Hillary Clinton been elected president. In January 2009, Holbrooke was appointed as a special adviser on Pakistan and Afghanistan, working under President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. During his career, Holbrooke worked to improve the lives of refugees, particularly the Hmong of Indochina. On December 13, 2010, Holbrooke died from complications of an aortic dissection.
Holbrooke's unfulfilled ambition was to become Secretary of State; he, along with George Kennan and Chip Bohlen, were considered among the most influential U.S. diplomats who never achieved that position. Several considered Holbrooke's role in the Dayton Accords to merit the Nobel Peace Prize.
Early life
Holbrooke was born on April 24, 1941, in New York City, to Dan Holbrooke, a doctor, and Trudi Kearl (née Moos), a potter; brother, Andrew, survives him.Sciolino, Elaine. - "Man in the News - Richard C. Holbrooke; A Tough Man (Some Say Brutal) for a Tough Job". - The New York Times. - June 19, 1998. Holbrooke's mother, whose Jewish family fled Hamburg in 1933 for Buenos Aires before coming to New York, took him to Quaker meetings on Sundays. She stated: "I was an atheist, his father was an atheist... We never thought of giving Richard a Jewish upbringing. The Quaker meetings seemed interesting."
Holbrooke's father, who died of colon cancer when Richard was 15 years old, was born of Polish Jewish parents in Warsaw and took the name Holbrooke after migrating to the United States in 1939. The original family name was Goldbrajch.Petition for Naturalization of Dan Holbrooke, U.S. District, Southern District New York Court #487977 dated May 22, 1944 During his teens, Holbrooke spent more time at the house of his friend David Rusk than his own home. David's father was Dean Rusk who became President Kennedy's Secretary of State in 1960. Rusk inspired Holbrooke; however, he did not give him any special treatment during his career.
After Scarsdale High School, Holbrooke earned a Bachelor of Arts in history from Brown University in 1962, attending on a full-tuition scholarship. He was later a fellow at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University, leaving in 1970.
At Brown, Holbrooke was the Editor-in-Chief of the Brown Daily Herald in his senior year (1961-62).
Career
Foreign Service (1962-1969)
President John F. Kennedy's call to service inspired Holbrooke to enter government work. A few weeks after college graduation, Holbrooke entered the Foreign Service where he underwent Vietnamese language training. He served for six years in Vietnam, first in the Mekong Delta, as a civilian representative for the Agency for International Development working on the rural Pacification Program, a program supporting the South Vietnam government with economic development and enacting local political reforms. Holbrooke later became a staff assistant to Ambassadors Maxwell Taylor and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., by securing the position from his best friend, Anthony Lake.
During this time, he served with many other young diplomats who would play a major role in American foreign policy in the decades ahead, including John Negroponte, Frank G. Wisner, Les Aspin and Peter Tarnoff. When Holbrooke was 24, he joined a team of experts, formed by President Lyndon Johnson that was separate from the National Security Council.
Following his time in the White House, Holbrooke served as a special assistant to Under Secretaries of State (then the number-two position in the State Department) Nicholas Katzenbach and Elliot Richardson. In 1968, Holbrooke was asked to be part of the American delegation to the 1968 Paris peace talks, which was led by former New York Governor Averell Harriman and Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance. He also drafted a volume of the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret report on the government's decision-making in Vietnam. Following these assignments, Holbrooke spent a year as a mid-career fellow at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University.
Peace Corps and Foreign Policy (1970-1976)
In 1970, at his own request, Holbrooke was assigned to be the Peace Corps Director in Morocco. Holbrooke initially rejected an offer to become the editor of the magazine Foreign Policy instead recommending his friend, John Campbell. After two years, he left the Foreign Service to become the managing editor of the magazine after Campbell died of thyroid cancer. Holbrooke held the position from 1972-1976. During his tenure, the magazine ran investigative reports on Vietnam and the Middle East which disturbed some members of the foreign policy community. At the same time (1974-75), he was a consultant to the President's Commission on the Organization of the Government for the Conduct of Foreign Policy and was a contributing editor to Newsweek International.
Carter Administration (1977-1981)
In the summer of 1976, Holbrooke left Foreign Policy to serve as campaign coordinator for national security affairs to Governor Jimmy Carter (D-Ga.) in his bid for the White House. During the campaign, Holbrooke helped Carter prepare for his foreign policy debates with President Gerald Ford. After Carter's victory, Holbrooke followed in the footsteps of such diplomatic mentors as Philip Habib, Dean Rusk and Averell Harriman and, on March 31, 1977, became Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, making him the youngest person ever to hold that position, a post he held until 1981. While at State, he was a top adviser to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance. During his service, he feuded with Carter's National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzezinski, although they both held similar positions on policy. Holbrooke oversaw a warming with Cold War adversaries in the region, culminating in the normalization of relations with China in December 1978. He was also deeply involved in bringing hundreds of thousands of Indochinese refugees to the United States, thus beginning a lifelong involvement with the refugee issue.
East Timor controversy
In August 1977, then Assistant Secretary of State, Holbrooke traveled to Indonesia to meet with President Suharto in the midst of Indonesia's occupation of East Timor, in which over 100,000 East Timorese were ultimately killed or starved to death. According to Brad Simpson, director of the Indonesia and East Timor Documentation Project at the National Security Archives, Holbrooke had visited officially to press for human rights reform but, after meeting Suharto, had instead praised him for Indonesia's human rights improvements, for the steps that Indonesia had taken to open East Timor to the West, and for allowing a delegation of congressmen to enter the territory under strict military guard, where they were greeted by staged celebrations welcoming the Indonesian armed forces.
Wall Street years (1981-1993)
In January 1981, Holbrooke left government and became both senior advisor to Lehman Brothers and vice president of Public Strategies, a consulting firm he formed with James A. Johnson, a former top aide to Walter Mondale. From 1985 until 1993, Holbrooke served as managing director of Lehman Brothers. During this time, he co-authored Counsel to the President, The New York Times best-selling memoirs of legendary Democratic wise man and Defense Secretary Clark Clifford, published in 1991. He was a top policy adviser to then-Senator Al Gore (D-TN) during his 1988 campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination. And four years later he advised Bill Clinton, in his quest for the White House.
Holbrooke also remained deeply engaged in prominent foreign policy issues. He visited Bosnia twice in 1992 as a private citizen and a member of the board of Refugees International, witnessing firsthand the damage and devastating human costs of the conflict. This experience committed Holbrooke to pursuing a more aggressive policy in the Balkans and, in a memo to his colleagues, he urged that "Bosnia will be the key test of American policy in Europe. We must therefore succeed in whatever we attempt."
U.S. Ambassador to Germany (1993-1994)
In 1993, after Bill Clinton became President, Holbrooke was initially slated to be Ambassador to Japan due to his depth of knowledge and long experience in Asian affairs. However, this appointment eventually went to former Vice President Walter Mondale, and Holbrooke unexpectedly was appointed Ambassador to Germany. In 1992, Holbrooke was also a member of the Carnegie Commission on America and a Changing World and Chairman and principal author of the bipartisan Commission on Government and Renewal, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation and the Peterson Institute. He was Chairman and principal author of the "Memo to the President-Elect: Harnessing Process to Purpose," a blue-ribbon Commission report sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Institute for International Economics.
Holbrooke served in Germany during a dramatic moment: only a few years after German reunification, he helped shape U.S. relations with a new Germany. A highlight of his tenure was President Bill Clinton's visit to Berlin in July 1994, when thousands of Germans crammed the streets to welcome the American leader. While in Germany, Holbrooke also was a key figure in shaping the U.S. policy to promote NATO enlargement, as well as its approach to the war in Bosnia.
In 1994, while serving as U.S. Ambassador to Germany, he conceived the idea of a cultural exchange center between the people of Berlin and Americans. With Richard von Weizsäcker, former President of Germany, and Henry A. Kissinger as co-Chairman, this institution—The American Academy in Berlin—was announced on September 9, 1994, the day after the U.S. Army Berlin Brigade left Berlin. The American Academy in Berlin opened three years later in a villa on the Wannsee once owned by the German-Jewish banker Hans Arnhold. The American Academy in Berlin is now (as of 2009) one of the most important links between Germany and the United States. Its Fellows have included writers (including Pulitzer Prize winning authors Arthur Miller and Jeffrey Eugenides), economists, government officials, and public policy experts such as Dennis Ross and former U.S. Ambassador to The People's Republic of China, J. Stapleton Roy. In 2008, The American Academy in Berlin awarded its annual Henry A. Kissinger Award for Transatlantic Relations to George H. W. Bush. In 2007, the Award's first recipient was former German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt.
Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs (1994-1996)
thumb|right|Holbrooke and Carl Bildt before peace talks in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1995.
In 1994, Holbrooke returned to Washington to become the assistant secretary for European and Eurasian Affairs, a position he held until 1996, when he resigned for personal reasons (he had recently married the author Kati Marton and wished to return to New York). While assistant secretary, Holbrooke led the effort to implement the policy to enlarge NATO and had the distinction of leading the negotiation team charged with resolving the Balkans crisis.
On August 19, an Armoured personnel carrier following the Humvee Holbrooke was riding in fell off the side of Mt. Igman near Sarajevo. Three of Holbrooke's five-man delegation team perished in the incident. In Holbrooke's telling of the incident, he portrayed himself and the other surviving member of his delegation, General Clark, as active participants in the rescue mission. However, Holbrooke's biographer George Packer, discredited Holbrooke's story, stating that another man traveling with the delegation, Colonel Banky, was in fact the person who searched for the APC while Holbrooke and Clark waited near the Humvee. A report on the incident stated that the driver of the APC was going too fast.
In Paris in December 1995, Holbrooke was the chief architect of the Dayton Peace Accords which ended the three-and-a-half-year-long war in Bosnia.AMANPOUR, CHRISTIANE. "Holbrooke." New Republic 242.1 (2011): 9-10. BusinessSource Elite. Web. September 28, 2012. In 1996, he was awarded the Manfred Wörner Medal, awarded by the German Ministry of Defense for public figures who have rendered "special meritorious service to peace and freedom in Europe."
Balkan envoy (1996-1999)
Upon leaving the State Department, Holbrooke was asked by President Clinton to become, as a private citizen, a special envoy to the Balkans given his service in the region. In 1997, Holbrooke became a special envoy to Cyprus and the Balkans on a pro-bono basis as a private citizen. During 1998 and 1999, in his capacity as special presidential envoy, Holbrooke worked to end the conflict between the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who were fighting for an independent Kosovo in the Kosovo War. Holbrooke returned to Bosnia two years later to the city of Sarajevo. In March 1999 he traveled to Belgrade to deliver the ultimatum to Yugoslav president Slobodan Milošević before the NATO attack began. Holbrooke was strongly anti-Serbia and referred to Serbs as "murderous assholes". Holbrooke wrote numerous articles about his experiences in the Balkans, and in 1998, published the widely acclaimed book, To End a War, a memoir of his time as the chief negotiator of the Dayton Peace Accords, ending the Bosnian civil war. The New York Times ranked the book as one of the eleven best books of the year in 1998.
According to Radovan Karadžić and Muhamed Sacirbey, ex-Bosnian Foreign Minister, Holbrooke signed an agreement with Karadžić that if the latter withdrew from politics he would not be sent to the Hague tribunal. Holbrooke denied these terms, saying Karadžić's statement was "a flat-out lie."
Holbrooke and Bildt were considered candidates for the Nobel Peace Prize as a result of the Dayton Peace Accords. However, Holbrooke's personal lobbying for the award may have been detrimental to their chances.
U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (1999-2001)
In August 1999, Holbrooke was sworn-in as the 22nd U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, replacing Bill Richardson. Holbrooke initially had issues passing the Senate because of perceived abuses of authority while as Clinton's Balkan envoy. During his tenure, Holbrooke was known for innovation and for achieving diplomatic breakthroughs that settled a series of longstanding tensions in the United States' relationship with the UN. His highest-profile accomplishment was negotiating a historic deal between the United States and the UN's then 188-Member States to settle the bulk of arrears owed by the United States to the United Nations. The deal, achieved with the agreement of the UN's entire membership in late December 2000, lowered the rate of UN dues paid by the United States to the UN, fulfilling the terms of a U.S. law championed by Senators Jesse Helms (R-NC) and Joseph Biden (D-DE). In return for the reduction, the United States paid the UN over $900 million in back dues. During his time as ambassador Hobrooke forgo the official ambassador's residence at the Waldorf Astoria hotel instead letting his chief of staff temporarily use the residence.
Holbrooke secured a reduction in U.S. dues to the UN despite a booming American economy by enfolding the U.S. position within a broad push to update the UN's long-outdated financial system. As negotiations reached a critical phase in the fall of 2000, Holbrooke bridged a gap between what the United States was legally permitted to pay and the amounts the rest of the UN membership were willing to shoulder by securing an unprecedented contribution by billionaire Ted Turner, founder of the UN Foundation. Holbrooke and his team received a standing ovation in the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee when the terms of the deal were presented.
Holbrooke's other achievements as UN Ambassador included getting the United Nations Security Council to debate and pass a resolution on HIV/AIDS, the first time that body had treated public health as a matter of global security. In January 2000, Holbrooke used the United States' presidency of the UN Security Council to spotlight a series of crises in Africa, holding six consecutive UN debates that brought together leaders from the region and the across the globe, including former South African President Nelson Mandela and then U.S. Vice President Al Gore, to catalyze more effective UN interventions in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and elsewhere. Holbrooke decried a "double standard" whereby African conflicts received insufficient global attention.
In 2000, Holbrooke led a UN Security Council delegation in a series of diplomatic negotiations throughout Africa, including to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, and Uganda. Holbrooke also secured membership for Israel in the UN's Western European and Others regional group, ending Israel's historic exclusion from regional group deliberations and allowing it to, for the first time, stand for election to leadership positions in UN sub-bodies.Press Release: Israel Accepted to WEOG An Achievement for Israeli Diplomacy. - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. - The State of Israel. - May 28, 2000. During the final weeks of his term, Holbrooke secured consultative status at the United Nations for Hadassah, the Jewish women's service organization, overcoming strenuous objections from certain Arab delegations.
GBCHealth
In January 2000, when the United States was in the rotating presidency of the UN Security Council, Ambassador Holbrooke held an unprecedented meeting of the Security Council to discuss AIDS in Africa.Global Business Coalition: Strategy Page. No Security Council session in the history of the UN had ever been devoted to a health issue prior to this historic meeting. Vice President Al Gore presided over the Security Council and declared that AIDS was a security threat to all nations.Al Gore Support Center Accomplishments Archive
Upon leaving the UN a year later, Holbrooke took over a nearly moribund NGO that was intended to mobilize businesses and corporations in the fight against AIDS. At the time, it had 17 members. Over the next six years, Holbrooke turned this organization—originally called the Global Business Council on HIV/AIDS—into a worldwide organization with over 225 members.Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria: "A Growing Business Movement". It expanded to include malaria and tuberculosis, becoming the Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in 2006. In 2011, the organization became GBCHealth and expanded its mandate to include an array of health issues. GBCHealth is the official focal point for mobilizing the business community in support of The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, and has grown into an important part of the ongoing war against these three diseases.Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria: "New Group to Galvanize Business Role in Combating AIDS, TB and Malaria" .
Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign
Holbrooke was Clinton's lead foreign policy advisor in her 2008 campaign for president and was believed to be her preferred choice for Secretary of State. When Obama defeated Clinton and selected her as Secretary of State, Holbrooke was her preferred option for Deputy Secretary of State, but was vetoed by Obama.
Special representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan (2009-2010)
thumb|Holbrooke meets with a commander in Herat, Afghanistan
In January 2009, Holbrooke was appointed by President Obama as special representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan (SRAP). Holbrooke was never in serious contention to become Obama's secretary of state although he interviewed for the position. After Hillary Clinton became secretary of state she requested that Holbrooke become SRAP, a newly created role which he had previously advocated for. Holbrooke's tenure as SRAP has been considered lackluster. Holbrooke's relationship with President Obama was minimal and his relationship was even worse with Joe Biden. He became unpopular in the administration when he attempted to aid Afghan President Hamid Karzai's political opponents during his reelection bid. Holbrooke was well-liked in Pakistan by civilians because he actively sought to build a relationship with their country. In that position, he also helped kill an initiative to "back the creation of a new UN special envoy empowered to pursue peace talks with the Taliban."Borger, Julian (December 14, 2010) Afghanistan after Holbrooke, The Guardian He also asserted that:
one of the most cost-effective steps Washington could take would be to boost the agriculture sector of Afghanistan, which in years past had been a productive and profitable source of exports. Replicate the past success, he said, and Afghans would have money and jobs—and that, in turn, would create stability in the country. He called for 'a complete rethink' of the drug problem in Afghanistan, suggesting that draconian eradication programs were bound to fail.Corn, David (2010-12-14) Richard Holbrooke's Unfinished Business, Mother Jones
However, according to David Corn, "Holbrooke's skill set did not lead to much accomplishment in Afghanistan. He never worked out a productive relationship with Afghan President Hamid Karzai … He butted heads with other administration officials and was dismissed by European colleagues. He brokered no breakthroughs."
Other activities
thumbnail|Holbrooke in 2008 at Brown University
Holbrooke was the vice chairman of Perseus LLC, a leading private equity firm. From February 2001 until July 2008, Holbrooke was a member of the Board of Directors of American International Group. He was a member of the board of directors of the Council on Foreign Relations in New York and formerly served on the Advisory Board of the National Security Network. Holbrooke was also a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the Citizens Committee for New York City, and the Economic Club of New York. He was a member of the Trilateral Commission, and he has been listed on their membership roster as one of their "Former Members in Public Service"., September 2010, p. 13. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from www.trilateral.org, May 2010, p. 13.
Holbrooke was the Founding Chairman of the American Academy in Berlin; President and CEO of the Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria, the business alliance against HIV/AIDS, until his appointment as a special envoy by President Barack Obama;Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria: "GBC President and CEO Richard Holbrooke Heading to State Department". and Chairman of the Asia Society. Holbrooke's other board memberships included the American Museum of Natural History, Malaria No More (a New York-based nonprofit that was launched at the 2006 White House Summit with the goal of ending all deaths caused by malaria), Partnership for a Secure America, and the National Endowment for Democracy. Holbrooke was also an honorary trustee of the Dayton International Peace Museum, as well as professor-at-large at the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University, his alma mater. Additionally, Holbrooke was an Advisory Board member for the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating the bipartisan center in American national security and foreign policy.
Holbrooke also served as vice chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston, managing director of Lehman Brothers,Council on Foreign Relations - Richard Holbrooke managing editor of Foreign Policy, and director of the Peace Corps in Morocco.
He wrote numerous articles and two books: To End a War, and the co-author of Counsel to the President, and one volume of The Pentagon Papers. He received more than a dozen honorary degrees, including an LL.D. from Bates College in 1999. He wrote a monthly column for The Washington Post and Project Syndicate.
On March 20, 2007, he appeared on The Colbert Report to mediate in what Stephen Colbert (or rather, his television alter-ego) saw as Willie Nelson infringing on his ice cream flavor time. Holbrooke was the 'ambassador on call' and after a short mediation process the two parties agreed to taste each other's Ben and Jerry's ice cream to make amends. He subsequently sang "On the Road Again" in a trio with Colbert and Nelson.
Holbrooke was an Eminent Member of the Sergio Vieira de Mello Foundation until his death.
In June 2008, Conde Nast Portfolio reported that Holbrooke and his son allegedly got multiple below-rate loans at Countrywide Financial because the corporation considered them "FOA's"—"Friends of Angelo" (Countrywide Chief Executive Angelo Mozilo).Countrywide's Many 'Friends' Conde Nast Portfolio, June 12, 2008.
A documentary titled The Diplomat centered on the legacy of Holbrooke's career appeared on HBO in the fall of 2015. The documentary was directed by his son, David Holbrooke, and features notes from Holbrooke's "secret audio diary" which "he dictated on a near daily basis from August 2010 until his death".
He was a member of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group and participated in every conference between 1995 and 2010.
Positions
In January 2001, Holbrooke said that "Iraq will be one of the major issues facing the incoming Bush administration at the United Nations." Further, "Saddam Hussein's activities continue to be unacceptable and, in my view, dangerous to the region and, indeed, to the world, not only because he possesses the potential for weapons of mass destruction but because of the very nature of his regime. His willingness to be cruel internally is not unique in the world, but the combination of that and his willingness to export his problems makes him a clear and present danger at all times."
On February 24, 2007, Holbrooke delivered the Democratic Party's weekly radio address and called for "a new strategy in Iraq", involving "a careful, phased redeployment of U.S. troops" and a "new diplomatic offensive in the Gulf region to help stabilize Iraq."
During the 2008 South Ossetia war between Russia and Georgia, Holbrooke said during a CNN interview that he had predicted the conflict in early 2008.
Personal life
Holbrooke was married three times. His first wife was Larrine Sullivan, whom he married in 1964; they had two sons, David and Anthony, before Holbrooke and Sullivan divorced in 1972. He later married Blythe Babyak, a reporter for MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, on January 1, 1977; they divorced in 1978. He was married to Kati Marton from 1995 until his death. Before he married Marton, he was involved in a longstanding relationship with the broadcast journalist Diane Sawyer and lived with her for seven years.
Holbrooke had been good friends with diplomat Anthony Lake whom he met in Vietnam in the early 1960s while both of them were in the foreign service. They frequently visited each other and Lake aided Holbrooke throughout the early years of his career. They grew apart when Holbrooke had an affair with Lake's wife, eventually rarely speaking, and by the time Lake became Bill Clinton's National Security Advisor, their friendship was over.
Death
On December 11, 2010, Holbrooke was admitted to George Washington University Hospital in Washington D.C. after falling ill at the State Department's headquarters. While there, he underwent twenty hours of surgery to fix an aortic dissection, a rare condition.
Holbrooke died on December 13, 2010, from complications of the torn aorta. Holbrooke's last words before being sedated for surgery, which have been clarified to have been a comical interchange with his doctor, were: "You've got to end this war in Afghanistan."Revisiting Holbrooke's Last Remarks, Robert Mackay, The New York Times, December 14, 2010. He is interred at Oakland Cemetery in Sag Harbor, New York.
Legacy
thumb|A bust of Holbrooke was unveiled in Fier, Albania in 2015
Frank Rich of The New York Times wrote: "His premature death—while heroically bearing the crushing burdens of Afghanistan and Pakistan—is tragic in more ways than many Americans yet realize." President Obama memorialized Holbrooke, stating "few have left such a towering legacy as a face of America to the world as Richard Holbrooke".
On January 14, 2011, Holbrooke's memorial service was held at John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
The 2014 film Diplomacy was dedicated to Holbrooke.
In 2015, Holbrooke's son David directed a documentary, The Diplomat, which chronicled his father's professional life and achievements.
A street in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, is named after Holbrooke, albeit in Albanian transliteration, "Riçard Holbruk".
Recognition
In 1999, Holbrooke received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 2011, President Obama created the Richard C. Holbrooke Award for Diplomacy to be awarded annually to up to five individuals or groups the Secretary of State has determined have made “especially meritorious contributions to diplomacy.”
Writings
Books
To End a War. New York: Random House (1998). .
Counsel to the President
Articles
"The Machine That Fails." Foreign Policy, vol. 1 (1970): 65-77. . .
"Japan and the United States: Ending the Unequal Partnership." Foreign Affairs, vol. 70 (1990): 41. . .
"America, a European Power." Foreign Affairs, vol. 74, no. 2 (Mar.-Apr. 1995): 38-51. . .
Reports
East Asia in Transition: Challenges for the Trilateral Countries: A Task Force Report to the Trilateral Commission. New York: Trilateral Commission (1998). . .
See also
Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration
References
Further reading
Secondary sources
Chollet, Derek H., and Samantha Power. (2011). The Unquiet American: Richard Holbrooke in the World. New York: Public Affairs. .
Curran, Daniel, James K. Sebenius, and Michael Watkins. "Two Paths to Peace: Contrasting George Mitchell in Northern Ireland with Richard Holbrooke in Bosnia-Herzegovina." Negotiation Journal 20.4 (2004): 513-537. online
Hartwell, Leon. Conflict Resolution: Lessons from the Dayton Peace Process. Negotiation Journal. 35(4):443-469.
Moyn, Samuel, "Imperial Graveyard" (review of George Packer, Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century, Cape, 2019, 592 pp., ), London Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 3 (February 6, 2020), pp. 23-25. Moyn concludes his review, on p. 25: "[Packer's book] Our Man may be the most vivid tour of America's foreign delusions that has been offered since the Vietnam War."
[Richard Holbrooke's plan to avoid the mistakes of Vietnam in Afghanistan].
Packer, George. (2019). Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. . Full-scale scholarly biography.*
Powers, Thomas, "The Fog of Ambition" (review of George Packer, Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century, Knopf, 2019, 592 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (June 6, 2019), pp. 12, 14-15. "Friends... told Holbrooke he was making a mistake to support the [Iraq] war [in 2003], but he chose the road of realism. To be against that war... he felt, would mark a man as soft... But that was a moment when the United States needed bucking up to say no to a rush to war. [I]t's hard not to feel... this was the moment that put the 'almost' in 'almost great.'" (p. 15.)
David Rieff, "An American in the Treetops: Should we miss Richard Holbrooke?", Harper's Magazine, vol. 339, no. 2032 (September 2019), pp. 89-94. "Packer is content to sum up Holbrooke by deploying the fuzzy category of 'almost great' - which... obscures more than it clarifies. Holbrooke was not just an appalling human being but a diplomat whose accomplishments were actually quite modest." (p. 94.)
Primary sources
The Principles of Peacemaking Holbrooke's address to the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs conference on "Israel's Right to Secure Boundaries" on June 4, 2007
External links
Biography at the United States Department of State
Writings and speeches at the Council on Foreign Relations
Column archives at The Washington Post
Richard Holbrooke at The Asia Society
Interview by Nermeen Shaikh
Speech to an Asia Society Gala function On the occasion of the Society's 50th anniversary in 2006
Richard Holbrooke at Aljazeera
Richard Holbrooke, veteran US diplomat, dies at BBC News with obituary and tributes
Bulldozer of the Balkans, BBC News, 1998
Richard C. Holbrooke, 1941-2010 at Foreign Policy
Richard Holbrooke at The Guardian
Richard Holbrooke (1941-2010) at The New Republic
Richard C. Holbrooke at The New York Times
Richard Holbrooke Obituary at The Daily Telegraph
Remembering Ambassador Richard Holbrooke at Time
Holbrooke's Overlooked Record in East Timor, Iraq and the Balkans - video report by Democracy Now!
Charlie Rose: An Appreciation of Richard Holbrooke December 14, 2010
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Category:Foreign Policy editors | {"Name": "Richard Holbrooke", "Term start": "January 22, 2009", "Term end": "December 13, 2010", "Office 2": "Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs", "President 2": "Bill Clinton", "Predecessor 2": "Stephen A. Oxman", "Successor 2": "John C. Kornblum", "Birth name": "Richard Charles Albert Holbrooke", "Birth date": "1941 4 24", "Birth place": "New York City, U.S.", "Death date": "2010 12 13 1941 4 24", "Death place": "Washington, D.C., U.S.", "Spouse(s)": "Larrine Sullivan 1964 1972 div Blythe Babyak 1977 1978 div Kati Marton 1995", "Education": "Brown University (BA)"} |
Durban ( ) (, from meaning 'the port' also called for the mountain range that terminates in the area), nicknamed Durbs,Ishani Chetty: City nicknames in SA and across the world Article on news24.com from 25 October 2017. Retrieved 2021-03-05.The names and the naming of Durban Website natalia.org.za (pdf). Retrieved 2021-03-05. is the third most populous city in South Africa after Johannesburg and Cape Town and the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal. Durban forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality, which includes neighbouring towns and has a population of about 3.44 million,Statistics South Africa, Community Survey, 2007, Basic Results Municipalities (pdf file) . Retrieved 2008-03-23. making the combined municipality one of the largest cities on the Indian Ocean coast of the African continent. Durban was also one of the host cities of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Durban was formerly named Port Natal due to its position as the chief seaport of South Africa, and its location on the Natal Bay of the Indian Ocean. Durban is one of the fastest growing cities in the world, and along with Johannesburg is one of the largest cities in Africa. Durban is a rich ethnically diverse city, with large Zulu, White, and Indian/Asian populations.
History
Archaeological evidence from the Drakensberg mountains suggests that the Durban area has been inhabited by communities of hunter-gatherers since 100,000 BC. These people lived throughout the area of KwaZulu-Natal until the expansion of agro-pastoralists and pastoralists from the north saw their gradual incorporation. Oral history has been passed down from generation to generation by the Zulu nation, who were inhabitants of the land before colonisers, but there is no written history of the area until it was sighted by Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, who sailed parallel to the KwaZulu-Natal coast at Christmastide in 1497 while searching for a route from Europe to India. He named the area "Natal", or Christmas in Portuguese.
Abambo People
In 1686, a ship from the Dutch East India Company named Stavenisse was wrecked off the eastern coast of South Africa. Some of the survivors made their way to the Bay of Natal (Durban) where they were taken in by the Abambo tribe, which was led by Chief Langalibale. The crew became fluent in the tribe's language and witnessed their customs. The tribe told them that the land where the Abambo people lived was called Embo by the natives and that the people were very hospitable.
On 28 October 1689, the galiot Noord travelled from Table Bay to the Bay of Natal to fetch the surviving crew of the Stavenisse and to negotiate a deal for purchasing the bay. The Noord arrived on 9 December 1689, whereafter the Dutch Cape Colony purchased the Bay of Natal from the Abambo people for £1,650. A formal contract was drawn up by Laurens van Swaanswyk and signed by the Chief of the Abambo people, with the crew of the Stavenisse acting as translators.History of South Africa 1486 - 1691, George McCall Theal, London 1888.
First European Colonizers
By 1822, James Saunders King, captain of the British ship , together with Lt. Francis George Farewell, both men being former Royal Navy officers from the Napoleonic Wars, were engaged in trade between the Cape and Delagoa Bay. On a return trip to the Cape in 1823, they were caught in a severe storm and decided to risk the Bar and anchor in the Bay of Natal. The crossing went off well and they found safe anchor from the storm. Lt. King decided to map the Bay and named the "Salisbury and Farewell Islands". In 1824 Lt. Farewell, together with a trading company called J. R. Thompson & Co., decided to open trade relations with Shaka, the Zulu King, and establish a trading station at the Bay. Henry Francis Fynn, another trader at Delagoa Bay, was also involved in this venture.
Fynn left Delagoa Bay and sailed for the Bay of Natal on the brig Julia, while Farewell followed six weeks later on the Antelope. Between them they had 26 possible settlers, although only 18 stayed. On a visit to King Shaka, Henry Francis Fynn succeeded in befriending the king by helping him recover from a stab wound that he had suffered as a result of an assassination attempt by one of his half-brothers. As a token of his gratitude King Shaka granted Fynn a "25-mile strip of coast a hundred miles in depth".
On 7 August 1824, they concluded negotiations with King Shaka for a cession of land, including the Bay of Natal and land extending south of the Bay, north of the Bay and inland.
Farewell took possession of this grant and raised the Union Jack with a Royal Salute, which consisted of 4 cannon shots and twenty musket shots. Only six of the original eighteen would-be settlers remained, and these six can be regarded as the founders of Port Natal as a British colony. These six were joined by Lt. James Saunders King and Nathaniel Isaacs in 1825.
The modern city of Durban thus dates from 1824, when the settlement was established on the northern shores of the bay near today's Farewell Square. During a meeting of 35 European residents in Fynn's territory on 23 June 1835, it was decided to build a capital town and name it "D'Urban" after Sir Benjamin D'Urban, who was the governor of the Cape Colony at the time.
Republic of Natalia
The Voortrekkers established the Republic of Natalia in 1839, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg.
Tension between the Voortrekkers and the Zulus prompted the governor of the Cape Colony to dispatch a force under Captain Charlton Smith to establish British rule in Natal, for fear of losing British control in Port Natal. The force arrived on 4 May 1842 and built a fortification that was later to be The Old Fort. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 the British attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella. The attack failed, and the British had to withdraw to their camp which was put under siege. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni were able to escape the blockade and rode to Grahamstown, a distance of in fourteen days to raise reinforcements. The reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the Voortrekkers retreated, and the siege was lifted.
Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, and eventually the Afrikaners accepted British annexation in 1844 under military pressure.
Durban's historic regalia
When the Borough of Durban was proclaimed in 1854, the council had to procure a seal for official documents. The seal was produced in 1855 and was replaced in 1882. The new seal contained a coat of arms without helmet or mantling that combined the coats of arms of Sir Benjamin D’Urban and Sir Benjamin Pine. An application was made to register the coat of arms with the College of Arms in 1906, but this application was rejected on grounds that the design implied that D’Urban and Pine were husband and wife. Nevertheless, the coat of arms appeared on the council's stationery from about 1912. The following year, a helmet and mantling was added to the council's stationery and to the new city seal that was made in 1936. The motto reads "Debile principium melior fortuna sequitur"—"Better fortune follows a humble beginning".
The blazon of the arms registered by the South African Bureau of Heraldry and granted to Durban on 9 February 1979. The coat of arms fell into disuse with the re-organisation of the South African local government structure in 2000. The seal ceased to be used in 1995.
Government
With the end of apartheid, Durban was subject to restructuring of local government. Its first mayor was Sipho Ngwenya. In 1996, the city became part of the Durban UniCity in July 1996 as part of transitional arrangements and to eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality in 1999, with the adoption of South Africa's new municipal governance system. In July 1996, Obed Mlaba was appointed mayor of Durban UniCity; in 1999 he was elected mayor of the eThekwini municipality and re-elected in 2006. Following the May 2011 local elections, James Nxumalo, the former speaker of the council, was elected as the new mayor. On 23 August 2016 Zandile Gumede was elected as the new mayor until 13 August 2019. On 5 September 2019 Mxolisi Kaunda was sworn in as the new mayor.
The name of the Durban municipal government, prior to the post-apartheid reorganisations of municipalities, was the Durban Corporation or City of Durban.Durban Corporation Bylaws eThekwini Online.
Geography
Durban is located on the east coast of South Africa, looking out upon the Indian Ocean. The city lies at the mouth of the Umgeni River, which demarcates parts of Durban's north city limit, while other sections of the river flow through the city itself. Durban has a natural harbour, Durban Harbour, which is the busiest port in South Africa and is the 4th-busiest in the Southern Hemisphere.
The extent of urban sprawl the Greater Durban agglomeration has experienced, virtually adjoining surrounding smaller towns, has made boundaries in the metropolitan area quite complicated. Durban proper, which is the main city, is demarcated by its administrative city limits which are only as large to include the city centre, the Bluff, Berea, Durban North, Mobeni as well as Umbogintwini, Athlone Park, Isipingo and Prospecton to the south among other suburbs.
However, the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality is an amalgamation of Durban proper and over 120 other nearby formerly independent towns and suburbs such as Amanzimtoti, Cato Ridge, Chatsworth, Hillcrest, KwaMashu, Inanda, oThongathi, Pinetown, Queensburgh, uMhlanga, Umlazi, Verulam and Westville among others which have organically merged yet still retain their legal boundaries.
The name "Durban" is commonly referred to by residents as not just the city proper but the Greater Durban metropolitan area which sometimes extends beyond eThekwini to include Scottburgh, Ballito and KwaDukuza. Similarly, the demonym of a "Durbanite" not only refers to people who live within Durban proper but to residents of the Greater Durban metropolitan area.
Climate
Durban has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa/Cwa), with hot, humid summers and warm, quite dry winters, which are snow and frost-free. Durban has an annual rainfall of . The average temperature in summer ranges around , while in winter the average temperature is .
Climate change
A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Durban in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Kigali. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the coldest month by , while the temperature of the warmest month would be lower. According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.
Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Durban is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of USD 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and USD 86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to 137.5 billion USD in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to USD 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, USD 206 billion for RCP8.5 and USD 397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario.Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: Chapter 9: Africa. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 2043-2121 Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.
Demographics
thumb|Geographical distribution of home languages in eThekwini metropole
Durban is ethnically diverse, with a cultural richness of mixed beliefs and traditions. Zulus form the largest single ethnic group. It has a large number of people of British and Indian descent. The influence of Indians in Durban has been significant, bringing with them a variety of cuisine, culture and religion.
In the years following the end of apartheid, there was a population boom as black Africans were allowed to move into the city. The population grew by an annual average of 2.34% between 1996 and 2001. This led to shanty towns forming around the city which were often demolished. Between 2001 and 2011, the population growth slowed down to 1.08% per year and shanty towns have become less common as the government builds low-income housing.
The population of the city of Durban and central suburbs such as Durban North, Durban South and the Berea increased 10.9% between 2001 and 2011 from 536,644 to 595,061. The proportion of black Africans increased while the proportion of people in all the other racial groups decreased. Black Africans increased from 34.9% to 51.1%; Indians or Asians decreased from 27.3% to 24.0%; whites decreased from 25.5% to 15.3%; and Coloureds decreased from 10.26% to 8.59%. A new racial group, "Other", was included in the 2011 census at 0.93%.
The city's demographics indicate that 68% of the population is of working age, and 38% of the people in Durban are under the age of 19 years.
Durban has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city, with the number having increased 200 percent between 2000 and 2014.
Economy
Sugar refining is one of Durban's main industries. South Africa produces 19.9 million tons of sugar cane a year and most of it comes from KwaZulu-Natal.
Informal sector
Durban has a number of informal and semi-formal street vendors. The Warwick Junction Precinct is home to a number of street markets, with vendors selling goods from traditional medicine, to clothing and spices.
The city's treatment of shack dwellers was criticised in a report from the United Nations linked Centre on Housing Rights and EvictionsSouth Africa: Business as Usual - housing rights and slum eradication in Durban , Centre on Housing Rights & Evictions, Geneva, 2008. and there has also been criticism of the city's treatment of street traders,Criminalising the Livelihoods of the Poor: The impact of formalising informal trading on female and migrant traders in Durban by Blessing Karumbidza, Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (February 2011). street childrenLife in 'Tin Can Town' for the South Africans evicted ahead of World Cup, David Smith, The Guardian, 1 April 2010. and sex workers.The dirty shame of Durban's 'clean-up' campaign of city streets, The Daily Maverick, 24 December 2013. The cannabis strain called 'Durban Poison' is named for the city.
Civil society
There are a number of civil society organisations based in Durban. These include: Abahlali baseMjondolo movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know Campaign, the South Durban Community Environmental Alliance and the South African Unemployed Peoples' Movement.The opening remarks of S'bu Zikode, President of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement of South Africa, at the Center for Place, Culture and Politics at the CUNY Graduate Center (NYC), 16 November 2010.ANC Intimidates Witness X, More Intimidation and More Killing in Kennedy Road, 23 December 2010.
Tourism
Durban has been named the greenest city in the world by Husqvarna Urban Green Space Index.
Burman Bush
Durban Botanic Gardens
Durban Art Gallery
Durban Natural Science Museum
Hawaan Forest
New Germany Nature Reserve
Pigeon Valley Nature reserve
Umgeni River Bird Park
Umhlanga Lagoon Nature Reserve
Kenneth Stainbank Nature Reserve
Mitchell Park Zoo
Moses Mabhida Stadium - Activities include a skycar ride or adventure walk to the top of the arch with 360-degree views over Durban; Guinness World Record bungee swing; segway gliding tours of the stadium; cafes and restaurants; monthly I Heart Durban market;
Kingsmead Cricket Ground - a major test match and one-day cricket venue.
Kings Park Stadium - home ground of the internationally renowned Sharks rugby team.
Greyville Racecourse - home of the Durban July Handicap and Durban Country Club and golf course.
Media
thumb|left|View of Durban Harbour
Two major English-language daily newspapers are published in Durban, both part of the Independent Newspapers, the national group owned by Sekunjalo Investments. These are the morning editions of The Mercury and the afternoon Daily News. Like most news media in South Africa, they have seen declining circulations in recent years. Major Zulu language papers comprise Isolezwe (Independent Newspapers), UmAfrika and Ilanga. Independent Newspapers also publish Post, a newspaper aimed largely at the Indian community. A national Sunday paper, the Sunday Tribune is also published by Independent Newspapers as is the Independent on Saturday.
A major city initiative is the eZasegagasini Metro Gazette.
The national broadcaster, the SABC, has regional offices in Durban and operates two major stations there. The Zulu language Ukhozi FM has a huge national listenership of over 6.67 million, which makes it the second largest radio station in the world. The SABC also operates Radio Lotus, which is aimed at South Africans of Indian origin. The other SABC national stations have smaller regional offices in Durban, as does TV for news links and sports broadcasts. A major English language radio station, East Coast Radio, operates out of Durban and is owned by SA media giant Kagiso Media. There are a number of smaller stations which are independent, having been granted licences by ICASA, the national agency charged with the issue of broadcast licences.
Sport
left|thumb|Kingsmead Cricket Ground, Durban in 2009
left|thumb|Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban
Durban was initially successful in its bid to host the 2022 Commonwealth Games, but needed to withdraw in March 2017 from the role of hosts when the government withdrew its subsidy due to financial constraints. Birmingham, England replaced Durban as the host city.
Durban is home to The Sharks rugby union club, also known as the Cell C Sharks, who compete in the domestic Currie Cup competition as well as in the international United Rugby Championship and Heineken Champions Cup competition. The Sharks' home ground is the 54,000 capacity HollywoodbetsKings Park Stadium, sometimes referred to as the Shark Tank. The Sharks are home to many South Africa national rugby union team players such as Thomas du Toit, Bongi Mbonambi, Eben Etzebeth, Makazole Mapimipi, Lukhanyo Am and the 2019 Rugby World Cup captain Siya Kolisi.
The city has two clubs in the Premier Soccer League — AmaZulu, and Golden Arrows. AmaZulu play most of their home games at the Moses Mabhida Stadium. Golden Arrows play most of their home games at the King Zwelithini Stadium in the nearby township of Umlazi, but sometimes play some of their matches at Moses Mabhida Stadium or Chatsworth Stadium. It is also a home to some teams that are playing in the National First Division such as Royal Eagles FC and Royal Kings
thumb|Bus transporting supporters during 2010 FIFA World Cup
Durban is host to the KwaZulu-Natal cricket team, who play as the Dolphins when competing in the Sunfoil Series. Shaun Pollock, Jonty Rhodes, Lance Klusener, Barry Richards, Andrew Hudson, Hashim Amla, Vince van der Bijl, Kevin Pietersen, Dale Benkenstein and David Miller are all players or past players of the Natal cricket team. International cricketers representing them include Malcolm Marshall, Dwayne Bravo and Graham Onions. Cricket in Durban is played at Kingsmead cricket ground.
Durban hosted matches in the 2003 ICC Cricket World Cup. In 2007 the city hosted nine matches, including a semi-final, as part of the inaugural ICC World Twenty20. The 2009 IPL season was played in South Africa, and Durban was selected as a venue. 2010 saw the city host six matches, including a semi-final, in the 2010 Champions League Twenty20.
Durban was one of the host cities of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and A1 Grand Prix held a race on a street circuit in Durban from 2006 to 2008. Durban hosted the 123rd IOC Session in July 2011.
The city is home to Greyville Racecourse, a major Thoroughbred horse racing venue which annually hosts a number of prestigious races including the country's premier event, the July Handicap, and the premier staying event in South Africa, the Gold Cup. Clairwood racecourse, south of the city, was a popular racing venue for many years, but was sold by the KZN racing authority in 2012.
Durban hosts many famous endurance sports events annually, such as the Comrades Marathon, Dusi Canoe Marathon and the Ironman 70.3.
The city hosted several continental basketball tournaments such as the 1994 FIBA Africa Championship for Women or the 2006 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship.
Transport
Air
thumb|King Shaka International Airport
King Shaka International Airport services both domestic and international flights, with regularly scheduled services to Dubai, Doha, Istanbul, Harare, Lusaka & Manzini as well as eight domestic destinations. Flights to Luanda start on 3 October 2023. The airport's position forms part of the Golden Triangle between Johannesburg and Cape Town, which is important for convenient travel and trade between these three major South African cities. The airport opened in May 2010. King Shaka International Airport handled 6.1 million passengers in 2019/2020, up 1.8 percent from 2018/2019. King Shaka International was constructed at La Mercy, about north of central Durban. All operations at Durban International Airport have been transferred to King Shaka International as of 1 May 2010, with plans for flights to Hong Kong, Singapore, Mumbai, Kigali, Luanda, Lilongwe and Nairobi.
Sea
thumb|Durban Harbour
Durban has a long tradition as a port city. The Port of Durban, formerly known as the Port of Natal, is one of the few natural harbours between Port Elizabeth and Maputo, and is also located at the beginning of a particular weather phenomenon which can cause extremely violent seas. These two features made Durban an extremely busy port of call for ship repairs when the port was opened in the 1840s.
MSC Cruises bases one of their cruise ships in Durban from November to April every year. From the 2023/2024 Southern Africa cruise season MSC Cruises will be basing the MSC Splendida in Durban. Durban is the most popular cruise hub in Southern Africa. Cruise destinations from Durban on the MSC Splendida include Mozambique, Mauritius, Réunion, Madagascar and other domestic destinations such as Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. Many other ships cruise through Durban every year, including some of the world's biggest, such as the RMS Queen Mary 2, the biggest ocean liner in the world. Durban has built a brand new R200 million cruise terminal that has been in operation since October 2019, the Durban Cruise Terminal. The tender was awarded to KwaZulu Cruise Terminal (Pty) Ltd which is 70% owned by MSC Cruises SA and 30% by Africa Armada Consortium. The new cruise terminal will be able to accommodate two cruise ships at any given time.
Naval Base Durban on Salisbury Island (now joined to the mainland and part of the Port of Durban), was established as a naval base during the Second World War. It was downgraded in 2002 to a naval station. In 2012 a decision was made to renovate and expand the facilities back up to a full naval base to accommodate the South African Navy's offshore patrol flotilla. In December 2015 it was redesignated Naval Base Durban.
Rail
Durban featured the first operating steam railway in South Africa when the Natal Railway Company started operating a line between the Point and the city of Durban in 1860.Steam Locomotives of the South African Railways, vol 1: 1859-1910, (D.F. Holland, 1971), p11, 20-21,
Shosholoza Meyl, the passenger rail service of Spoornet, operates two long-distance passenger rail services from Durban: a daily service to and from Johannesburg via Pietermaritzburg and Newcastle, and a weekly service to and from Cape Town via Kimberley and Bloemfontein. These trains terminate at Durban railway station.
Metrorail operates a commuter rail service in Durban and the surrounding area. The Metrorail network runs from Durban Station outwards as far as Stanger on the north coast, Kelso on the south coast, and Cato Ridge inland.
A high-speed rail link has been proposed, between Johannesburg and Durban.
Roads
thumb|N3 freeway on its approach to Durban's CBD, with N2-N3 stack interchange in the foreground
The city's main position as a port of entry onto the southern African continent has led to the development of national roads around it. The N3 Western Freeway, which links Durban with the economic hinterland of Gauteng, heads west out of the city. The N2 Outer Ring Road links Durban with the Eastern Cape to the south, and Mpumalanga in the north. The Western Freeway is particularly important because freight is shipped by truck to and from the Witwatersrand for transfer to the port.
The N3 Western Freeway starts in the central business district and heads west under Tollgate Bridge and through the suburbs of Sherwood and Mayville. The EB Cloete Interchange (which is informally nicknamed the Spaghetti Junction) lies to the west of Durban and east of Westville, allowing for transfer of traffic between the N2 Outer Ring Road and the Western Freeway.
The N2 Outer Ring Road cuts through the city from the north coast to the south coast. It provides a vital link to the coastal towns (such as Amanzimtoti, Kingsburgh, Scottburgh, eMkhomazi, Ballito and KwaDukuza) that rely on Durban.
Durban also has a system of freeway and dual arterial metropolitan routes, which connect the sprawling suburbs that lie to the north, west and south of the city. The M4 exists in two segments. The northern segment, named the Ruth First Highway, starts as an alternative highway from the R102 in Ballito and shortly after intersects the N2. It passes through the seaside towns and villages of La Mercy and eMdloti before becoming a dual carriageway in uMhlanga, north of Durban and ending at the northern edge of the CBD. The southern segment of the M4, the Albert Lutuli Highway, starts at the southern edge of the CBD, connecting through to the old, decommissioned Durban International Airport, where it once again reconnects at the southern end of the N2 Outer Ring Road.
The M7 connects the southern industrial basin of Durban with the N3 and Pinetown via Queensburgh via the N2. The M19 connects the inner northern suburbs of Durban with Pinetown via Westville and the M41 connects uMhlanga and Phoenix via Mount Edgecombe and the N2.
The M13 (King Cetshwayo Highway) is an untolled alternative to the N3 Western Freeway (which is tolled at Mariannhill) and is an important commuter route linking the nearby towns and suburbs to the west of Durban such as Hillcrest, Gillitts, Kloof, Pinetown and Westville to the city.
In the late 2000s 107 streets in Durban were renamed, typically to honour individuals involved in the antiapartheid or international revolutionary movements, with two-thirds of the streets named after individuals associated with the governing African National Congress. This was done in two stages; a first, smaller one, which renamed eighteen streets and was met with some trepidation by opposition parties, particularly the Democratic Alliance, the Inkatha Freedom Party, and the Minority Front, and a second, larger stage, which renamed 99 streets and was met with considerably wider opposition after the controversy of the first and the minimal time between them. The first group was met with some opposition from This process was met with outrage from both opposition parties and the parts of the general public, as well as incidents of vandalism against the new road signs. The Democratic Alliance, Inkatha Freedom Party, and Minority Front were concerned with their lack of participation in the process, and that the emphasis on individuals affiliated with the ANC presented a partisan image of the antiapartheid struggle. Among the general public there was significant opposition from middle-class white South Africans, Indian South Africans, and Zulu nationalists, who believed that the new names should have a connection to the people and the history of the locality. In response, the ANC characterized the project as a transformation and part of progressive social change, characterizing their opponents as being "antitransformation" and "pro-apartheid".
Buses
Several companies run long-distance bus services from Durban to the other cities in South Africa. Buses have a long history in Durban. Most of them have been run by Indian owners since the early 1930s. Privately owned buses which are not subsidised by the government also service the communities. Buses operate in all areas of the eThekwini Municipality. Since 2003 buses have been violently taken out of the routes and bus ranks by taxi operators.
Durban was previously served by the Durban trolleybus system, which first ran in 1935.
Since 2017 the newer People Mover Bus System which runs along certain routes has been testing out free Wi-Fi for passengers.
Taxis
Durban has two kinds of taxis: metered taxis and minibus taxis. Unlike in many cities, metered taxis are not allowed to drive around the city to solicit fares and instead must be called and ordered to a specific location. A number of companies service the Durban and surrounding regions. These taxis can also be called upon for airport transfers, point to point pickups and shuttles.
Mini bus taxis are the standard form of transport for the majority of the population who cannot afford private cars. With the high demand for transport by the working class of South Africa, minibus taxis are often filled over their legal passenger allowance, making for high casualty rates when they are involved in accidents. Minibuses are generally owned and operated in fleets, and inter-operator violence flares up from time to time, especially as turf wars over lucrative taxi routes occur.
Ride sharing apps Uber and Taxify have been launched in Durban and are also used by commuters.
Rickshaws
Although rickshaws have been a mode of transportation since the early 1900s, they have been displaced by other forms of motorised transport. The roughly 25 remaining rickshaws mostly cater to tourists.
Education
Private schools
Al Falaah College
Canaan College
Clifton School
Crawford College, La Lucia
Crawford College, North Coast
Durban Girls' College
Eden College Durban
Highbury Preparatory School
Hillcrest Christian Academy
Maris Stella School
Orient Islamic School
Reddam House
Roseway Waldorf School
St. Henry's Marist Brothers' College
St. Mary's Diocesan School for Girls, Kloof
Thomas More College
T Thunder College
Public schools
Asoka Secondary School
Brettonwood High School
Durban Academy High School
Durban Girls' High School (DGHS)
Danville Park Girls' High School (DPGHS)
Durban High School (DHS)
Durban North College
George Campbell School of Technology
Glenwood High School
Glenridge Primary School
Hillcrest High School
Insizwakazi Primary School
Isinkontshe Primary School
Isipingo Secondary School
Kingsway High School
Kloof High School
Kloof Junior Primary School
Kloof Pre-Primary School
Kloof Senior Primary School
Mowat Park High School
New Forest High School
Northlands Girls' High School
Northwood School
Ogwini Comprehensive High School
Pinetown Boys' High School
Pinetown Girls' High School
Port Natal High School
Queensburgh Girls' High School
Savannah Park Secondary School
Sastri College High School
St.Anthony Primary School
Westville Boys' High School
Westville Girls' High School
Woodview Secondary school
Universities and Colleges
thumb|Memorial Tower Building, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Durban University of Technology
Mangosuthu University of Technology
Regent Business School
University of KwaZulu-Natal
University of South Africa
Varsity College (South Africa)
eta College
Culture
African Art Centre
Durban Art Gallery
KZNSA
Phansi Museum
Ethekwini Municipal Libraries
Thunee is a popular Jack-Nine card game that originated among communities in Durban
Places of worship
Among the places of worship, there are predominantly Christian churches and temples. These include: Zion Christian Church, Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa, Assemblies of God, Baptist Union of Southern Africa (Baptist World Alliance), Methodist Church of Southern Africa (World Methodist Council), Anglican Church of Southern Africa (Anglican Communion), Presbyterian Church of Africa (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Durban (Catholic Church) and the Durban South Africa Temple (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints).Britannica, SouthAfrica, britannica.com, US, accessed on 7 July 2019. There are also Muslim mosques and Hindu temples.
Crime and safety
Compared to other South African cities, Durban has a high murder rate. Between April 2018 and March 2019, the Ethekwini Metropolitan Municipality recorded 1,871 murders, gradually increasing from 1,349 seven years earlier and down from 2,042 in 2009.Crimes by municipality or district. Map on the website issafrica.org. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
Criminals usually avoid targeting tourists because they know that the police response will be greater.
Heist or theft is a common crime in the city. Most houses are protected by high walls and wealthier residents are often able to afford greater protection such as electric fencing, private security or gated communities. Crime rates vary widely across the city and most inner suburbs have much lower murder rates than in outlying areas of Ethekwini. Police station precincts recording the lowest murder rates per 100,000 in 2017 were Durban North (7), Mayville (8), Westville (12) and Malvern (12); Kwamashu (76) and Umlazi (69) were some of the most dangerous areas. Other crime comparisons are less valuable due to significant under-reporting especially in outlying areas.
There was a period of intense violence beginning in the 1990s, and the Durban area recorded a murder rate of 83 per 100,000 in 1999. The murder rate dropped rapidly in the 2000s before increasing rapidly throughout the 2010s. Durban is one of the main drug trafficking routes for drugs exiting and entering sub-Saharan Africa. The drug trade has increased significantly over the past 20 years.
International relations
Twin towns and sister cities
Durban is twinned with:
Alexandria, Egypt
Antwerp, Flanders, Belgium
Bremen, Germany
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Chicago, Illinois, US
Gwangju, South Korea
Eilat, Israel
Guangzhou, China
Le Port, Réunion
Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Leeds, United Kingdom
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Maputo, Mozambique
Nantes, France
New Orleans, Louisiana, US
Oran, Algeria
Rotterdam, Netherlands
Mombasa, Kenya
Notable residents
Dianne Lynne Bevelander, South African academic and activist
Alan Khan, Radio and television presenter
Jan-Hendrik S. Hofmeyr, biochemist, born in Durban in 1953
Raoul Hyman, racing driver
Bruce Johnstone, racing driver
Aaron Klug, Nobel prizewinner, educated at Durban High School
Brausch Niemann, racing driver
Jayapraga Reddy (1947-1996), writer
Vivian Reddy, business founder and philanthropist
Jack Saul, South African-Israeli tennis player
Billy Tennant, professional flowboarder
Stephen Watson, racing driver
Ela Gandhi, peace activist and politician, grandfather was Mahatma Gandhi
Lara Logan, journalist
Pearl Thusi, actress
Chad Le Clos, olympic swimmer
Jordy Smith, surfer
Penelope Coelen, Miss World 1958
Nick Price, major winning golfer
Black Coffee (DJ), DJ, record producer and songwriter
Baby Queen, singer-songwriter
Fernando Pessoa, poet, writer, philosopher
See also
Art Deco in Durban
Black December
Durban International Film Festival
Durban Youth Council
Emmanuel Cathedral
Riverside Soofie Mosque and Mausoleum
World Conference against Racism 2001 - held in Durban
References
External links
eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality
Durban Tourism Bureau
Snake City, National Geographic Wild
Gandhi Sites in Durban
Category:1880 establishments in the British Empire
Category:Cities in South Africa
Category:History of KwaZulu-Natal
Category:Port cities and towns of the Indian Ocean
Category:Populated places established in 1824
Category:Populated places in eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality
Category:Port cities in South Africa
Category:Populated coastal places in South Africa | {"Named for": "Benjamin D'Urban", "Type": "Metropolitan municipality", "Density": "auto", "Urban density": "838634", "Metro density": "auto", "Website": "http://www.durban.gov.za/"} |
The Bridgewater Canal connects Runcorn, Manchester and Leigh, in North West England. It was commissioned by Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, to transport coal from his mines in Worsley to Manchester. It was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester, and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn, and then from Worsley to Leigh.
The canal is connected to the Manchester Ship Canal via a lock at Cornbrook; to the Rochdale Canal in Manchester; to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook, southeast of Runcorn; and to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh. It once connected with the River Mersey at Runcorn but has since been cut off by a slip road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge. Following the re-routing of roads to the Silver Jubilee Bridge, the Runcorn Locks Restoration Society campaigns to reinstate the flight of locks.
The Bridgewater canal is described as the first great achievement of the canal age, although the Sankey Canal opened earlier. Bridgewater captured the public imagination because of its engineering feats; it required the construction of an aqueduct to cross the River Irwell, and a tunnel at Worsley. Its success helped inspire a period of intense canal building in Britain, known as Canal Mania. It later faced intense competition from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Macclesfield Canal. Navigable throughout its history, it is one of the few canals in Britain not to have been nationalised, and remains privately owned. Pleasure craft now use the canal which forms part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals.
Design and construction
Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, owned some of the coal mines dug to supply North West England with fuel for the steam engines instrumental in powering England's Industrial Revolution. The duke transported his coal along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and also by packhorse, but each method was inefficient and expensive; river transport was subject to the vagaries of river navigation,Vessels were affected by tide levels, and the shared use of water by industry and the amount of coal packhorses could carry was limited by its relative weight. The duke's underground mines also suffered from persistent flooding, caused by the geology of the Middle Coal Measures, where the coal seam lies beneath a layer of permeable sandstone.
Having visited the Canal du Midi in France and watched the construction of the Sankey Canal in England, the duke's solution to these problems was to build an underground canal at Worsley, connected to a surface canal between Worsley and Salford. In addition to easing overland transport difficulties and providing drainage for his mines, an underground canal would provide a reliable source of water for the surface canal, and also eliminate the need to lift the coal to the surface (an expensive and difficult proposition). The canal boats would carry at a time, pulled by only one horse - more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart. The duke and his estate manager John Gilbert produced a plan of the canal, and in 1759 obtained an Act of Parliament (32 Geo. 2. c. 2), enabling its construction.
James Brindley was brought in for his technical expertise (having previously installed a pumping system at the nearby Wet Earth Colliery), and after a six-day visit suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford, instead taking it across the River Irwell to Stretford and thereon into Manchester. This route would make connecting to any future canals much easier, and would also increase competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation company.Boughey, Joseph. (1998) Hadfield's British Canals, Sutton Publishing, Brindley moved into Worsley Old Hall and spent 46 days surveying the proposed route, which to cross the Irwell would require the construction of an aqueduct at Barton-upon-Irwell. At the duke's behest, in January 1760 Brindley also travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee. The duke therefore gained a second Act of Parliament (33 Geo. 2. c. 2), which superseded the original.
Brindley's planned route began at Worsley and passed southeast through Eccles, before turning south to cross the River Irwell on the Barton Aqueduct. From there it continued southeast along the edge of Trafford Park, and then east into Manchester. Although a connection with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was included in the new Act, at Hulme Locks in Castlefield (on land previously occupied by Hulme Hall), this was not completed until 1838. The terminus would be at Castlefield Basin, where the nearby River Medlock was to help supply the canal with water. Boats would unload their cargoes inside the duke's purpose-built warehouse. There were no locks in Brindley's design, demonstrating his ability as a competent engineer. The Barton Aqueduct was built relatively quickly for the time; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761.
right|thumb|The Opening of the Bridgewater Canal A.D. 1761 by Ford Madox Brown, one of The Manchester Murals at Manchester Town Hall
right|thumb|Brindley's aqueduct, replaced late in the 19th century
The duke invested a large sum of money in the scheme. From Worsley to Manchester its construction cost £168,000 (equivalent to £ in ), but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half. This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania. Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton-upon-Irwell, the Bridgewater Canal was considered a major engineering achievement. One commentator wrote that when finished, "[the canal] will be the most extraordinary thing in the Kingdom, if not in Europe. The boats in some places are to go underground, and in other places over a navigable river, without communicating with its waters".
In addition to the duke's warehouse at Manchester, more buildings were built by Brindley and extended to Alport Street (now called Deansgate). The warehouses were of timber-frame design, with load-bearing hand-made brick walls, supported on cast iron posts. The duke's warehouse was badly damaged by fire in 1789 but was rebuilt.
thumb|right|Bridgewater Foundry at Patricroft, 1839
Manchester to Runcorn extension
thumb|Borrow's Bridge across the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal
In September 1761, with his assistant Hugh Oldham, Brindley surveyed an extension from Longford Bridge to Hempstones, near Halton, Cheshire. He assisted in obtaining parliamentary approval for the Bridgewater Canal Extension Act 1762An Act to enable the most noble Francis Duke of Bridgewater, to make a navigable cut or canal from Longford Bridge, in the township of Stretford, in the county palatine of Lancaster, to the River Mersey, at a place called the Hempstones, in the township of Halton, in the county of Chester. which allowed the construction of an extension to the canal, from Manchester, to the River Mersey at Runcorn. Despite objections from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company, Royal assent was given on 24 March 1762. A junction, Waters Meeting, was created in Trafford Park, at which the new extension branched south through Stretford, Sale, Altrincham, Lymm and finally to Runcorn.
In December 1761 Brindley undertook a survey of the route at Runcorn. His initial plan was to make the terminus at Hempstones, east of Runcorn Gap, but following a study of the tides and depth of water there, he decided instead to build the terminus west of Runcorn Gap. This change was designed to accommodate Mersey flats, although the low fixed bridges required that traffic on the canal be able to lower or unship their masts. Runcorn basin was almost above the Mersey, so a flight of ten locks, described as "the wonder of their time", was built to connect the two. Nine locks had a fall of , with a fall at the river lock of more than at low water. It allowed vessels to enter and leave the canal on any tide. The connection to the Mersey was made on 1 January 1773. The river's tidal action tended to deposit silt around the lower entrance to the locks, so to counteract this a channel, equipped with gates at each end and known as the Duke's Gut, was cut through the marshes upriver from the locks. At high tide the gates were closed, and with the ebb of the tide were opened to release water, which scoured the silt from the entrance to the locks. The cut created an island, known as Runcorn Island, crossed by Castle Bridge.It was known as Castle Bridge because it made a connection with a rocky promontory which had once been the site of a castle built by Ethelfleda to defend her kingdom of Mercia from Viking invasion.
thumb|left|Ordnance Survey map of 1843 showing the canal crossing the River Mersey at Barfoot Bridge, Stretford
left|thumb|The canal at Runcorn between the factories
left|thumb|Extract from OS one-inch sheet 100 showing the junction between the Bridgewater Canal and the Manchester Ship Canal at Runcorn, with the flight of locks, as it was in 1966
The connection to Manchester was delayed by Sir Richard Brooke of Norton Priory. Concerned that boatmen might poach his game and wildfowl, Brooke did not want the canal to pass through his land. The Act included several stipulations: the canal should not come within of his house; the towpath should be on the south side of the canal, furthest away from Brooke's house; there should be no quays, buildings, hedges or fences to obstruct the view; no vessels were to be moored within of the house, other than during construction. Eventually, though, a compromise was reached. This included the construction of a link to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook (permitted by the Trent and Mersey Canal Act 1766), and the building of the canal's terminus to the west of Runcorn Gap. The Trent and Mersey link gave the Duke access to the Midlands, and forestalled the Weaver Trustees from making their own junction with the canal. The new extension also met with opposition from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, until the duke purchased a controlling interest in the company. The first part of the new extension was opened in 1767, and completed in full by March 1776, but Brindley did not live to see its completion; it was continued by his brother-in-law, Hugh Henshall.
The total cost of the canal, from Worsley to Manchester and from Longford Bridge to the Mersey at Runcorn, was £220,000. Alongside the Mersey, the duke built Runcorn Dock, several warehouses, and Bridgewater House, a temporary home from which he could supervise operations at the Runcorn end. Two locks up from the tideway was a small dry dock.
Sale to Stockport branch
In 1766 the Duke gained a fourth act of parliament for a branch canal between Sale Moor and Stockport which was to follow the valley of the Mersey. The Act was applied for to counter a proposed canal that would give the towns of Stockport and Macclesfield access to the Mersey, via the River Weaver. The work was not done, the Act lapsed and this section of canal was never built.
Over two decades later, the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal had sought a connection to other waterways, and it appears that the Duke had planned to limit the activities of the new company. On 15 December 1792 the Duke purchased a portion of the Ringspiggot estate in Salford which blocked the MB&BC's plans to build a riverside basin and wharfs there.
Worsley to Leigh extension
In 1795 the duke secured a fifth Act (35 Geo. 3. c. 44) which enabled him to extend the canal a further from Worsley via Boothstown, Astley Green and Bedford to Leigh. The new extension enabled the supply to Manchester of coal from Leigh and the surrounding districts. On 21 June 1819 an Act of Parliament was enacted to create a link between this extension and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Wigan.
Access to the canal brought about a rapid development in coal mining on the Manchester Coalfield west of Worsley. Chaddock pits in the east of Tyldesley were connected to an underground level from Worsley. In 1820, to ease congestion at the Delph in Worsley, Chaddock Pit was connected to the canal at Boothstown basin by an underground canal, the Chaddock Level which ran in a north west direction from the canal at Boothstown to the pit. Sometime after 1840 Samuel Jackson built a narrow gauge tramroad worked by horses from his Gin Pit Colliery to Marsland Green where he installed cranes and tipplers to load barges at a wharf. The tramroad was later worked by locomotives. In 1867 the Fletchers built a private railway line and the Bedford Basin with facilities for loading coal from Howe Bridge onto barges. Astley Green Colliery began winding coal on the north bank of the canal in 1912. In the 1940s and '50s coal was sent to Barton Power Station and Runcorn Gas Works.
Connection to Rochdale Canal
thumb|right|A map from 1801 showing the Bridgewater and Rochdale canals yet to be connected
right|thumb|The Packet House at Worsley, in 1866
thumb|right|Letter to the Bridgewater Canal offices concerning wives sleeping on boats, dated 11 November 1837
Upon completion of the Rochdale Canal in 1804, the two canals were joined at Castlefield. This connection may have been a factor in the failure of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal Company's rival scheme to build a canal between Bury and Sladen. The River Medlock, a major source of water for the canal and which was almost as badly polluted as the nearby Irwell, was diverted through a tunnel under the canal at Castlefield by Charles Edward Cawley, a civil engineer for the Salford Corporation and later a Member of Parliament (MP) for Salford. The canal was from that point supplied by the much purer water of the Rochdale Canal.
Mines
Worsley Delph, in Worsley, originally a centuries-old sandstone quarry near Worsley Brook, was the entrance to the Navigable Levels. It is now a Scheduled Monument. Two entrances, built years apart, allow access to the specially built M-boats (also known as Starvationers), the largest of which could carry of coal. Inside the mines of underground canal on four levels, linked by inclined planes, were constructed. The mines ceased production in 1887.Ware (1989), p. 11. As the canal passes through Worsley, iron oxide from the mines has, for many years, stained the water bright orange. The removal of this colouration is currently the subject of a £2.5 million remedial scheme.
Traffic
In 1791 the mines at Worsley produced of coal, of which were "sold down the navigation"; of rocksalt was also transported from Cheshire. Sales of coal were £19,455, and nearly £30,000 was earned from other cargoes. Passenger traffic in 1791 brought in receipts of £3,781.
The canal also carried passengers and was in keen competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company (M&IN). The journey down river by the latter route took eight hours (nine hours in the up direction) while the journey on the Bridgewater canal took nine hours each way. Fares were similar but the Bridgewater route was said to be "more picturesque". Boating men also used the canal. They lifted their small lightweight boats out of the M&IN at Runcorn, and carried them a short distance up the steep streets onto the Bridgewater Canal.
Barges on the canal continued to be towed by horses until the middle of the 19th century, when they were replaced by steam-powered boats after a fatal epidemic spread through the horse population. The "dense smoke" produced by the steam barges and their "harsh unnecessary whistling" proved unpopular with some local residents, who also began to suffer from a condition known as canal throat, "no doubt caused by the foul emanations given off by its [the Bridgewater Canal's] horribly filthy water".
The canal carried commercial freight traffic until 1975; the last regular cargo was grain from Liverpool to Manchester for BOCM. It is now used mainly by pleasure craft and hosts two rowing clubs - Trafford Rowing Club and Manchester University Boat Club.
Bridgewater Trustees
The Duke of Bridgewater died on 8 March 1803. By his will the income from the canal was to be paid to his nephew George Leveson-Gower, the Marquess of Stafford (later the 1st Duke of Sutherland). On his death it was to go to Stafford's second son Francis, provided he changed his name to Egerton; and then to his heirs and successors. The management of the company was placed in the hands of three trustees. These were Sir Archibald Macdonald, who was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, Edward Venables-Vernon-Harcourt, at the time the Bishop of Carlisle and later the Archbishop of York, and, as Superintendent, Robert Haldane Bradshaw, the Duke's agent. Bradshaw managed the estate, for which he received a salary of £2,000 a year and the use of the duke's mansions at Worsley and Runcorn. The other two trustees had each married nieces of the duke and were "dummy trustees".
left|thumb|400px|Value of trade carried on the Bridgewater Canal 1806-71
During the time the canal was administered by the Bridgewater Trustees, it made a profit every year. Until his retirement in 1834, the administration was carried out entirely by Bradshaw. It has been calculated that the average annual profit between 1806 and 1826 was of the order of 13 per cent, and in 1824, the best year, it was 23 per cent. Bradshaw found it difficult to delegate, and complained of being over-worked, but he was also regarded as being a "formidable bargainer". In 1805 he was approached by the proprietors of the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal to resolve a dispute with a Salford landowner, but his response was delayed. In 1810 there was a general agreement with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company (M&IN) to simultaneously raise freight charges. However any cooperation between the two companies was short-lived and by 1812 the Mersey and Irwell had reduced their charges. Further competition was to come from other carriers who used the canal; in 1824 the traffic carried by private companies exceeded that carried by the Trustees for the first time. However, in time more profit came from "tonnage traffic" (that carried by private companies) than from the Bridgewater's own carriage of freight. Bradshaw's administration saw increased deterioration of the fabric of the canal, the locks, docks and warehouses. The undertakings were starved of capital largely owing to inadequate provision for it in the duke's will. There were also problems caused by silting around the entrance to the Mersey and by the changing channels of the river itself.
During the 1820s there was increased dissatisfaction with the canals. They did not cope well with increasing volumes of cargo, and they were perceived as monopolistic, and the preserve of the landed gentry class. There was increased interest in the possibility of railway construction. The possible construction of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester was vigorously opposed by Bradshaw, who refused railway surveyors access to land owned by the trustees. When the first bill was presented to Parliament in 1825, the trustees opposed and it was overthrown. However, later in the year Lord Stafford, possibly persuaded to do so by William Huskisson, invested £100,000 (one-fifth of the required capital), in the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Following this the trustees withdrew their opposition to the construction of the railway; they did not petition against the second bill, which was passed in 1826. At the same time as he made his investment in the railway, Lord Stafford advanced £40,000 for improvements to the canal. This was spent mainly on a second line of locks at Runcorn, which were completed in 1828, plus new warehouses at Manchester and Liverpool. The additional line of locks cost £35,000 and was used for traffic heading to Manchester, while the old line was used for traffic passing down to the Mersey.
In 1830 the new railway opened and by the end of the year was carrying freight. Bradshaw immediately went into competition by lowering the rates of carriage on the canal and by offering improved terms to the private carriers. By so doing he managed to maintain the volume of traffic carried by the canal, both freight and passengers, at a time when the country was suffering a trade depression. However Bradshaw's tactics led to a sharp decline in profits. At the same time costs were rising, partly due to the use of steamboats on the Mersey. Further competition came with the opening of the Macclesfield Canal in 1831 which gave separate access to Manchester from the Midlands. In November 1831 Bradshaw suffered a stroke, as a result of which he lost the use of his left arm and leg, and there is evidence that it also impaired his judgement.
Matters came to a head in 1833, the year in which the canal made its lowest profit since the death of the Duke. On 19 July the Marquess of Stafford (now the 1st Duke of Sutherland) died and the profits from the canal passed to Francis Egerton. On 25 September Bradshaw's son, Captain James Bradshaw, who had been acting as a deputy superintendent to the trustees, and who had been expected to succeed his father as superintendent, committed suicide. The agent for both Francis Egerton and his older brother, who was now the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was James Loch. The events that followed were "stage-managed by Loch". He reported to Francis Egerton that Bradshaw was no longer fit to be superintendent, and then persuaded Bradshaw to retire on his full salary. It had been expected that he would appoint his other son, William Rigby Bradshaw, as his successor, but Loch persuaded him to appoint James Sothern in the position; Sothern had been the principal agent of the trust since December 1832. He took over the position of superintendent on 3 February 1834. The appointment of Sothern was not a success. Charges were made against him of dishonesty and of nepotism. He entered into disputes and disagreements with Loch, with Francis Egerton, and with the other two trustees. (Sir Archibald Macdonald had died in 1826; by this time his place had been taken by the 10th Earl of Devon). To avoid a costly lawsuit, at the end of 1836 Sothern agreed to retire on various conditions which included receipt of £45,000. On 1 March 1837, he was succeeded as superintendent by James Loch.
Loch was extremely busy and did not have time to deal with the detailed administration of the Trust. He therefore looked for a deputy to take on these duties. His first choice was Richard Smith who was the mine agent to the Trustees of the 1st Earl of Dudley. However this was perceived as poaching and it led to such controversy that Smith declined the offer and recommended his son, George Samuel Fereday Smith for the post. Fereday Smith was appointed as Deputy Superintendent in March 1837 on a salary of £600 a year, half of the salary which had been offered to his father. Loch immediately undertook a reorganisation of the administration and efficiency of the business, restored the agreement with the Old Quay Company to raise freight charges, and improved the facilities for passengers, including the introduction of "swift boats". By 1837, the trustees employed around 3,000 people (including those working in the colliery and in Worsley Yard), making it one of the largest employers in the country at the time. Since the death of the Duke the amount of freight carried by the canal had almost trebled; in 1803 it carried of goods and in 1836 .
In 1843 a new dock, the Francis Dock, was opened at Runcorn. The late 1830s and early 1840s had seen increased competition between the Bridgewater Canal on the one hand, and other canal companies and the railways on the other. The most dangerous of the rivals was the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company who started to reduce their rates again in 1840. This led to a price war between the two canal companies and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, who had previously cooperated on rates. Eventually, in desperation, the Bridgewater Trustees bought the Mersey and Irwell and took over its ownership on 1 January 1844. During the same year competition with other canals was further reduced by agreements made with the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company and with the Anderton Carrying Company. In 1844 the canal made a profit of £76,410, the second highest during the time it was administered by the Trustees.
Having seen off competition from other canal companies, the next major threat was to come from the railways. This was the period in the mid-1840s known as the Railway Mania. The railways competed with the canals in three ways; by building, or threatening to build, new lines which would be in direct competition with the canals; by amalgamation into giant companies (such as the Midland and the London and North Western companies), which gave them more political power; and by taking over ownership of canal companies. On 13 April 1844 The Times newspaper reported that the canal was to be emptied of water, and converted into a railway, although nothing came of this scheme. In 1845, in return for concessions, the trustees supported the Grand Junction Railway in its campaign to build a more direct line to Liverpool, which crossed the Mersey over a bridge at Runcorn Gap. However the bill was overthrown in the House of Lords. Competition from the railways and other canals led to a decline in the trading and the profits between 1845 and 1848, but there was no "disastrous collapse". During this time the Trustees and their representatives were engaged in vigorous campaigns in Parliament to protect their interests.
By October 1844 a bonding warehouse had been built in Manchester and the first cargo to arrive was announced in a letter to the Manchester Guardian, later printed in The Times:
However, this venture was less successful than expected, as is evidenced by a letter to The Observer later that year, also printed in The Times:
Between 1849 and 1851 the competition between the Trustees and the railway companies intensified. Agreements and alliances were made and broken. Their major opponents were the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway who reduced tariffs and took business away from the canals. For the first time the railways carried more trade between Liverpool and the towns of central Lancashire than the canals. The value of the traffic carried by the Bridgewater Canal in 1851 was the lowest in the time it was administered by the Trustees. In 1851 the Earl of Ellesmere hosted a visit to Manchester by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. They stayed at Worsley Hall, with a view of the canal, and were given a trip between Patricroft railway station and Worsley Hall, on state barges. Large crowds had gathered to cheer the royal party, which apparently frightened the horses drawing the barge so much that they fell into the canal.
The Trustees spent much time between 1851 and 1855 in negotiations to ease the competition, especially that from the London and North Western Railway. The most likely allies seemed to be other railway companies, including the Shrewsbury and Birmingham and the Shrewsbury and Chester railway companies, and the Great Western Railway. Of these, the most likely seemed to be the Great Western Railway who, in their concern to expand northwards were willing to help the Trustees with the carriage of their traffic to the south. However years of negotiations came to no agreement and, in the end, the Trustees' railway deal was done with the London and North Western Railway, who agreed to cooperate with the onward passage of the Trustees' traffic.
On 28 June 1855 James Loch, the Superintendent, died and was succeeded by Hon. Algernon Fulke Egerton, Lord Ellesmere's third son. He was then aged 29, and had been educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford; he had been destined for a political life and had no experience of managing coal mines or canals. Since James Loch had been appointed, he had been mainly in control of the management of the Trustees, assisted by his son George Loch. During this time the role of Fereday Smith had been diminished; initially appointed as Deputy Superintendent, his position was reduced to that of Principal Agent in 1845. With the arrival of the inexperienced Algernon Egerton, Fereday Smith had a much greater say in the management. During the previous four years the Lochs had been reluctant to invest in improvements to the canal or Runcorn Dock, despite the increasing demand for the passage of goods through the dock, and the profits made during these years became stagnant. Fereday Smith had been keen on expansion and now his opportunity came. He first reduced the top-heavy administration of the Trust, and then took on the planning of the expansion of the business. The steamers owned by the Trustees had been neglected and were in a poor state; these were repaired or sold.
George Loch, who had been opposed to using the Trustees' investments for improvements to the canals or docks, died in 1857. Between 1857 and 1872 the Trustees provided more capital for improvements from their own resources than at any previous time. The Runcorn and Weston Canal was built in 1858-59, providing a connection between Runcorn Docks and the Weaver Navigation. A new half tide dock, the Alfred Dock was opened at Runcorn in 1860. Electric telegraph was installed in 1861-62.
In 1862 the 2nd Earl of Ellesmere died and his son and heir, the 3rd Earl was a minor, aged 15. This gave Algernon Egerton even more power to invest the profits of the company in developments. Negotiations were made to increase sea-borne trade, both British and foreign, through the canal. Building started on a new dock at Runcorn in 1867. Work was carried out in the Mersey estuary around the docks to improve access for vessels. Some of this was carried out in conjunction with the London and North Western Railway who were building a bridge across Runcorn Gap to take their line from Weaver Junction to Liverpool; the railway paid half the cost of the improvements, amounting to about £20,000 (£ today). Improvements were made to the Trustees' facilities at Liverpool, to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and to the Bridgewater Canal itself. Agreements were made with the railway companies to cooperate on the transit of goods and the rates of carriage and "the Trustees' fortunes entered a calmer phase".
Subsequent owners
thumb|right|Barton Swing Aqueduct, built to replace the original aqueduct during construction of the Manchester Ship Canal
In 1872 the Bridgewater Navigation Company Ltd was formed, and on Monday 9 September the canal was purchased in the names of Sir Edward William Watkin and William Philip Price, respectively chairmen of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway and the Midland Railway for £1,120,000. The canal was sold again in 1885, when the Manchester Ship Canal Company paid the Bridgewater Navigation Company £1,710,000 for all their property. The construction of the ship canal forced the removal of Barton Aqueduct and the construction of Barton Swing Aqueduct, as the former was too low for the vessels which would use the new canal. In 1907 The Manchester Ship Canal (Bridgewater Canal) Act 1907 was passed, permitting coal mining near the canal between Monton Bridge and Leigh, in exchange for which the mine owners were obliged to pay the associated costs of keeping the canal open and navigable.
In 1923 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was formed to acquire the Ellesmere family estate in Worsley. In 1984 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was purchased by a subsidiary of Peel Holdings. In 1987 Highams acquired a majority shareholding of the Manchester Ship Canal Company (subsequently the shares held by Highams were transferred to Peel Holdings). In 1994 the Manchester Ship Canal Company became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Peel Holdings group. In 2004 ownership of the Manchester Ship Canal Company was transferred to the Peel Ports group.
Current status
thumb|right|Aerial view of Barton-on-Irwell in 2002 looking SE showing the Barton Swing Aqueduct over the ship canal (left) and the Barton Road Swing Bridge (right)
Bridgewater is described as the first great achievement of the canal age. It captured the public imagination because of its engineering feats; including the aqueduct over the River Irwell and the tunnel at Worsely. However, the first canal to be open to traffic was the Sankey Canal. Bridgewater now terminates in Runcorn basin, just before the disused flight of 10 locks which (before the approach road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge was built) used to lower the canal to the Runcorn Docks on the River Mersey and later, to the Manchester Ship Canal. The old line of locks in Runcorn fell into disuse in the late 1930s, and were closed under the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1949 and filled in. The Manchester Ship Canal Act 1966 allowed the closure and filling in of the newer line of locks. The gates from this flight of locks were removed and installed at Devizes on the Kennet and Avon Canal. The Duke's warehouse in Manchester was demolished in 1960.
The canal has suffered three breaches; one soon after opening, another in 1971 near the River Bollin aqueduct, and another in the summer of 2005 when a sluice gate failed in Manchester. Cranes are located at intervals along the canal's length to allow boards to be dropped into slots in the banks. These allow sections of the canal to be isolated in the event of a leak.
The canal now forms an integral part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals. Pleasure craft have been allowed on the canal since 1952.
The construction of the Mersey Gateway Bridge may allow a realignment of the bridge approach road and the restoration of the original flight of locks - thus re-opening the link to Runcorn Docks, the Runcorn and Weston Canal, the River Mersey, the Manchester Ship Canal, and the River Weaver. This would create a new ring route for leisure boats involving the Trent and Mersey Canal, the Anderton Boat Lift and the River Weaver.
The Hulme Locks Branch Canal in Manchester is now disused, and on 26 May 1995 was replaced by the nearby Pomona Lock.
Map
thumb|center|upright 2.5|Map of the Bridgewater Canal and connecting waterways (zoom in for detail)
Bridgewater Way
The Bridgewater Way is a scheme to redevelop the canal and make it more accessible to users, particularly cyclists. The development, which includes a new towpath, will form part of the National Cycle and Footpath Network as Regional Route number 82.
See also
Canals of the United Kingdom
History of the British canal system
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Although no details of author and date are given, this is likely to be a reliable source as it was published for the Manchester Ship Canal Company in 1973 or later (a picture of the reopening of the canal is on the cover).
Further reading
James Brindley: An Illustrated Life of James Brindley, 1716-1772
External links
Bridgewater Canal website
Bridgewater Canal map
Website with description and photographs
Duke of Bridgewater Archive from the University of Salford site
Duke of Bridgewater's Underground Canal at Worsley
Astley Green Colliery Museum
Manchester Ship Canal Company website
Feature on the 250th anniversary of the opening of the Bridgewater Canal
Category:Canals in England
Category:Canals in Trafford
Category:Canals in Warrington
Category:Canals in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan
Category:Industrial Revolution
Category:Canals in Cheshire
Category:Irwell Valley
Category:Canals opened in 1761
Category:1761 establishments in England | {"Principal engineer": "John Gilbert, James Brindley", "Date of act": "1759, 1760, 1762, 1766, 1795", "Date of first use": "1761", "Date completed": "1761", "Date extended": "1762", "Boat length": "0", "Boat beam": "9", "Start point": "Worsley", "End point": "See article", "Connects to": "Rochdale Canal, Trent and Mersey Canal, Leeds and Liverpool Canal, Manchester Ship Canal", "Length": "41", "Original number of locks": "10 at Runcorn", "Locks": "See article", "Status": "Open", "Navigation authority": "Peel Holdings"} |
Tresco ()Place-names in the Standard Written Form (SWF) : List of place-names agreed by the MAGA Signage Panel . Cornish Language Partnership. is the second-biggest island of the Isles of Scilly. It is in area, measuring about by .
History
In early times one group of islands was in the possession of a confederacy of hermits. King Henry I gave it to Tavistock Abbey which established a priory on Tresco; it was abolished during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The priory was given the care of souls in the secular islands by the lord of the fief. In 1233, a prior here, known as Alan of Cornwall, was made Abbot of Tavistock.
The original name for the island (including Bryher) was the , meaning "promontory of sand-dunes". In 1193, when the island was granted to the Abbot of Tavistock by Pope Celestine III, the island was known as St. Nicholas's island, and by 1305 it is called Trescau (farm of elder-trees). By 1540 this has changed to Iniscaw (island of elder-trees). The island was named as Trescaw in an 1814 publication.
The island is administered for the Crown by the Duchy of Cornwall and is leased to the Dorrien-Smith estate, which runs it as a timeshare business. The Dorrien-Smith family (descended from Augustus Smith) held the position of Lord Proprietors of the Scilly Islands between 1834 and 1920.
From 2001 until 2009, the island hosted a marathon run organised to benefit the Cystic Fibrosis Trust, consisting of 7½ laps around the island. The event was always held on the same day as the London Marathon. Past winners include Dara O'Kearney and Bob Brown. It was replaced by a sprint triathlon.
In 2007 a rebuild of the Abbey Farm/Shed area was completed; this area served as RNAS Tresco, a seaplane base during the First World War. The development included rental cottages, a swimming pool and spa and the Flying Boat Bar & Bistro.
In 2012 the Island Hotel was closed. Parts of the complex were converted into luxury holiday cottages; other parts of the hotel were demolished with new cottages built in its place. The Sea Garden Cottages now offer flexible accommodation with an on-site spa and tennis court.
Geography
thumb|left|Tresco seen from Bryher.
A variety of scenery is found on the island, including rugged granite outcrops, heathland of the exposed north coast and mainly shell beaches in the east and south. The variety of its scenery and geomorphology is partly a result of the last ice age, when the Devensian ice sheet clipped the north side of the island, leaving deformation till deposits.Deformation tills are sediments which have been disaggregated and (usually) homogenised by shearing in the sub-glacial deformed layer.
The main settlements are New Grimsby and Old Grimsby in the central part of the island. Combined, their facilities include a convenience store (with a post office sub-branch), an art gallery, a pub, and two café/restaurants, all of which are owned and run by the Tresco Estate. At the south of the island are the sub-tropical Tresco Abbey Gardens, including the Valhalla Figurehead Collection, and Tresco Heliport. To the north of New Grimsby are King Charles's Castle and Cromwell's Castle.
Civil parish and ward
thumb|right|The Isles of Scilly comprising the civil parish and ward of Tresco, shown in red.
Tresco is one of the five civil parishes of the Isles of Scilly, which are also wards. The civil parish and ward covers much more than the island of Tresco: it includes uninhabited islands such as Samson (inhabited until 1855), Teän, St Helen's, Northwethel and Round Island. Tresco elects one councillor to the Council of the Isles of Scilly, the same as the other "off-island" wards. The civil parish is not functional, however, and there is no council or meeting.
Demography
These figures include permanent residents only. A large number of seasonal staff also reside on the island during the summer.
1841 - 430
1861 - 399
1871 - 266
1891 - 315
1901 - 331
1911 - 315
1921 - 217
1931 - 248
1951 - 243
1961 - 283
1971 - 246
1991 - 170
2001 - 180
2011 - 175
Economy
Unlike the other Scilly islands, Tresco is primarily run as a holiday resort, and virtually all activity and employment is tourist-related. On the other islands tourism is important, but does not dominate to the same extent.
Landmarks
thumb|The Old Blockhouse, Tresco
thumb|The arch from the wall of the mediaeval monastery in Tresco Abbey Gardens
thumb|Tresco Abbey
thumb|Helicopter leaving Tresco at Tresco Heliport
thumb|High-tide landing pier at New Grimsby
English Civil War
King Charles's Castle dates from 1550-54, and was occupied by the Royalists during the English Civil War. It was later partially demolished to provide the building materials for Cromwell's Castle.
A coastal tower known as Cromwell's Castle was built 1651-52 with a gun platform added around 1740 by Abraham Tovey, Master Gunner.
The Old Blockhouse gun tower protecting Old Grimsby harbour, vigorously defended during the Civil War, was probably built between 1548 and 1552.
Oliver's Battery, in the south of the island, by the Carn Near quay, was erected shortly after the capture of Tresco by Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War. It was built by Admiral Robert Blake.
Other landmarks
Monument to Augustus Smith, above Appletree Bay on the south west of the island (Grade II listed building, List Entry Number 1141199).
Remains of St Nicholas' Priory, Tresco, in Tresco Abbey Gardens (Grade II listed building, List Entry Number 1141172; and Scheduled Monument, List Entry Number 1016184).
Anglican church: see St Nicholas's Church, Tresco.
Education
thumb|Tresco & Bryher Base
Five Islands Academy (previously Five Islands School) has its Tresco and Bryher Base, a primary campus in Tresco. Secondary pupils board at the St Mary's main campus, staying there on weekdays and coming back and forth to their home islands on weekends.
Students at the sixth-form college level reside and board elsewhere, in mainland Great Britain. Previously the Learning and Skills Council paid for costs of accommodation for sixth-formers.
Transport
Tresco is a car-free island. Electric vehicles are used to transport overnight visitors to and from Tresco Heliport and from the various quays, and a few golf carts are available for disabled visitors.
From Tresco Heliport, a year-round helicopter service connects Tresco to Penzance Heliport on the Cornish mainland. From 1983 to cessation in 2012, the service was operated by British International Helicopters. In 2020, helicopter service was resumed from a new Penzance Heliport to Tresco and St Mary's, operated by Penzance Helicopters.
Tresco Boat Services run passenger boat services to and from the other inhabited islands, as well as occasional circular sightseeing tours.
Wildlife and ecology
Tresco is unique amongst the off islands in that its habitat ranges from a windswept northern plateau with waved heath to sheltered bulb fields, wetland and lakes, to beautiful beaches backed by a sand dune system on the south coast. The forerunner of Natural England designated three Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1971 and 1976. They are the Castle Down (Tresco) SSSI, Great Pool (Tresco) SSSI and Pentle Bay, Merrick and Round Islands SSSI. Castle Down is a SSSI for its waved maritime heath, its lichen flora, a breeding colony of Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) and for its geology. Great Pool is an SSSI because it is the largest area of fresh water in the islands and important for its breeding birds, and as a sheltering and feeding area for migrants. Pentle Bay is designated for the transition from a flora-rich sand dune system to lichen-rich heath.
In October 2012, four male and one female Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), on permanent loan from the British Wildlife Centre, were transported to Tresco by helicopter. Only two survived, but in September 2013 a further twenty were transported to Tresco and released in Abbey Woods, near the Abbey Gardens. Tresco is considered to be a ″safe haven″ for the endangered mammal as it is free from predators such as foxes, and from grey squirrels and the squirrel pox they carry. In June 2014, an unknown number of baby squirrels have been pictured in the Abbey Gardens, proving the squirrels are successfully breeding.
Vagrant birds
Among the many vagrant birds which have been found here, the following were firsts for Britain:
Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), collected on 17 September 1927.
Black-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus), collected on 27 October 1932.
Northern Parula (Setophaga americana), seen 16-17 October 1966.
Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri), originally identified as a Semipalmated Sandpiper, 19 August 1969.
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), seen 26 September - 6 October 1975.
The island also briefly hosted the second British record of Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) in April and May 2015, which also visited both Bryher and St Mary's during its 23-day stay.
Cultural references
Because of its geography and history, Tresco has often featured in fiction, most notably in the books of author Sam Llewellyn, a direct descendant of Augustus Smith who, after his appointment as Lord Proprietor of the Scillies in 1834 and living on the island, began to create the Abbey Gardens on land which surrounded the old Priory.
Flora Castledine, lead character of the Georgie Gale novel Tread Softly, was born and brought up on the Isles of Scilly. Tresco is mentioned several times.
Why the Whales Came by Michael Morpurgo is set in the Isles of Scilly and features Tresco several times.
Hell Bay (1984), by Sam Llewellyn, is set on Tresco and fictionalises the events leading up to Augustus Smith taking ownership of the island.
The Sea Garden (1999), also by Sam Llewellyn, is set on a fictional island based heavily on Tresco. It features a stunning Sea Garden much like the Tresco Abbey Gardens and the history of the fictional island draws heavily from the real history of the island.
Storm Islands, by Ann Quinton, is a mystery novel set on Tresco and in the Isles of Scilly.
Filmography
In the 1989 BBC adaptation of The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, the scenes on the fictional Lone Islands were filmed on Tresco, with the on-ship scenes being filmed on a ship on the surrounding sea.
Tresco is the setting for the 2010 film Archipelago, directed by Joanna Hogg and starring Tom Hiddleston. It premiered at the 2010 London Film Festival, and was released on 4 March 2011 in the U.K. and Ireland.
In the early 1980s Tresco was used by the group Blondie for the location of filming the video to the song "Island of Lost Souls".
Notable inhabitants
Sam Llewellyn (b. 1948), author.
John Deason (1829-1915), gold miner, co-discoverer of the world's largest gold nugget.
See also
Listed buildings in Tresco, Isles of Scilly
List of shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly
References
External links
An illustrated history of Tresco from the Bronze Age to the present 'The Last Piece of England'
Category:Inhabited islands of the Isles of Scilly
Category:Gardens in Cornwall
Category:Private islands of the United Kingdom
Category:Car-free zones in Europe
Category:Civil parishes in Cornwall | {"Sovereign state": "England", "Population": "(2011)", "Unitary authority": "Isles of Scilly", "Ceremonial county": "Cornwall", "UK Parliament": "St Ives", "Postcode district": "TR", "Dialling code": "01720", "OS grid reference": "SV893421"} |
Walton Harris Walker (December 3, 1889 - December 23, 1950) was a United States Army four-star general who served with distinction in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, where he commanded the Eighth United States Army before dying in a jeep accident. He received two Distinguished Service Crosses for extraordinary heroism in World War II and the Korean War.
Early life
Walker was born in Belton, Texas, on December 3, 1889. His parents, Sam and Lydia Walker were both college graduates whose fathers had been officers in the Confederate Army. His father, a merchant, taught him how to ride a horse and to hunt and shoot. He graduated from the Wedemeyer Academy, a school which operated in Belton from 1886 to 1911. From a young age, he desired to go to United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York, and he hoped to be a general one day.
Early military career
thumb|left|150px|At West Point in 1912
Walker attended the Virginia Military Institute in preparation for his education at the USMA. He entered the Academy on June 15, 1907, but resigned on October 7, 1907. He reentered the Academy on March 3, 1908, and was commissioned a second lieutenant of Infantry on June 12, 1912.
As a lieutenant, Walker served at Fort Sheridan, Illinois; Fort Crockett, Texas; Veracruz, Mexico; Galveston, Texas; and Fort Sam Houston, Texas, from June 1912 to May 1917. He was a member of the 1914 Veracruz expedition under Brigadier General Frederick Funston; patrolling on the U.S.-Mexican border in 1916, he developed a close friendship with Dwight D. Eisenhower.Ambrose, Stephen, Eisenhower, Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect - 1890-1952, [Touchstone, 1983], page 57. He was promoted to captain on May 15, 1917, a few weeks after the American entry into World War I. He served at Camp Funston, Texas, from May to December 1917, and Fort Sam Houston with the 13th Machine Gun Battalion from December 1917 to April 1918.
During World War I, Walker deployed to France with the 13th Machine Gun Company, 5th Machine Gun Battalion, 5th Division in April 1918, and, after being promoted to major on June 17, 1918, served as a company commander and then battalion commander to July 1919, by which time the war was over. He was awarded two Silver Stars for gallantry in action.Military Times Hall of Valor
Between the wars
After the war, Walker rotated through a variety of assignments at Camp Benning, Georgia, and Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and served as a company commander and instructor at West Point from August 1923 to June 1925. He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, from September 1925 to June 1926. He then served at Fort Monroe, Virginia, from June 1926 to July 1930. He next commanded the 2nd Battalion, 15th Infantry at Camp Burrowes, Chinwangtao (Qinhuangdao) and American Barracks, Tientsin, China, from September 1930 to March 1933.
He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on August 1, 1935, and, after attending the United States Army War College from August 1935 until June 1936, he served as post executive officer and then brigade executive officer with the 5th Infantry Brigade, 3rd Division, from August 1936 to June 1937; the brigade was commanded by George C. Marshall, the future Army Chief of Staff.
World War II
thumb|right|Major General Walton H. Walker (right) engaged in conversation with Major General Lindsay McDonald Silvester, commander of the 7th Armored Division, in late August 1944.
Walker served as a staff officer in the War Plans Division with the General Staff Corps in Washington, D.C. from August 1937 to April 1941. He next served as commanding officer of the 36th Infantry Regiment, which was activated April 15, 1941, as the 36th Infantry (Armored) and assigned to the 3rd Armored Division, June 1941; on January 1, 1942, it was redesignated the 36th Armored Infantry.
thumb|left|General Patton with members of his staff. Walker is standing on the right.
When Marshall (now Chief of Staff) assigned George S. Patton to organize America's armored forces, Walker successfully lobbied Marshall for a post as one of Patton's subordinate commanders, gaining promotion to brigadier general in the process. Promoted to major general in 1942; he commanded the 3rd Armored Division from August 1941 to August 1942. After being succeeded by Leroy H. Watson, Walker became commanding general of IV Corps and then XX Corps (IV Armored Corps became XX Corps), taking the latter to England in February 1944 and leading it into combat in Normandy in July as part of Patton's Third Army. He was awarded a Silver Star for gallantry in action on July 7, 1944. The citation for the medal reads:
thumb|right|Senior American commanders tour the newly liberated Ohrdruf concentration camp, 1945. Pictured from right to left are Walton Walker, Omar Bradley and George S. Patton.
Walker's XX Corps played a role in Patton's dash across France in August and early September 1944, earning the sobriquet "Ghost Corps" for the speed of its advance. He received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) or extraordinary heroism on August 23, 1944, the citation for which reads:
Walker's troops saw heavy fighting in France and Germany during the remainder of the war, especially at Metz, the Battle of the Bulge, and in the invasion of Germany. In the spring of 1945, XX Corps liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, then pushed south and east, eventually reaching Linz, Austria by May. Walker received his third star at this time, making him a lieutenant general. United States Military Academy (WPAOG) Memorial
Walker received the unconditional surrender of Generaloberst Lothar Rendulic, commander of German Army Group South, on 7 May 1945. For his service as commander of XX Corps from 1944-1945 He was awarded the Legion of Merit.
Post-World War II
In May 1945, Walker returned to the United States. He was given command of the 8th Service Command, headquartered in Dallas, from May 1945 to May 1946. He was assigned as the commander of the Sixth Service Command and the Fifth Army, headquartered in Chicago, from May 1946 to September 1948, and then became commanding general of the U.S. Eighth Army, the American occupation force in Japan. Walker was ordered by General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Allied Commander in Japan, to restore the peacetime Eighth Army to combat-ready condition.
Korean War
thumb|right|250px|Lt. Gen. Walker (left) confers with Maj. Gen. William F. Dean, Commander of the 24th Infantry Division, on July 7, 1950.
At the end of World War II in 1945, Korea was divided into North Korea and South Korea, with North Korea (assisted by the Soviet Union)This Day in History, 1950, Korean War Begins becoming a communist state after 1946, known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, followed by South Korea becoming the Republic of Korea (ROK).National Archives, US Enters the Korean Conflict China became the communist People's Republic of China in 1949. In 1950, the Soviet Union backed North Korea while the United States backed South Korea, and China allied with the Soviet Union in what was to become the first military action of the Cold War.History Vault, Korean War
Shortly after 75,000 North Korean troops with tanks invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, American air and sea forces were ordered by President Harry S. Truman to give South Korean troops support.Time, How the Korean War Started, June 25, 2015 The U.S. Eighth Army was ordered to intervene and drive the invaders back across the 38th parallel, the border between the two countries. With only four lightly equipped and poorly trained divisions, Walker began landing troops on the southeast side of the Korean peninsula in July. After his lead units, elements of the 24th Infantry Division (including the ill-fated Task Force Smith), were virtually destroyed in a few days of furious fighting between Osan and Taejon, Walker realized his assigned mission was impossible and went on the defensive. Pushed steadily back towards the southeast by the North Korean advance, Walker's forces suffered heavy losses and for a time were unable to form a defensible front, even after bringing the 1st Cavalry Division and 25th Infantry Division into the fight.
Walker's situation was not helped by MacArthur's unrealistic demands from Tokyo for him not to retreat an inch. Attempting to obey, Walker gave a bombastic "not a step back" speech to his staff and subordinate commanders which did not go over well. Nor did it stop the North Korean troops from pushing back American and South Korea troops, which had been badly mauled in the opening days of the invasion, even further. As American and South Korean forces retreated further east and south, they finally arrived at a defensible line on the Nakdong River. They took advantage of shortened supply routes and a relatively good road network to exploit the advantages of interior lines. Walker was able to quickly shift his units from point to point, stopping North Korean attacks before they could be reinforced.
A critical advantage Walker had was signals intelligence produced by the U.S. Armed Forces Security Agency (now the National Security Agency). This data enabled Walker to gain an indication of North Korean Army movements prior to attacks. Walker kept his main units deployed on the front lines, while retaining other U.S. Army and Marine Corps forces as a mobile reserve. His ability to better interpret North Korean intentions allowed him and his staff to better position his forces along the perimeter. It also allowed him to employ artillery and airpower more effectively.
American military forces gradually solidified this defensive position on the southeast side of the Korean peninsula, dubbed the "Pusan Perimeter". Walker received reinforcements, including the Provisional Marine Brigade, which he used along with the Army's 27th Infantry Regiment as "fire brigades," reliable troops who specialized in counterattacking and wiping out enemy penetrations. As more reinforcements arrived, the combat advantage shifted toward the United Nations forces. North Korean forces had suffered terribly and their supply lines were under constant aerial bombardment. Almost all of their Russian-made T-34 tanks, which had spearheaded the invasion, had been destroyed. Walker ordered local counterattacks, while planning for a large-scale breakout in conjunction with MacArthur's Inchon landing in September.
With MacArthur's amphibious flanking move, the North Koreans seemed trapped, but Walker's rapid advance northwest towards Inchon and Seoul emphasized speed over maneuver and made no attempt to encircle and destroy the North Koreans after punching through their lines. Although thousands of prisoners were taken, many North Korean units successfully disengaged from the fighting, melting away into the interior of South Korea, where they would conduct a guerrilla war for two years. Others escaped all the way back to North Korea. Walker was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism from July 14 to September 28, 1950. The medal's citation reads:
With the war apparently won, Walker's Eighth Army quickly moved north and, with the independent X Corps on its right, crossed the 38th parallel to occupy North Korea. Fighting tapered off to sporadic, sharp clashes with remnants of North Korean forces. By late October 1950, the Eighth Army was nearing the Yalu River, on the border between North Korea and China. MacArthur's headquarters had assured Walker that the Chinese would not intervene, so Walker's troops did not maintain watchful security. A gap opened between Eighth Army and X Corps as they advanced close to the Chinese border due to a lack of coordination between Walker, General Edward Almond, Commander of the X Corps, and MacArthur's headquarters in Tokyo. Eventually, the weather turned extremely cold, and most American units had no training and inadequate equipment for these bitter temperatures.
Contrary to MacArthur's expectations, the Chinese intervened in force on November 25, first in a series of ambushes, then in sporadic night attacks, and finally in an all-out offensive in which three Chinese armies infiltrated the lines,DefenseMediaNetwork, October 2, 2014 taking advantage of the American failure to take basic security measures, and the large gaps between American and South Korean units and between the Eighth Army and the X Corps. From late October until the beginning of December in 1950, the Chinese killed or captured thousands of American and ROK soldiers, decimating the 2nd Infantry Division and forcing Walker into a desperate retreat.
By early December, using his superior mobility, Walker successfully broke contact with the Chinese, withdrawing south to a position around Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Without instructions from MacArthur's headquarters, Walker decided that the Eighth Army was too battered to defend Pyongyang and ordered the retreat to resume to below the 38th parallel, saving most of the Eighth Army.
Death and burial
Walker was killed in a traffic accident on December 23, 1950, in Dobong District,In 1950, Dobong belonged to Yangju County Seoul (near Uijeongbu), South Korea, when his north-bound command jeep collided with a south-bound weapons carrier from a South Korean army division that had swung out of its lane.Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, p. 486 His body was escorted back to the United States by his son Sam Sims Walker, then a Company commander with the 19th Infantry Regiment, who was also serving in Korea. On January 2, 1951, he was posthumously promoted to general and his body was interred in Section 34 of Arlington National Cemetery.Burial Detail: Walker, Walton H - ANC Explorer
Military awards and badges
Walker's decorations and awards, and badges, include:
Distinguished Service Cross w/ bronze oak leaf clusterDistinguished Service Medal w/ bronze oak leaf clusterSilver Star w/ two bronze oak leaf clustersLegion of MeritDistinguished Flying Cross w/ bronze oak leaf clusterBronze Star MedalAir Medal w/ two silver and one bronze oak leaf clusterArmy Commendation MedalWorld War I Victory Medal w/ three " bronze starsArmy of Occupation of Germany MedalAmerican Defense Service MedalAmerican Campaign MedalEuropean-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal w/ one " silver star and one " bronze starWorld War II Victory MedalArmy of Occupation MedalNational Defense Service MedalKorean Service Medal w/ three " bronze stars20pxFrench Croix de Guerre w/ bronze star and palmRepublic of Korea Presidential Unit CitationUnited Nations Service Medal for KoreaRepublic of Korea War Service Medal
Badges
100pxArmy Staff Identification Badge
Military promotions
Source - Official Register of the United States Army. 1946. pg. 713
No insigniaCadet, United States Military Academy: June 15, 1907No pin insignia in 1912Second Lieutenant, Regular Army: June 12, 191213pxFirst Lieutenant, Regular Army: July 1, 191633pxCaptain, Regular Army: May 17, 191740pxMajor, National Army: June 7, 191840pxLieutenant Colonel, National Army: May 6, 191933pxCaptain, Regular Army: February 12, 192040pxMajor, Regular Army: July 1, 192040pxLieutenant Colonel, Regular Army: August 1, 193560pxColonel, Army of the United States: February 14, 194133pxBrigadier General, Army of the United States: July 10, 194166pxMajor General, Army of the United States: February 16, 194260pxColonel, Regular Army: May 1, 194299pxLieutenant General, Army of the United States: April 15, 194566pxMajor General, Regular Army: August 1, 1947130pxGeneral, Regular Army (posthumous): January 2, 1951
Legacy and honors
thumb|right|A monument in Seoul to honor the service of Gen. Walton H. Walker, 2009
Promoted posthumously to 4-star General, Walker's memory was much honored in the years immediately following the Korean War. The Army chose his name (and his other nickname), for its next light tank, the M41 Walker Bulldog. The M41 Tank was already nicknamed the Little Bulldog before Gen. Walker's death. The Army dropped the word Little and retained the name Bulldog as part of the new nickname for the M41 Tank.
In Dallas, Texas, the western segment of Texas State Highway Loop 12 was named after him (the portion going through neighboring Irving, Texas continues the naming convention).
In Belton, Texas, American Legion Post 55 is named after him.
One of the largest Armed Forces Recreation Center's hotels, the General Walker Hotel in Berchtesgaden (now demolished), was also named in his honor.
Camp Walker in Daegu, South Korea, is named in his honor.
In 1963, South Korea President Park Chung-hee honored Walker by naming a hill in the southern part of Seoul after him. Today, Walker Hill is the site of the Grand Walker Hill, a five-star international resort and hotel with its own full service casino. Also, Walker Hill Apartment is located in Gwangjin-gu.
In December 2009, the mayor of Dobong-gu district, Choi Sun-Kil, unveiled the Walton Harris Walker monument to mark the site of his death. The memorial, which is near Dobong subway Station, pays tribute to Walker and to all those who defended South Korea in the Korean War.
Walker Intermediate School which is located on the Fort Knox Army Garrison, was named after Walker and opened in 1962. His picture hangs in the school lobby.
A biography of Walker was published in 2008 titled General Walton H. Walker: Forgotten Hero-The Man Who Saved Korea, by Charles M. Province.
In popular culture
Walker was portrayed by Douglas Fowley in the 1963 film Miracle of the White Stallions, and by Garry Walberg in the 1977 film MacArthur.
References
Bibliography
Monument unveiled for legendary U.S. Army general
External links
Generals of World War II
United States Army Officers 1939-1945
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Category:1889 births
Category:1950 deaths
Category:United States Army Infantry Branch personnel
Category:Virginia Military Institute alumni
Category:United States Army generals
Category:United States Army personnel of World War I
Category:United States Army personnel of the Korean War
Category:American military personnel killed in the Korean War
Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Category:People from Belton, Texas
Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Category:Recipients of the Silver Star
Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
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Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 (France) | {"Nickname(s)": "\"Johnnie Walker\"", "Born": "Belton, Texas, United States", "Died": "Dobong, Seoul, South Korea", "Allegiance": "United States", "Commands held": "Eighth United States ArmyFifth United States ArmyEighth Service CommandXX Corps3rd Armored Division", "Awards": "Distinguished Service Cross (2)Army Distinguished Service Medal (2)Silver Star (3)Legion of MeritDistinguished Flying Cross (2)Bronze Star MedalAir Medal (12)Army Commendation MedalEulji Order of Military Merit (2)", "Relations": "General Sam S. Walker (son)"} |
The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo to Albania in the southeast.Profile, dictionary.reference.com; accessed 25 August 2015.
The Dinaric Alps extend for approximately along the western Balkan Peninsula from the Julian Alps of the northeast Italy, downwards to the Šar and Korab massif, where their direction changes. The Accursed Mountains are the highest section of the entire Dinaric Alps; this section stretches from Albania to Kosovo and eastern Montenegro. Maja Jezercë is the highest peak and is located in Albania, standing at above the Adriatic.
The Dinaric Alps are one of the most rugged and extensive mountainous areas of Europe, alongside the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathian Mountains and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sandstone and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50 to 100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded and overthrust the rocks in a great arc around the old rigid block of the northeast. The main tectonic phase of the orogenesis in the area of the Dinaric Karst took place in Cenozoic Era (Paleogene) as a result of the Adriatic Microplate (Adria) collision with Europe, and the process is still active. The Dinaric Alps were thrown up in more or less parallel ranges, stretching like necklaces from the Julian Alps as far as northern Albania and Kosovo, where the mountainous terrain subsides to make way for the waters of the Drin River and the plains of Kosovo.
Name
The Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara (1,831 m), a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border with the Dalmatian part of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Names of the chain in local languages include or ; ; or ; .
Geology
thumb|upright=1.04|Valbona Pass, northern Albania
The Dinaric Karst region is built mostly of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite deposited on top of a huge Bahama-type carbonate platform, while a few kilometers thick carbonate successions have been deformed during the Alpine orogenesis. The main tectonic phase of the Alpine orogenesis in the Dinaric Karst region took place in the Cenozoic Era (Paleogene) as a result of the Adriatic microplate (Adria) collision with the Serbo-Macedonian and Rhodope Massifs, and the process is still active. The Mesozoic limestone forms a very distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst Plateau, which has given its name to all such terrains of limestone eroded by groundwater. The Dinarides are known for being composed of karst - limestone rocks - as is Dinara, the mountain for which they were named. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct geologic influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is little evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys and moraines as low as . However, in the Accursed Mountains (), a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west (thus breaking the general geographic trend of the Dinaric system), there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the present-day landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail: that of the limestone mountains, often with their attendant faulting. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges and canyons are cleft by the rivers draining the higher slopes.
The partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast.
thumb|upright=1.04|Mount Mučanj, lower Dinarides, western Serbia
Rivers in Dinaric karst
thumb|upright=1.04|The surroundings of Foča. Bosnia and Herzegovina
The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps. Here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a very porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity. As it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels and shafts. The roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the surface to the water once more.
The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, and in particular karst. Among the largest and most well known are the Neretva, the Rakitnica, the Prača, the Drina, the Sutjeska, the Vrbas, the Ugar, the Piva, the Tara, the Komarnica, the Morača, the Cem/Ciijevna, the Lim, and the Drin.
Only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, including Jadro Spring noted for having been the source of water for Diocletian's Palace at Split. At the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue. Water quality testing of the Jadro River, for example, indicates the low pollutant levels present. Rock faces are often bare of vegetation and glaring white, but what little soil there is may collect in the hollows and support lush lime-tolerant vegetation, or yield narrow strips of cultivation.
Human activity
Ruins of fortresses dot the mountainous landscape, evidence of centuries of war and the refuge the Dinaric Alps have provided to various armed forces. During the Roman period, the Dinarides provided shelter to the Illyrians resisting Roman conquest of the Balkans, which began with the conquest of the eastern Adriatic coast in the 3rd century BC. Rome conquered the whole of Illyria in 168 BC, but these mountains sheltered Illyrian resistance forces for many years until the area's complete subjugation by 14 AD. More recently, the Ottoman Empire failed to fully subjugate the mountainous areas of Montenegro. In the 20th century, too, the mountains provided favourable terrain for guerrilla warfare, with Yugoslav Partisans organising one of the most successful Allied resistance movements of World War II.
The area remains underpopulated, and forestry and mining remain the chief economic activities in the Dinaric Alps. The people of the Dinaric Alps are on record as being the tallest in the world, with an average male adolescent height of . The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina have the highest recorded average of any single country, with 183.9 cm average for men and 172.72 cm for women.
Mountain passes
The main mountain passes of the Dinaric Alps are:Summitpost. Dinaric Alps: Passes in the Dinaric Alps, Retrieved 19 November 2008
Postojna Gate (Postojnska vrata), Slovenia (),
Vratnik pass, Croatia ()
Debelo brdo, Serbia ()
Knin Gate (Kninska vrata), Croatia (about )
Vaganj, Croatia/Bosnia-Herzegovina ()
Ivan-Saddle (Ivan-sedlo), Bosnia-Herzegovina ()
Kupres Gate (Kupreška vrata), Bosnia-Herzegovina ()
Čemerno, Bosnia-Herzegovina ()
Crkvine, Montenegro ()
Čakor, Montenegro ()
Tunnels
Major tunnels transversing the Dinaric Alps include:
Tuhobić Tunnel, Croatia
Sveti Rok Tunnel, Croatia
Mala Kapela Tunnel, Croatia
Mountains and plateaus
thumb|upright=1.36|Geomorphological subdivisions of Dinaric Alps
Legend:
A1: The area of the North Adriatic - the territory of Istria and the Kras area
A2: Northern Adriatic - North Adriatic islands
A3: Mountains of Dalmatia - Central mountain range
A4: Dalmatian Mountains - Coastal Mountain Range
A5: The mountains of southern Dalmatia and Mediterranean Herzegovina
A6: The islands of Central and South Adriatic and Peljesac
A7: Primorje Mountains of Montenegro
A8: Coastal and Central Montenegro Mountains - Katunska karst flattening
A9: Mountains of the Montenegrin Rudina
A10/11: Mountains of Low Herzegovina
B1: Group of Trnova herod
B2: Snežnik and Gorski kotar plateaus
B3: Notran plateau
B4: Great Chapel (Velika Kapela)
B5: Massive Velebit
B6: Little Chapel (Mala Kapela) and Lika Center
B7: Massif Lička Plješivica (Plješevica)
B8: Massive Dinara
B9: Šator
B10: Cincar
B11: Klekovača (S) and Grmeč (N)
B12: Raduša
B13: Čvrsnica
B14: Massive Prenj
B15: High mountains of Herzegovina - Velež and Herzegovinian Rudine
B16: Mountains of High Herzegovina - Mountain range of Crvanj-Lebršnik
B17: Zelengora Group
B18: Bioč-Maglic-Volujak Group
B19: Vranica Group
B20: Bjelašnica (Southern Sarajevo Mountains)
B21: Mountain range Golija-Vojnik
B22: Group Switches
B23: Durmitor area
B24: Sinjajevina
B25: The Moravian-Fallen Mountains and Maganik
B26: Ljubišnja
B27: Massive Bjelasica
B28: Komovi
B29: Visitor
B30: Kučke planine (Žijovo)
B31: Albanian Alps
C1: Group of Kočevski Rog
C2: Žumberak / Gorjanci Group
C3: Central and Eastern Bosnia Mountains - Vlašić Group
C4: Central Bosnia Mountains
C5: Eastern Bosnia Mountains
C6: Central and Eastern Bosnia Mountains - Jahorina Group
C7: Mountains of Stara Vlaha and Raska (Sandžak) - Polymers-Podrinje Group
C8: Mountains of Stara Vlaha and Raška (Sandžak) - Zlatarsko-pešterska Group
C9: Mountains of the Old Mountains - the central group
C10: Mountains of Serbia - Podrinje-valjevo mountains
C11: Pre-Dinaric Mountains: Kozara (NW) och Majevica (SE).
The mountains and plateaus within the Dinarides are found in the following regions:
Albania
Maja Jezercë - (highest peak)
Maja Grykat e Hapëta
Maja Radohimës
Maja e Popljuces
Maja Briaset
Maja Hekurave
Maja Shnikut
Maja Tat
Kolata e Mirë Maja Rosit
Maja Kokervhake
Maja Shkurt
Maja Malësores
Maja e Ragamit
Maja Bojs
Maja Vukoces
Shkëlzen
Maja e Kakisë
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dinara – range's eponym
Maglić – highest peak in Bosnia & Herzegovina
Bjelašnica
Cincar
Crvanj
Čabulja
Čvrsnica
Grmeč
Igman
Jahorina
Javor
Kamešnica
Klekovača
Konjuh
Kozara Lebršnik
Lelija
Orjen
Osječenica
Ozren
Majevica
Motajica
Manjača
Prenj
Plješivica
Raduša
Romanija Trebević
Treskavica
Šator
Velež
Visočica
Vlasulja
Vlašić
Volujak
Vran
Vranica
Zelengora
Zvijezda
Croatia
Dinara – highest peak in Croatia, and second highest of Dinara
Kamešnica
Kozjak
Mosor
Omiška Dinara
Biokovo
Vrgorsko gorje
Učka
Ćićarija
Velebit
Svilaja
Velika Kapela
Mala Kapela
Žumberak
Italy
Karst PlateauDinaric Alps, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.
Kosovo
Gjeravica – highest peak in Kosovo
Rrasa e Zogut
Gusani
Bjeshket e Deçanit
Majrashi
Guri i Kuq
Bjeshket e Rugoves
Bjeshket e Thata
Montenegro
Accursed Mountains – Zla Kolata, highest peak in Montenegro
Bijela gora
Durmitor
Hajla
Lovćen
Maganik
Njegoš
Orjen
Rumija
Sinjajevina
Serbia
Mokra Gora – highest peak in Serbia
Tara
Zlatibor
Zlatar
Golija
Jadovnik
Javor
Ozren
Bobija
Pešter
Medvednik
Kamena Gora Jabuka
Čemernica
Javorje
Ovčar
Sokolska planina
Pobijenik
Murtenica
Gradina
Subjel
Kablar
Magleš Golubac
Banjsko brdo
Krstac
Crni Vrh
Hum
Zvijezda
Suvobor
Gučevo
Debela gora
Debelo Brdo
Slovenia
Gorjanci
Kambreško and the Banjšice Plateau
The Trnovo Forest Plateau (), Nanos, and Hrušica
Javornik Hills and Snežnik
Krim Hills and Menišija
Bloke
The Velika Mountain, Stojna and the Gotenica Mountain
The Mala Mountain, the Kočevski Rog and the Poljane Mountain
Dry Carniola and Dobrepolje
Radulja Hills
References
External links
Discover Dinarides Project
Environment for People in the Dinaric Arc Project
Via Dinarica Trail - Mega-trail across highest peaks of Dinaric Alps
Category:Mountain ranges of Albania
Category:Mountain ranges of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Category:Mountain ranges of Croatia
Category:Mountain ranges of Kosovo
Category:Mountain ranges of Serbia
Category:Mountain ranges of Slovenia
Category:Mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Category:Mountains of Montenegro
Category:Physiographic provinces | {"Elevation": "2694", "Coordinates": "45 N 17 E type:mountain dms inline,title", "Area": "200,000", "Length": "NW-SE", "Location": "Topography and relief of the Dinarides"} |
, first called Jūbei from his clan and later from his title, was a Japanese samurai general of the Sengoku period best known as the assassin of Oda Nobunaga. Mitsuhide was a bodyguard of Ashikaga Yoshiaki and later a successful general under daimyō Nobunaga during his war of political unification in Japan.
thumb|The Akechi clan crest (Mon (emblem))
Mitsuhide rebelled against Nobunaga for unknown reasons in the Honnō-ji Incident in 1582, forcing the unprotected Nobunaga to commit seppuku in Kyoto.
Mitsuhide attempted to establish himself as shōgun, but was pursued by Nobunaga's successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi and defeated at the Battle of Yamazaki. The 13-days short reign of Mitsuhide is listed as the inspiration for the yojijukugo set phrase .
He is still popular in present culture. A ceremonial activity was held on April 15, 2018, in Kyoto.
Early life
thumb|Bronze statue of Akechi Mitsuhide
Akechi Mitsuhide was believed to be born on 10 March 1528 in Tara Castle, Mino Province (present-day Kani, Gifu Prefecture)Miyagi keizu and Kitamra kaden Mitsuhide was a descendant of the Toki-Akechi family of the shugo Toki clan. Mitsuhide is rumored to be a childhood friend or cousin of Nōhime. It is believed that he was raised to be a general among 10,000 by Saitō Dōsan and the Toki clan during their governorship of the Mino Province. When Dōsan's son, Saitō Yoshitatsu, rebelled against his father in 1556, Mitsuhide sided with Dōsan.
Service under Ashikaga Shogunate and Oda Nobunaga
Mitsuhide began serving the "wandering shōgun" Ashikaga Yoshiaki as one of his guardians under Hosokawa Fujitaka. Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki ordered Asakura Yoshikage to be his official protector, an offer which Yoshikage declined. Yoshiaki appealed to Mitsuhide, who suggested Oda Nobunaga instead.
In 1567, after Nobunaga conquest of Mino province, and paved the way through Omi province to Kyoto.
In November 1568, Nobunaga, Yoshiaki and Mitsuhide arrived in Kyoto, the capital of Japan, and Nobunaga made Yoshiaki the next shogun and turned Honkoku-ji temple into a temporary Shogun palace.
In 1569, after Nobunaga and his followers returned from Kyoto on January 4, the Miyoshi clan (Miyoshi Saninshu) attacked Ashikaga Yoshiaki at Honkoku-ji on January 31, known as "Honkokuji Incident". At the battle of Honkokuji, Mitsuhide managed to defend the shōgun and repulsed the Miyoshi clan. Then Nobunaga asked Mitsuhide to join his army and Mitsuhide decided to serve under the Shōgun and also join Nobunaga.
In 1570, at the Siege of Kanegasaki in Echizen Province. Mitsuhide joined Hideyoshi to serve as the rear-guard for the departing forces.
In 1571, after the successful attack at the Ikkō-ikki Enryaku-ji temple, Mitsuhide received Sakamoto area and built Sakamoto Castle. Although Nobunaga rarely put too much trust in his retainers, he particularly trusted Shibata Katsuie, Hashiba Hideyoshi, and Akechi Mitsuhide, who was the first subordinate to receive a castle from Nobunaga.
In 1572, Mitsuhide continued serving Shogun Yoshiaki by contributing to the campaign in Kawachi Province.
In 1573, after Ashikaga Yoshiaki raised arms against Nobunaga. Mitsuhide split from Yoshiaki and served as a senior retainer of Nobunaga in battles at Ishiyama Castle and Imakatata Castle.
In 1574, after Ashikaga Shogunate come to end, Mitsuhide served as a dual magistrate, assessing taxes on temple holdings in Kyōto and its environs.
In 1575, after Battle of Nagashino, Nobunaga send Akechi Mitsuhide to take control of Tanba province. Mitsuhide attempted diplomacy and won over a number of the smaller local lords to his side; however, Akai clan were adamant in their opposition, and Mitsuhide was forced to lay siege to Kuroi Castle for two months in the winter of 1575. Later, he was awarded the Court titles of "Junior Fifth Rank (Lower)", "Governor of Hyūga" and the honorary title of "Koretō Hyūga-no-kami".
In April 1576, Mitsuhide, along with Hosokawa Fujitaka, Harada Naomasa and Araki Murashige took part at battle of Tennoji as the main army of Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji against Ikkō-ikki rebellion. In the meantime, Hatano clan from Tanba under Hatano Hideharu declared independence and turned against Nobunaga.
In 1577, Mitsuhide along with Hosokawa Fujitaka and Tsutsui Junkei aided Oda Nobutada in the Siege of Shigisan to defeat Matsunaga Hisahide, who had rebelled against Nobunaga.
Later, Mitsuhide took part in the Battle of Tedorigawa against Uesugi Kenshin.
In 1578, After Hatano Hideharu rebellion, Nobunaga ordered again Mitsuhide to invade Tanba Province. Mitsuhide moved to pacify the Tanba by defeating several clans, such as the leader of the Hatano clan's retainers, the Akai clan, Akai Naomasa also known as "Red Demon of Tanba" at second siege of Kuroi castle. Later, Mitsuhide received Kameyama castle and Tanba Province with fief 550,000 koku.
In 1579, Mitsuhide forces captured Yakami Castle from Hatano Hideharu by promising Hideharu peace terms; however, Nobunaga betrayed the peace agreement and had Hideharu executed. This reputedly displeased the Hatano family. As a result, several of Hideharu's retainers murdered Akechi Mitsuhide's mother (or aunt). The failing relationship between Nobunaga and Mitsuhide was further fueled through several public insults which Nobunaga directed at Mitsuhide.
In 1580, after Nobunaga banished Sakuma Nobumori and his son Sakuma Nobuhide to the temple on Mount Koyasan, Mitsuhide replaced Nobumori command and came to lead the largest force in the Kinki area (Kansai) and along with the severe human affairs which brought unrest to the vassals, this banishment was often said to be linked to the Honnoji Incident.
In 1581, Nobunaga assigned Mitsuhide to manage the "Kyōto Mounted Horse Parade" (Kyōto ouma-zoroi), a large-scale military parade held to the east of the Imperial Palace in Kyōto.
Honnō-ji Incident
In 1582, Mitsuhide was ordered by Nobunaga to march west to assist Hashiba Hideyoshi who was at that time fighting the Mōri clan. Ignoring his orders, Mitsuhide assembled an army of 13,000 soldiers and moved against Nobunaga's position at Honnō-ji. On June 21, Mitsuhide was quoted as saying, "The enemy is at Honnō-ji!" His army surrounded the temple and eventually set it on fire. Oda Nobunaga was killed either during the fighting, or by his own hand. Nobunaga's son, Oda Nobutada, fled the scene, but was surrounded at Nijō Castle and killed. Despite not killing Nobunaga personally, Mitsuhide claimed responsibility for his death.
Mitsuhide's betrayal of the Oda shocked the capital, and he was forced to move quickly to secure his position. Mitsuhide looted Azuchi castle to reward his men and maintain their loyalty.
Mitsuhide attempted to make gestures of friendship to a panicked Imperial Court; he also made many attempts to win over the other clans, but to no avail.
Meanwhile, Hosokawa Fujitaka, to whom he was related through marriage, quickly cut ties with him, as well as Tsutsui Junkei, who refused to take Akechi's side, and half-heartedly supported Hideyoshi.
Death
thumb|Akechi Mitsuhide grave information plaque at Umemiyacho, Kyoto.
Mitsuhide had counted on Toyotomi Hideyoshi being occupied fighting with the Mori, and unable to respond to Mitsuhide's coup d'état. However, having learned of the assassination of his lord, Hideyoshi quickly signed a peace treaty with the Mori, and alongside Tokugawa Ieyasu rushed to be the first to avenge Nobunaga. Hideyoshi force marched his army to Settsu in four days, and caught Mitsuhide off guard.
Mitsuhide had been unable to garner support for his cause, and his army had dwindled down to 10,000 men. Hideyoshi, however, had won over former Oda retainers, including Niwa Nagahide and Ikeda Tsuneoki, and had a strength of 20,000 men. In July 2, 1582, the two forces met at the Battle of Yamazaki.
Battle of Yamazaki
Mitsuhide took up a position south of Shōryūji Castle, securing his right flank by the Yodo river, and his left at the foot of the 270-metre Tennozan. Hideyoshi immediately seized the advantage by securing the heights of Tennōzan; his vanguard then maneuvered to face the Akechi forces along the Enmyōji river.
Mitsuhide's forces made a failed attempt to force Hideyoshi from Tennōzan. Ikeda Tsuneoki moved to reinforce Hideyoshi's right flank, which soon crossed Enmyōji-gawa and turned the Akechi flank. Simultaneously, Hideyoshi's forces marched against the Akechi front; this started a rout, only two hours after the battle had begun.
Mitsuhide's men fled, with the exception of the 200 men under Mimaki Kaneaki (御牧 兼顕), who charged and were destroyed by Hideyoshi's larger force. Soon, panic set in among the Akechi army, and Hideyoshi's army chased them back to Shōryūji, where the garrison collapsed. Akechi was later killed while fleeing the battle of Yamazaki by the bandit leader Nakamura Chōbei.
thumb|250px|right|Shrine to Akechi Mitsuhide, Kyoto
Family
Father: Akechi Mitsutsuna
Mother: Daughter of the Wakasa Takeda clan
Wife: Tsumaki Hiroko ()
Sons:
Akechi Mitsuyoshi ()
Daughters:
Hosokawa Gracia (): Wife of Hosokawa Tadaoki; ancestor of Empress Shōken
Relatives
Akechi Mitsuharu (): Cousin
Akechi Hidemitsu (): Adopted son (and son-in-law); ancestor of Sakamoto Ryōma
Nōhime: Cousin; Saitō Dōsan daughter; Wife of Oda Nobunaga
Legacy
Tensho Koshirae sword
The sword of Mitsuhide is the Tensho style; the 'Tensho Koshirae' was first designed to be a replica of Akechi Mitsuhide's own sword.
The Akechi family was able to trace their heritage to the Toki clan and from there to the Minamoto clan.
Castles built or reconstructed by Mitsuhide
Mitsuhide was well known as a master of castle construction, and was engaged in the construction of many castles.
Sakamoto Castle , Main base of Akechi clan.(Mitsuhide's residence)
Fukuchiyama Castle
Kameyama Castle, In 2019, Akechi Mistuhide's statue was built in the castle.
Shūzan Castle
Kinzan Castle
Kuroi Castle
Shūchi Castle
Usayama Castle
See also
People of the Sengoku period in popular culture
References
Further reading
Category:1520s births
Category:1582 deaths
Category:Akechi clan
Category:Daimyo
Category:Japanese warriors killed in battle
Category:Oda retainers
Category:People of Azuchi-Momoyama-period Japan
Category:People of Muromachi-period Japan
Category:Samurai
Category:Leaders who took power by coup
Category:Japanese assassins
Category:Japanese Buddhists
Category:People from Gifu Prefecture | {"Name": "Akechi Mitsuhide", "Term start": "1578", "Term end": "1582", "Spouse(s)": "Tsumaki Hiroko", "Battles fought": "Battle of NagaragawaBattle of Honkoku-jiSiege of KanegasakiSiege of Mount HieiKawachi CampaignBattle of NagashinoTanba CampaignIshiyama Hongan-ji WarBattle of TedorigawaSiege of ShigisanSiege of Yakami CastleSiege of Kuroi CastleHonnō-ji IncidentBattle of Yamazaki", "Native name": "明智 光秀", "Death place": "Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, Japan", "Nationality": "Japanese", "Birth place": "Tara Castle, Mino Province, Japan", "Death date": "1582 7 2 1528 3 10 y", "Birth date": "10 March 1528", "Image caption": "Edo period painting of Akechi Mitsuhide."} |
SF Masterworks is a series of science fiction novel reprints published by UK-based company Orion Publishing Group, a subsidiary of Hachette UK. The series is intended for the United Kingdom and Australian markets, but many editions are distributed to the United States and Canada by Hachette Book Group. , there are 188 unique titles in the series, 186 of which have been printed in the relaunched series. Approximately 230 volumes, including hardcover and revised editions, have been published in total.
Superseding the earlier series Gollancz Classic SF (1986-1987) and VGSF Classics (1988-1990), the SF Masterworks series began publication in 1999. Developed to feature important and out of print science fiction novels, the selections were described by science fiction author Iain M. Banks as "amazing" and "genuinely the best novels from sixty years of SF". Many of the selections had been out of print in the United Kingdom for many years.
Its companion series include Fantasy Masterworks and Gateway Essentials.
Numbered series
Softcover editions (1999-2007)
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBN Original Publication1The Forever War Joe Haldeman21 January 1999 19742I Am LegendRichard Matheson 19543Cities in FlightJames Blish11 February 1999 1950-19704Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Philip K. Dick 19685The Stars My Destination Alfred Bester11 March 1999 19566Babel-17Samuel R. Delany 19667Lord of LightRoger Zelazny8 April 1999 19678The Fifth Head of CerberusGene Wolfe 19729GatewayFrederik Pohl13 May 1999 197710The Rediscovery of ManCordwainer Smith 1928-199311Last and First MenOlaf Stapledon10 June 1999 193012Earth AbidesGeorge R. Stewart 194913Martian Time-SlipPhilip K. Dick8 July 1999 196414 *The Demolished ManAlfred Bester 1952-195315 *Stand on ZanzibarJohn Brunner12 August 1999 196816 *The DispossessedUrsula K. Le Guin 197417 *The Drowned WorldJ. G. Ballard9 September 1999 196218The Sirens of TitanKurt Vonnegut 195919EmphyrioJack Vance14 October 1999 196920A Scanner DarklyPhilip K. Dick 197721Star MakerOlaf Stapledon11 November 1999 193722Behold the ManMichael Moorcock 196923The Book of SkullsRobert Silverberg16 December 1999 197224The Time Machineand The War of the WorldsH. G. Wells 1895-189725Flowers for AlgernonDaniel Keyes13 January 2000 1959-196626 *UbikPhilip K. Dick10 February 2000 196927 *TimescapeGregory Benford9 March 2000 198028 *More Than HumanTheodore Sturgeon13 April 2000 195329Man PlusFrederik Pohl11 May 2000 197630A Case of ConscienceJames Blish15 June 2000 195831The Centauri DeviceM. John Harrison13 July 2000 197432Dr. BloodmoneyPhilip K. Dick10 August 2000 196533Non-StopBrian Aldiss14 November 2000 195834The Fountains of ParadiseArthur C. Clarke12 October 2000 197935PavaneKeith Roberts9 November 2000 196836Now Wait for Last YearPhilip K. Dick4 December 2000 196637NovaSamuel R. Delany11 January 2001 196838The First Men in the MoonH. G. Wells8 February 2001 1900-190139The City and the StarsArthur C. Clarke8 March 2001 195640Blood MusicGreg Bear12 April 2001 1983-198541JemFrederik Pohl10 May 2001 197942Bring the JubileeWard Moore14 June 2001 195343VALISPhilip K. Dick12 July 2001 198144The Lathe of HeavenUrsula K. Le Guin9 August 2001 197145The Complete RoderickJohn Sladek12 October 2001 1980-198346Flow My Tears, the Policeman SaidPhilip K. Dick8 November 2001 197447The Invisible ManH. G. Wells6 December 2001 189748GrassSheri S. Tepper14 February 2002 198949A Fall of MoondustArthur C. Clarke14 March 2002 196150 *EonGreg Bear11 April 2002 198551 *The Shrinking ManRichard Matheson9 January 2003 195652 *The Three Stigmata of Palmer EldritchPhilip K. Dick31 July 2008 196453 *The Dancers at the End of TimeMichael Moorcock8 May 2003 1972-198154The Space MerchantsFrederik Pohl and Cyril M. Kornbluth10 July 2003 195255Time Out of JointPhilip K. Dick11 September 2003 195956Downward to the EarthRobert Silverberg12 February 2004 197057The SimulacraPhilip K. Dick9 September 2004 196458 *The Penultimate Truth10 February 2005 196459 *Dying InsideRobert Silverberg14 April 2005 197260 *RingworldLarry Niven30 March 2009 197061The Child GardenGeoff Ryman11 August 2005 198962Mission of GravityHal Clement13 October 2005 195363A Maze of DeathPhilip K. Dick1 December 2005 197064Tau ZeroPoul Anderson9 February 2006 1967-197065Rendezvous with RamaArthur C. Clarke13 April 2006 197366 *Life During WartimeLucius Shepard8 June 2006 198767 *Where Late the Sweet Birds SangKate Wilhelm12 October 2006 197668 *Roadside PicnicArkady and Boris Strugatsky8 February 2007 197269Dark BenedictionWalter M. Miller Jr.12 April 2007 195170 *MockingbirdWalter Tevis14 June 2007 198071 *Dune ‡Frank Herbert18 October 2007 196572 *The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress ‡Robert A. Heinlein11 December 2008 196673 *The Man in the High Castle ‡Philip K. Dick17 September 2007 1962
Hardcover editions (2001)
Not all printings include a volume number stamp. Printings distributed to the United States do not include any markings to indicate they are part of a series.
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNIDuneFrank Herbert25 October 2001IIThe Left Hand of DarknessUrsula K. Le Guin18 October 2001IIIThe Man in the High CastlePhilip K. DickIVThe Stars My DestinationAlfred BesterVA Canticle for LeibowitzWalter M. Miller Jr.VIChildhood's EndArthur C. ClarkeVIIThe Moon Is a Harsh MistressRobert A. HeinleinVIIIRingworldLarry NivenIXThe Forever WarJoe HaldemanXThe Day of the TriffidsJohn Wyndham
Relaunch series
thumb|A selection of titles from the series on display at a London bookshop.
Softcover editions (2010-present)
The new designs sport yellow/white spines, with the SF Masterworks logo written vertically on the cover. The original 10 numbered titles were re-issued first. For titles that were previously issued in the original series, generally the cover artwork is tinted in a different colour from the original version. For example, The Dispossessed cover artwork is primarily red in the original release, and was tinted green when reprinted as part of the relaunch.
Only two titles from the numbered series have not yet been reprinted in the relaunch series: The Drowned World and Now Wait for Last Year. Since these are also the only entries missing from the "Complete List" of titles published by Gollancz in 2016, the delay in reprinting both titles is likely a publisher oversight.
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBN ‡Joe Haldeman29 March 2010I Am Legend ‡Richard MathesonCities in Flight ‡James BlishDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? ‡Philip K. Dick ‡Alfred BesterBabel-17 ‡Samuel R. DelanyLord of Light ‡Roger Zelazny ‡Gene WolfeGateway ‡Frederik Pohl ‡Cordwainer Smith ‡Philip K. Dick1 April 2010 Ubik ‡Inverted WorldChristopher Priest13 May 2010 ‡Philip K. Dick14 May 2010 Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said ‡ Time Out of Joint ‡ VALIS ‡ Bring the Jubilee ‡Ward Moore14 June 2010 DhalgrenSamuel R. Delany22 July 2010HelliconiaBrian Aldiss12 August 2010 ‡Ursula K. Le Guin19 August 2010 Jack Finney14 October 2010Joanna Russ11 November 2010 ‡John Sladek ArslanM. J. Engh9 December 2010Tau Zero ‡Poul Anderson30 December 2010 ‡M. John Harrison William Gibson and Bruce Sterling13 January 2011Christopher Priest10 February 2011GreybeardBrian Aldiss18 March 2011Martian Time-Slip ‡Philip K. Dick24 March 2011 SiriusOlaf Stapledon14 April 2011HyperionDan Simmons12 May 2011Non-Stop ‡Brian Aldiss ‡Arthur C. Clarke2 June 2011 CityClifford D. Simak9 June 2011Hellstrom's HiveFrank Herbert14 July 2011Of Men and MonstersWilliam Tenn11 August 2011Pavane ‡Keith Roberts29 September 2011 Timescape ‡Gregory Benford Dying Inside ‡Robert Silverberg Grass ‡Sheri S. Tepper More Than Human ‡Theodore Sturgeon Christopher Priest13 October 2011R.U.R. and War with the NewtsKarel ČapekEmphyrio ‡Jack Vance14 November 2011 Star Maker ‡Olaf Stapledon ‡Robert Silverberg Floating WorldsCecelia Holland8 December 2011Blood Music ‡Greg Bear12 December 2011 Rogue MoonAlgis Budrys12 January 2012Dangerous VisionsHarlan Ellison9 February 2012Rendezvous with Rama ‡Arthur C. Clarke5 March 2012 Eon ‡Greg Bear Odd JohnOlaf Stapledon8 March 2012 ‡Arthur C. Clarke19 March 2012 Last and First Men ‡Olaf Stapledon Dan Simmons12 April 2012Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang ‡Kate Wilhelm14 June 2012 Roadside Picnic (new translation)Arkady and Boris Strugatsky12 July 2012SynnersPat Cadigan9 August 2012Sarah CanaryKaren Joy Fowler13 September 2012AmmoniteNicola GriffithD. G. Compton11 October 2012FrankensteinMary ShelleyDoomsday BookConnie Willis8 November 2012Flowers for Algernon ‡Daniel Keyes15 November 2012 Unquenchable FireRachel Pollack13 December 2012David I. MassonEngine SummerJohn Crowley10 January 2013Take Back PlentyColin GreenlandSlow RiverNicola Griffith14 February 2013Sheri S. Tepper14 March 2013George TurnerWaspEric Frank Russell9 May 2013To Say Nothing of the DogConnie WillisIsaac Asimov13 June 2013This Is the Way the World EndsJames MorrowJohn Crowley11 July 2013Time is the Fire: The Best of Connie WillisConnie Willis8 August 2013No Enemy But TimeMichael BishopDouble StarRobert A. Heinlein12 September 2013Revelation SpaceAlastair Reynolds ‡Arthur C. Clarke16 September 2013 ‡Philip K. Dick ‡ Random Acts of Senseless ViolenceJack Womack10 October 2013TransfigurationsMichael Bishop14 November 2013Robert A. Heinlein12 December 2013Dr. Bloodmoney ‡Philip K. Dick9 January 2014Half Past HumanT. J. Bass30 January 2014Leigh Brackett13 February 2014T. J. Bass13 March 2014Jem ‡Frederik Pohl10 April 2014 ‡Richard Matheson ‡James Blish15 May 2014Her Smoke Rose Up ForeverJames Tiptree Jr10 July 2014 ‡Philip K. Dick28 August 2014 Stand on Zanzibar ‡John Brunner11 September 2014 ‡Geoff Ryman27 November 2014 Mission of Gravity ‡Hal Clement11 December 2014Mockingbird ‡Walter Tevis27 February 2015 Ursula K. Le Guin26 March 2015Downward to the Earth ‡Robert Silverberg9 April 2015Hard to Be a GodArkady and Boris StrugatskyNight LampJack Vance14 May 2015Life During Wartime ‡Lucius Shepard11 June 2015Earth Abides ‡George R. Stewart30 June 2015 Dark Benediction ‡Walter M. Miller13 August 2015Ursula K. Le GuinDying of the LightGeorge R. R. Martin10 September 2015 ‡Ursula K. Le Guin30 September 2015 Nova ‡Samuel R. Delany 12 November 2015Walter TevisVernor Vinge7 January 2016NorstriliaCordwainer Smith11 February 2016Monday Begins on SaturdayArkady and Boris Strugatsky14 April 2016FairylandPaul J. McAuley12 May 2016Always Coming HomeUrsula K. Le Guin14 July 2016Vernor VingeSwastika NightMurray Constantine11 August 2016China Mountain ZhangMaureen F. McHugh13 October 2016Gene Wolfe10 November 2016LimboBernard Wolfe15 December 2016H. G. Wells12 January 2017 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡Ursula K. Le Guin12 April 2017Arkady and Boris Strugatsky13 July 2017Raising the StonesSheri S. Tepper10 August 2017Ian Watson7 September 2017CryptozoicBrian Aldiss30 November 2017Land Under EnglandJoseph O'Neill26 June 2018RaftStephen Baxter10 July 2018Dreaming in SmokeTricia Sullivan23 August 2018FoolsPat Cadigan7 March 2019R. A. Lafferty4 April 2019LightM. John Harrison11 July 2019Native TongueSuzette Haden Elgin22 August 2019Snail on the SlopeArkady and Boris Strugatsky17 October 2019John Brunner9 January 2020Lord Valentine's CastleRobert Silverberg6 February 2020River of GodsIan McDonald19 March 2020Robert Silverberg20 August 2020Fred Hoyle and John Elliot29 October 2020Worlds of Exile and IllusionUrsula K. Le Guin15 October 2020Bold as LoveGwyneth Jones12 November 2020Desolation RoadIan McDonald10 December 2020Castles Made of SandGwyneth Jones21 January 2021Greg Egan18 March 2021 (new translation)Arkady and Boris Strugatsky15 April 2021Christopher Priest13 May 2021Needle in a TimestackRobert Silverberg10 June 2021White QueenGwyneth Jones2 September 2021KairosGwyneth Jones11 November 2021Nineteen Eighty-FourGeorge Orwell20 January 2022LifeGwyneth Jones17 February 2022Roger Zelazny 14 April 2022The Second Chronicles of AmberRoger Zelazny18 August 2022Growing Up WeightlessJohn M. Ford29 September 2022The Secret of LifePaul McAuley13 October 2022RoadmarksRoger Zelazny19 January 2023Imperial EarthArthur C. Clarke16 February 2023The Hammer of GodArthur C. Clarke16 March 2023 ‡Alfred BesterUnknown ‡Kurt Vonnegut Behold the Man ‡Michael Moorcock Man Plus ‡Frederik Pohl ‡Michael Moorcock ‡Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbuth Ringworld ‡Larry Niven
Hardcover editions (2010-2017)
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNCat's CradleKurt Vonnegut20 May 2010Childhood's EndArthur C. Clarke17 June 2010The Island of Doctor Moreau §H. G. WellsThe Time Machine §15 July 2010The Food of the Gods §16 September 2010Dune ‡Frank Herbert30 December 2010 The Hitchhiker's Guide to the GalaxyDouglas Adams10 May 2012The War of the Worlds §H. G. Wells12 July 2012Riddley WalkerRussell Hoban8 November 2012The Invisible Man §H. G. Wells11 April 2013A Canticle for Leibowitz ‡Walter M. Miller25 April 2013The First Men in the Moon §H. G. Wells11 July 2013The Restaurant at the End of the UniverseDouglas Adams28 November 2013Life, the Universe and Everything31 December 2013Feersum EndjinnIain M. Banks16 April 2016The Day of the TriffidsJohn Wyndham12 May 2016The Chrysalids9 June 2016The Midwich Cuckoos8 September 2016Starship TroopersRobert A. Heinlein13 October 2016NeuromancerWilliam Gibson11 May 2017The Man in the High Castle ‡Philip K. Dick14 November 2019 The Moon is a Harsh Mistress ‡Robert A. HeinleinUnknown
‡ Reprinted version of a title from the numbered series
§ Later reprinted in a paperback edition
Forthcoming
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNThe Best of Roger ZelaznyRoger Zelazny28 September 2023
Unpublished editions
The following editions were announced, but appear to have been withdrawn:
Tentative TitleAuthor(s)ScheduledISBNCamp ConcentrationThomas Disch10 August 20063349 November 2006The Long Loud SilenceWilson TuckerFebruary 2015978-1-4732-0773-8The Forge of GodGreg Bear2017The Iron DreamNorman Spinrad14 November 2017
The Best of the Masterworks collection
Softcover (2022 - present)
+TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Philip K. Dick27 October 20229781399607742Flowers for AlgernonDaniel Keyes27 October 20229781399607766I Am LegendRichard Matheson27 October 20229781399607735The Female ManJoanna Russ27 October 20229781399607759NeuromancerWilliam Gibson24 November 20229781399607773The Forever WarJoe Haldeman24 November 20229781399607780The Word for World Is ForestUrsula K. Le Guin24 November 20229781399607797GatewayFrederik Pohl24 November 20229781399607803Revelation SpaceAlastair Reynolds8 December 20229781399607810The Man Who Fell to EarthWalter Tevis8 December 20229781399607834GrassSheri S. Tepper8 December 20229781399607827Sarah CanaryKaren Joy Fowler20 July 2023Rendezvous With RamaArthur C. Clarke20 July 2023Roadside PicnicArkady and Boris Strugatsky20 July 2023The Island Of Doctor MoreauH.G. Wells24 August 2023The Body SnatchersJack Finney24 August 2023The Sirens Of TitanKurt Vonnegut24 August 2023SynnersPat Cadigan24 August 2023To Say Nothing of the DogConnie Willis24 August 2023
Hardcover (2022 - present)
+TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNDuneFrank Herbert27 October 20229781399611176The Hitchhiker's Guide To The GalaxyDouglas Adams24 August 2023
Related series
Gollancz 50th Anniversary (2011)
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Gollancz imprint, Orion published ten fan-chosen editions. Each novel featured Gollancz's red-on-yellow cover design. The series was initially marketed as part the SF Masterworks series.
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBN1Shadow and ClawGene Wolfe1 September 20112Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Philip K. Dick3Flowers for AlgernonDaniel Keyes4I Am LegendRichard Matheson5DuneFrank Herbert6The Lies of Locke LamoraScott Lynch7EricTerry Pratchett8HyperionDan Simmons9The Name of the WindPatrick Rothfuss10The Time MachineH. G. Wells
Golden Age Masterworks (2019-present)
Initially marketed as part the SF Masterworks series.
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNDoomsday MorningC. L. Moore10 January 2019Galactic PatrolE. E. 'Doc' SmithFuryHenry KuttnerThe Sands of MarsArthur C. ClarkeEarthlight7 February 2019Grey LensmanE. E. 'Doc' SmithSecond Stage Lensman7 March 2019Northwest of EarthC. L. MooreJirel of Joiry4 April 2019Children of the LensE. E. 'Doc' SmithAgainst the Fall of NightArthur C. Clarke2 May 2019Judgment NightC. L. Moore13 June 2019The Stainless Steel RatHarry Harrison19 September 2019The Deathworld Omnibus14 November 2019Sidewise in TimeMurray Leinster3 September 2020The Outward UrgeJohn Wyndham5 August 2021Stories of MarsEdgar Rice Burroughs17 March 2022
Rounded-corner paperbacks (2006)
A collection of 10 SF masterworks was published in 2006 in a distinctive paperback edition with matte, non-glossy covers, rounded corners and minimialist cover art by Marc Adams.
TitleAuthor(s)DateISBNCities in FlightJames Blish01 August 20060-57507-898-7Flowers for AlgernonDaniel Keyes01 August 20060-57507-920-5I Am LegendRichard Matheson01 August 20060-575-07900-2Lord of LightRoger Zelazny01 August 20060-575-07901-0The Sirens of TitanKurt Vonnegut01 August 20060-575-07902-9The Forever WarJoe Haldeman01 August 20060-575-07908-8The DispossessedUrsula K. Le Guin01 August 20060-575-07903-7GatewayFrederik Pohl01 August 20060-575-07899-5UbikPhilip K. Dick01 August 20060-575-07921-5The Stars My DestinationAlfred Bester01 August 20060-575-07909-6
See also
Fantasy Masterworks
References
External links
Gollancz SF Masterworks (HC) at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
Gollancz SF Masterworks at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
Gollancz SF Masterworks (II) at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
SF Masterworks at LibraryThing
SF Masterworks at Worlds Without End
Category:Lists of books
Category:Science fiction book series
Category:Science fiction lists | {"Country": "United Kingdom", "Language": "English", "Publisher": "Millennium\n Gollancz\n Gateway", "Published": "1999-present", "Media type": "Print (HardcoverPaperback) Ebook", "No. of books": "188 (186 in current publication)", "Website": "sfgateway.com"} |
The Statue of Freedom, also known as Armed Freedom or simply Freedom, is a bronze statue designed by Thomas Crawford that, since 1863, has crowned the United States Capitol dome. Originally named Freedom Triumphant in War and Peace, a U.S. government publication now states that the statue "is officially known as the Statue of Freedom." The statue depicts a female figure bearing a military helmet and holding a sheathed sword in her right hand and a laurel wreath and shield in her left.
Description
The Statue of Freedom is a colossal bronze figure standing tall and weighing approximately 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg). Her crest peaks at 288 feet (88 m) above the east front plaza of the U.S. Capitol. She is an allegorical figure whose right hand holds the hilt of a sheathed sword, while a laurel wreath of victory and the Shield of the United States are clasped in her left hand. Her chiton is secured by a brooch inscribed "U.S." and is partially covered by a heavy, Native American-style fringed blanket thrown over her left shoulder. She faces east toward the main entrance of the building and the rising Sun. She wears a military helmet adorned with stars and an eagle's head which is itself crowned by an umbrella-like crest of feathers. Although not actually called , she shares many of her iconic characteristics. Freedom stands atop a cast-iron globe encircled with one of the national mottoes, E pluribus unum. The lower part of the base is decorated with fasces and wreaths. Ten spikes are attached to her headdress, shoulders and shield to deter birds from roosting. The statue conducts lightning to its base where it is grounded by thick copper wire connected to a spike in the earth as a safe high current pathway for lightning strikes.
History
Design
thumb|Statue on top of The Capitol buildings dome (2023)
alt=Statue of Freedom (2007)|thumb|Statue of Freedom, United States Capital Building (2007)
A monumental statue for the top of the national Capitol appeared in architect Thomas U. Walter's original drawing for the new cast-iron dome, which was authorized in 1855. Walter's drawing showed the outline of a statue representing the Goddess of Liberty; Crawford proposed instead an allegorical figure of Freedom Triumphant in War and Peace. In doing so, Crawford invoked the goddesses Minerva, Bellona, or Athena.
Crawford was commissioned to design Freedom in 1854 and executed the plaster model for the statue in his studio in Rome, Italy. U.S. Senator and U.S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis (who would later become President of the Confederacy) was in charge of the Capitol construction and its decorations. According to David Hackett Fischer in his book Liberty and Freedom, Crawford's statue was... Davis sent his aide, Captain Montgomery Meigs, with orders to remove the cap, saying that "its history renders it inappropriate to a people who were born free and would not be enslaved".Meigs to Crawford, cited in Fryd, Vivien Green (1992), Art and Empire: The Politics of Ethnicity in the United States Capitol, 1815-1860, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. A military helmet, with an American eagle head and crest of feathers, replaced the cap in the sculpture's final version. (Today many casual observers take the statue, with its eagle and feathers, to be a Native American.)
Execution
Crawford died in 1857 before the full-size plaster model left his studio. The model, packed into six crates, was shipped from Italy in a small sailing vessel in the spring of 1858. During the voyage, the ship began to leak and stopped in Gibraltar for repairs. After leaving Gibraltar, the ship began leaking again to the point that it could go no farther than Bermuda, where the model was stored until other transportation could be arranged. Half of the crates finally arrived in New York City in December, but all sections were not in Washington, D.C., until late March 1859.
Beginning in 1860, the statue was cast in five main sections by Clark Mills, whose bronze foundry was located on the outskirts of Washington. Work was halted in 1861 because of the Civil War, but by the end of 1862, the statue was finished and temporarily displayed on the Capitol grounds. The cost of the statue, exclusive of installation, was $23,796.82.
While Freedom was being cast at Mills' foundry, the foreman in charge of the casting went on strike. Instead of paying him the higher wages he demanded, Mills turned the project over to Philip Reid, one of the slaves working at the facility. Reid presided over the rest of the casting and assembly of the figure. Late in 1863, construction of the dome was sufficiently advanced for the installation of the statue, which was hoisted by former slaves in sections and assembled atop the cast-iron pedestal. The final section, the figure's head and shoulders, was raised on December 2, 1863, to a salute of 35 guns answered by the guns of the 12 forts around Washington, D.C.Gale, Robert L. Thomas Crawford: American Sculptor. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1964, p. 190.
Restoration
thumb|The Statue of Freedom was removed from the dome for five months in 1993.
thumb|President Bill Clinton during the ceremony for the returning of the Statue of Freedom to the top of the Capitol
On May 9, 1993, after being in place almost 130 years, the statue was brought down from its pedestal by helicopter for restoration, giving tourists a rare chance to see the statue up close. The work was needed because of extensive pitting and corrosion on the surface of the bronze and because of a crack and rusting on the cast-iron pedestal. The United States Capitol Preservation Commission provided the $780,000 in privately raised funds. The work was performed by New Arts Foundry of Baltimore, Maryland.
The cast-iron pedestal was restored in place atop the dome. The metal was stripped of paint, and the wreaths and fasces were removed to ensure that they were thoroughly cleaned and coated. The crack was permanently repaired, and the entire pedestal was primed and painted with a color specially mixed to match the statue.
[[File:Emancipation-Hall 1.jpg |thumb|left|Statue of Freedom'''s plaster model in the Capitol Visitor Center]]
Restoration of the statue and the pedestal was completed in approximately four months. The Statue of Freedom was returned to its pedestal by helicopter on October 23, 1993, amid the celebration of the bicentennial of the U.S. Capitol. Since then, every 2-3 years, the statue undergoes two weeks of cleaning and recoating as necessary.
The plaster model of the statue, in storage for 25 years, was reassembled and restored in the basement rotunda of the Russell Senate Office Building, where it was returned to permanent public display in January 1993. The plaster model was relocated to the Emancipation Hall of the Capitol Visitor Center, which provides more visitors access to look at the statue's details.
Use of Freedom's image
thumb|Face of the Statue of Freedom
The well-known Statue of Freedom has appeared on several official designs, akin to the Statue of Liberty. The head of the statue is depicted on a postage stamp (1923, USA Scott No. 573), which was re-issued in 2006. The entire statue is depicted on a stamp commemorating the 150th anniversary of Washington, D.C. (1950, USA Scott No. 989).
Two 1989 United States Congress Bicentennial commemorative coins feature the Statue, the half-dollar and the silver dollar.
It can also be found on the obverse of the Medal of Freedom (1945) and the reverse of the Iraq Campaign Medal, awarded to members of the U.S. military deployed to Iraq during the Iraq War. The Secretary of Defense Medal for the Global War on Terrorism also depicts the statue on the obverse of the medal.
File:US-$5-LT-1862-Fr-61a.jpg|Series 1862 $5-note
File:USA-1923-ScottUSA573.jpg|U.S. $5 postage, 1923
File:Medaloffreedom.jpg|Medal of Freedom, 1945
File:1989 US Congress Bicentennial Silver Dollar Obverse and Reverse.jpg|U.S. Congress Bicentennial silver dollar, 1989
File:Iraq_Campaign_Medal.png|Iraq Campaign Medal, 2004
File:Secretary_of_Defense_Medal_for_the_Global_War_on_Terrorism_(obverse).png|Secretary of Defense Medal for the Global War on Terrorism, 2007
See also
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6
Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World), 1886 statue by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi in New York CityGoddess of Liberty, a similar 1888 statue by Elijah E. Myers atop the Texas State Capitol dome, in Austin, Texas Miss Freedom'', a similar 1889 statue on the dome of the Georgia State Capitol (US)
References
External links
Aoc.gov: The Statue of Freedom webpage—by the Architect of the Capitol.
Category:United States Capitol statues
Category:United States Capitol grounds
Category:Outdoor sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Category:1862 sculptures
Category:Bronze sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Category:Colossal statues in the United States
Category:Neoclassical sculptures
Category:Sculptures of women in Washington, D.C.
Category:Allegorical sculptures in the United States
Category:Liberty symbols
Category:Finial figures
Category:Sculptures of birds in Washington, D.C.
Category:Sculptures of eagles | {"Dimensions": "ft", "Weight": "15,000 pounds (6,800 kg)", "Location": "Washington, D.C.", "Coordinates": "38 53 23.4 N 77 00 32.6 W type:landmark_region:US-DC inline,title"} |
WinGate is an integrated multi-protocol proxy server, email server and internet gateway from Qbik New Zealand Limited in Auckland. It was first released in October 1995, and began as a re-write of SocketSet, a product that had been previously released in prototype form by Adrien de Croy.
WinGate proved popular, and by the mid- to late 1990s, WinGate was used in homes and small businesses that needed to share a single Internet connection between multiple networked computers. The introduction of Internet Connection Sharing in Windows 98, combined with increasing availability of cheap NAT-enabled routers, forced WinGate to evolve to provide more than just internet connection sharing features. Today, focus for WinGate is primarily access control, email server, caching, reporting, bandwidth management and content filtering.
WinGate comes in three versions, Standard, Professional and Enterprise. The Enterprise edition also provides an easily configured virtual private network system, which is also available separately as WinGate VPN. Licensing is based on the number of concurrently connected users, and a range of license sizes are available. Multiple licenses can also be aggregated.
The current version of WinGate is version 9.4.5, released in October 2022.
Notoriety
Versions of WinGate prior to 2.1d (1997) shipped with an insecure default configuration that - if not secured by the network administrator - allowed untrusted third parties to proxy network traffic through the WinGate server. This made open WinGate servers common targets of crackers looking for anonymous redirectors through which to attack other systems. While WinGate was by no means the only exploited proxy server, its wide popularity amongst users with little experience administering networks made it almost synonymous with open SOCKS proxies in the late 1990s. Furthermore, since a restricted (two users) version of the product was freely available without registration, contacting all WinGate users to notify of security issues was impossible, and therefore even long after the security problems were resolved there were still many insecure installations in use.
Some versions of the Sobig worm installed an unlicensed copy of WinGate 5 in a deliberately insecure configuration to be used by spammers. These installations used non-standard ports for SOCKS and WinGate remote control and so in general did not interfere with other software running on the infected host computer. This resulted in some antivirus software incorrectly identifying WinGate as malware and removing it.
Version history
Date Version 2022 WinGate 9.4.5 (18 Oct)2020 WinGate 9.4.1 (1 Feb)2019 WinGate 9.4.0 (21 Feb)2019 WinGate 9.3.0 (21 Jan)2018 WinGate 9.2.0 (27 Jun)2018 WinGate 9.1.5 (30 Apr)2017 WinGate 9.1.0 (27 Sep)2017 WinGate 9.0.6 (8 Jun)2017 WinGate 9.0.5 (5 Apr)2017 WinGate 9.0.4 (13 Feb)2016 WinGate 9.0.0 (20 Dec)2016 WinGate 8.5.9 (16 May)2015 WinGate 8.5.0 (24 Sep)2015 WinGate 8.4.0 (15 Jul)2015 WinGate 8.3.0 (5 Mar)2014 WinGate 8.2.5 (5 Sep)2013 WinGate 8.0.5 (5 Dec)2013 WinGate 7.3 (7 Mar)2012 WinGate 7.2 (3 May)2012 WinGate 7.1 (28 Feb)2011 WinGate 7.0 (15 Nov)2009 WinGate 6.6 (current is 6.6.4)2008 WinGate 6.52007 WinGate 6.22005 WinGate 6.12004 WinGate 6.02003 WinGate 5.2.3 (last version in this family)2002 WinGate 5.02001 WinGate 4.5 (last version in this family)2000 WinGate 4.01998 WinGate 3.01996 WinGate 2.01995 WinGate 1.0 (5 Oct)
See also
Internet Security
References
External links
WinGate Proxy Server official site
WinGate Proxy Server in Italy
Category:Proxy servers
Category:Computer networking
Category:Virtual private networks
Category:Reverse proxy
Category:1995 software
Category:Companies based in Auckland
Category:New Zealand companies established in 1995
Category:Software companies of New Zealand | {"Developer(s)": "Qbik New Zealand Limited", "Initial release": "1995 10 5 yes", "Platform": "x64", "Type": "Proxy serverRouterFirewallAntivirus programVPN ServerWeb cacheMail Server", "Available in": "English, Japanese, Russian", "License": "Proprietary commercial software, free for 10 users", "Website": "http://www.wingate.com/"} |
Paul Robin Krugman ( ; born February 28, 1953) is an American economist who is the Distinguished Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a columnist for The New York Times. In 2008, Krugman was the winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to New Trade Theory and New Economic Geography. The Prize Committee cited Krugman's work explaining the patterns of international trade and the geographic distribution of economic activity, by examining the effects of economies of scale and of consumer preferences for diverse goods and services.
Krugman was previously a professor of economics at MIT, and, later, at Princeton University. He retired from Princeton in June 2015, and holds the title of professor emeritus there. He also holds the title of Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics. Krugman was President of the Eastern Economic Association in 2010, and is among the most influential economists in the world. He is known in academia for his work on international economics (including trade theory and international finance),Note: Krugman modeled a 'preference for diversity' by assuming a CES utility function like that in A. Dixit and J. Stiglitz (1977), 'Monopolistic competition and optimal product diversity', American Economic Review 67.Forbes, October 13, 2008, "Paul Krugman, Nobel" economic geography, liquidity traps, and currency crises.
Krugman is the author or editor of 27 books, including scholarly works, textbooks, and books for a more general audience, and has published over 200 scholarly articles in professional journals and edited volumes. He has also written several hundred columns on economic and political issues for The New York Times, Fortune and Slate. A 2011 survey of economics professors named him their favorite living economist under the age of 60. According to the Open Syllabus Project, Krugman is the second most frequently cited author on college syllabi for economics courses. As a commentator, Krugman has written on a wide range of economic issues including income distribution, taxation, macroeconomics, and international economics. Krugman considers himself a modern liberal, referring to his books, his blog on The New York Times, and his 2007 book The Conscience of a Liberal.The New York Times, "The Conscience of a Liberal." Retrieved August 6, 2009 His popular commentary has attracted widespread praise and criticism.
Early life and education
thumb|Paul Krugman, Roger Tsien, Martin Chalfie, Osamu Shimomura, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Masukawa, Nobel Prize Laureates 2008, at a press conference at the Swedish Academy of Science in Stockholm.
Krugman was born to a Ukrainian Jewish family,Encyclopedia of American Jewish History, Volume 1 edited by Stephen Harlan Norwood, Eunice G. Pollack p. 721 the son of Anita and David Krugman. In 1914, his maternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Ukraine, while in 1920, his paternal grandparents arrived from Belarus. He was born in Albany, New York, spent several years of his childhood in the upstate city of Utica, before growing up from age eight in Merrick, a hamlet in Nassau County, Long Island. He graduated from John F. Kennedy High School in Bellmore. According to Krugman, his interest in economics began with Isaac Asimov's Foundation novels, in which the social scientists of the future use a new science of "psychohistory" to try to save civilization. Since present-day science fell far short of "psychohistory", Krugman turned to economics as the next best thing.Interview, U.S. Economist Krugman Wins Nobel Prize in Economics "PBS, Jim Lehrer News Hour" , October 13, 2008, transcript Retrieved October 14, 2008The New York Times, August 6, 2009, "Up Front: Paul Krugman"
In 1974, Krugman earned his BA summa cum laude in economics from Yale University, where he was a National Merit Scholar. He then went on to pursue a PhD in economics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In 1977, he successfully completed his PhD in three years, with a thesis titled Essays on flexible exchange rates. While at MIT, he was part of a small group of MIT students sent to work for the Central Bank of Portugal for three months in the summer of 1976, during the chaotic aftermath of the Carnation Revolution.
Krugman later praised his PhD thesis advisor, Rudi Dornbusch, as "one of the great economics teachers of all time" and said that he "had the knack of inspiring students to pick up his enthusiasm and technique, but find their own paths".Paul Krugman, 2002, Rudi Dornbusch In 1978, Krugman presented a number of ideas to Dornbusch, who flagged as interesting the idea of a monopolistically competitive trade model. Encouraged, Krugman worked on it and later wrote, "[I] knew within a few hours that I had the key to my whole career in hand". In that same year, Krugman wrote "The Theory of Interstellar Trade", a tongue-in-cheek essay on computing interest rates on goods in transit near the speed of light. He says he wrote it to cheer himself up when he was "an oppressed assistant professor".Paul Krugman, March 11, 2008, The New York Times blog, "Economics: the final frontier"
Academic career
thumb|left|upright=1.1|Krugman giving a lecture at the German National Library in Frankfurt in 2008.
Krugman became an assistant professor at Yale University in September 1977. He joined the faculty at MIT in 1979. From 1982 to 1983, Krugman spent a year working at the Reagan White House as a staff member of the Council of Economic Advisers. He rejoined MIT as a full professor in 1984. Krugman has also taught at Stanford, Yale, and the London School of Economics.
In 2000, Krugman joined Princeton University as Professor of Economics and International Affairs. He is also currently Centenary Professor at the London School of Economics, and a member of the Group of Thirty international economic body. He has been a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research since 1979. Krugman was President of the Eastern Economic Association in 2010. In February 2014, he announced that he would be retiring from Princeton in June 2015 and that he would be joining the faculty at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York.
Paul Krugman has written extensively on international economics, including international trade, economic geography, and international finance. The Research Papers in Economics project ranks him among the world's most influential economists. Krugman's International Economics: Theory and Policy, co-authored with Maurice Obstfeld, is a standard undergraduate textbook on international economics."Sources of international friction and cooperation in high-technology development and trade." National Academies Press, 1996, p. 190 He is also co-author, with Robin Wells, of an undergraduate economics text which he says was strongly inspired by the first edition of Paul Samuelson's classic textbook. Krugman also writes on economic topics for the general public, sometimes on international economic topics but also on income distribution and public policy.
The Nobel Prize Committee stated that Krugman's main contribution is his analysis of the effects of economies of scale, combined with the assumption that consumers appreciate diversity, on international trade and on the location of economic activity.Nobel Prize Committee, "The Prize in Economic Sciences 2008" The importance of spatial issues in economics has been enhanced by Krugman's ability to popularize this complicated theory with the help of easy-to-read books and state-of-the-art syntheses. "Krugman was beyond doubt the key player in 'placing geographical analysis squarely in the economic mainstream' ... and in conferring it the central role it now assumes."
New trade theory
Prior to Krugman's work, trade theory (see David Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin model) emphasized trade based on the comparative advantage of countries with very different characteristics, such as a country with a high agricultural productivity trading agricultural products for industrial products from a country with a high industrial productivity. However, in the 20th century, an ever-larger share of trade occurred between countries with similar characteristics, which is difficult to explain by comparative advantage. Krugman's explanation of trade between similar countries was proposed in a 1979 paper in the Journal of International Economics, and involves two key assumptions: that consumers prefer a diverse choice of brands, and that production favors economies of scale. Consumers' preference for diversity explains the survival of different versions of cars like Volvo and BMW. However, because of economies of scale, it is not profitable to spread the production of Volvos all over the world; instead, it is concentrated in a few factories and therefore in a few countries (or maybe just one).
thumb|right|upright=1.2|Graph illustrating Krugman's 'core-periphery' model. The horizontal axis represents costs of trade, while the vertical axis represents the share of either region in manufacturing. Solid lines denote stable equilibria, dashed lines denote unstable equilibria.
Krugman modeled a 'preference for diversity' by assuming a CES utility function like that in a 1977 paper by Avinash Dixit and Joseph Stiglitz. Many models of international trade now follow Krugman's lead, incorporating economies of scale in production and a preference for diversity in consumption. This way of modeling trade has come to be called New Trade Theory.
Krugman's theory also took into account transportation costs, a key feature in producing the "home market effect", which would later feature in his work on the new economic geography. The home market effect "states that, ceteris paribus, the country with the larger demand for a good shall, at equilibrium, produce a more than proportionate share of that good and be a net exporter of it". The home market effect was an unexpected result, and Krugman initially questioned it, but ultimately concluded that the mathematics of the model were correct.
When there are economies of scale in production, it is possible that countries may become 'locked into' disadvantageous patterns of trade. Krugman points out that although globalization has been positive on a whole, since the 1980s the process known as hyper-globalization has at least played a part in rising inequality.Paul Krugman. https://www.ubs.com/microsites/nobel-perspectives/en/paul-krugman.html in UBS Nobel Perspectives interview, 2008. Nonetheless, trade remains beneficial in general, even between similar countries, because it permits firms to save on costs by producing at a larger, more efficient scale, and because it increases the range of brands available and sharpens the competition between firms."Bold strokes: a strong economic stylist wins the Nobel" , The Economist, October 16, 2008. Krugman has usually been supportive of free trade and globalization.(He writes on p. xxvi of his book The Great Unraveling that "I still have the angry letter Ralph Nader sent me when I criticized his attacks on globalization.") He has also been critical of industrial policy, which New Trade Theory suggests might offer nations rent-seeking advantages if "strategic industries" can be identified, saying it's not clear that such identification can be done accurately enough to matter.Strategic trade policy and the new international economics, Paul R. Krugman (ed), The MIT Press, p. 18,
New economic geography
It took an interval of eleven years, but ultimately Krugman's work on New Trade Theory (NTT) converged to what is usually called the "new economic geography" (NEG), which Krugman began to develop in a seminal 1991 paper, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography", published in the Journal of Political Economy."Honoring Paul Krugman" Economix blog of The New York Times, Edward Glaeser, October 13, 2008. In Krugman's own words, the passage from NTT to NEG was "obvious in retrospect; but it certainly took me a while to see it. ... The only good news was that nobody else picked up that $100 bill lying on the sidewalk in the interim."Krugman (1999) "Was it all in Ohlin?" This would become Krugman's most-cited academic paper: by early 2009, it had 857 citations, more than double his second-ranked paper. Krugman called the paper "the love of my life in academic work".Krugman PR (2008), "Interview with the 2008 laureate in economics Paul Krugman" , December 6, 2008. Stockholm, Sweden.
The "home market effect" that Krugman discovered in NTT also features in NEG, which interprets agglomeration "as the outcome of the interaction of increasing returns, trade costs and factor price differences". If trade is largely shaped by economies of scale, as Krugman's trade theory argues, then those economic regions with most production will be more profitable and will therefore attract even more production. That is, NTT implies that instead of spreading out evenly around the world, production will tend to concentrate in a few countries, regions, or cities, which will become densely populated but will also have higher levels of income.
Agglomeration and economies of scale
Manufacturing is characterized by increasing returns to scale and less restrictive and expansive land qualifications as compared to agricultural uses. So, geographically where can manufacturing be predicted to develop? Krugman states that manufacturing's geographical range is inherently limited by economies of scale, but also that manufacturing will establish and accrue itself in an area of high demand. Production that occurs adjacent to demand will result in lower transportation costs, but demand, as a result, will be greater due to concentrated nearby production. These forces act upon one another simultaneously, producing manufacturing and population agglomeration. Population will increase in these areas due to the more highly developed infrastructure and nearby production, therefore lowering the expense of goods, while economies of scale provide varied choices of goods and services. These forces will feed into each other until the greater portion of the urban population and manufacturing hubs are concentrated into a relatively insular geographic area.
International finance
Krugman has also been influential in the field of international finance. As a graduate student, Krugman visited the Federal Reserve Board where Stephen Salant and Dale Henderson were completing their discussion paper on speculative attacks in the gold market. Krugman adapted their model for the foreign exchange market, resulting in a 1979 paper on currency crises in the Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, which showed that misaligned fixed exchange rate regimes are unlikely to end smoothly but instead end in a sudden speculative attack. Krugman's paper is considered one of the main contributions to the 'first generation' of currency crisis models,Craig Burnside, Martin Eichenbaum, and Sergio Rebelo (2008), "Currency crisis models" , New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd ed. and it is his second-most-cited paper (457 citations as of early 2009).
In response to the global financial crisis of 2008, Krugman proposed, in an informal "mimeo" style of publication,"The International Finance Multiplier", P. Krugman, October 2008 an "international finance multiplier", to help explain the unexpected speed with which the global crisis had occurred. He argued that when, "highly leveraged financial institutions [HLIs], which do a lot of cross-border investment [. ... ] lose heavily in one market ... they find themselves undercapitalized, and have to sell off assets across the board. This drives down prices, putting pressure on the balance sheets of other HLIs, and so on." Such a rapid contagion had hitherto been considered unlikely because of "decoupling" in a globalized economy."Global Economic Integration and Decoupling" , Donald L. Kohn, speech at the International Research Forum on Monetary policy, Frankfurt, Germany, 06-26-2008; from website for the Board of Governors for the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved 08-20-2009, June 26, 2008Nayan Chanda, YaleGlobal Online, orig. from Businessworld February 8, 2008 "Decoupling Demystified" "The myth of decoupling," Sebastien Walti, February 2009 He first announced that he was working on such a model on his blog, on October 5, 2008."The International Finance Multiplier" , The Conscience of a Liberal (blog), 10-05-2008. Retrieved 09-20-2009 Within days of its appearance, it was being discussed on some popular economics-oriented blogs.Andrew Leonard, "Krugman: 'We are all Brazilians now'", "How the World Works" , 10-07-2008"Krugman: The International Finance Multiplier", Mark Thoma, Economist's View, 10-06-2008,
The note was soon being cited in papers (draft and published) by other economists, even though it had not itself been through ordinary peer review processes.
Macroeconomics and fiscal policy
Krugman has done much to revive discussion of the liquidity trap as a topic in economics.
Japanese fixed income markets: money, bond and interest rate derivatives, Jonathan Batten, Thomas A. Fetherston, Peter G. Szilagyi (eds.) Elsevier Science, November 30, 2006, p. 137
Ben Bernanke, "Japanese Monetary Policy: a case of self-induced paralysis?", in Japan's financial crisis and its parallels to U.S. experience, Ryōichi Mikitani, Adam Posen (ed), Institute for International Economics, October 2000 p. 157 Reconstructing Macroeconomics: Structuralist Proposals and Critiques of the Mainstream, Lance Taylor, Harvard University Press, p. 159: "Kregel (2000) points out that there are at least three theories of the liquidity trap in the literature - Keynes own analyses ... Hicks' [in] 1936 and 1937 ... and a view that can be attributed to Fisher in the 1930s and Paul Krugman in latter days" He recommended pursuing aggressive fiscal policy and unconventional monetary policy to counter Japan's lost decade in the 1990s, arguing that the country was mired in a Keynesian liquidity trap.Krugman, Paul (2000), "Thinking About the Liquidity Trap" , Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, v.14, no.4, Dec 2000, pp. 221-37. The debate he started at that time over liquidity traps and what policies best address them continues in the economics literature."Reply to Nelson and Schwartz", Paul Krugman, Journal of Monetary Economics, v. 55, no. 4, pp. 857-60 05-23-2008
Krugman had argued in The Return of Depression Economics that Japan was in a liquidity trap in the late 1990s, since the central bank could not drop interest rates any lower to escape economic stagnation.Krugman, Paul (1999). "The Return of Depression Economics", pp. 70-77. W. W. Norton, New York The core of Krugman's policy proposal for addressing Japan's liquidity trap was inflation targeting, which, he argued "most nearly approaches the usual goal of modern stabilization policy, which is to provide adequate demand in a clean, unobtrusive way that does not distort the allocation of resources". The proposal appeared first in a web posting on his academic site."Japan's Trap", May 2008. Retrieved 08-22-2009 This mimeo-draft was soon cited, but was also misread by some as repeating his earlier advice that Japan's best hope was in "turning on the printing presses", as recommended by Milton Friedman, John Makin, and others.
"Further Notes on Japan's Liquidity Trap" , Paul Krugman
Restoring Japan's economic growth, Adam Posen, Petersen Institute, September 1, 1998, , p. 123 ,
"What is wrong with Japan?", Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 1997
Krugman has since drawn parallels between Japan's 'lost decade' and the late 2000s recession, arguing that expansionary fiscal policy is necessary as the major industrialized economies are mired in a liquidity trap. In response to economists who point out that the Japanese economy recovered despite not pursuing his policy prescriptions, Krugman maintains that it was an export-led boom that pulled Japan out of its economic slump in the late-90s, rather than reforms of the financial system."Some Reasons Why a New Crisis Needs a New Paradigm of Economic Thought" , Keiichiro Kobayashi, RIETI Report No.108, Research Institute of Economy, Trade & Industry (Japan), 07-31-2009
Krugman was one of the most prominent advocates of the 2008-2009 Keynesian resurgence, so much so that economics commentator Noah Smith referred to it as the "Krugman insurgency".
His view that most peer-reviewed macroeconomic research since the mid-1960s is wrong, preferring simpler models developed in the 1930s, has been criticized by some modern economists, like John H. Cochrane.Cochrane, John. "How Did Paul Krugman Get It So Wrong?" , Institute of Economic Affairs, 2011. In June 2012, Krugman and Richard Layard launched A manifesto for economic sense, where they call for greater use of fiscal stimulus policy to reduce unemployment and foster growth. The manifesto received over four thousand signatures within two days of its launch,
and has attracted both positive and critical responses.
thumb|upright=1.2|President George W. Bush poses for a photo with Nobel Prize winners Monday, Nov. 24, 2008, in the Oval Office. Joining President Bush from left are, Dr. Paul Krugman, Economics Prize Laureate; Dr. Martin Chalfie, Chemistry Prize Laureate; and Dr. Roger Tsien, Chemistry Prize Laureate.
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
Krugman was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (informally the Nobel Prize in Economics), the sole recipient for 2008. This prize includes an award of about $1.4 million and was given to Krugman for his work associated with New Trade Theory and the New Economic Geography. In the words of the prize committee, "By having integrated economies of scale into explicit general equilibrium models, Paul Krugman has deepened our understanding of the determinants of trade and the location of economic activity."Prize Committee of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, October 13, 2008, Scientific background on the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2008, "Trade and Geography - Economies of Scale, Differentiated Products and Transport Costs"
Awards
thumb|Paul Krugman accepts EPI Distinguished Economist Award (2011)
1991, American Economic Association, John Bates Clark Medal.Avinash Dixit, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 173-88, In Honor of Paul Krugman: Winner of the John Bates Clark Medal , Retrieved March 28, 2007. Since it was awarded to only one person, once every two years (prior to 2009), The Economist has described the Clark Medal as 'slightly harder to get than a Nobel prize'.
1992, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS).
1995, Adam Smith Award of the National Association for Business Economics
1998, Doctor honoris causa in Economics awarded by Free University of Berlin Freie Universität Berlin in Germany
2000, H.C. Recktenwald Prize in Economics, awarded by University of Erlangen-Nuremberg in Germany.
2002, Editor and Publisher, Columnist of the Year.Mother Jones: Paul Krugman ., August 7, 2005. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
2004, Fundación Príncipe de Asturias (Spain), Prince of Asturias Awards in Social Sciences.Paul Krugman , 2004. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
2004, Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa, Haverford College
2008, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for Krugman's contributions to New Trade Theory. He became the twelfth John Bates Clark Medal winner to be awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize.
2010, Howland Memorial Prize, awarded by Yale University
2011, EPI Distinguished Economist Award.
2011 Gerald Loeb Award for Commentary
2012, Doctor honoris causa from the Universidade de Lisboa, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa and Universidade Nova de Lisboa
2013, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa conferred by the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
2014, recipient of the Literary and Historical Society (University College Dublin)'s James Joyce Award in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the economic sciences.
2014, recipient of the Green Templeton College, Oxford's Sanjaya Lall Visiting Professorship of Business and Development, Trinity Term 2014, in recognition of his outstanding international reputation in scholarship and research in the field of Development Economics and Business.
2016, Doctor of Letters, honoris causa conferred by the University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
A May 2011 Hamilton College analysis of 26 politicians, journalists, and media commentators who made predictions in major newspaper columns or television news shows from September 2007 to December 2008 found that Krugman was the most accurate. Only nine of the prognosticators predicted more accurately than chance, two were significantly less accurate, and the remaining 14 were no better or worse than a coin flip. Krugman was correct in 15 out of 17 predictions, compared to 9 out of 11 for the next most accurate media figure, Maureen Dowd.
Krugman was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2011.
Foreign Policy named Krugman one of its 2012 FP Top 100 Global Thinkers "for wielding his acid pen against austerity".
Author
thumb|Krugman at the 2010 Brooklyn Book Festival.
In the 1990s, besides academic books and textbooks, Krugman increasingly began writing books for a general audience on issues he considered important for public policy. In The Age of Diminished Expectations (1990), he wrote in particular about the increasing US income inequality in the "New Economy" of the 1990s. He attributes the rise in income inequality in part to changes in technology, but principally to a change in political atmosphere which he attributes to Movement Conservatives.
In September 2003, Krugman published a collection of his columns under the title, The Great Unraveling, about the Bush administration's economic and foreign policies and the US economy in the early 2000s. His columns argued that the large deficits during that time were generated by the Bush administration as a result of decreasing taxes on the rich, increasing public spending, and fighting the Iraq War. Krugman wrote that these policies were unsustainable in the long run and would eventually generate a major economic crisis. The book was a best-seller.The Economist, November 13, 2003, "Paul Krugman, one-handed economist" Krugman, Paul, Rolling Stone. December 14, 2006, "The Great Wealth Transfer"
In 2007, Krugman published The Conscience of a Liberal, whose title refers to Barry Goldwater's Conscience of a Conservative."Nobelpristagaren i ekonomi 2008: Paul Krugman" , speech by Paul Krugman (Retrieved December 26, 2008) 00:43 "The title of The Conscience of a Liberal ... is a reference to a book published almost 50 years ago in the United States called The Conscience of a Conservative by Barry Goldwater. That book is often taken to be the origin, the start, of a movement that ended up dominating U.S. politics that reached its first pinnacle under Ronald Reagan and then reached its full control of the U.S. government for most of the last eight years." It details the history of wealth and income gaps in the United States in the 20th century. The book describes how the gap between rich and poor declined greatly during the middle of the century, and then widened in the last two decades to levels higher even than in the 1920s. In Conscience, Krugman argues that government policies played a much greater role than commonly thought both in reducing inequality in the 1930s through 1970s and in increasing it in the 1980s through the present, and criticizes the Bush administration for implementing policies that Krugman believes widened the gap between the rich and poor.
Krugman also argued that Republicans owed their electoral successes to their ability to exploit the race issue to win political dominance of the South.Michael Tomasky, The New York Review of Books, November 22, 2007, "The Partisan" Krugman, Paul. The Conscience of a Liberal, 2007, W.W. Norton & Co. p. 182 Krugman argues that Ronald Reagan had used the "Southern Strategy" to signal sympathy for racism without saying anything overtly racist,Conscience of a Liberal, p. 102 citing as an example Reagan's coining of the term "welfare queen".Conscience of a Liberal, p. 108
In his book, Krugman proposed a "new New Deal", which included placing more emphasis on social and medical programs and less on national defense.October 17, 2007 - Krugman "On Healthcare, Tax Cuts, Social Security, the Mortgage Crisis and Alan Greenspan" , in response to Alan Greenspan's September 24 appearance with Naomi Klein on Democracy Now! In his review of Conscience of a Liberal, the liberal journalist and author Michael Tomasky credited Krugman with a commitment "to accurate history even when some fudging might be in order for the sake of political expediency". In a review for The New York Times, Pulitzer prize-winning historian David M. Kennedy stated: "Krugman's chapter on the imperative need for health care reform is the best in this book, a rueful reminder of the kind of skilled and accessible economic analysis of which he is capable"."Malefactors of Megawealth" David M. Kennedy
In late 2008, Krugman published a substantial updating of an earlier work, entitled The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008. In the book, he discusses the failure of the United States regulatory system to keep pace with a financial system increasingly out-of-control, and the causes of and possible ways to contain the greatest financial crisis since the 1930s. In 2012, Krugman published End This Depression Now!, a book which argues that looking at the available historical economic data, fiscal cuts and austerity measures only deprive the economy of valuable funds that can circulate and further add to a poor economy - people cannot spend, and markets cannot thrive if there is not enough consumption and there cannot be sufficient consumption if there is large unemployment. He argues that while it is necessary to cut debt, it is the worst time to do so in an economy that has just suffered the most severe of financial shocks, and must be done instead when an economy is near full-employment when the private sector can withstand the burden of decreased government spending and austerity. Failure to stimulate the economy either by public or private sectors will only unnecessarily lengthen the current economic depression and make it worse.
Commentator
Martin Wolf has written that Krugman is both the "most hated and most admired columnist in the US".
Economist J. Peter Neary has noted that Krugman "has written on a wide range of topics, always combining one of the best prose styles in the profession with an ability to construct elegant, insightful and useful models". Neary added that "no discussion of his work could fail to mention his transition from Academic Superstar to Public Intellectual. Through his extensive writings, including a regular column for The New York Times, monographs and textbooks at every level, and books on economics and current affairs for the general public ... he has probably done more than any other writer to explain economic principles to a wide audience." Krugman has been described as the most controversial economist in his generation and according to Michael Tomasky since 1992 he has moved "from being a center-left scholar to being a liberal polemicist".
From the mid-1990s onwards, Krugman wrote for Fortune (1997-99)Princeton Weekly Bulletin, October 20, 2008, "Biography of Paul Krugman" , 98(7) and Slate (1996-99), and then for The Harvard Business Review, Foreign Policy, The Economist, Harper's, and Washington Monthly. In this period Krugman critiqued various positions commonly taken on economic issues from across the political spectrum, from protectionism and opposition to the World Trade Organization on the left to supply-side economics on the right.
During the 1992 presidential campaign, Krugman praised Bill Clinton's economic plan in The New York Times, and Clinton's campaign used some of Krugman's work on income inequality. At the time, it was considered likely that Clinton would offer him a position in the new administration, but allegedly Krugman's volatility and outspokenness caused Clinton to look elsewhere. Krugman later said that he was "temperamentally unsuited for that kind of role. You have to be very good at people skills, biting your tongue when people say silly things."New Statesman, February 16, 2004, "NS Profile - Paul Krugman" In a Fresh Dialogues interview, Krugman added, "you have to be reasonably organized ... I can move into a pristine office and within three days it will look like a grenade went off."
In 1999, near the height of the dot com boom, The New York Times approached Krugman to write a bi-weekly column on "the vagaries of business and economics in an age of prosperity". His first columns in 2000 addressed business and economic issues, but as the 2000 US presidential campaign progressed, Krugman increasingly focused on George W. Bush's policy proposals. According to Krugman, this was partly due to "the silence of the media - those 'liberal media' conservatives complain about ..." Krugman accused Bush of repeatedly misrepresenting his proposals, and criticized the proposals themselves. After Bush's election, and his perseverance with his proposed tax cut in the midst of the slump (which Krugman argued would do little to help the economy but substantially raise the fiscal deficit), Krugman's columns grew angrier and more focused on the administration. As Alan Blinder put it in 2002, "There's been a kind of missionary quality to his writing since then ... He's trying to stop something now, using the power of the pen." Partly as a result, Krugman's twice-weekly column on the Op-Ed page of The New York Times has made him, according to Nicholas Confessore, "the most important political columnist in America ... he is almost alone in analyzing the most important story in politics in recent years - the seamless melding of corporate, class, and political party interests at which the Bush administration excels." In an interview in late 2009, Krugman said his missionary zeal had changed in the post-Bush era and he described the Obama administration as "good guys but not as forceful as I'd like ... When I argue with them in my column this is a serious discussion. We really are in effect speaking across the transom here." Krugman says he's more effective at driving change outside the administration than inside it, "now, I'm trying to make this progressive moment in American history a success. So that's where I'm pushing."
Krugman's columns have drawn criticism as well as praise. A 2003 article in The Economist questioned Krugman's "growing tendency to attribute all the world's ills to George Bush", citing critics who felt that "his relentless partisanship is getting in the way of his argument" and claiming errors of economic and political reasoning in his columns. Daniel Okrent, a former The New York Times ombudsman, in his farewell column, criticized Krugman for what he said was "the disturbing habit of shaping, slicing and selectively citing numbers in a fashion that pleases his acolytes but leaves him open to substantive assaults".
Krugman's New York Times blog is "The Conscience of a Liberal", devoted largely to economics and politics.
Five days after 9/11 terrorist attacks, Krugman argued in his column that the calamity was "partly self-inflicted", citing poor pay and training for airport security driven by the transfer of responsibility for airport security from government to airlines. His column provoked an angry response and The New York Times was flooded with complaints. According to Larissa MacFarquhar of The New Yorker, while some people thought that he was too partisan to be a columnist for The New York Times, he was revered on the left. Similarly, on the 10th anniversary of the 9/11 on the United States Krugman again provoked a controversy by accusing on his New York Times blog former U.S. President George W. Bush and former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani of rushing "to cash in on the horror" after the attacks and describing the anniversary as "an occasion for shame".
Krugman was noteworthy for his fierce opposition to the 2016 presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders. On January 19, 2016, he wrote an article which criticized Bernie Sanders for his perceived lack of political realism, compared Sanders' plans for healthcare and financial reform unfavorably to those of Hillary Clinton, and cited criticisms of Sanders from other liberal policy wonks like Mike Konczal and Ezra Klein. Later, Krugman wrote an article which accused Sanders of "[going] for easy slogans over hard thinking" and attacking Hillary Clinton in a way that was "just plain dishonest".
On the 12 July 2016, Krugman tweeted "leprechaun economics", in response to Central Statistics Office (Ireland) data that 2015 GDP grew 26.3% and 2015 GNP grew 18.7%. The leprechaun economics affair (proved in 2018 to be Apple restructuring its double Irish subsidiaries), led to the Central Bank of Ireland introducing a new economic statistic, Modified gross national income (or GNI*) to better measure the Irish economy (2016 Irish GDP is 143% of 2016 Irish GNI*). The term leprechaun economics has since been used by Krugman, and others, to describe distorted/unsound economic data.
Krugman's use of the term leprechaun to refer to Ireland and its people has raised rebuke. In June 2021, Krugman wrote an article titled, "Yellen's New Alliance Against Leprechauns". Following the article, the Irish Ambassador to the US, Daniel Mulhall, wrote a letter to his publisher saying, "This is not the first time your columnist has used the word 'leprechaun' when referring to Ireland, and I see it as my duty to point out that this represents an unacceptable slur."
Krugman harshly criticized the Trump administration. He has also remarked several times on how Trump tempts him to assume the worst, such that he has to be careful to check his personal beliefs against the weight of evidence.
East Asian growth
In a 1994 Foreign Affairs article, Paul Krugman argued that it was a myth that the economic successes of the East Asian 'tigers' constituted an economic miracle. He argued that their rise was fueled by mobilizing resources and that their growth rates would inevitably slow. His article helped popularize the argument made by Lawrence Lau and Alwyn Young, among others, that the growth of economies in East Asia was not the result of new and original economic models, but rather from high capital investment and increasing labor force participation, and that total factor productivity had not increased. Krugman argued that in the long term, only increasing total factor productivity can lead to sustained economic growth. Krugman's article was highly criticized in many Asian countries when it first appeared, and subsequent studies disputed some of Krugman's conclusions. However, it also stimulated a great deal of research, and may have caused the Singapore government to provide incentives for technological progress.
During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Krugman advocated currency controls as a way to mitigate the crisis. Writing in a Fortune magazine article, he suggested exchange controls as "a solution so unfashionable, so stigmatized, that hardly anyone has dared suggest it". Malaysia was the only country that adopted such controls, and although the Malaysian government credited its rapid economic recovery on currency controls, the relationship is disputed. An empirical study found that the Malaysian policies produced faster economic recovery and smaller declines in employment and real wages. Krugman later stated that the controls might not have been necessary at the time they were applied, but that nevertheless "Malaysia has proved a point - namely, that controlling capital in a crisis is at least feasible.""Capital Control Freaks: How Malaysia got away with economic heresy" , Slate, September 27, 1999. Retrieved 08-25-2009 Krugman more recently pointed out that emergency capital controls have even been endorsed by the IMF, and are no longer considered radical policy.
U.S. economic policies
In the early 2000s, Krugman repeatedly criticized the Bush tax cuts, both before and after they were enacted. Krugman argued that the tax cuts enlarged the budget deficit without improving the economy, and that they enriched the wealthy - worsening income distribution in the US. Krugman advocated lower interest rates (to promote investment and spending on housing and other durable goods), and increased government spending on infrastructure, military, and unemployment benefits, arguing that these policies would have a larger stimulus effect, and unlike permanent tax cuts, would only temporarily increase the budget deficit. In addition, he was against Bush's proposal to privatize social security.
In August 2005, after Alan Greenspan expressed concern over housing markets, Krugman criticized Greenspan's earlier reluctance to regulate the mortgage and related financial markets, arguing that "[he's] like a man who suggests leaving the barn door ajar, and then - after the horse is gone - delivers a lecture on the importance of keeping your animals properly locked up." Krugman has repeatedly expressed his view that Greenspan and Phil Gramm are the two individuals most responsible for causing the subprime crisis. Krugman points to Greenspan and Gramm for the key roles they played in keeping derivatives, financial markets, and investment banks unregulated, and to the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which repealed Great Depression era safeguards that prevented commercial banks, investment banks and insurance companies from merging.
Krugman has also been critical of some of the Obama administration's economic policies. He has criticized the Obama stimulus plan as being too small and inadequate given the size of the economy and the banking rescue plan as misdirected; Krugman wrote in The New York Times: "an overwhelming majority [of the American public] believes that the government is spending too much to help large financial institutions. This suggests that the administration's money-for-nothing financial policy will eventually deplete its political capital."Paul Krugman. "Behind the Curve" . The New York Times. March 9, 2009. In particular, he considered the Obama administration's actions to prop up the US financial system in 2009 to be impractical and unduly favorable to Wall Street bankers.Evan Thomas, Newsweek, April 6, 2009, "Obama's Nobel Headache" In anticipation of President Obama's Job Summit in December 2009, Krugman said in a Fresh Dialogues interview, "This jobs summit can't be an empty exercise ... he can't come out with a proposal for $10 or $20 Billion of stuff because people will view that as a joke. There has to be a significant job proposal ... I have in mind something like $300 Billion."
Krugman has criticized China's exchange rate policy, which he believes to be a significant drag on global economic recovery from the Late-2000s recession, and he has advocated a "surcharge" on Chinese imports to the US in response. Jeremy Warner of The Daily Telegraph accused Krugman of advocating a return to self-destructive protectionism.
In April 2010, as the Senate began considering new financial regulations, Krugman argued that the regulations should not only regulate financial innovation, but also tax financial-industry profits and remuneration. He cited a paper by Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny released the previous week, which concludes that most innovation was in fact about "providing investors with false substitutes for [traditional] assets like bank deposits", and once investors realize the sheer number of securities that are unsafe a "flight to safety" occurs which necessarily leads to "financial fragility".
In his June 28, 2010, column in The New York Times, in light of the recent G-20 Toronto Summit, Krugman criticized world leaders for agreeing to halve deficits by 2013. Krugman claimed that these efforts could lead the global economy into the early stages of a "third depression" and leave "millions of lives blighted by the absence of jobs". He advocated instead the continued stimulus of economies to foster greater growth.
In a 2014 review of Thomas Piketty's Capital in the Twenty-First Century he stated we are in a Second Gilded Age.
Economic views
Keynesian economics
Krugman identifies as a Keynesian and a saltwater economist, and he has criticized the freshwater school on macroeconomics.
Krugman, Paul. (2009-9-2). "How Did Economists Get It So Wrong?" . The New York Times. Retrieved October 9, 2009. Although he has used New Keynesian theory in his work, he has also criticized it for lacking predictive power and for hewing to ideas like the efficient-market hypothesis and rational expectations. Since the 1990s, he has promoted the practical use of the IS-LM model of the neoclassical synthesis, pointing out its relative simplicity compared to New Keynesian models, and its continued currency in economic policy analysis.
In the wake of the 2007-2009 financial crisis he has remarked that he is "gravitating towards a Keynes-Fisher-Minsky view of macroeconomics".
Post-Keynesian observers cite commonalities between Krugman's views and those of the Post-Keynesian school,
although Krugman has been critical of some Post-Keynesian economists such as John Kenneth Galbraith - whose works The New Industrial State (1967) and Economics in Perspective (1987) Krugman has referred to as not "real economic theory" and "remarkably ill-informed" respectively. In recent academic work, he has collaborated with Gauti Eggertsson on a New Keynesian model of debt-overhang and debt-driven slumps, inspired by the writings of Irving Fisher, Hyman Minsky, and Richard Koo. Their work argues that during a debt-driven slump, the "paradox of toil", together with the paradox of flexibility, can exacerbate a liquidity trap, reducing demand and employment.
Free trade
Krugman's support for free trade in the 1980s-1990s provoked some ire from the anti-globalization movement. "[Krugman and Obstfeld] seem to want to shame students into believing that there are no well-grounded arguments against coercing poor countries into free trade. ... This is poor logic, and pernicious insensitivity." "As E.P. Thompson once noted, there are always willing experts and opinion leaders, such as Friedman and Krugman, to give a patina of legitimacy to the claims of the powerful [with their] ill-concealed cheer-leading . ... " In 1987 he quipped that, "If there were an Economist's Creed, it would surely contain the affirmations 'I understand the Principle of Comparative Advantage' and 'I advocate Free Trade'." However, Krugman argues in the same article that, given the findings of New Trade Theory, "[free trade] has shifted from optimum to reasonable rule of thumb ... it can never again be asserted as the policy that economic theory tells us is always right." In the article, Krugman comes out in favor of free trade given the enormous political costs of actively engaging in strategic trade policy and because there is no clear method for a government to discover which industries will ultimately yield positive returns. He also notes that increasing returns and strategic trade theory do not disprove the underlying truth of comparative advantage.
In the midst of the 2009 Great Recession, Krugman made a significant departure from his general support for free trade, entertaining the idea of a 25% tariff on Chinese imports as a retaliation for China's policy of maintaining a low value for the renminbi, which many saw as hostile currency manipulation, artificially making their exports more competitive.
In 2015, Krugman noted his ambivalence about the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership, as the agreement was not mainly about trade and, "whatever you may say about the benefits of free trade, most of those benefits have already been realized" [by existing agreements].
After the 2016 elections, and Trump's moves towards protectionism, he wrote that while protectionism can make economies less efficient and reduce long-term growth, it would not directly cause recessions. He noted that if there is a trade war, imports would decrease as much as exports, so employment should not be strongly impacted, at least in the medium to long run. He believes that the US should not repeat Reagan's 1981 policy on taxes and quotas on imported products, as even if it does not produce a recession, protectionism would shock "value chains" and disrupt jobs and communities in the same way as free trade in the past. In addition, other countries would take retaliatory measures against US exports. Krugman recommended against the abandonment of NAFTA, because it could cause economic losses and disruptions to businesses, jobs, and communities.
In the late 2010s, Krugman admitted that the models that scholars used to measure the impact of globalization in the 1990s underestimated the effect on jobs and inequality in developed countries such as the US. He noted that although free trade has harmed some industries, communities, and some workers, it remains a win-win system overall, enriching both parties to the agreement at the national level; a trade war is equivalently negative for the nations involved, even while it may benefit some individuals or industries within each nation.
Immigration
Krugman wrote in March 2006: "Immigration reduces the wages of domestic workers who compete with immigrants. That's just supply and demand: we're talking about large increases in the number of low-skill workers relative to other inputs into production, so it's inevitable that this means a fall in wages ... the fiscal burden of low-wage immigrants is also pretty clear."
Green economy
Krugman has called for a transition to a green economy. He supported the Green New Deal., asserting "I believe progressives should enthusiastically embrace the G.N.D.". He said that a "Green New Deal stuff is investment. On that stuff, don't worry about paying for it. Debt as an issue is vastly overstated, and a lot of these things pay for themselves. Go ahead and just deficit finance it." In 2021, he wrote that "we will almost surely have to put a price" on greenhouse gas emissions. He criticized Democratic "moderates" and corporations "torpedoing efforts to avoid a civilization-threatening crisis because you want to hold down your tax bill".
Political views
Krugman describes himself as liberal and has explained that he views the term "liberal" in the American context to mean "more or less what social democratic means in Europe". In a 2009 Newsweek article, Evan Thomas described Krugman as having "all the credentials of a ranking member of the East coast liberal establishment" but also as someone who is anti-establishment, a "scourge of the Bush administration", and a critic of the Obama administration. In 1996, Newsweek Michael Hirsh remarked, "Say this for Krugman: though an unabashed liberal ... he's ideologically colorblind. He savages the supply-siders of the Reagan-Bush era with the same glee as he does the 'strategic traders' of the Clinton administration."
Krugman has at times advocated free markets in contexts where they are often viewed as controversial. He has written against rent control and land-use restrictions in favor of market supply and demand,Reckonings; A Rent Affair , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, June 7, 2000Inequality and the City , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, November 30, 2015 likened the opposition against free trade and globalization to the opposition against evolution via natural selection (1996), opposed farm subsidies,True Blue Americans , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, May 7, 2002 argued that sweatshops are preferable to unemployment,In Praise of Cheap Labor by Paul Krugman, Slate, March 21, 1997 dismissed the case for living wages (1998),Book review of Living Wage: What It Is and Why We Need It Paul Krugman, Washington Monthly, September 1, 1998 and argued against mandates, subsidies, and tax breaks for ethanol (2000).Driving Under the Influence , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, June 25, 2000 In 2003, he questioned the usefulness of NASA's manned space flights given the available technology and their high financial cost compared to their general benefits.A Failed Mission , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, February 4, 2003 Krugman has also criticized U.S. zoning laws and European labor market regulation.Reckonings; Pursuing Happiness , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, March 29, 2000Reckonings; Blessed Are the Weak , by Paul Krugman, The New York Times, May 3, 2000
Krugman endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up to the 2016 U.S. presidential election.Kaufman, S. Salon July 9, 2016.
U.S. race relations
Krugman has criticized the Republican Party leadership for what he sees as a strategic (but largely tacit) reliance on racial divisions. In his Conscience of a Liberal, he wrote:
On working in the Reagan administration
Krugman worked for Martin Feldstein when the latter was appointed chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers and chief economic advisor to President Ronald Reagan. He later wrote in an autobiographical essay, "It was, in a way, strange for me to be part of the Reagan Administration. I was then and still am an unabashed defender of the welfare state, which I regard as the most decent social arrangement yet devised."Incidents From My Career , by Paul Krugman, Princeton University Press, Retrieved December 10, 2008 Krugman found the time "thrilling, then disillusioning". He did not fit into the Washington political environment and was not tempted to stay on.
On Gordon Brown vs. David Cameron
According to Krugman, Gordon Brown and his party were unfairly blamed for the late-2000s financial crisis. He has also praised the former British prime minister, whom he described as "more impressive than any US politician" after a three-hour conversation with him. Krugman asserted that Brown "defined the character of the worldwide financial rescue effort" and urged British voters not to support the opposition Conservative Party in the 2010 general election, arguing their Party Leader David Cameron "has had little to offer other than to raise the red flag of fiscal panic".
On the Iraq War
Krugman opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. He wrote in his New York Times column: "What we should have learned from the Iraq debacle was that you should always be skeptical and that you should never rely on supposed authority. If you hear that 'everyone' supports a policy, whether it's a war of choice or fiscal austerity, you should ask whether 'everyone' has been defined to exclude anyone expressing a different opinion."
On Donald Trump
Krugman has been a vocal critic of Donald Trump and his administration. His criticisms have included the president's climate change proposals, economic policy, the Republican tax plan and Trump's foreign policy initiatives. Krugman has often used his op-ed column in The New York Times to set out arguments against the president's policies. On election night in 2016, Krugman wrongly predicted in a New York Times op-ed that the markets would never recover under Trump and stated "first-pass answer is never" but retracted the call in the same publication three days later. Trump gave him a 'Fake News Award'. Krugman stated "I get a 'fake news award' for a bad market call, retracted 3 days later, from 2000-lie man, who still won't admit he lost the popular vote. Sad!"
On Russia under Vladimir Putin
In his New York Times column, Krugman described Russia as a "Potemkin Superpower" in reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. He stated that "Russia is even weaker than most people, myself included, seem to have realized", that the military performance of Russia "has been less effective than advertised" in a stalemate at the beginning of the invasion, and that Russia encountered serious logistical problems. Krugman observed that the country's total gross domestic product is only a bit more than half as large as those of countries such as Britain and France, despite Russia's landmass, total population and natural resource endowment. Due to the international sanctions, Russia has become even weaker economically than it did before it went to war. Its standard of living is sustained by large imports of manufactured goods, mostly paid for via exports of oil and natural gas. This leaves Russia's economy highly vulnerable to sanctions that might disrupt this trade. He concluded "Russia now stands revealed as a Potemkin superpower, with far less real strength than meets the eye."
Views on technology
In 1998 during the dot-com bubble, Krugman wrote a commentary for Red Herring that urged skepticism of optimistic predictions for technology-driven progress. He followed it with several pessimistic predictions of his own, including that "[b]y 2005 or so, it will become clear that the Internet's impact on the economy has been no greater than the fax machine's" and that the number of jobs for IT specialists would decelerate and turn down. In a 2013 interview, Krugman stated that the predictions were meant to be "fun and provocative, not to engage in careful forecasting".
Krugman is a vocal critic of Bitcoin, arguing against its economic soundness since 2011. In 2017, he predicted that Bitcoin is a more obvious bubble than housing and stated that "[t]here's been no demonstration yet that it actually is helpful in conducting economic transactions".
In December 2022 Krugman predicted that, because of generative AI such as ChatGPT, "quite a few knowledge jobs may be eminently replaceable". He suggested that such technology would likely prove beneficial "in the long run", but that "in the long run, we are all dead, and even before that, some of us may find ourselves either unemployed or earning far less than we expected".
Personal life
Krugman has been married twice. His first wife, Robin L. Bergman, is a designer. He is currently married to Robin Wells, an academic economist who received her BA from the University of Chicago and her PhD from the University of California, Berkeley. She, as did Krugman, taught at MIT. Together, Krugman and his wife have collaborated on several economics textbooks. Although rumors began to circulate in early 2007 that Krugman's "son" was working for Hillary Clinton's campaign, Krugman reiterated in his New York Times op-ed column that he and his wife are childless.
Krugman currently lives in New York City. Upon retiring from Princeton after fifteen years of teaching in June 2015, he addressed the issue in his column, stating that while he retains the utmost praise and respect for Princeton, he wishes to reside in New York City and hopes to focus more on public policy issues. He subsequently became a professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a distinguished scholar at the Graduate Center's Luxembourg Income Study Center.
Krugman reports that he is a distant relative of conservative journalist David Frum. He has described himself as a "Loner. Ordinarily shy. Shy with individuals."
Published works
Academic books (authored or coauthored)
The Spatial Economy - Cities, Regions and International Trade (July 1999), with Masahisa Fujita and Anthony Venables. MIT Press,
The Self Organizing Economy (February 1996),
EMU and the Regions (December 1995), with Guillermo de la Dehesa.
Development, Geography, and Economic Theory (Ohlin Lectures) (September 1995),
Foreign Direct Investment in the United States (3rd Edition) (February 1995), with Edward M. Graham.
World Savings Shortage (September 1994),
What Do We Need to Know About the International Monetary System? (Essays in International Finance, No 190 July 1993)
Currencies and Crises (June 1992),
Geography and Trade (Gaston Eyskens Lecture Series) (August 1991),
The Risks Facing the World Economy (July 1991), with Guillermo de la Dehesa and Charles Taylor.
Has the Adjustment Process Worked? (Policy Analyses in International Economics, 34) (June 1991),
Rethinking International Trade (April 1990),
Trade Policy and Market Structure (March 1989), with Elhanan Helpman.
Exchange-Rate Instability (Lionel Robbins Lectures) (November 1988),
Adjustment in the World Economy (August 1987)
Market Structure and Foreign Trade: Increasing Returns, Imperfect Competition, and the International Economy (May 1985), with Elhanan Helpman.
Academic books (edited or coedited)
Currency Crises (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report) (September 2000),
Trade with Japan: Has the Door Opened Wider? (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) (March 1995),
Empirical Studies of Strategic Trade Policy (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) (April 1994), co-edited with Alasdair Smith.
Exchange Rate Targets and Currency Bands (October 1991), co-edited with Marcus Miller.
Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics (January 1986),
Economics textbooks
Economics: European Edition (Spring 2007), with Robin Wells and Kathryn Graddy.
Macroeconomics (February 2006), with Robin Wells.
Economics, first edition (December 2005), with Robin Wells.
Economics, second edition (2009), with Robin Wells.
Economics, third edition (2013), with Robin Wells.
Economics, fourth edition (2017), with Robin Wells.
Economics, fifth edition (2018), with Robin Wells.
Economics, sixth edition (2021), with Robin Wells.
Microeconomics (March 2004), with Robin Wells.
International Economics: Theory and Policy, with Maurice Obstfeld. 7th Edition (2006), ; 1st Edition (1998),
Books for a general audience
Arguing with Zombies: Economics, Politics, and the Fight for a Better Future (January 2020)
End This Depression Now! (April 2012)
A call for stimulative expansionary policy and an end to austerity
The Conscience of a Liberal (October 2007)
The Great Unraveling: Losing Our Way in the New Century (September 2003)
A book of his The New York Times columns, many deal with the economic policies of the Bush administration or the economy in general.
Fuzzy Math: The Essential Guide to the Bush Tax Plan (May 4, 2001)
The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 (December 2008)
An updated version of his previous work.
The Return of Depression Economics (May 1999)
Considers the long economic stagnation of Japan through the 1990s, the Asian financial crisis, and problems in Latin America.
The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 (December 2008)
The Accidental Theorist and Other Dispatches from the Dismal Science (May 1998)
Essay collection, primarily from Krugman's writing for Slate.
Pop Internationalism (March 1996)
Essay collection, covering largely the same ground as Peddling Prosperity.
Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in an Age of Diminished Expectations (April 1995)
History of economic thought from the first rumblings of revolt against Keynesian economics to the present, for the layman.
The Age of Diminished Expectations: U.S. Economic Policy in the 1990s (1990)
A "briefing book" on the major policy issues around the economy.
Revised and Updated, January 1994,
Third Edition, August 1997,
Selected academic articles
(2012) "Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap: A Fisher-Minsky-Koo Approach". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 127 (3), pp. 1469-513.
(2009) "The Increasing Returns Revolution in Trade and Geography". The American Economic Review 99(3), pp. 561-71.
(1998) "It's Baaack: Japan's Slump and the Return of the Liquidity Trap". Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1998, pp. 137-205.
(1996) "Are currency crises self-fulfilling?". NBER Macroeconomics Annual 11, pp. 345-78.
(1995)
(1991) "Increasing returns and economic geography". Journal of Political Economy 99, pp. 483-99.
(1991)
(1991) "History versus expectations". Quarterly Journal of Economics 106 (2), pp. 651-67.
(1981) "Intra-industry specialization and the gains from trade". Journal of Political Economy 89, pp. 959-73.
(1980) "Scale economies, product differentiation, and the pattern of trade". American Economic Review 70, pp. 950-59.
(1979) "A model of balance-of-payments crises". Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 11, pp. 311-25.
(1979) "Increasing returns, monopolistic competition, and international trade". Journal of International Economics 9, pp. 469-79.
See also
Capitol Hill Baby-Sitting Co-op, popularized in Krugman's book, Peddling Prosperity
List of economists
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
List of newspaper columnists
New Yorkers in journalism
References
External links
Profile and column archive at The New York Times
KrugmanOnline.com features books by Krugman, a custom search engine, and aggregated content from the web.
The Unofficial Krugman Archive contains nearly all his pre-TimesSelect articles
Paul Krugman (MIT): archives of his Slate and Fortune columns plus other writings 1996-2000
Krugman Publications at the National Bureau of Economic Research
Contra Krugman - articles by economist Robert P. Murphy and historian Thomas Woods seeking to refute Krugman
"Paul Krugman: Commencement Speaker, Bard College at Simon's Rock" (YouTube)
Paul Krugman at nobelprize.org
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Category:MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty | {"Field": "International economics Macroeconomics", "School ortradition": "New Keynesian economics", "Alma mater": "Yale University (BA)\n Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MA, PhD)", "Doctoraladvisor": "Rudi Dornbusch", "Doctoralstudents": "Tahir R. Andrabi Richard Baldwin Gordon Hanson Matthew J. Slaughter", "Influences": "\"barrypodcast\">Barry Ritholtz Paul Krugman on Arguing With Zombies (Podcast) Bloomberg 14 February 2020 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/audio/2020-02-14/paul-krugman-on-arguing-with-zombies-podcast 31 May 2020 1:08:47\n \"barrypodcast\" />\n \"barrypodcast\" />\n \"barrypodcast\" />\n \"barrypodcast2\">Barry Ritholtz Paul Krugman on Arguing With Zombies (Podcast) Bloomberg 14 February 2020 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/audio/2020-02-14/paul-krugman-on-arguing-with-zombies-podcast 31 May 2020 1:13:00", "Contributions": "International trade theory\n New trade theory\n New economic geography", "Awards": "John Bates Clark Medal (1991)\n Princess of Asturias Awards (2004)\n Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (2008)"} |
Joseph Ferdinand Leopold of Bavaria (28 October 1692 - 6 February 1699) was the son of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (1679-1705, 1714-1726) and his first wife, Maria Antonia of Austria, daughter of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, maternal granddaughter of King Philip IV of Spain.
Youth
Prince Joseph Ferdinand was born in Vienna on October 28, 1692, son of Duke Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and Archduchess Maria Antonia, daughter of Emperor Leopold I. He was, therefore, a great-grandson of Philip IV of Spain and a great-nephew of Charles II of Spain.
His mother died soon after his birth and he was left in the charge of his grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, as his father was in Brussels, where he served as governor of the Spanish Netherlands from March 1692. On May 2, 1693, Josef Ferdinand, accompanied by the former household of his mother, left Vienna for Munich, where he arrived on 2 or 3 June.
Heir of Charles II
Charles II's mother, Mariana of Austria, supported the candidacy of Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, husband of her granddaughter Maria Antonia, and then that of Joseph Ferdinand (who was descended from the first Habsburg king in Spain, Philip I of Castile, thirty-one different ways). The Bavarian claim found many supporters among the nobles unhappy with the German clique of Mariana of Neuburg, Charles II's wife. On her deathbed, Emperor Leopold I had forced his daughter, Maria Antonia (the Electoral Prince's mother), to waive her inheritance rights in order to limit the powers of the newborn.
From these facts began a war between the two Marianas, the Queen Mother and Consort. The period between 1693 and 1696 (the year of the death of the Queen Mother) were years of constant political tension and political intrigue. The German clique formed around the Queen earned the hatred of the nobility. According to rumors circulated by the court, there was a plot which intended to lock up the Queen and bring Prince Joseph Ferdinand to Madrid, to be placed on the throne under the regency of the Queen Mother and his chief supporters.
The Queen Mother died on May 16, 1696. Her triumph was a posthumously signed will in which her son, Charles II, decreed in September 1696 his nephew Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, the heir to the monarchy. In the State Council of June 13, 1696, an intermediate position between the French and the imperial candidates for succession, in which Joseph Ferdinand was featured as the candidate best suited to the succession. In the end Charles wrote a will in which he declared the Electoral Prince to be his successor.
In September of that year Charles II had a severe relapse so the State Council resolved to force the King to sign the will in June. The King had a relapse on October 9, so that the State Council reconvened. At that meeting the Bavarian party got the will pushed through and Cardinal Portocarrero forced King Charles II to sign the testament in favor of the Electoral Prince of Bavaria: only the Admiral of Castile, the Constable and three members supported the Archduke Charles.
During the minority of Joseph Ferdinand, the regency instituted by the will appointed a governing board which supported Mariana of Austria during the minority of Charles II, headed by Cardinal Portocarrero, the Regent-Governor who would have very broad powers.
The stubborn defence of the nomination by the pro-Bavarian Cardinal Portocarrero, become a key policy of the last years of the reign of Charles II. The Cardinal prevented Charles II from succumbing to the influence of his wife and possibly summoning a Parliament to modify the testament.
In early 1698 Portocarrero presented the king with a new report of the State Council in favor of the Bavarian Succession. The monarch wanted to consult with Pope Innocent XII, who was also allegedly pro-Bavarian. It was in such circumstances that the King reaffirmed his Testament:
Mariana of Neuburg reacted against the Testament by having Catalonia seized, and German troops were sent to Toledo and Madrid, while her cousin, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt prepared to leave Barcelona with his troops. The French Ambassador to Madrid, Henri, duc d’Harcourt, met 6000 soldiers who had arrived in Madrid ready to intervene.
Max Emanuel of Bavaria sent for his son to come to Brussels with the intention that the States of Flanders would swear an oath on the death of Charles II. Joseph Ferdinand came to the Flemish capital on 23 May 1698. Meanwhile, Louis XIV agreed in The Hague with the maritime powers on the distribution of the Spanish Crown's lands on the death of Charles II: the treaty was signed with England on September 8 and the United Provinces on 11 October. It provided that the peninsular kingdoms, with the exception of Guipúzcoa, plus the Indies would go to Joseph Ferdinand (section 5), the Archduke Charles would receive the Milanese (article 6), while Louis, Dauphin of France would remain in possession of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, as well as the State of Presidi and the Marquisate of Finale.
Death
However, Joseph Ferdinand died on February 3, 1699, at the age of six, leaving the Spanish Succession uncertain again. His death was quite sudden, Joseph Ferdinand being gripped with seizures, vomiting and prolonged loss of consciousness. He was rumoured to have been poisoned, but nothing has been proven. He is buried in Brussels. With him the furthest line of descent possible from the marriage of Philip IV of Spain and his second wife and niece Mariana of Austria ended.
References
Bavaria, Joseph Ferdinand of
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Category:Sons of monarchs | {"Father": "Maximilian II Emanuel", "Mother": "Maria Antonia of Austria", "Born": "Hofburg Palace, Vienna", "Died": "Brussels, Spanish Netherlands", "Religion": "Roman Catholicism"} |
Loblaw Companies Limited (Formerly National Grocers) is a Canadian retailer encompassing corporate and franchise supermarkets operating under 22 regional and market-segment banners (including Loblaws), as well as pharmacies, banking and apparel. Loblaw operates a private label program that includes grocery and household items, clothing, baby products, pharmaceuticals, cellular phones, general merchandise and financial services. Loblaw is the largest Canadian food retailer, and its brands include President's Choice, No Name and Joe Fresh. It is controlled by George Weston Limited, a holding company controlled by the Weston family; Galen G. Weston, is the chair of the Loblaw board of directors, as well as chair of the board of directors and CEO of Canada-based holding company George Weston.
Robert Sawyer is the current COO of Loblaw and announced his intention to retire at the end of 2023. He will be replaced as president and CEO by Per Bank.
Most of Loblaw's 136,000 full-time and part-time employees are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers, with the exception of workers at The Real Canadian Wholesale Club in Alberta, who are members of the Christian Labour Association of Canada.
Loblaw's regional food distribution divisions include Westfair Foods Ltd. in Western Canada and Northern Ontario, National Grocers Co. Ltd. in Ontario, Provigo Inc. in Quebec, and Atlantic Wholesalers Ltd. in Atlantic Canada.
History
"We Sell for Less"
thumb|left|Loblaw Groceterias Limited, store No. 1, 2923 Dundas St. W., Toronto, Ontario, postcard, c. 1919.
In 1919, Toronto grocers Theodore Pringle Loblaw and J. Milton Cork opened the first Loblaw Groceterias store modelled on a new and radically different retail concept, namely "self serve". The traditional grocery store provided a high level of personal service but was a labour-intensive operation. Customers typically had to wait while a clerk fetched items from behind a counter. Other goods, such as sugar and flour, had to be individually weighed and the order was then tallied by hand and added to the customer’s account. Home delivery, by wagon, was usually included free of charge. Loblaw and Cork, friends from the days when both worked as young clerks in the Cork family grocery store, believed they could cut costs by introducing self service combined with cash and carry. While cash stores were not new, the idea of allowing customers to select their own merchandise was a new concept. The pair had heard of the Piggly Wiggly "self-serving store" in the United States and travelled to Memphis, Tennessee, to see it in operation first hand. With customers allowed to browse freely, pick up their own goods and then pay cash at a central checkout counter, with no credit or home delivery, operating costs were reduced. The two came away convinced that a similar style of operation could work in Canada. But Loblaw was met with scepticism:
In the early days when I started the cash and carry business, I was told that it could not be done, but my contention was that the people of Toronto and Ontario would welcome the opportunity to carry their groceries home,
providing I could offer them higher qualities at a much lower price than they were used to paying.
The first Loblaw Groceterias Co. store opened at 2923 Dundas St. W., Toronto, in June 1919. Months later, a second location, at 528 College Street, followed. The ’groceterias’ name was apparently derived from cafeteria - a popular self serve restaurant format. Along with the Loblaw name, the outlets featured big "We Sell For Less" signs across their storefronts. Inside, the stores were clean and well lit, with items neatly displayed and clearly marked:
From the entry, one passes through a turnstile which permits egress only. Just inside are piles of market baskets from which the customer helps himself and proceeds in his quest for food at lower prices. Out in front, the shelves are packed with bottled and canned goods, whose names are household words, all plainly tagged with price. Further back, one finds teas, coffee fancy biscuits and cheese, all wrapped ready to carry home .... The customer having selected her purchases, carries her basket to one of the counters near the point of exit. Here her purchases are quickly totaled on an adding machine and she receives her slip. While she pays the bill her groceries are neatly packed in a larger bag.."
While produce was limited and fresh meats largely excluded from the early stores, sales proved strong. Within its first five months of operation, the chain's second location had expanded its sales room into that part of the store normally reserved for storage. In spite of the success of the new groceteria format, Cork did not feel that traditional, full-service grocery stores were in danger of going out of business since many customers still valued the extension of credit, individual serve and home delivery. A year later, another Toronto grocer, C.B. Shields, joined with Loblaw and Cork.
thumb|right|Loblaw Groceterias Co. Limited store, College St. and Palmerston Blvd., Toronto, postcard, ca. 1923 In addition to being a proponent of self serve, Loblaw was also a firm believer in "the fundamentally sound principle of the chain store system" and its ability to deliver better price and superior quality to through its buying power. Three years after the opening of the first store, there were nine groceterias throughout Toronto. The company had also expanded into the United States with Loblaw Groceterias Inc. outlets in Buffalo, New York.
In 1928, with 69 stores throughout Ontario, the company unveiled its new state-of-the-art head office and warehouse at Fleet and Bathurst streets, along today's Lake Shore Blvd, in Toronto. At a cost of million, the Loblaw warehouse was likened to a "temple of commerce" and hailed as a model of efficiency. One newspaper report described it as, "the most modern warehouse building of its kind in the dominion." The warehouse, which served as a distribution centre and manufacturing depot, included an interior loading dock that could simultaneously accommodate eight railway freight cars and 23 large trucks. It featured its own electric tram railway, four giant ovens for baking a ton of cake and half a ton of cookies a day, huge drums for blending tea, 22 thousand feet of ammonia-filled pipes for refrigeration, and a system of pneumatic tubes for sending messages from department to department. A "punched card" tabulating system, forerunner to today's computer, would be installed for tracking inventory as the first of its kind in the Canadian grocery industry. For Loblaw employees, the warehouse included amenities such as bowling lanes and a billiards room, along with an auditorium for putting on plays. That same year, the American company expanded beyond New York State with the opening of outlets in Chicago, Illinois.
Depression and war
By October 1929, Loblaw Groceterias' rapid expansion had attracted the attention of competitor Dominion Stores Limited, another Toronto-based food store chain. In a letter to its shareholders, Dominion management put forward a plan to purchase a controlling interest in Loblaw, funded by a preferred share offering. Weeks later, though, stock markets around the world collapsed and the
proposed acquisition never took place.
In spite of the onset of the Great Depression, Loblaw continued to expand,
albeit at a slower pace. By 1930, the chain boasted of 97 "spotlessly clean
Groceterias" in Ontario. By 1936, that number had grown to 111, but press reports
indicated the company had curtailed further expansion in order to increase
the scope of its product offerings at the chain's existing outlets. Meanwhile, the
company made a partial retreat from the U.S. market with the sale of its 77
Loblaw Groceterias Inc. stores in Chicago, Illinois, to the Jewel Tea
Company. The stores had never shown a profit, although they had largely
been turned around by the time of the sale. The company retained its 50
stores in Buffalo, New York, which were profitable operations.
In 1933, company co-founder Theodore Pringle Loblaw died suddenly of complications from minor surgery. Eulogized as "the Merchant Prince" by the press, Loblaw was remembered not only for his accomplishments in business but also his religious conviction and personal philanthropy that benefited local charities such as the Kiwanis Boys Clubs of Toronto and the Stevenson Memorial Hospital of his hometown of Alliston, Ontario. After Loblaw's death, co-founder John Milton Cork took charge of the company.
During the early 1930s, Loblaw Groceterias began converting many of its outlets to "Market Stores" that featured full-service meat and produce departments for the first time. Previously excluded because of the chain's 'self serve' format and the need to cut meats and weigh produce, the new departments proved popular with customers. By 1936, over half of all Ontario locations had been converted to the new format that expanded sales "without a corresponding increase in store overhead." The company also began updating the appearance of its stores to the new, modern, streamlined look. In terms of branding, while the chain often promoted itself as "Loblaw's" in newspaper ads, it was not until 1939 that the first "Loblaws" signs went up on store facades - replacing the Loblaw Groceterias Co. Limited signage. In addition to the new meat and produce departments, frozen food sections were also featured - a first in Canada. Loblaw also began introducing other modern amenities such as "electronic eye" automatic doors and mechanical ventilation systems for the comfort of shoppers.
Post-war expansion
Store construction, halted during World War II, resumed in the late 1940s as Loblaw undertook a program of "expansion and modernization." Parking lots, a new phenomenon for the chain, became an important design component of the company's "supermarkets" in the post-war era. In particular, Loblaw promoted its new "rear entrance and exit stores," with checkout counters at the back that allowed shoppers, increasingly motorized and suburban, direct access to their cars. Other modernizations included "healthfully-cool refrigerated" air conditioning, introduced by Loblaw in 1949 - the first Canadian grocery chain to do so. In spite of such innovations, the chain still hearkened back to its retail roots with references to the "self-serve" nature of its fruit, vegetable and meat departments.
Garfield Weston
In 1947, a major shift in corporate ownership took place with the purchase of 100,000 Class B shares of Loblaw Groceterias Co. Limited by Canadian industrialist W. Garfield Weston. Weston, president of George Weston Limited, whose interests included baking, grocery wholesaling, and paper manufacturing, acquired the block of voting stock from Loblaw co-founder J. Milton Cork. Although the share purchase did not represent majority control of Loblaw, Weston was able to have his old friend and colleague George C. Metcalf appointed to the board of directors, as well as named vice president and general manager. By 1953, though, Garfield Weston had secured majority control through parent company George Weston Limited and Metcalf was appointed
president of Loblaw Groceterias. With Weston in control, a program of rapid expansion, particularly through acquisition, followed as the company extended its holdings beyond Ontario into other regions of Canada and into the United States.
Loblaw Companies Limited
thumb|Loblaws store on Eglinton Avenue East, in Leaside, Toronto, 1956.
In 1953, Loblaw Groceterias acquired majority control of Loblaw Inc., the former American branch of the company with stores in the State of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, through a purchase of stock from George Weston Limited. That same year, Loblaw also bought the Power Supermarkets chain of
Toronto. More noteworthy, though, was its decision to take a 25 per cent stake in Chicago-based National Tea Co., a major supermarket chain with some 750 stores in twelve states, three years later. With an ever-increasing array of retail assets, Loblaw Companies Limited was incorporated in 1956 as holding company for Loblaw Groceterias and the recently acquired holdings south of the border. That same year, Loblaw also announced a major new thrust into Western Canada with 32 supermarkets slated for construction. Other acquisitions followed, including Atlantic Wholesalers in the Maritimes with its associated retail outlets. At its height, Loblaw Companies Limited would represent the third largest grocery retailer in
North America.
As large as Loblaw had grown, food retailing remained highly competitive and special promotions and customer loyalty programs were introduced as a way of attracting and retaining consumers. During the 1950s, car giveaways were a popular highlight of many grand openings of new Loblaws supermarkets. In 1959, the company entered the trading stamp wars with its own Lucky Green Stamps. Loblaw president George Metcalf brought store managers together for an early morning meeting in Toronto to make the surprise announcement, informing them that the
stamps, redeemable for household gifts, had already been delivered to their stores. While at first quite popular, the program was finally concluded in 1967 as customers increasingly saw trading stamps as an expensive promotion that translated into higher prices at the checkout counter.
Stagnation
During the 1960s, while Loblaw set record sales, corporate profits declined. An era of aggressive expansion had paid off in terms of revenue growth but apparently at the expense of profitability. As shareholders complained about a lack of information from the company, frustrated analysts, unsure as to the corporate structure or holdings, became increasingly reluctant to recommend the stock. Loblaw annual meetings were better known for their distribution of cookies, cake and groceries than information on operating performance. While George Metcalf remained head of Loblaw Companies Limited, chairman W. Garfield Weston began making changes to senior executive ranks, including the appointment of Leon Weinstein, former head and son of the founders of Power Supermarkets, as president of Loblaw Groceterias Co. Limited from 1968 to 1970. Weinstein soon indicated his intent to "stop giving away baskets of groceries at annual shareholder meetings and try to raise dividends." To find out what Loblaws shoppers thought about the chain, Weinstein introduced a questionnaire on his personal letterhead, "asking customers to check-off their complaints," and received 65,000 replies, or three times the number expected.
In spite of attempts to get a handle on operational issues, Loblaws was still perceived as an "ailing supermarket chain." Meanwhile, pre-tax profits for Loblaw Companies Limited declined from million in 1966 to $18.6 million in 1971, "and then vanished altogether." By the late 1960s, the company had begun selling assets. Between 1968 and 1974, Loblaw sold $164 million in holdings to corporate parent George Weston Limited in an apparent extension of "financial assistance." Yet Loblaw continued to make acquisitions. In 1969, it bought a controlling interest in Sayvette, a money-losing Toronto-based discount department store chain and went on to spend $8.7 million to acquire 100 percent ownership. But as competition heated up, losses mounted and stores were closed. The last Sayvette shut its doors in late 1977.
Reinventing Loblaws
left|thumb|Consumers shopping at Loblaws
By the early 70s, Loblaw was struggling under the weight of too much debt with millions of dollars of financial obligations coming due over the next few years. At the same time, its stores were badly in need of refurbishing and sales were in virtual free fall. Within a year, the company's share of the crucial Ontario market had been
cut in half as a result of price wars among the major chains. South of the border, things looked somewhat better but only on the surface, with many of the company's supermarkets in large American inner cities in decline. A
Canadian royal commission study years later noted "the company's failure to spend sufficient funds on the refurbishing of its existing supermarkets and the opening of new ones," in addition to a dividend policy that could not be justified on the basis of earnings. Loblaw also found itself constrained by various financial arrangements. In particular, so-called "lease and leaseback" agreements effectively
prevented it from closing many of its smaller, money-losing outlets. To make matters worse, senior management was often reluctant or intransigent when it came to making operational changes. Faced with the possible bankruptcy of Loblaws, Garfield Weston asked his youngest son, W. Galen Weston, a successful entrepreneur and retailer in his own right, to take a close look at the chain to see if it could be saved. In February 1972, Galen
Weston was appointed chief executive officer of Loblaw Companies Limited. With financing secured through a family holding company that freed Loblaw from its leaseback agreements, Weston began rationalizing operations, shutting down dozens of unprofitable stores while remodelling those that remained. "As a 200 store chain, we didn't look very good. As a 100 store chain, we looked very good indeed." In addition to dozens of store closures, warehouse operations were consolidated and new distribution centres built.
Galen Weston next brought in Toronto designer Don Watt. Known for his innovative product packaging and use of photography, Watt proposed a complete makeover of Loblaw's corporate image and retail space. Although Watt had little experience in supermarket design, Weston gave him the go ahead to remodel one of the stores. Weston reportedly told Watt that, "Loblaws is in such trouble that if it doesn’t work, it doesn't matter. If it works - good." On a budget of only $30,000, the renovations took place at night so the store could stay open during the day. Along with a complete redesign inside and out, that included new colours and a new repeating 'L' Loblaws logo, Watt made changes to traditional grocery store layout. He doubled the floor space of the produce department and moved it from the back of the store to the front. He also introduced new design elements such as moveable bins and huge photo enlargements of fresh fruits, vegetables and meats to graphically convey quality and freshness. Wood panelling covered over old walls and broken mirrors to give the interior a fresh, contemporary feel. Within the first few months of the remodelling, sales increased 60 percent.
thumb|Loblaws location in Bayview Village, Toronto
Meanwhile, on the promotional side, a new advertising campaign was rolled out which featured Canadian actor William Shatner of Star Trek fame. TV viewers were told that, "More than the price is right...but by
gosh, the price is right." Other changes involved the introduction of basic managerial techniques, such as profit and loss statements at the store level. But as the company slowly regained market share in Ontario, it began bleeding red ink when it came to its U.S. operations and in particular its National supermarket chain. The company initiated a similar program of rationalization and renewal which saw hundreds of stores closed and others remodelled. In 1976, Loblaw suspended the dividend on both its Class A and B shares as management cited "anticipated large extraordinary losses" by year’s end. The company also sold its Chicago Division of
National supermarkets, purchased by A&P, after continued losses. In
Canada, Nabob Foods Limited was also sold off. Meanwhile, parent George Weston Limited injected an additional $29 million into Loblaw through a purchase of treasury shares. By the end of the decade, through rationalization of both its retail stores
and various businesses, Loblaw Companies Limited, as well as George Weston Limited, had returned to profitability. One Canadian business magazine described what W. Galen Weston and team had pulled off as a classic turnaround
saga:
After 10 years of ruthless, painful reorganization, which involved divestitures, acquisitions and massive store closings, he and his team have transformed the Weston-Loblaw group into a lean, profitable, progressive,
rational, superbly managed company - a winner and a world leader in what is still a perilous, savagely competitive business.
By 2019, the company's strategy to increase on-line sales of groceries was well established. (Loblaw stores were offering either delivery or customer pickup of orders placed on-line.) In spite of the limited sales in this category, about 10% of the market for all retailers, the company continued to move forward with the concept. "I see online being more relevant and more important to customers going forward. That’s why we’re focused on it", said Greg Ramier president of the market division at Loblaw Cos., in an interview by the Toronto Star.
No Name and No Frills
thumb|No Frills
Loblaw also moved to rejuvenate its own private label program by allocating millions of dollars to the development of in-store brands. In 1978, the company joined the "generics" movement with the introduction of 16 "No Name" items, marketed in simple black and yellow packaging. The new line was heavily promoted with advertised savings of between 10 and 40 percent. At a time of high inflation and consumer complaints about ever increasing food prices, No Name proved popular, with sales exceeding the company's own projections, as noted by Loblaws president Dave Nichol:
Since Loblaws introduced its 16 no-name products, it has sold one million units with many repeat purchases. "The suppliers of a number of these products can't keep up with the demand. In several cases, we've sold in two and a half weeks what we originally estimated would be our annual requirements.
When one competing food industry executive was critical of Nichol, noting the irony of heavily advertising No Name when generics typically went unadvertised to hold down costs, Nichol pointed out that Loblaw had not increased its promotional budget but simply redirected its advertising dollars towards the new line. A year later, the number of No Name products had increased to a hundred different items and represented five percent of Loblaws sales.
Within months of the No Name launch, Loblaw opened a prototype No Frills store in East York. Also known as a 'box store,' since items were not individually shelved but left in their cardboard shipping cartons, usually with the front cut away, the new store advertised "the lowest overall prices in Toronto." Though customers had to pack their own groceries, bring their own bags or pay three cents apiece, and contend with a limited selection of only 500 items, shoppers crowded the store on opening day. Customers gave up other standard conveniences, such as full-service meat or dairy departments, since
refrigeration units had been removed to cut costs. In spite of the limited selection and minimal service, the first No Frills store proved a success and within months the company converted two more Loblaws locations to the new deep discount format.
President's Choice
While the original No Name line-up was promoted as basic, everyday items at considerable savings, Dave Nichol eventually began experimenting with the product line-up by adding more upscale items. Products such as Gourmet Barbecue Sauce, Escargot and imported jams began appearing in the familiar yellow and black generic packaging. When President’s Blend Gourmet Coffee was launched in time for Christmas 1983, it was soon outselling every other grocery item on Loblaws shelves. Nichol concluded that consumers wanted to go up-market and the decision was made to develop an entire line of upscale products under its own private label brand.
Modelled on the Marks & Spencer St. Michael in-house brand, and touted as being equal to or better in quality than competing national brands at less money, President’s Choice was personally endorsed by Nichol as president of Loblaw Supermarkets.
The introduction of the premium line also coincided with the advent of an advertising flyer entitled "Dave Nichol’s Insider’s Report." Based on a California supermarket flyer called "Trader Joe’s Insider’s Report," and referred to as "a mix of Mad magazine and Consumer Reports, zaniness and food tips, wrapped up in a comic book format," the insert proved popular with Ontario households. The flyer also became an important advertising vehicle for President’s Choice, which it came to exclusively promote. One of Nichol's early product development successes was President’s Choice The Decadent Chocolate Chip Cookie, which took over a year to develop. Nichol and his team insisted on the use of real butter and twice as much chocolate per cookie as the leading national brand. Although The Decadent was sold in only 17 percent of Canadian supermarkets, compared to 98 percent for Nabisco's Chips Ahoy!, "it fast became Canada's best selling cookie."
Superstore and Liquorstore
thumb|Real Canadian Superstore Lansdowne Place
The 1980s saw further innovation with regard to store formats. In Western Canada, Westfair Foods, a Loblaw subsidiary, unveiled its first "superstore" in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, in 1979. Opened under the SuperValu banner, it was later renamed the Real Canadian Superstore. Modelled after the European hypermarket, the "combination store" included a large selection of general merchandise, along with a full supermarket component.
Touted as a "one-stop shopping" destination, the new superstore carried some 30,000 SKUs (stock-keeping units), which expanded to 40,000 over the next decade. The new format not only provided economies of scale and permitted lower retail prices, but also meant that management could build stores on its own terms, rather than be
dependent on shopping mall construction. Sudbury, Ontario saw the first Superstore format in 1981 coinciding with the opening of the Sudbury Supermall.
In 1985, with nine Real Canadian Superstores across Western Canada, Loblaw tried to duplicate their success in Eastern Canada with the opening of its first combination store at Pickering, Ontario. Eventually, 13 superstores, four times the size of a conventional supermarket with about a third of the space devoted to general merchandise, were opened in Ontario and the Maritimes. Sales, however, lagged. By 1988, with corporate profits almost cut in half, the company downsized eight of the operations, in some cases changing store banners and leasing out the redundant space to other retailers. "Had Loblaw Companies not owned the real estate, the conversion and sub-leasing penalties might have proven prohibitive."
Expansion
By the mid-1980s, Loblaw Companies Limited had become Canada's largest supermarket retailer. Much of that success could be attributed to the effectiveness of the company's "control label" or private label program. In the case of President's Choice, a key management strategy had been to create a line of products available nowhere else but Loblaw stores.
The company also began extending the brand's market beyond Canada, making international inroads and in particular into the highly competitive American market. By the early 1990s, not only were PC products increasingly available at select U.S. regional supermarket chains, Loblaw was supplying retail giant Wal-Mart, marketing President's Choice products under the brand Sam's American Choice, later shortened to Sam's Choice, named after company founder Sam Walton. All indications were that Loblaw's control label program was starting to pay off south of the border:
thumb|Loblaws Store in Belleville, 1987
President's Choice, the upscale private label at Loblaw's supermarkets, has been a resounding success in the United States - and has fired a rebellion of consumers and retailers against highly advertised, and therefore pricey, national brands. Its products have found their way into more than 1,200 stores in 34 states. The biggest deal is with Wal-Mart, which had $73 billion in sales in 1993. Dave Nichol, the man behind President's Choice, reports that Wal-Mart's volume on Sam's American Choice and Great Value lines, also developed by Loblaw's, was up 300 percent last year.
Meantime, though, Wal-Mart had announced what media reports likened to an "invasion of Canada," namely the acquisition of 120 Woolco stores across the country. Though Wal-mart was barred from selling the private-label line developed by Loblaw in Canada, the two retailers eventually parted company as they increasingly became competitors in the Canadian marketplace.
In November 1993, it was announced that Dave Nichol, who for the past decade had been so closely associated with President's Choice in terms of promotion and product development, was leaving his senior executive post to become a private label consultant. Initially, both he and Loblaw expressed the desire to continue working together, with Nichol remaining on in the role of PC spokesman. But as Nichol moved forward with plans to develop his own Dave Nichol brand of private label products with Cott Corporation of Toronto, presumably in competition with President's Choice, the relationship deteriorated. Nichol hosted a couple more issues of Dave Nichol's Insider's Report but then vanished from the cover. The November 1994 edition dropped his name to become simply The Insider's Report. While media coverage of the Nichol/Loblaw split had been extensive, it seemingly had little or no negative impact on brand equity. News reports later indicated that Loblaw, post-Nichol, was experiencing stronger-than-ever corporate earnings.
As Loblaw expanded operations in Canada under an array of regional and market segment store banners, by the mid-1990s it divested the last of its retail holdings south of the border with the sale of National supermarkets in St. Louis and New Orleans. At the time, Loblaw president Richard Currie reiterated the company's objective to move strategically, which included exiting markets if capital could be better deployed elsewhere. He further stated the company's intent to enter the Quebec market. In 1998, it did so with the purchase of Provigo, the Quebec-based supermarket chain with close to 250 outlets. In order to comply with Competition Bureau concerns, Loblaw sold 47 Loeb stores in Ontario, acquired through the Provigo deal, to Metro-Richelieu and agreed to divest stores in eight other markets. The Provigo acquisition meant that Loblaw had become the leading food retailer in Quebec, with Metro a close second. That same year, Loblaw also made another regional acquisition with the purchase of the 80-store Agora chain in Atlantic Canada. While other food chains, such as the Oshawa Group, struggled to turn a profit, Loblaw kept adding more stores and more square footage through acquisition and new construction:
Loblaw president Richard Currie laughs at the notion that Canada has too many grocery stores. There's a lot of floor space, he allows, but never enough in the large, modern, well-equipped, one-stop shopping supermarkets that some Canadians like. Loblaw keeps expanding its fleet of 900 stores, adding about 10 percent to its floor space and sales each year, while increasing its profit margin.
In 1998, Loblaw become the first Canadian food retailer to extend its product mix into the realm of banking with the launch of "President's Choice Financial." Promoted as a very basic no-hassle, no-fee form of personal banking, conveniently located where you do your grocery shopping, PC Financial kiosks and automatic tellers began springing-up in supermarkets across the country. While Loblaw provided the branding, the service-end was made possible through a partnership with the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce. Loblaw also promised a new loyalty program that would allow customers to redeem 'points' for free groceries - which later became "PC Points." Within a year, Loblaw would have more than a hundred President's Choice Financial kiosks and bank machines.
Management shakeup
After almost 25 years at the helm of Loblaw Companies Limited, Richard J. Currie retired as company president in November 2000. John Lederer, a veteran Loblaw executive, took over the top job. As president, Lederer moved forward with a number of strategic initiatives. Administrative functions were consolidated as a new corporate headquarters was unveiled in Brampton, Ontario. Warehouse operations were streamlined with the opening of new distribution centres as the company updated facilities and information technology. And, once again, Loblaw made an effort to offer more general merchandise in its stores in the hope of becoming more of a 'one-stop' shopping destination for consumers - all moves presumably designed to combat the threat posed by a "looming Wal-Mart incursion" as the retail giant announced the opening of more Supercentres in Canada. But as supply chain problems took root, customers began to complain of empty Loblaw shelves and out-of-stock items, while suppliers expressed their frustration coordinating deliveries to distribution centres. Unsold general merchandise began piling up in warehouses. Meantime, key staff, such as company buyers, had quit rather than relocate to the new corporate headquarters. Loblaw began losing money, quarter after quarter, and by the end of fiscal 2005, the company had recorded its first year-end loss in almost twenty years. In September 2006, John Lederer resigned as president of Loblaw Companies Limited and W.
Galen Weston stepped down as chairman of the board. Weston's son, Galen G. Weston, was appointed executive chairman, while former Canadian Tire retail head Mark Foote became president and Allan Leighton, a prominent UK executive and longtime advisor to the senior Weston, took on the job of deputy chairman. Dalton Philips was later named Loblaw's chief operating officer. Reaction to the management shakeup was mixed, with Richard Currie critical of the move, saying it was unnecessary, while Dave Nichol expressed his personal frustration that it took five quarters of declining earnings before action was finally taken.
With the new management team in place, Loblaw completed a 100-day consultation in which senior executives met with store managers and employees to hear their concerns and complaints. Weston subsequently introduced a "simplify, innovate and grow" strategy designed to "fix the basics" by refocusing the company’s attention on food retailing. He also publicly declared that it would take at least three years to turn operations around as the company continued to work out kinks in its supply chain and upgrade computer systems. By the end of 2007, Loblaw had returned to profitability.
Since the departure of Dave Nichol a decade and a half before, Loblaw had been without a spokesman to pitch its brands and supermarkets. In 2007, in a major shift on the promotional side, executive chairman Galen Weston became the new public face of the company and in particular, its in-store private label products. With the 2008 financial crisis and recession, Loblaw began to heavily promote not only President's Choice but also its generic No Name products as an economical alternative to higher-priced national brands. In a television commercial reminiscent of Nichol from the 1980s, Weston presented two shopping carts, one filled with No Name items and the other with comparable national brands to show how consumers might save on their grocery bills.
On April 18, 2023, Loblaw announced that Galen Weston will be stepping back from the day-to-day activities as president and CEO. Per Bank, who has led Denmark's largest retailer, Sailing Group, for over a decade has been named the successor and will join the company in early 2024. Galen Weston will remain chairman of Loblaw and CEO of holding company George Weston Ltd.
Joe Fresh
thumb|Inside a Joe Fresh store.
In 2006, Loblaw and Canadian fashion designer Joe Mimran teamed up to launch "Joe Fresh" a line of low-cost clothing from contracted suppliers in Asia. Promoted as chic but highly affordable clothing, the new line is sold in supermarket and superstore aisles. Joe Fresh sales soon exceeded the company's own projections and Loblaw began expanding into children's wear, shoes, lingerie, beauty and bath products. In 2010, the first standalone store opened in Vancouver and Loblaw announced plans for 20 outlets across Canada.
Loblaw unveiled a number of Joe Fresh permanent and pop-up stores in New York City and the surrounding region in what one Loblaw executive described as "very much a pilot project." But Mimran, the former co-founder of Club Monaco, spoke less cautiously, envisioning 800 Joe Fresh stores across the United States within five years, with Asia and Europe the next logical international markets to take the brand.
Environment
Under Weston, Loblaw refocused its efforts in the area of corporate social responsibility, and in particularly on the environment, in issuing annual CSR reports. A line of more environmentally friendly GREEN products was launched (considered by many environmentalists and concerned consumers to be examples of greenwashing). Weston appeared in TV commercials to promote "Canada's greenest shopping bag," a reusable grocery bag made of 85 percent post-consumer recycled plastic, designed to reduce the number of disposable bags that ended up in landfill sites by one billion a year. Loblaw also unveiled one energy-efficient, low emissions environmental flagship store in Scarborough, Ontario, and became the first Canadian supermarket chain to install a wind turbine to supply renewable electricity to one of its stores.
In November 2008, Greenpeace alleged that Loblaw was selling 14 out of 15 fish species on that organization's "redlist" of those considered to be the most destructively farmed, and staged protests at some Toronto-area locations. The company denied the allegations,Greenpeace Claims Endangered Fish Found On Loblaws Shelves , CityNews, November 6, 2008 while the accuracy of the redlist itself has been challenged by U.S. government regulators and by the fish industry.Melissa Allison, Greenpeace gives grocery chains failing grades on seafood buying practices, The Seattle Times, June 19, 2008 Loblaw has since committed to sourcing all of its seafood from sustainable sources by 2013, and now features several Marine Stewardship Council-certified products under its President's Choice product line."Loblaw modifies select fresh fish and seafood counters to highlight "at risk" fish and suggested alternatives", Loblaw press release, February 4, 2010. Retrieved July 28, 2010. Greenpeace's ratings of Loblaw's seafood initiatives have improved over the years and are now above all other national retailers (and second-highest of all retailers ranked), but were still classified as a failing grade in its 2010 report, based on an absence of labelling indicating where or how seafood is fished or farmed, and continued sale of some redlist species."Canadian supermarkets move one step closer to ocean protection: Greenpeace", Greenpeace press release, June 2, 2010. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
T&T and Black Label
thumb|250px|T & T Warden Store in Markham
In July 2009, Loblaw extended its presence in the ethnic retail market with its announced purchase of T&T Supermarket Inc., Canada's largest chain of Asian food stores, for some - 191 million in cash and the rest in preferred shares. Founded in 1993, the 17-store chain, with outlets in British Columbia, Alberta and Ontario, recorded more than $500 million in annual sales. T&T CEO Cindy Lee noted that some of the supermarket's customers already referred to it as the "Asian Loblaws."
Loblaw rented a Toronto avant garde art gallery as backdrop to the launch of its new "Black Label" line of gourmet food products. The luxury grocery items, marketed under the President's Choice brand, were showcased via a celebrity chef by-invitation-only dinner party. Promoted as "affordable indulgences," the products range in price from $1.99 to $24.99. "From the smoky bacon marmalade, to the crumbly eight year old cheddar, to the cherry shiraz fruit jelly," the eclectic line-up is designed to compete with specialty stores. Though dubbed "PC Black Label," the brand name does not actually appear on any of the items, with its largely black and white packaging and photography the primary clue to the product line's identity:
"It goes back to our first successful controlled brand product in a yellow and black package with No Name on it. It wasn’t until six years later that we actually put "No Name" on the packaging," Ian Gordon, vice president at Loblaw Brands Limited, explained.
Loblaw has published its own book of recipes. "The Epicurean's Companion" lists an eclectic assortment of dishes prepared using Black Label products including Cheddar Bacon Marmalade Toast and Porcini Glazed Mushrooms with Pancetta.
Maple Leaf Gardens
thumb|Loblaws at Maple Leaf Gardens
In 2004, Loblaw Companies purchased Maple Leaf Gardens, a former hockey arena in Toronto. In 2009, the company announced a project, in which it would partner with Ryerson University to construct a flagship Loblaws store at its ground level, as well as a multi-purpose athletics complex (the Mattamy Athletic Centre) for Ryerson in its upper levels, featuring volleyball and basketball courts, and a full-sized hockey rink. These plans had been delayed due to financial concerns, criticism over the purchase by residents, and conditions imposed by MLSE forbidding the purchaser from unduly using the building as a competing sports venue.
The location, Loblaws at Maple Leaf Gardens, opened on November 30, 2011; the 85,000 square-foot store features many historical and architectural features of the old Gardens, including the spot where centre ice once stood. It also features artwork honouring notable events and concerts held at the arena, including murals and a blue maple leaf sculpture (in honour of the Toronto Maple Leafs) constructed from its seating. The store also includes an LCBO location, and a Joe Fresh store. Loblaw executive chairman Galen Weston explained that the store was designed to "[reimagine] the urban supermarket".
Choice Properties
In December 2012, Loblaw announced that it would spin off most of its real estate properties into a new publicly listed real estate investment trust. The move would allow Loblaw to monetize the value of its real estate holdings, invest in its grocery business, by reducing taxes through tax advantages of the REIT structure. Loblaw shares increased 24% on the news. On July 5, 2013, the new REIT, Choice Properties REIT, held a million IPO. Loblaw retained majority ownership in the new company.
In February 2018, Choice announced that it would acquire Canadian Real Estate Investment Trust (CREIT), a diversified commercial REIT, for .
Shoppers Drug Mart and Pharmaprix
thumb|Shoppers Drug Mart
On July 15, 2013, Loblaw announced that it would acquire Canada's largest pharmacy chain, Shoppers Drug Mart (branded "Pharmaprix" in the Province of Quebec), for in a cash and stock deal. Galen G. Weston indicated the possibility for store brands from the two chains to appear in each other's stores following the merger, and that the merger would give Loblaw greater buying power for health and wellness products. The merger received approval by both shareholders and the Competition Bureau, allowing Loblaw to close the deal on March 28, 2014. Shoppers Drug Mart and its administration will continue to work as a separate operating division of Loblaw Companies Limited.
Following the purchase, the Shoppers Drug Mart loyalty program Optimum was merged with Loblaw's PC Plus program to form PC Optimum.
Banners
Loblaw operates under many banners throughout Canada, so as to appeal to different niches but also to present the illusion of greater competition. While most of these banners are not likely to be abandoned in the near future, during much of the 2000s, the company focused on developing the large-format Real Canadian Superstore banner, which is gradually replacing some Loblaws and Zehrs locations in Ontario, as a national rival to Walmart Canada.
Additionally, as part of a 2006 agreement with unionized employees in Ontario, Loblaw announced that it would introduce a new food-centred supermarket format (originally called the "Great Canadian Food Store") for locations not converted to the Superstore format. This format has since opened under the name "Loblaw Great Food". In total, 44 existing Ontario stores were planned to be converted to either the Superstore or Great Food format between 2006 and 2010, in addition to new construction and existing Superstores.
The banners are listed below based primarily on their 2006 format classifications within Loblaw,Loblaw Companies 2006 Annual Report though some individual locations may not match the specified format.
Superstore
Atlantic Superstore (The Maritimes)
Dominion Stores (Newfoundland)
Real Canadian Superstore (Ontario, Western Canada, and Yukon)
Maxi (Quebec)
"Great Food"
Loblaws / Loblaw Great Food / Loblaws CityMarket (Alberta, British Columbia and Southern Ontario)
Provigo / Provigo Le Marché (Quebec; some franchised)
T & T Supermarket (British Columbia (Greater Vancouver), Alberta (Calgary, Edmonton), Quebec (Montreal) and Ontario Greater Toronto Area, Ottawa)
Zehrs / Zehrs Great Food (Southwestern Ontario, South Central Ontario, Central Ontario)
Primarily franchised
SaveEasy (Atlantic Canada)
Fortinos (Hamilton, Toronto and suburban Golden Horseshoe)
SuperValu (Western Canada)
Shop Easy Foods (Western Canada)
Lucky Dollar Foods (Western Canada)
Red & White Food Stores (Atlantic Canada)
Valu-mart (Ontario)
Freshmart (Ontario, Nova Scotia)
L’Intermarché (Quebec)
Your Independent Grocer (Atlantic Canada, Alberta, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Yukon)
Hard discount
Extra Foods (Western Canada and Ontario; some franchised)
Maxi / Maxi & Cie (Quebec)
No Frills (National except Quebec and the Territories; franchised)
Wholesale / Cash and carry
Atlantic Cash & Carry (Atlantic Canada)
Entrepôts Presto (Quebec)
Club Entrepôt (Quebec - formerly Club Entrepôt Provigo)
NG Cash & Carry (Ontario) - took on the old National Grocers Co. Ltd banner
Wholesale Club (Ontario, Western Canada and Nova Scotia)
Liquor
Real Canadian Liquorstore (Alberta, Saskatchewan)
Defunct banners
Atlantic SuperValu (Atlantic Canada) - operated by Loblaw's Atlantic Wholesalers in the 1990s and became Atlantic Superstore
Bells Markets (Western New York)
Better Foods Markets (Los Angeles)
Busy-B (Ontario)
Econo-Mart (Western Canada)
Gordon's (Ontario)
Louis Stores (Oakland, California)
OK Economy (Western Canada, Ontario)
Mr. Grocer (Ontario) - rebranded Dominion stores and sold by A&P Canada to National Grocers; name later phased out
Power (Ontario) - began as one store in Toronto in 1904 by Samuel and Sarah Weinstein and sold to Loblaws in 1953 and re-branded in 1972;
Super Centre (Southern and Southwestern Ontario) - stores converted to other Loblaw's brands and some sold off
IGA (supermarkets) (Atlantic Canada) rebranded as other Loblaws banners
In-store brands
Loblaw has a number of common products and services at many of its stores regardless of banner. These include:
President's Choice, no name and T&T private label products
DRUGStore Pharmacy and Loblaw Pharmacy.
"Upstairs at (store name)", a community room / cooking school. The cooking school offers kids, adults and teen cooking classes. As well, community room space is available for rent, and completely organized cooking birthday parties are available for children ages 5-16.
Joe Fresh, a clothing line, accessories. Joe Fresh cosmetics have now been rebranded to Quo (which is also a Shoppers Drug Mart brand.)
President's Choice Financial, an issuer of Mastercard credit cards.
PC Optimum, a rewards program designed to give points on online offers, through the PC Optimum app, and in-store offers.
PC Express, an online click and collect program available at certain Loblaw banner stores.
J± (stationery, batteries)
Jogi (sports accessories)
Jet Set Go (travel accessories)
Life (over-the-counter pharmacy items), the Exact brand is discontinued.
Life (over-the-counter medicinal accessories)
The Mobile Shop (Mobile Phone sellers)
Teddy's Choice (children's items)
Theodore & Pringle (optometrists)
Petroleum
Loblaw formerly operated gas stations co-located with 213 of its stores, under brands such as Gas Bar, At The Pumps, À pleins gaz, and Refuel. In 2017, Loblaw announced that it had sold these operations to Brookfield Business Partners for $540 million. The stations were subsequently rebranded as Mobil.
Corporate governance
The current members of the Board of Directors of Loblaw Companies Limited are: Galen Weston Jr. (Executive Chairman), Stephen E. Bachand, Paul M. Beeston, Gordon A. M. Currie, Anthony S. Fell, Christiane Germain, Anthony R. Graham, John S. Lacey, Nancy H. O. Lockhart, Thomas C. O'Neil, and John D. Wetmore.
Controversies
In April 2019, it was reported that Prime Minister Justin Trudeau gave Loblaws a federal grant of $12 million Canadian dollars for new refrigeration units in their stores in order to agree to spending $36 million on upgrading their refrigerators to a more environmentally friendly model. Both Trudeau and the Canadian Environment Minister Catherine McKenna in April 2019 were criticized for allowing $12 million taxpayer dollars to go to the second richest family in Canada for new refrigerator installations. Joanne Dobson, and Meredith Logan, two of Loblaws top lobbyists, donated thousands of dollars to the Liberal Party of Canada, and hosted fundraising events for the Liberals and Trudeau family.
In January 2018, Loblaws was implicated in price-fixing the cost of bread in Canada, taking part from 2001 until 2015. The company admitted its involvement in the scheme. In response to the price-fixing, in January 2018, all consumers were offered the chance to receive a $25 gift card for bread. Previously, the company had estimated between 3 and 5 million Canadians would sign up. There was some criticism for the Loblaws policy of requiring an ID for the gift cards, which was investigated by the privacy commissioner of Canada and resulted in protests.
Also in 2018, Loblaws was ordered to pay back taxes of $368 million in relation to a banking subsidiary in the Caribbean. It involved a Loblaws Inc. subsidiary in Barbados that had been renamed Glenhuron Bank. Loblaws had net earnings of around $800 million in 2018, and profits of $3 billion.
In August 2019, the Supreme Court of Canada decided that Loblaws could not be held responsible for the Rana Plaza textile factory disaster which killed 1,130 people and seriously injured 2,520 others in Dhaka, Bangladesh. At the time, the garment factory was under an arm's length contract to manufacture items for Loblaws' Joe Fresh brand.
In January 2020, it was reported that 800 employees were being laid off in Quebec and Ontario in 2021 when Loblaws switched to automated distribution at two of its major facilities. In May 2020, the franchise stated it would re-open service counters in the near future, after being closed for the COVID-19 pandemic. The company hiked employee pay in March 2020 for the coronavirus pandemic, upping wages by $2 per hour. The union Unifor criticized Loblaws for removing the pandemic pay bump in June 2020. Despite revenue growth, in July 2020, Loblaws reported that profits were down due to expenditures related to the pandemic. Starting September 1, 2020, it was announced that Loblaws and its associated company Shoppers Drug Mart were offering asymptomatic testing for COVID-19 at all their pharmacies.
In March 2023, Galen Weston Jr. along with the CEOs of Metro Inc. and Empire Co. was summoned to testify before a House of Commons committee as part of an ongoing study on food price inflation. He informed lawmakers that the grocery chain earned $2.66 billion Canadian dollars before taxes in the previous year, at a pre-tax margin of 4.7%; up slightly from 4.6% a year earlier. Lawmakers were told that the higher margins came from pharmacy, cosmetic and apparel sales, while overall sales have benefitted from consumers shifting spending away from restaurants toward groceries.
See also
Supermarkets in Canada
References
External links
Robertstinnett.com - History of National Supermarkets
Category:Supermarkets of Canada
Category:Companies based in Brampton
Category:George Weston Limited
Category:Retail companies established in 1956
Category:1956 establishments in Ontario
Category:Companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
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